CORE CONCEPTS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

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CORE CONCEPTS I

ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

Introduction

13

Essential Teacher Knowledge and the TKT

14

11

LANGUAGE

15

12

What's in a sentence?

Parts of speech Sentence elements Getting things in

the right orderTeaching ideas: word order
2

Main clauses and subordinate clausesClause functions

and meanings Relative clauses Conditional clauses
Teaching ideas: conditional clauses

16

17

18

Verb tenses (form and meaning)

Aspect

18

19

24

26

Multi-word and phrasal verbs

28

10

Verb complementation

30

Verb + verb Reporting what people say Other ways

of reporting conversationsSubstitution can be fun
11

Introducing adverbs

32

What is an adverb? How to make one-word

adverbsWhere we put adverbsTeaching i deas:
adverbs Using drama in the classroom
12

Introducing nouns

34

Different kinds of noun Pronouns The pronoun

gender problem
2

48

50

vVords alone, words togetherLexical phrases, lexical

chunksWhy collocations and chunks matter
Being obsened
21

Metaphor, idiom, proverb and cliche

52

Describing one thing as something else More about

metaphors Teaching ideas: idiom and metaphor

22

Auxiliaries and modal auxiliariesWhat modal

auxiliaries mean How modal verbs behave
Modal verbs and modalityUsing the students'
language - their Ll Teaching ideas: modal verbs
What are multi-word verbs? Four types of phrasal
verb Teaching ideas: phrasal verbs \.Vhen war
brc,1ks out!

How words are formed

20 Collocation and lexical phrases

Auxiliaries and modals

46

Making words from different bits and pieces

Teaching ideas: word formationAmerican and British
English Bullying

22

Teaching verbs (and adverbs)

What words mean

What does head mean? How head is related to other

words Teaching ideas: word meaning

20

Teaching ideas Teaching the present continuous and

present simple Teaching the present perfect Teaching
the future Teaching the past simple Teaching the
past continuous and the past simpleTeaching the
past perfectTeaching used to Teaching the passive
Teaching adverbs

44

Teaching the noun phrase

Lexis and vocabulary

Introducing verbs

What is aspect? Simple and continuous Perfect

verbsBurnout

42

What comes after nouns?

Learning English by telephone and Skype

40

Elements of the noun phrase Making noun phrases

How verbs show time One form, many meanings

One meaning, many forms The homework issue
6

Introducing adjectives

16
Saying yes, saying no Different types of questions

Asking questions

Types of verbHow verbs are madeVerbs in

combinationTotal physical response
5

38

Before and after Describing nouns Participles (and

gerunds) Technophlle or technophobe? Teaching
ideas: post-modification

Quantifiers

what are adjectives? Making adjectives

How adjectives workDo you like being corrected?

14

How we use clauses

36

V\lhat are quantifiers? Quantifiers, nouns, sentences and

questions Quantifiers plus! Praise, medals and rewards

Grammar
1

Articles

What are articles? Using the indefinite article

Using the definite articleNo article I zero article
Tative speaker or non-native speaker?

Meeting and remembering words

54

How do students remember words? Examples of

word-remembering activities

Pronunciation
23

T he phonemic alphabet

56

Sounds and spelling The phonemic alphabet

Using phonemic symbols in teaching Should
students learn the phonemic alphabet?
24

Where sounds are made

58

l\1aking consonants What vocal cords are for Making

vowelsMaking diphthongs Show, explain or listen?
25

Sounds in combination

60

Sounds alone, sounds together Do students have to

learn sounds together? Teaching ideas: contractions
26

Stress

62

All words have a stressed syllableAll phrases have a

main stressed syllable We can change where and
how we place stress in a phraseShowi ng stress
Giving presentations

27

64

Intonation

43

\Vhat is intonation?
mean?

28

comes from

Showing intonation

68

Teaching stress and intonation

Hearing stress and intonation patterns

70

Language functions
language functions

An example of PPP in action

Teaching language functions

45

Genre

74

information (research)

How do we know about genre?

meetings

47

\Vhat is coherence?

ideas: cohesion and coherence

How people learn languages 1

Teaching

49

50

\i\lhich way

Pavlov's dogs

51

Learning at different ages

Young learners

88

Adult and older learners

39

52

53

92
T he good learner

differences

42

Large and mixed-ability classes

96

114

116

Building the

118

Teaching speaking 2

Reaching a consensus

T he teacher's

furn-taking

Teaching speaking 3 120

l\ifaking oral presentations

122

Language levels

.-

Teaching reading 2 124

\Vhat texts should we give students for intensive
reading?

\Vhat to do before students read a text

Reading activities

56

Teaching reading 3
Responding to a text

126

More comprehension

Language questions Follow-up tasks

57

94

1'eading

55

L'llking about differences\Vhat to do about student

Different contexts, different levels

Different kinds of English learning

Simulation and roleplay

41

Teaching speaking 1

Telling stories

training Talking about adults Talking about teenagers

Story chains

speaking habitInterviewTurning on the inner voice

T ips for teaching teenagers

Getting to know our students

Practising new language

Quizzes Games

The need for readingExtensive readingIntensive

Student-centred teaching 90
T he right priorities Personalisation, agency and learner

40 Learner characteristics

112

Practising new language 2

54 Teaching reading 1

Adolescents Tips for teaching yow1g learners

T ips for teaching adults

Sentence activities

role in speaking a'ctivities

\Vhat kind of mistakes do learners make?

good mumble!

Dictogloss Matching activities

T he reasons for speaking activities

\Vhat do mistakes look like? Do mistakes matter?

38

Information-gap activities

Discussions

Students make mistakes 86

We all make mistakes vVhy do learners make
mistakes?

110

P.ractice of specific language items

How people learn languages 2 84

Four methods How people learn; how people teach

ITave

48 Practising new language 1

Controlled practice

is best? How Fernando learnt English

Adrian's story

answer cue-response drill

Dictation

82

Accidental

108

Repetition and drilling

Interviewing each other

between acquisition and learning matter?

Teaching ideas:

An example of choral repetition An example of a

cue-response drillAn example of a question and

\Vhy does the difference

BACKGROUND TO LANGUAGE
TEACHING METHODOLOGY 81

Acquisition and learning

Mining texts

How much repetition and drilling is the right amount?

Going to conferences

Teaching ideas: research

Repetition: choral and individual Drills and drilling

78

34 Cohesion and coherence

\Vhat is cohesion?

106

mining a text

76

Register

Alternatives to

Making discoveries Puzzling it out Looking for

or not?

37

104

Introducing new language 2

46 Researching new language

Punctuation

\Vhat is register?\Nhat do u think? R txt msgs gr8

36

Te;1ching i deas :

introducing new language

Teaching ideas: genre

35

showing language construction

Written and spoken English 72

Speaking or writing? Differences between speaking

101

102

\\Tays of introducing new language

\Vhat is genre?

33

TEACHING LANGUAGE
AND LANGUAGE SKILLS

Teaching ideas : functional di alogues

and writing

32

\Vhere motivation

A popular way of introducing new language

What we say and what we meanLanguage and

31

Sustaining motivation

44 Introducing new language 1

Text and discourse

30

66

Teaching sounds

Distinguishing between sounds

29

98

Motivation

T he importance of motivati.on

\Vhat do pitch and intonation

Teaching writing 1

128

T he importance of accuracy
bolts' of writing

Teaching the 'nuts and

T he process of w.riting

Teaching large classesTeaching mixed-ability classes

3

130

58 Teaching writing 2

59

73

themselvesStudents correct each other

Teaching writing

Writing journals

74

is taking place

134

Types of listening

75

136

76

Before listening

Teaching listening

138

Listening again: language matters

Poetry and meaning

Writing poems

Using the Ll

170

classroomArguments in favour of using the students'

Ll in the classroomAn L1 'policy' Translation
activitiesTeaching ideas: translating a poem
78

songsBeing careful with musicUsing drama

Teacher development 172

Continuous professional development
around the corner?

65

place

146

A variety of roles

The teacher's role, the teacher's

\Yhat scaffolding means

Establishing rapport

79

148

66 Teachers and students

The teacher in the classroom

The teacher's voice

Giving instructions

154

Checking instructions

When the class needs to be quiet

71

Discipline

Finishing the lesson

158

Reasons for discipline problems

Preventing

But when there

are

di cipline

problems, what then?

Giving feedback

160

Which kind of feedback

feedback on written work

4

How to choose a coursebook

82

Using dictionaries

182
What students can find

in good learners' dictionariesUsing dictionaries with

students
83

Supplementary materials and activities

184

Why use supplementary materials and activities?

What supplementary materials can teachers use?
Deciding what materials and activities to take
into classDeciding on games

84 Teaching without materials

Teaching unplugged

Teacher feedbackAcknowledgement and evaluation

Going further

discipline problems
72

Using coursebooks

How to start a lesson When students are late

What goes into a plan?

180

Different kind of dictionary

156

Classroom moments

178

Using coursebooks
coursebook

Checking meaningAn examp l e of instruction giving

70

The coursebook issueThinking about the next

. . .

Giving instructions, checking meaning

What are lessons like?

Giving instructions Teaching ideas: demonstrating a

activity
Find someone u ho
69

Lesson shapes, tages and sequencePlanning a

sequence of lessons ESA Syllabus, curriculum, course
81

152

Who does the talking in class?

176

80 Planning sequences

Working alone, working

togetherPutting students into pairs and groups

68 Teacher language

Burnout just

PLANNING, RESOURCES
AND ASSESSMENT 175

Planning lessons
plan?

150

Where students sit

What classrooms look like

Doing it ourselvesDoing it

Different attitudes to planningTo plan or not to

Celebrating successRespecting.students
67

with others

MANAGING LEARNING
AND TEACHING 145

Teacher roles

Arguments against using the students' Ll in the

Using songs and musicTalking about music and

Making homework

Ll in the classroomSome background facts

142

64 Using music and drama

'work' for teachers

77

Poetry and language

Other kinds of correction

homework 'work' for students

140

Choosing the right poemsPredicting poetry

168

Homework

The magic of homeworkWhat kind of homework?

Using mobile devices for homeworkMaking

Listening tasks

Extensive listening Using video

Using poetry

166

Correcting writing
correction symbols

students listen?

Listening again

Correcting while the activity

How much to correctWhat to correct Using

Audio devices and who uses them How often should

Making a record of what is being said

Correcting after the eventCorrecting for the future

The importance of listening

Prediction

164

Correcting speaking 2

When should we correct?

Blogs, wikis and contacts

Teaching listening 2

Portfolio writing

Students correct

Reformulation From correction to (re)teaching

The Silent \iVay

132

60 Teaching listening 1

63

162

Students writing togetherPictures and writing

Music and writing

From analysis to production

62

Different kinds of correction

Producing a finished productPreparing for \v:titing

61

Correcting speaking

Encouraging writingSpontaneous writing

Giving

186

Why teaching without

materials is a good idea

Why teaching without

materials may not be a good ideaWhat the teacher

needs to do when teaching without materials
Examples of materials-light teaching

85

188

Classroom technology 1

190

86 Classroom technology 2

Planning around a subjectThinking about topics

and themes Themes, topics and activities

222

101 Assessing young learners

Using pictures, cards and strips of paper Using realia

and other devicesMobile learning
87 Classroom technology

220

100 Topics and themes

Teaching with technologyDeciding what technology

to use Using boards and other 'showing' technology

vVhy we test young learners Continuous assessment

Students assess themselvesTypes of test i tems

192

Software in the classroom Researching online (and

on mobile devices) Making recordingsPresenting
onlineUsing i nternet programs for learning and
social interaction Using virtual learning environments
and learning platforms Blended learning

CONTENT AND LANGUAGE

INTEGRATED LEARNING 225

194

88 Assessment and testing

What is CUL? CUL methodology How is CUL

offered around the world (and who teaches it)?
How to make CLIL successful

Assessing studentsTypes of assessment Designing

and making tests
89 Test items and how to teach them

196

Types of test item. Direct test itemsIndirect test

itemsHow to prepare students for tests

198

90 Marking and grading tests

226

102 Introducing CLIL

After the test The trouble with marking and how to

deal with itUsing assessment scales Involving the
students

103 T he langua'ge of CLIL

228

Types of language Grammar and CLIL Language

for a purpose

104 Genre in CLIL

230

Language functions and tasks Genre and CLIL

Helping students to understand and produce genre
features

232

105 Using visual organisers

91

Presenting i nformation in a visual way vVhy visual

organisers matter Types of visual organiser

TEACHING YOUNG
LEARNERS 201

106 Materials and resources for CLIL

202

Describing young learners

Theories of learning and child development How

young are young learners? Instructional scaffolding
Children aged five to seven Children aged ten
and above

92

204

In the language classroom

Creating the right conditions for language learning

The classroom as a learning environment
Some examples of useful classroom English

Movement, games and special friends

109 Planning CLIL

208
210

Language teaching with young learners

110 Assessing CLIL

212

The importance of listening Listen and do Listen

for information Stories

97

Young learner speaking

214

240

216

Encouraging reading Learning sounds, learning

words A few things that young learners can do vvith
reading Reading aloudLet students read!

242

Types of assessment What is special about assessing

CLIL? Supporting students in CLIL assessment
Some CLIL test types Students assessing
themselves and each other

Appendix A: Going further

Creating confident speakers Speaking activities

StorytellingUsing drama and playacting
98 Young learner reading

Teaching language to children Some examples of

language teaching sequences
Young learner listening

238

Planning CLIL lessons Outcomes and demands

Lesson shapesWhat goes into a CLIL lesson plan

96

Chants and rhymes Songs and singing

95

236

The teacher's responsibilities How teachers can

help students with language How teachers can help
students with cognitive skillsHow CLIL teachers
encourage good learning

206

94 Chants, rhymes and songs

107 Teaching CLIL

Balancing activities Cats and dogs Rivers Music,

anyone? Life on the edge

Movement Special friends Games

234

Differences between materials for CLIL and general

EnglishAdapting materials for CLIL CUL
resources

108 CLIL activities

93

244

Appendix B: Language for managing classrooms

Appendix C: Lesson planning
Glossdex

247

250

257

99 Young learner writing

218

The value of writingCopying activities

Dictation Portfolio writing (and other writing tasks)

-"

Introduction
Welcome to Essential Teacher Knowledge (ETK). This book is written for people around the
world who teach (or are going to teach) English. We have designed it to be useful to teachers
of adults, teenagers and young learners - whether they are teaching general English or CLIL.
ETK is especially useful (but not only) for teachers who have English as a second language.

1 What is in

Essential Teacher Knowledge?

ETK has 110 units about the English language and about how to teach it. The units

describe practical classroom ideas as well as the ideas (the theory) behind them.
There is an accompanying DVD. You can watch examples of teachers at work, and
you can hear teachers from around the world talking about how they do things.
We have divided ETK into separate sections so that it is easier to use. For example, if
you want to improve your knowledge of English grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation
or text and discourse (the 'nuts and bolts' of the language), then you can look at the
w1its in Section A. If, however, you are thinking of teaching CLIL (content and
language integrated learning), then you will be more interested in Secti.on G. Teachers
who work (or Thill work) with young learners will find Section F especially relevant.
However, many of the topics that we deal with are important in more than one area.
Topics such as planning matter whether you teach adults, teenagers or chjldren. As a
result, there are tmits on planning in general (Units 79 and 80); there is a unit (100),
on using topics and themes for planning young learner lessons; and we discuss
planning for CLIL in Unit 109.
Most of the unit topics in Section D (Managing learning and teaching) are just as
relevant for teaching children and teenagers as they are for teaching adults. They will
be just as interesting for CLIL teachers as they are for anyone else!
When you are reaillng ETK you will often see technical terms written like this:
PAIRWORK. This means that you can find the word in the Glossdex (pages 257-287).
The Glossdex entry for pairwork looks like this (the numbers are the unit numbers in
which pairwmk is mentioned):
pair, pairwork when two students work together-+22, 26, 39, 42, 46, 56, 58,
67, 79, 86, 89, 93, 102, 107, 109

We give references to help you move around the book. For example, in Unit 43 (on
motivation) you will find this: extensive reading-+54 . This means that if you go to
Unit 54, you will find more information about extensive reading.
If you see m!l'.m>, it means that you can look at Teaching Techniques track 12 on the
DVD to see examples of teaching.
If you see &JI;, it means that you can go to track 10 in the audio section of our
website (www.pearsonELT.com/ETK) to hear an audio clip.

2 How to use Essential

Teacher Knowledge

You can use the W1its in ETK in any way you choose, of course. However, we have some
suggestions about how the book can be most effective.

You can choose the section that is most relevant to you and read the units in that section.
You can look at the Contents list and choose the units that sound interesting to you.
You can follow the references between the units (such as extensive reading -+54 ,
mentioned above).
You can look at the Glossdex and search for topics that interest you. For example, if
you are interested in pairwork, you can follow up all the unit references that you find
there to learn a lot about the use of pairwork in a variety of different contexts.

Introduction

You can watch the film clips on the DVD in any sequence that you want. However, it
may be helpful if you wait until you find references to the DVD (such as m!m!>) in
the units and then watch the video excerpts. They will make more sense because you
can read about the techniques and procedures which they show.

3 T he lives of teachers
In Section A we look at how the English language works.

Language (grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation and text and discourse) is

contextualised in short stories about a variety of teachers from around the world.

We also discuss various topics (such as homework, discipline, teacher burnout, etc.) in
connection with the stories about teachers' lives.

4 Practical teaching ideas

Section C (Teaching language and language skills) contains many different examples of
practical teclmiques and activities. But this is not the only place where such ideas can
be found.

In Units 7 and 17 we discuss different grammar teaching ideas.

In Unit 22 we look at ideas for meeting and remembering words.
In Units 28 and 29 we show ideas for teaching pronunciation.
In Units 93-99 we look at classroom activities for young learners.
In Unit 108 we look at activities for CLIL learners

5 Teachers' voices
In the Teachers' Voices section of the DVD you will find clips of teachers from around
the world talking about their teaching experiences and what they do in the classroom.
Here is a list of the teachers and the topics they talk about. You can listen to many more
teachers' voices on our website: www.pearsonELTcom!ETK
1 Graciela Barreto (Uruguay) Managing young learners
2 Magdalena Custodio Espinar (Spain) Teaching young learners
3 Victor Chen (Taiwan) Helping students to progress
4 Melinda Madrassy (Hungary) Using puppets
5 Marija Andraka (Croatia) Young learners and grammar
6 Magdalena Custodio Espinar (Spain) Teaching CLIL using two languages
7 Liliana Burga (Peru) Groupwork and pairwork with teenagers
8 Ann Masako Mayeda (Japan) Creating motivation through student choice
9 Nino Chelidze (Georgia) Teaching adults
10 Oguzhan Kalkan (Turkey) Using (and adding to) coursebooks
11 Bianca Hofmann (German) Using vocabulary tests to motivate students
12 Deniz Atesok (Turkey) Teaching mixed ability/differentiation
13 Jeannette Jimenez Pachas (Peru) Correcting during accuracy and fluency
14 German Gomez (Guatemala) Using dialogues to teach grammar
15 Katie Malik (Poland) Exposing students to different accents
16 Kamelija Simonovska (Macedonia) A vocabulary activity
17 Nino Chelidze (Georgia) Using dictionaries after reading
18 Monika Czyrska (Poland) Student project work with PowerPoint
19 Alex Field (UK) An end-of-lesson vocabulary game
20 Vivian Hagos Ibrahim (Eritrea) An end-of-lesson vocabulary activity
21 Diana Karan (Canada) Using exit cards to check learning

6 Revise, research, reflect

You will find exercises and questions for each unit of ETK on our website:
www.pearsonELTcom/ETK
7

Essential Teacher Knowledge and the

TKT (Teaching Knowledge Test)

Because Essential Teacher Knowledge is for anyone who wants to know about language
teaching, it has not been written just for people who are taking the various elements of
the TKT test. However, if you want to take the TKT, this book will help you to prepare
for success in the te t - whichever paper or module you are interested in.
The following chart gives details of the papers and modules of the TKT and shows
which units in Essential Teacher Knowledge are relevant for them. However, the book is
organised a little differently from the actual TKT syllabus so that, for example, a topic
like 'managing learners' (which is in tl1e TKT Young learners module) is in a different
section in Essential Teacher Knowledge because it covers issues (for e x ample, discipline)
which do not just apply to young learners.
Readers can also consult tl1e Glossdex on pages 257-287 to look for references to (and
explanations of) TKT terms. The Glossdex contains the most important and useful
technical words used by the TKT test writers - as well as others that are important for
teaching English success. Readers who want the official TKT exam-based glossaries can
download them from the Cambridge ESOL website:
www.cambridgeesol. orglexam-preparationlindex.html#tkt

TKT Test/Module

TKT section/
part number

Topic

Unit number(s)
in fusential
Teacher
Knowledge

TKT Modules
2 and 3

1 Describing

Grammar: parts of speech

Vocabulary: types of meaning
Vocabulary: word formation
Vocabulary: word groupings
Pronunciation: symbols from the International Phonemic
Alphabet (IPA)/phonemes
Pronunciation: stress
Pronunciation: intonation
Pronunciation: connected speech (language)
Functions
Language skills: reading, listening speaking, writing and sub-skills
Features of spoken and written texts
Features of spoken and written texts: accuracy and fluency

1
18
19
20
23
26
27
25
30
51-62
31
73,92

Motivation
Exj:>osure to language and focus on form (acquisition and learning)
The role of error
Differences in age
Differences in the context of learning
Learner characteristics
Maturity and past learning experiences

43
35,36
37
38,39,40
41
40
40

Introductory activities
Common ways of presenting/introducing language
Production tasks (practice)
Common comprehension tasks (language skills)
Assessment types and tasks

70
44,45,46
47-50
41-62
88, 89,101, 110

1 Lexis

Types of meaning; sense relations

Word formation
Lexical units: collocation, lexical phrases/chunks
Register

18
19
20
33

2 Phonology

Phonemes
Word stress and sentence stress; contrastive stress
Intonation and what it means

23
26
27

1,

language and
language skills

2 Background
to language
learning

3 Background
to language
teaching

Knowledge
about language

TKT Test/Module

Topic

TKT section/

Unit number(s)
in Essential

part number

Teacher
Knowledge
3 Grammar

T he role of context in grammar

4 Discourse

Different types of noun

12

Determiners
Adjectives
Noun phrase structures

13,14

1 Knowledge of

young learners
and principles
of teaching
young learners
2 Plamling and

prepanng
young learners
lessons
3 Teaching

young learners

15, 16, 17
4

Verb patterns
Verb mode (declarative, negative, etc.)
Modality
Time and tense
Aspect

10
17
8
5
6

Hypotheticality (conditionals)

Adverbials

11

The passive

1,32, 33

Reported speech

10,103

Sentences and clauses

Coherence

'

15

Verb types

34

Anaphoric reference, etc.

34

Lexical cohesion
Register

34

Written and spoken English

31

Genre
Young learners

Word class in grammatical structure

Children's characteristics as language learners

33
32
91

Developing children's learning so-ategies through language

learning and conunwlication

92, 93-99, 107

Developing children's cognitive and communication strategies

through language learning

92,93-99, 107

Lesson plans and what goes into them

79,80,100, 109,

Providing support and challen ge when selecting and using

coursebooks and supplementary materials

Appendix C
81,82,83,106

Additional resources

82,83,106

Scaffolding children's understanding; teacher language and

65,68,69,74,91,

strategies

97,102,107

Using practice activities to consolidate children's language learning

93-99

Managing young learners

70,71

Purpose and focus of different kinds of test

88,89,101, 110

CLIL and

Aims and rationale forCLIL

Language across the curriculwn

103

principles
ofCLIL

Communication skills across the curriculum

Learning skills across the curriculum

4 Assessing young

learner learning
Content and
Language
Integrated
Learning

1 Knowledge of

2 Lesson

4 Assessment

107
79, 80, 109,

Language demands of subject content and tasks

109

AppendixC
Resources: visual organisers and multi-media

delivery

103, 104

Plamling a lesson or a series of lessons

preparation

3 Lesson

102

Classroom language
Scaffolding content and language learning

106, 105
107
65,69, 74,91, 97,
102,107

Methods to help learners develop learning strategies

107

Focusing on content and language

109

Types of assessment

88,89, 110

Support strategies
Practical

Making a lesson plan

79,80, 100, 109,

Teaching a lesson

44-75

AppendixC

Section A: Language
Section A looks at four main area of language: Grammar (Units 1-17), Vocabulary
(Units 18-22), Pronunciation (Units 23 -29) and Text and discourse (Units 30-34).
... -

t '
r

Almost all of the units in Section A start ith sliorts texts and dialogues about the lives
of teachers around the world. These show examples of the language that the unit is
focusing on. In the grammar units this includes the elements of the sentence, parts of
speech, sentences and questions, verbs (and adverbs), and the noun phrase (including
articles, quantifiers, adjectives and post-modification). In the vocabulary section we look
at word meaning, on how words 'get together' (collocation and lexical phrases/chunks)
and at metaphor, idioms and proverbs. In the pronunciation section we focus on the
phonemic alphabet, on how and where (in the mouth) we make sounds, on what happens
when sounds are used together, on how we stress words and phrases and on how we use
pitch change for different intonation. Finally, in the section on text and discourse we
look at differences between speaking and writing, and on how we compose texts (written
and spoken) that actually make sense.
Five units within this section give classroom teaching ideas. These are ideas for helping
students learn about verb tense and aspect (Unit 7), various elements of the noun phrase
(Unit 17), ways of remembering words (Unit 22), sounds (Unit 28) and stress and
intonation (Unit 29).
Many of the units in Section A also contain short discussions of issues such as homework,
teacher brnout, what it feels like to be corrected, the difference (if any) between
native-speaker and non-native-speaker teachers, etc.

Grammar

Pronunciation

1 What's in a sentence?

23 T he phonemic alphabet

2 How we use clauses

24 Where sounds are made

3 Asking questions

25 Sounds in combination

4 Introducing verbs

26 Stress

5 Verb tenses (form and meaning)

27 Intonation

6 Aspect

28 Teaching sounds

7 Teaching verbs (and adverbs)

29 Teaching stress and intonation

8 Auxiliaries and modals

9 Multi-word and phrasal verbs
10 Verb complementation
11 Introducing adverbs
12 Introducing nouns
13 Articles
14 Quantifiers
15 Introducing adjectives

Text and discourse

30 Language functions
31 Written and spoken English
32 Genre
33 Register
34 Cohesion and coherence

16 What comes after nouns?

17 Teaching the noun phrase

Lexis and vocabulary

18 What words mean
19 How words are formed
20 Collocation and lexical phrases
21 Metaphor, idiom, proverb and cliche
22 Meeting and remembering words
11

What's in a
sentence?

Manuela is a teacher. She lives in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Last week she was presented
with a 'Teacher of the Year' award by the director of her school. The prize was some money
and some flowers.
Manuela teaches teenagers at a large secondary school and at the weekends she gives
private English classes. She is married to a man she met when she was skiing in Bariloche.
Bariloche is a famous ski resort in Argentina.
Yesterday was Manuela's wedding anniversary. In the morning her husband gave her a
beautiful necklace. She was very happy. She cried! She gave him a new mobile phone. H e
thanked her enthusiastically, even though he had bought himself the same phone the
previous day. He wonders when he will tell her, but he thinks today is not the right time.

Parts of speech

In the story about Manuela there are quite a few NOUNS, such as Manuela, Buenos Aires,
ouns are the names of people, places or
things. We look at nouns in '12.
Bariloche, teacher, school, husband and award.

12

There are also PRONOUNS (which take the place of nouns), such as she, he and her.
We look at pronouns in '12.

The ADJECTIVES in the text include famous, beautiful and happy. djectives describe
nouns. We look at adjectives in '15.

The text above also has a number of VERBS (which describe actions, states and events),
such as is, lives, was awarded, teaches, gave, had bought, etc. \Ve look at verbs in '4.

The word enthusiastically is an ADVERB (it describes the verb); there are ADVERBIAL PHRASES
i.n the text, too, such as last week and in the morning. We look at adverbs in '11.

There are two ARTICLES in the text: the INDEFINITE ARTICLE a and the DEFINITE ARTICLE the.
The word some is a QUANTIFIER (it tells us 'how much'). We look at articles in '13 and
quantifiers in '14.

PREPOSITIONS, uch as in and of, show how other words are connected. We look at
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES in '16.

The CONJUNCTIONS and and but co1mect SENTENCES and clauses.

What's in a sentence?

Sentence elements
How do we know where to put the parts of speech to make a sentence? \Vhat are the

ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE and what order should they go in?

SUBJECT (She) + a verb (teaches),

OBJECT (teenagers) and an adverb or an adverbial phrase (at a large secondary school).

Sentences consist of some or all of the following: a

an

Sometimes sentences have more than one object. In the sentence Her husband gave her
a beautiful necklace, a beaut{ful necklace is the DIRECT OBJECT (it is the thing that was
given) and her is the I NDIRECT OBJECT (she was the one who benefited from the action).

Some sentences do not have an object. Instead they have a subject

and a COMPLEMENT (happy).

Sometimes we only use a subject and a verb

(she), a verb (was)

(She cried) 4.

Sometimes we m ake more complicated sentences by joining together a number of

CLAUSES. She is married to a man I She met the man when she was skiing I She was skiing
in Bariloche becomes She is married to a man she met when she was skiing in Bariloche.
We look at clauses in 2.

Getting things in the right order

The basic sentence elements (subject, verb, object, complement) are the spaces into
which we place words. But we have to be careful which words we put into these spaces.
For example, we can put pronouns (she, he, they, etc.) or NOUN PHRASES (the young woman,

the director, her husband, etc.) into the subject space, but the sentence would not work i f
w e put an a djective o r a n adverb there. For example, w e cannot say PreDiousisa teaclm or
Se1iousf) isastudent. S imilarly, we cannot put nouns or adjectives where verbs go, etc.
The sentence elements have to be arranged in correct sequences. For example, we can
say Nfanuela is a teacher (SVC), or we can change the order to make a question:
Is Manuela a teacher? (VSC). But we cannot say [,,a teache1Nf:tmueia because we do not
use th e sequence VCS.
However, sometimes we re-arrange the order of the SVO elements and put the
(indirect) object in the subject position. This is because we want to focus on who
'receives' the action (or because

we

don't kno"v who did the action). For example,

ACTIVE VOICE and saying The director ofher school (1) presented her'
(2) with a 'Teacher of the Year' award, we can use the PASSIVE VOICE: She (2) was presented
with a 'Teacher of the Year' award by the director ofher school (1) . We look at an activity to
instead of using the

teach the passive voice in 7 .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.

Teaching ideas: word order

We often get students to reord e r words to make sentences. This makes them t h i n k carefu lly
about syntax (the correct sequence of sentence elements). For exam ple, we can say:

Put the following words in order to make correct sentences:

a) Manuela's / was / wedding anniversary I yesterday

b) a / at/ Buenos Aires / teenagers/ in/ large/ Manuela / secondary school/ teaches
c) bus I by I go I I I school I to I usually
We can a lso ask the students to put in punctuation, such as CAPITAL LETTERS,
(periods),

FULL STOPS

QUESTION MARKS, INVERTED COMMAS (quotation marks), etc. 31

An enjoyable variation is to have the students hold the words on cards a bove their heads
(so they can't see their own words) The other mem bers of the class have to tell them where

to stand to make a correct sentence l!l!l'.D .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

Hiro's lesson

How we use
clauses

( 1) As soon as the lesson is over,

Hiro walks back to the teachers'
room. (2) He's happy and he wants
to tell his friend Akiko about it.
(3) Although Akiko is a geography
teacher (and Hiro is an English
teacher), they always tell
each other about their lessons and
talk about their students.
(4) Hiro is happy because his
students particularly enjoyed the
lesson which he taught after the
first break.
(5) After school Hiro is going to go
straight home so that he'll have
time for some music. (6) He's
going to play the guitar he bought
two weeks ago. (7) If he hadn't
trained to be a teacher, Hiro would
have studied music.

Main clauses and subordinate clauses

All the sentences in the text about Hiro have more than one CLAUSE in them. A clause has
a subject and a verb - and so all sentences (such as He is happy) have at least one clause.
But there's more to it than that!

Sentence 2 has two MAIN CLAUSES: He '.\' happy. He wants to tell hisfriend Akiko about it.
Main clauses can exist on their own and are often joined \:Jy CONJUNCTIONS like and, but,
or, so, etc.
Sentence 1 has a main clause (Hiro walks back to the teachers' room) and a SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE (as soon as the lesson is over). Subordinate clauses only exist i f there is a main
clause that they can attach themselves to; we don't usually use them on their own.

Sentence 4 has two main clauses (Hiro is happy and his students particularly enjoyed the
lesson) and one subordinate clause (which he taught after the first break).

Clause functions and meanings

Clauses can have different functions and meanings. For example, sentence 1 has a
TIME CLAUSE (as soon as the lesson is over) . Sentence 3 has a CONCESSIVE CLAUSE (although
Akiko is a geography teacher). We use concessive clauses when we want to say that there is
a 'weakness' in the idea of the main clause. Sentence 4 has a REASON CLAUSE (because his
students particularly enjoyed the lesson) and sentence 5 has a PURPOSE CLAUSE (so that he 'll have
time for some music).
14

Relative clauses
In sentence 4 the clause which he taught after the first break is a RELATIVE CLAUSE, introduced
by a relative pronoun (which). We use the RELATIVE PRONOUNS which and that for things and
who or that for people (She 's the wo'man who married a prince), where for places (That's the
house where she met hi'm) and whose for possession (She 's the wo'man whose children go to the
same school as mine). Relative clauses can be DEFINING (as in sentence 4 where the clause
tells us which lesson is being talked about) or NON-DEFINING as in sentences like He likes his
school, which is in the centre of town. In that last sentence (notice the use of the comma) we
know which school is being talked about; we are just giving additional information.
Note that in sentence 6 we don't have to use a relative pronoun because the noun being
described (the guitar) is the object of the clause (he bought the guitar). We call these
clauses CONTACT CLAUSES or REDUCED RELATIVE CLAUSES.

Conditional clauses
Sentence 7 in the text about Hiro's lesson is a CONDITIONAL SENTENCE which contains the
CONDITIONAL CLAUSE Ifhe hadn 't trained to be a teacher and the consequence Hiro would have
studied 'music. We use conditional sentences to say a) what will or will probably happen
(Ifhe wears sunscreen, he won 't get sunburned), b) what might (but is less likely to) happen
(If he won a lot ofmoney, he would buy a new house) or c) what definitely won't happen
because it is in the past (Ifhe hadn 't trained to be a teacher, he would have studied 'mZtsic).
These are often called FIRST CONDITIONAL (a), SECOND CONDITIONAL (b) and THIRD CONDITIONAL
(c). We use the past tense for the second conditional and the PAST PERFECT tense for the
third conditional to show that the meaning is HYPOTHETICAL, because it will always be
'unreal'. Some people also talk about the ZERO CONDITIONAL to refer to things which are
always true (Ifyou heat wate1; it boils).
Note that the clauses can go in different sequences (He won 't get sunbunled ifhe wears
sunscreen I Ifhe wears sunscreen, he won 't get sunburned) and that we can use other
future-meaning verbs and auxiliaries instead of will and would, etc. For example, IfI go to
the beach, /''flt going to wear sunscreen; I couldn 't have done it ifyou hadn 't helped me.
We use unless to mean 'if not': Unless he wears sunscreen he will get sunburned.
We can make MIXED CONDITIONALS by using/mixing different verb tenses in sentences like
I won 't caliyou unless I've finished.

Teaching ideas: conditional clauses

Many teachers use stories with 'consequences' to teach cond itionals. For example, we could
tell the students a story 45 about a man i n a bar (If he has another drink, he will stay in the

bar. If he stays in the bar, he will get home late. If he gets home late, his wife will leave him, etc.) to
produce 'tragic' stories. We can talk about the 'su perpower' qualities that teachers would l i ke
to have, such as being able to fly or being able to see t h rough wa lls (If I could fly, I would visit

all the cities in the world in one day). Others talk about stories in the past; they say what wou l d
have happened if t h i ngs h a d been different (If h e hadn't gone swimming, h e wouldn't have been
attacked by a shark) .
.
.
o

15

Private lesson

Askin_ g_
questions

Manuela is gi ving an online lesson to

her private student, Carmen.
Manuela:

Carmen:
Manuela:
Carmen:
Manuela:
Carmen:
Manuela:
Carmen:
Manuela:
Carmen:
Manuela:
Carmen:
Manuela:
Carmen:
Manuela:
Carmen:
Manuela:
Carmen:
Manuela:

Let's start with some

conversation practice.
OK. I'd like that.
Where did you go at the
weekend, Carmen?
I went to Recoleta Park.
Did your boyfriend go
with you?
No, he didn't. He couldn't
make it.
So who went with you ?
My sister.
Your boyfriend 's an engineer,
isn't he?
Yes, he is. He designs bridges.
He designs bridges?
Yes.
What's he working on at the moment?
They're constructing a new bridge in Mendoza.
When's he coming back?
When's he coming back? I'm not sure. Sometimes it seems like he's never
at home!
Don't worry! I'm sure it'll work out in the end.
Yes, I know. And I'm really pleased for him - that his work is going so well.
That's great, Carmen. Anyway, shall we do some vocabulary work now?

Saying yes, saying no

In Manuela and Carmen's conversation, Carmen uses a number of AFFIRMATIVE

SENTENCES (I'd like that. I went to Recoleta Park. They're constructing a new bridge in
Mendoza) and ANSWERS (Yes. Yes, he is). Affir mative sentences say 'yes ' or show
agreement. They are the opposite of NEGATIVE SENTENCES.

Carmen also uses a negative answer (No, he didn 't) and sentences (He couldn 't make it.
1'111 not sure). Negative answers and sentences say 'no' and we usually make them by

adding not to the verb. In spoken English (and INFORMAL written English) we often use
the CONTRACTED FORM n 't w-ith the verb (don 't, can 't, isn 't, won 't, etc.).

We can also give affi.m1ative sentences a negative CONNOTATION by using negative ADVERBS

such as never, seldom, nowhere, etc. (he '.r never at home). In most varieties of English we
don't usually use two negatives in the same sentence; we don't say He isn'tne7::!erat
/Jetme. However, this 'double negative' is used in sorne varieties of spoken English; it
just isn't acceptable in educated English - or in most English exams!

16

vVe use negative verbs in many commands or suggestions (Don 't worry!).

Asking question

Different types of questions

In Manuela's online conversation with her private student (Carmen) there are a number
of different types of question:

Didyour boyfriend go with you? and Shall we do some vocabulary wor!e now? are examples
of YES/NO QUESTIONS - also called CLOSED QUESTIONS. Notice that the order of affirmative
sentences - subject-verb - (e.g. We (1) shall (2) do some vocabulary work) is reversed
when we make a question (Shall (2) we (1) do some vocabulary work?). We use do, did,
etc. to make questions when there is no other AUXILIARY VERB available.

We call questions like Where did you go at the weekend? and When s he coming back?
WH- QUESTIONS. They are also called OPEN QUESTIONS. Open questions start with what,
when, how, why, how often, who, etc. T hey are called open questions because the answer
is unpredictable - and will be more than yes or no. In questions like this we use do or
did if there is no other auxiliary.

SUBJECT QUESTIONS like Wbo went with you? don't need an auxiliary verb because they
are asking about the subject of the verb (My sister went with me). However, OBJECT
QUESTIONS like Where did you go at the weekend? need the auxiliary (do) because they are
asking about the object of the verb (J went to Recoleta Park).

Although we usually make questions by putting the verb before the subject (Did your
boyfriend go with you?), we can also make questions, in spoken English, by saying an
affirmative sentence with questioning INTONATION (He designs bridges?). In spoken
English we can often make just one word into a question (Coffee? Yes, please. Sugar?
N?, thanks). Vile look at intonation in -727.

In spoken English we can make a sentence into a question by adding a QUESTION TAG
(Your boyfriends an engineer; isn 't he?). If the verb in the sentence is affirmative (Your
boyfriends an engineer), the question tag is usually negative (isn 't he?). But if the verb in
the sentence is negative, the tag is usually in the affirmative (is he?). When we use tag
questions to confirm something we think we know (or if we want the listener to agree
with us), we often use a falling inonation tune on the tag. If we don't know the
answer to our question - or if we are worried about it - we use a rising intonation
tune on the tag. Some people use the word right as a general tag word in sentences
like You 're a teache1 right? T his is when they want their guess (I think you are teacher)
confirmed -+27.

Sometimes, like Carmen, we use echo questions (When s he coming back?) to help the
conversation along .

.. .
.

. . . . .

. . . .... ..................... . .. . .. .
.

. .

. .

. .

. . .

. . . .. . .. . . .. .. . . . .. .. . .. .. . .. . ..
.

Learning English by telephone and Skype

.
.

Many teachers, l i ke Manuela, have private students who learn either on the telephone (popu lar
i n France) or by using telephone/video computer software such as Skype. They can share a
virtual 'board', too; both of them can see the same t h i ng on their computer screens. Even if
they are physica l ly d istant from each other, the lesson is not u n li ke a typical face-to-face one.
There a re many other ways i n which people can make contact with others via the
We look at these VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS (VLEs) in

INTERNET.

-+87.

.
.

17

Introducing
verbs

Yesterday was the first day of the new semester, so Ratih arrived at school two hours
before her first lesson. After she had had some breakfast, she left home very early because
the traffic in Jakarta (where she lives) can be very bad indeed. And yesterday it rained so it
was even worse than usual!
I n her first lesson (for beginners), Ratih asked the students to do various things. 'Open your
books,' she said, and later, 'Go to the door. Open the door. Close the door. Sit down.' She
wanted her students to learn simple English verbs (like go and open) and nouns (like book
and door). It was a happy lesson and many of the students laughed - which Ratih thinks is
a good thing. She believes that when students are happy and engaged (involved) in what
they are doing, they may learn better than if they are bored and inactive.
Ratih enjoys teaching and she is always looking for ways to improve what she does. Later
she is going to look into the possibility of doing a postgraduate cou rse in Australia next
year. Right now, however, she has to plan next week's lessons. She has to work out how to
teach the future to her class of elementary students.

Types of verb

18

T he verbs in the story about Ratih describe ACTIONS (had had some breakfast, open your
books, the students laughed, she has to plan, etc.), STATES (Yesterday was the first day ofthe
semester, the traffic can be bad), STATES OF MIND (she believes that when students are happy)
and EVENTS (it rained). We discuss simple verbs (for states) and continuous verbs (for
actions) in '6.
Open, believes and rained are LEXICAL VERBS (sometimes called MAIN VERBS or FULL VERBS) .
These are verbs which express a whole range of meanings. We can use them on their
own in sentences.

Verbs like had, can, are, may and is are AUXILIARY VERBS. Their function is often
grammatical and they help, or interact with, lexical verbs.

Introducing verbs

Can and may are MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS. We look at am'.iliary and modal auxiliary
verbs in -+8.

Laughed and sit down are INTRANSITIVE verbs - that means they do not need or take an
OBJECT. Enjoys and plan are TRANSITIVE verbs - they do take an object. -otice, however,
that open (Open your books) is transitive in the story about Ratih, but open (like a number
of other verbs) can also be intransitive in sentences like The door opened. In the same
way, some LINKING VERBS like get and tast can be transitive (He got a letter in the post,
She tasted the soup) and intransitive (He got upset, It tasted delicious).

Sit down, look into and work out are called MULTI-WORD VERBS because they are made up
of more than one word. Look into and work out are PHRASAL VERBS because although we
may understand the individual words (look and into, work and out) that does not mean
we understand the complete verb (look into, work out). In other words, they have
IDIOMATIC meaning -+21 (unlike sit down which is far easier to understand). We look at
phrasal verbs in more detail in -+9.

How verbs are made

All verbs have a BASE FORM, that is the INFINITIVE without to. In the text about Ratih's
lesson, verbs like go and open are in their base (simplest) form. Ratih uses these base
forms to make IMPERATIVE sentences (Go to the door, Open the do01 etc.). Other base
form infinitives in the story about Ratih include learn, improve, look and plan.

We change the base form of verbs to show agreement, TENSE -+S and ASPECT 6.
vVe do this by adding or changing MORPHEMES. Morphemes are the smallest units of
grammatical meaning - they are smaller than words. For example, when the text
about Ratih says she thinks it is a good thing and she believes that when students are happy
and engaged . . , we have added the 's' morpheme to the base form of the verb. This is
necessary when we use the present simple with he, she or it.
.

We add the -ed morpheme to all REGULAR VERBS when we talk about the past -+6,
e.g. rained, asked, laughed, wanted.

We call verbs that do not add -ed in the past IRREGULAR VERBS. For example, the past
tense of go is went (not geed! ) and the past participle is gone. Left in the story about
Ratih is the past form of the verb leave.

\Ve add the -ing morpheme to the base form of the verb for PRESENT PARTICIPLES (She is
always lookingfor ways to inzprove what she does).

Verbs in combination
Many verbs 'trigger' the grammar of the verbs that follow them -+10. For example, the
verb enjoy is always followed by a present participle (Ratih enjoys teaching); it is never
followed by to + infinitive (we cannot say She enjoys ). Ask is often followed by
object + to + infinitive (Ratih asked the students to do various things). Knowing a verb means
knowing what behaviour it triggers .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " . . . .
.
.
.
.

Total physical response

Ratih's lesson is an example of TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE (TPR)

-+45, a 1970s method

described by James Asher, i n which students first respond to and then give commands. The
idea is that we learn by doing things. This is especially appropriate for students who respond
well to more

KINAESTHETIC ACTIVITIES (those that i nvolve physica l movement and activity) .

Most experts suggest that TPR is especi a l l y useful for lower-level students.

19

Verb tenses
(form and
meaning)

Arnulfo seems to spend his

whole day criss-crossing the
busy streets of Mexico City.
He teaches in three different
places. But not today. Today
is Sunday so he is having a
well-earned rest.
Yesterday wasn't so relaxed,
though. He corrected
homework for three hours.
Correcting homework isn't
always his favourite task,
but he had to do it - and
when he did, he was pleased
with his students' efforts.
They will be disappointed
( and demotivated ) if he does
not hand it back on Monday.
After he had finished correcting, he went to the cinema with his wife. They saw an
English film about a writer's community in an English village. A young woman returns
to the village after some years away. She causes a lot of trouble because all the men fall
in love with her, and she has to decide which one to choose. It was a very funny movie.
Tonight Arnulfo's parents are coming over for dinner. Then he has one day's teaching
before he and his wife go on holiday. They leave Mexico early in the morning and fly
to Boston. If they can, they are going to visit New York, too. He will have a lot to tell his
students when he gets home.

How verbs show time

We change or add to the BASE FORM of the verb -+4 to show whether we are talking about
the PAST, the PRESENT or the FUTURE. There are many examples of this in the text about
Arnulfo.

20

The verbs seems, teaches and is having in the first paragraph all refer to the present.
Notice that the PRESENT CONTINUOUS form -+6 (is having) refers to what is happening
now, but seems and teaches refer to things that are more generally true most of the time.

Wasn 't, corrected and had to in the second paragraph all refer to past time, and had
finished correcting refers to a time before the past (he went).

Are coming over, go on holiday, leave, are going to visit, will have and gets in the fourth
paragraph all refer to the future.

Verbs are not the only ways of showing time. ADVERBIALS such as today (paragraph 1),
yesterday and on Monday (paragraph 2), after (paragraph 3), tonight and in the morning
(paragraph 4) also say what time we are talking about. This is very important when we
realise that the same verb form can refer to many different times.

Verb tenses (form and meaning)

One form, many meanings

One of the features of English verb forms is that they can mean many different things
- they can refer to different times. This is not special to verbs, as we shall see when we
introduce words and their meanings in -718. There are many examples of this in the
text about Arnulfo.

Arnulfo seems (a present STATE) and he teaches (a present routine) in paragraph 1 both
refer to the present and use the PRESENT SIMPLE form -76 .
A young woman returns to the village and she causes a lot of trouble in paragraph 3 use

the same verb form (present simple) but they are telling a story. We often use the
present simple in this way, even when it refers to the past.

He and his wife go on holiday and they leave Mexico (paragraph 4) refer to the future, yet

they are using the same present simple form.

He is having a well-earned rest (paragraph 1) uses the PRESENT CONTINUOUS -76 and
refers to the present. However, Arnufo 's parents are coming over to dinner

(paragraph 4) refers to the future.

It is because one verb can mean so many different things that CONTEXT and the use of
time adverbials is so important.

One meaning, many forms

The future is talked about in the text about Arnulfo. But this is done using a number of
different forms.

vVill is often referred to as the 'neutral' future when it refers tO things that are
inevitable in the future. Examples are his students will be disappointed (paragraph 2) and
he will have a lot to tell his students (paragraph 4). VVill is a MODAL AUXILIARY VERB -78 .

The present simple is often used. to describe fixed schedules, e.g. he and his wife go on
holiday, they leave Mexico (paragraph 4).

Going to + INFINITIVE is often used to describe plans and intentions, e.g. they are going
to visit New York (paragraph 4).

The present continuous is often used to describe future arrangements - things that
are almost definitely going to happen or things that have already been decided on e.g. Arnulfo 's parents are coniing overfor dinner.

As we can see, there is no one-to-one connection between TENSE (for example the present
simple in the sentence They leave Niexico) and time (Arnulfo and his wife's future). In the
same way, a CONDITIONAL sentence -72 like IfI had a million pounds I would buy a house,
includes the past tense of have (had) but refers to present time.
We suggest ways of teaching the verb phrase in -77.

The homework issue

Homework works! It is good for learners, even though doing it - and correcting it - can
sometimes seem l i ke a lot of work. Teachers have to decide how much homework to give
and when to give it.
One of the most important thi ngs about homework is that the students should hand it i n on
time - and the teacher should give it back quickly, tool I f not, the students wil l start to thi nk,
next time, that they don't have to do it.
We look at homework i n more detai l in -776.

21

You'll never burn out!

Aspect

Hiro is standing in the kitchen. He's drinking a glass of water.

He is breathing heavily.
Hiro has been jogging because his friend Akiko told him he
was unfit. 'You haven't taken any exercise for weeks,' she
said. 'You've been getting up late, rushing to school and then
going out at weekends, playing music. It's not good for you.'
It was true! He had been working very hard and he hadn't been getting enough sleep.
Last week, for example, he was teaching a lesson on the present perfect and his students
just weren't interested. They were looking bored and he couldn't find a way of motivating
them. When he left the class he just felt exhausted.
'When this semester ends, I will have been a teacher for ten years,' he told Akiko in the
staff room after that lesson. 'It feels like a long time. I don't want to get teacher "burnout"
like some of the older teachers.'
' Don't be silly, Hiro,' Akiko told him. 'You'll never suffer from burnout. You're a great teacher.
We all have lessons which don't work sometimes, but that doesn't happen often with you !
You do need to do something to make yourself feel better!' and that's when she told him
to take more exercise.

What is aspect?
TENSE refers to the form of the verb we use -+S, and TIME is about when we
ASPECT refers to the way a speaker wants you to understand the
situation which they are talking about. For example, the sentences I teach, I am teaching,
I have taught and I have been teaching all refer to the present, but in each case the
\Vhereas

are referring to,

speaker's attitude to the teaching (whether it is habitual, whether it i continuing,

whether it finished i n the past, or whether it is in the past but has present relevance, etc.)
is different.

Simple and continuous

In the story about H i ro there are number of CONTINUOUS and

SIMPLE verb forms.

Itfeels tilee a long time (paragraph 4) and we all have lessons which don 't work
(paragraph 5) are examples of the PRESENT SIMPLE. We use the present simple a) to talk
about facts that are true and will be true for some time; b) to describe repeated
actions or habits; and c) for storytelling and future reference -+ S. We use the base
form of the verb (+ the 's' MORPHEME for the third person singular -+4) to make the
present simple.

22

He left the room (paragraph 3) and she told him (paragraph 5) are examples of the
PAST SIMPLE. They described completed actions. They weren 't interested (paragraph 4)
describes a past state. We form the past simple by addi ng the -ed morpheme in one
of its realisations to regular verbs. IRREGULAR VERBS have their own forms, such as
take-took -+4.

Aspect

Hiro is standing in the kitchen and the next two sentences in paragraph 1 are example of
the PRESENT CONTINUOUS (also called the PRESENT PROGRESSIVE) . They describe an action
that is still ongoing (that hasn't finished) at the time of speaking. They emphasise the
action rather than the result of it. We can also use the present continuous for future
reference ,5_ To make continuous verb forms we use the AUXILIARY VERB to be +
PRESENT PARTICIPLE (BASE FORM + -ing).
He was teaching a lesson and they were looking bored (Paragraph 3) are examples of the
PAST CONTINUOUS and describe an action that was ongoing at the actual moment in time
that the speaker is referring to.
Verbs like feels (itfeels like a long time - paragraph 4) are often called STATIVE VERBS
because they refer to a state of mind (other verbs like this include believe, hate, love and
think). vVe almost always use simple forms (rather than continuous forms) with verbs
like this when we are referring to the state itself (I believe in miracles). However, some
stative verbs can be used with continuous forms when we wish to emphasise the
ongoing and active nature of that state (e.g. I'm thinleing - please don't interrupt me).

Perfect verbs
In the story about Hiro there are a number of PERFECT VERBS.

You haven 't taken any exercise for weeks and you 've been getting up late (paragraph 2) are
both examples of the PRESENT PERFECT - simple and continuous. The present perfect
suggests something which started in the past and which a) is still true, or b) still has
pesent 'consequences', or c) still isn't finished. We use have + PAST PARTICIPLE to form
the present perfect.
He had been working very hard and he hadn 't been getting enough sleep (paragraph 3) are
both examples of the PAST PERFECT. Past perfect verbs describe things that started
before the past, but still have 'relevance' in the past moment that we are describing.
We use had + past participle to make past perfect verbs.

I will have been a teacherfor ten years (paragraph 4) is an example of the FUTURE PERFECT.
We use will have + past participle to make this verb form.

Speakers of American English often use the past simple instead of the present
perfect: Didyou see him yet? (American English) versus Have you seen him yet?
(British English). However, in some varieties of American English the present
perfect is used in the same ways as in British English, especially in more formal or
writing-like situations .

..

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.

Burnout
Many teachers feel tired and demotivated at times. They feel they have had enough of
teaching. This is sometimes called

BURNOUT.

It is often a temporary condition (fortunately

not a permanent one). We look at teacher development (includ ing how to avoid

or deal with

b u r n out) in '78.

23

Teaching ideas
In this unit we look at a few ideas for teaching (and practising) some verb tenses - and
adverbs. There are many other teaching suggestions i n

Teaching verbs
(and adverbs)

'44-64.

Teaching the present continuous and present simple

Students can pretend to be police officers on surveillance duty - or pies - to practise

PRESENT CONTI NUOUS. They say what people are doing in sentences like A man is
walking into the shop. He 's canying a bag, etc.
the

PRESENT SIMPLE and

CONTINUOUS in sentences l i ke He usually gets up at six thirty, but it's ten o 'clock now and
he 's lying in bed reading a book.
We can contrast people's work and holiday lives with the

We can get our students to listen to sounds and tell them to describe what they think
is happening.

PRESENT SIMPLE,
'44. Students can tal k about

We can talk about someone's daily routine to teach and practise the

e.g. She gets up at six o 'clocle. She goes to work by car, etc.
their own lives and routines.

We can also use mime games to practise the present continuous

(Are you playing the

guitar? Are you reading a book?).

Teaching the present perfect

_
To practise the

PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE the students can mime looking happy, exhausted,

sad, amused, etc., and the other tudents have to ask them questions with just, such as

Why are you sad? Have you just said goodbye to your girlfriend? etc.

If we want to introduce the

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS, we can how the students a

series of pictures and they have to say what the people have been doing, for exan1ple

He 's been jogging, she 's been shopping, he's been taking an exam, she 's been giving a speech.

Teaching the future

The students can pretend to go to a fortune tel ler and ask question

rich? Will I get married?

uch as Will I be

Students can speculate about what they are going to do at a time in the future, i n
sentences such as When I leave school l'nz going to travel round the world.

Students can make

ew Year's resolutions, saying what they are going to do and what

12 months (I'm going to give up eating chocolate.

I'm not going to stay up late eve1y evening, etc.).
they are not going to do in the next

Teaching the past simple

We can tel l STORIES with the PAST SIMPLE. For example, we can ask our tuden ts to
describe their week (On Monday

I went to the cinema. On Tuesday I had a coffee with my

brothe1; etc.).

24

BEGINNER students can be given cards '86 with either the BASE FORM of a verb or its
PAST TENSE FORM. They have to find the student with the matching card (e.g. run - ran
or go - went). They then make sentences with the past tense verb.

Teaching verbs (and adverbs)

Teaching the past continuous and the past simple

Many teachers (and students) enjoy playing the game 'A LIBI' to practise the
and the past simple. The class imagines that a crime was committed at

PAST CONTINUOUS
10 pm last night.

Four students go out of the room and agree on a story about what they were doing last
night at this time. The students then come back into the class, one by one, and the other

What were you doing at 10 o 'clock? What were you eating?

what happened then? etc. The student whose story is different from the others (because he
or she can't remember all the details) is the 'criminal'. We look at more GAMES in 49.

students question them by asking

Teaching the past perfect

vVe can give our students a story which uses past simple and past perfect verb forms.
They have to circle the verbs and then say which action happened first.
When Shelley got home she realised that someone (or something) had been in her flat.
She was sure that she had locked the door that morning.
She noticed that someone had left muddy footprints on the carpet, etc.

Teaching used to

We can compare our present lives with the l ives of our grandparents or great
grandparents to teach USED TO.
We send emails, but they used to write letters.
vVe pay for many things by credit card, but they used to pay for everything in cash.

We can talk about our own lives in sentences l i ke

I used to live in London, but now I am

living in Shanghai.

Teaching the passive

\i\Te can use various industrial, scientific and other processes to teach and practise the

PASSIVE. For example, we can talk about how chocolate is made with sentences like
Cocoa beans are harvested. The beans are dried. The beans are shipped to a factmy. The beans
are roasted, etc.
We can discuss historical works of art, inventions, discoveries and conquests i n

sentences like

The !Y1ona Lisa was painted by Leonardo da Vinci, Mexico was invaded by the
Spanish in 1 519, Penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming, etc.

Teaching adverbs
We can play a speaking game in which two students are selected. The class give them

each an occupation (doctor, policeman, shopkeeper, etc.) a location (at the cinema, at a
restazwant, on a bus, etc.) and a topic (perhaps this will be something the students have
been studying recently). The teacher then gives each speaker a piece of paper with an
adverb or adverbial phrase on it (e.g. angrily, quietly, in a worried way, etc.). The two
students then start speaking and the rest of the class have to try to guess which
adverbs they were given.
We can give the students scripts of scenes from plays, short dialogues, etc. They have

to write adverbs and adverbial phrases to describe how the speakers should act.
They then act out the scene or dialogue using those adverbs as a guide.

25

Your English might get better!

Auxiliaries
and modals

This is a transcript of a moment in Ratih's class yesterday:

Cu tar:
Ratih:
Cutar:
Ratih:
Cu tar:
Ratih:
Cutar:
Ratih:
Cu tar:
Ratih:
Cu tar:
Kemala:
Ratih:
Kem a la:
Ratih:

I'm sorry I'm late.

Do you have your homework with you?
No, sorry. I couldn't do it.
Why not?
I was helping my father at the restau rant. I didn't get home till late.
You must have been very tired.
No, I felt fine. I slept for hours. Why?
But you said . . .
Oh, yes. I mean I was very tired. That's why I didn't do my homework. May I sit down?
Oh, all right. But you must try to get here on time, OK?
Yes, teacher. I will. I promise.
Buk Guru, kapan kita ujian? (Teacher, when are we going to have our test? )
You should really try to speak English, you know.
It's difficult.
Yes, but if you use English more often, your English might suddenly start to
improve! You really ought to try it!

Auxiliaries and modal auxiliaries

In the excerpt from Ratih's lesson Cutar and Ratih use the AUXILIARY VERBS 4 be (I'm
sony I'm late, I was very tired) and do (Do you have your homework? I didn't do my
homril.Jork). In a sentence such as Have you done your homework? have is an auxiliary verb.

There are a number of MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS in the transcript above: can (I couldn 't do
it), must (,you must try to get here on time), should (You should really try to speak English)
and might (,your English might suddenly start to improve). We use them to express our

attitude or certainty about what we are saying.

Ought to (,you really ought to try it), need to and used to are often called SEMI-MODAL
AUXILIARY VERBS because although they have two words, they behave like ordinary

modal auxiliaries.

Do and have are special because they can be either auxiliary verbs (see above) or
LEXICAL VERBS 4 as in sentences like I have too much homework! and She did the New
York Marathon.

What modal auxiliaries mean

26

We often use modal auxiliary verbs to talk about certainty, possibility and probability
in sentences such as Your English might start to irnprove and You must have been tired.

We use modal auxiliaries to talk about obligation - about getting things done - in
sentences such as You must get here on time and You should really try to speak English.

Modal verbs can express more than one meaning. For example, can is used for many
different meanings including ability (I can speak Spanish) and permission (You can stay
for 1 5 minutes). We can use might to express probability (You might be right) or to
make a suggestion (You might want to think carefully before you speak!).

Auxiliaries and modals

Modals appear in many common lexical phrases (Can I help you? Will you be long? You
must have been really worried, That can 't have been much fun, etc.).

How modal verbs behave

Modal verbs are a closed class (they don't change) and they don't take the third person
-s

when used in the present (He/She

can play the g;uitm).

Modal verbs are almost always followed by an infinitive verb without

to (You nzust get

here on time).
Modal verbs do not have an infinitive form an d so they have to be replaced by

SEMl-MODALS (You need to be able to (not can) swim) or other verbs (I'm going to have to
(not must) go now) when an infinitive is required.

Modal verbs and modality

VV.hen we use modal verbs we are expressing our attitude to/certainty about what we are
saying. Compare, for example, It is true with It might be true. But we can express modality
in other ways, too. For example, we can use verbs like appear and seem to say that we are
not sure if we are correct (They appear to be running late, He seems to be clever), or tend to
say what we think is generally true (People in the UK tend to eat their biggest meals in the

evening). We can als9 use phrases like It is likely that or It appears that (It is likely that the
President will do badly in the mid-term elections) .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.

Using the students' language - their L1

I n the conversation a bove, Ratih wants her student, Kemala, to use English rather than
I ndonesian (Kemala's mother tongue). Teachers have different views about this. Some t h i n k
y o u s h o u l d never u s e the students' l.-1 in an English class; others think t h a t it i s a good thing
- at the right time and at a ppropriate moments, and depen d i ng on the students' level. We
discuss the use of Ll in ..;:;77_

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.

Teaching ideas: modal verbs

Many teachers i ntroduce modals of obligation and permission by talking about rules and
regulations i n d ifferent countries, e.g. You have to stay at school until you are 76, You don't have

to go to school after you are 16.

Some teachers i nvent stories (or dia logues) about c h i ldren talking to their parents (Must
I tidy my room now?), about people in galleries or l ibraries (I'm sorry sir, but you can't take
pictures in here) or a bout work-regulated regu lations (Protective clothing must be worn at all
times). The situation will depend on the age of the students.

Note: must and have to are simi lar. We often use must when the speaker creates the
obligation (I must take more exercise) or i n official signs (Hard hats must be worn) We use the
more

INFORMAL have to for ord i n a ry regulations ( You have to be careful in this job). Have to is

more common i n American English. We use mustn't to say that something is not allowed

( You mustn't smoke in here), but don't have to and don't need to/needn't mea n that something
is not obl igatory ( You don't have to wear a tie)
We often get students to try to guess what things i n pictures are ( That might/must be a
musical instrument, but I can't be sure) or to speculate about the past ( The pyramids might have
been built by creatures from outer space).
.
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

War!

Multi-word and
phrasal verbs

When Arnulfo walked into his 3 o'clock lesson, it looked as if

war had broken out! The children were running around the
classroom, and one of them, a big boy called Rogelio, was
running after Pancho, the class 'clown'. Music was playing from
a CD player on Marcela's desk. Arnulfo turned it off
immediately. Then he stood in front of the class and told them
all to be quiet. Gradually the noise died down. Arnulfo can do that: he has a natural teacher
' presence' and his students generally look up to him. But not Pancho, the boy Rogelio had
been chasing. Pancho took off, running out of the classroom and into the corridor. What
should Arnulfo do? He couldn't leave the class on their own . But at that moment a student
from the teacher training course that the school organised walked past the door. Arnulfo
asked her to look after the class whi le he set off to find Pancho.

What are multi-word verbs?

There are many

MULTI-WORD VERBS in English (get into a car, get offa train, t:urn on/
a particle - an ADVERB or a PREPOSITION (and

t:urn offthe light). Multi-word verbs h ave

sometimes both) - which is added to a main verb.

PHRASAL VERBS are multi-word verbs which have IDIOMATIC MEANING '21 (the meaning of
the phrasal verb i s not the same as the meaning of the two or three individual words in
it). They are little LEXICAL CHUNKS -+20. Phrasal verbs in the story about Arnulfo's lesson
include break out (war had broken out), look up to (his students look up to him) and look after

(He asked her to look after the class).

'

Four types of phrasal verb

In the story about Arnulfo's lesson there are four categories of phrasal verb. They all
have slightly different grammar.

Break out (= start), take off(= leave in a hurry), die down (= gradually go quiet) and set off
( start a journey) are INTRANSITIVE PHRASAL VERBS. This means that they can stand
=

alone; they don't take an object.

Look after is a TRANSITIVE INSEPARABLE PHRASAL VERB since a) it always takes an object (so it
is transitive), and b) tl1e object has to come a fter the complete phrasal verb (you can't
separate tl1e verb and the preposition). Another example of a transitive inseparable
phrasal verb is

run into (= meet by chance) in sentences like I ran into my friend at the

newsagent's.

Turn off is a TRANSITIVE SEPARABLE PHRASAL VERB because a) it takes an object, and b) you
can put the object either between the verb and tl1e particle (adverb) or after the
particle. For example,

He t:urned the CD player offI He t:urned offthe CD player.

But - and this is a big but - if the object is an object pronoun, it must come between

He t:urned it off, but we can't say He turnedoffit.

turn off is look up (= tried to find) in the sentence He looked the word
up in the dictionary I He looked up the word in the dictiona1')' I He looked it up.

the verb and the particle. We say

Another verb like

28

Multi-word and phrasal verbs

Look up to is a TWO-PARTICLE TRANSITIVE (INSEPARABLE) PHRASAL VERB because a) it takes an

object, but b) the object (him in the story about Arnulfo) must come after both the

particles. With two-particle phrasal verbs the first particle is an adverb and the second
is a preposition. Another example of a phrasal verb like this is run out of
(= to have nothing left) i n sentences like

.. .
.

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

We ran out ofpetrol on the way home.

... . . ..
. . .

. .

. . . . .

Teaching ideas: phrasal verbs

.. .
.

. .

. . . . . . . . .

. .. .... ... .
.

. .

. . . . . . . . . .

..

Some teachers introduce phrasal verbs one by one, just as they do with other lexical items.

Some teachers i ntroduce a collection of phrasal verbs with a) the same verb (e.g. run after
= chase, run into = meet, run off = leave/d isappear, run over = hit someone with a car,
run out of = have not h i ng left) or b) the same particle (e.g. pick up Arabic

= learn without

effort, take up rowing= start to do, look up a word = search for, run up a bill = spend more
and more, etc.).

Some teachers i ntroduce a collection of phrasal verbs in a story or situation ( l i ke, for
exa m p l e, the story about Arnulfo at the begin n i ng of this unit).

Some teachers point out phrasal verbs when they occur in

TEXTS or when they come u p

i n lessons.
There is no best way I Teaching a collection of phrasal verbs may work. If that is so, then
perhaps teaching them by particle might be a good idea. But teac h i ng phrasal verbs in
memorable situations and stories is also good - and it is also useful to get the students to

:Gi).

look for phrasal verbs i n their own reading and bring them to class. We need to encourage

LEARNER AUTONOMY
phrasal verbs for them.

getting our students to think a bout the best way to learn

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.

When war breaks out!

All teachers somet i m es f i nd themselves i n difficult situationsl Classes can someti mes seem
to get out of control. When this happens, we need to behave sensibly! The golden rule is
to attack (deal with) the problem, not the student. However, it is much better, of course, if
such p roblems never occur, and that is why organisation and preparation are so i mportant.
In other words, we need to try to prevent p roblems - but also know how to deal with them
when they do occur 71 .

. .

..

. . . .

. . . .

.. .. ...
.

. . . . .

. . . .

. . . . .

.. .. .. . .
.

. .

. .

. . . .

. . . . . .

.. . .. . . . . . .... . .
.

. .

. .

. . .

. .

. .

. .

29

Substitute lesson

Verb
com plementation

I n the evening, Manuela's new mobile phone rang. It was the

same model of phone as her husband's - the phone that she
remembered giving him for their wedding anniversary. H e
ha d suggested that it wasn't fair that he had a beautiful new
phone and she didn't. So he bought one for her. He was so
thoughtful.
She picked up the phone. It was Oriel, a colleague at her school. He said that he had a
dentist's appointment the next day and he asked her if she would teach his morning
lesson. She d idn't want to do it because she hadn't finished preparing her lessons for next
week. But that didn't stop Oriel! First of all he told her that he hated going to the dentist.
('I know,' she said, 'I don't enjoy having my teeth done either.') And then he said he had
forgotten to arrange cover for his class. He kept on saying things like 'You must help me!'
and so, even though she didn't intend to say yes, she finally agreed to teach his lesson.

Verb + verb
When we use one VERB after another, we have to be careful about the grammar we use.
For example, the MODAL AUXILIARY VERB must (like the other modal verbs -+8) is always
followed by an INFINITIVE without to (You must help me!). vVe can't say Jfmmustre helpme.
There are a number of other examples of verb + verb patterns in the story about
Manuela:

Finish (she hadn 'tfinished preparing . . . ), enjoy (I don 't enjoy having . . . ) and keep on
(he kept on saying . . .) are three of the verbs which are followed by the -ing PARTICI PLE.
vVe have to use the -ing form of the second verb with these three verbs. Other verbs
like this include admit, consider, dislike, imagine, miss and PHRASAL VERBS -+9 such as
carry on, give up and put off

Agree (she final61 ag;reed to teach his lesson) and want (she didn 't want to do it) are usually
followed by to + infinitive. Other verbs like agree and want include appear, attempt,
decide, hope, offer, promise and refuse.

Hate (he hated going to the dentist) and intend (she didn't intend to say . . . ) can be
followed by either the -ing form or to + infinitive without too much change in
meaning (I hate to go to the dentist, She didn 't intend saying yes). Other verbs like hate
include begin, love and start.

Remember (she remembered giving him . . ) can be followed by -ing or by to + infinitive

but the meaning changes. She remembered giving him a phone = she gave him a phone
and she has a memory of doing it, but she remembered to give him a phone = that was
her intention and she didn't forget to do it. Compare I tried to open the window but it
was stuck (I couldn't open it) with I tried opening the window, but the room was still too
hot (I opened it). Notice that although forget is usually followed by to + infinitive
(He hadforgotten to arrange coverfor his class), neverforget (= remember) can also be
followed by -ing (I'll neverforget seeing herfor the first time).

30

Suggest (he had suggested that it wasn 'tfair . . .) is one of many verbs that can be
followed by that + SENTENCE. Other verbs like this include agree (he ag;reed that he
would go) and promise (I promise that I will help you).

Verb comp lementation

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .

Reporting what people say

We can report what other people say by quoting DIRECT SPEECH (e.g. 'I know, ' she said and
'You must help me!' or by using INDIRECT SPEECH (REPORTED SPEECH) .

Oriel's actual words on the phone were 'I have a dentist's appointment tomorrow', 'I have
forgotten to arrange coverfor my class' and 'I hate going to the dentist'. If Manuela's husband
had been in the room, Manuela could have reported the conversation as it happened
like this: He says he has a dentist's appointment tomorrow. He says he hasforgotten to arrange
cover for his class. He says he hates going to the dentist - using says in the PRESENT SIMPLE.

However, because the story is in the past, we have reported Oriel's words in the past,
too, and so we write He said - and then all the other verbs move 'one tense back',
e.g. He said he had a dentist's appointment. He said he hated going to the dentist.
Notice that I (I have a dentist's appointment) becomes he (He said that he had a dentistr
appointment) and tomorrow becomes the next day.

Oriel said Willyou teach my lesson tomorrow? and this is reported later as He asked ifshe
would teach his lesson the next day. otice the subject/verb word-order change Will you
teach becomes . . . ifshe would teach . . .

Ask and tell are followed by object + to + infinitive when we report commands (She told
her students to be quiet. He asked her to wait).

We can also use REPORTING VERBS, such as suggest (He suggested that they meet later) and
promise (He promised to be there on time) .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.

. .
.

. . . . . . . .

. ... . .
. .

. .

. .

. . . . . . .

.
.

Other ways of reporting conversations

In i nformal conversation people often report (direct) speech with be like (He's like '/ have a
dentist's appointment tomorrow'. ) and go, especially in British English

(He goes '/ have a dentist's

appointment tomorrow'). We don't usua lly teach this, but students at h igher levels need to

know about it.

.
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Substitution can be fun

Many teachers enjoy teach i ng
other teachers' classes because
they can use their 'best' lesson
- and students often l i ke having
something different l I f you want
someone to be a

SUBSTITUTE

TEACHER for you,

however, you

should always give them

suggestions (but not orders!)
about what they can do.

31

Drama in Istanbul!

Introducing
adverbs

Yesterday lsfl asked her students to

do some drama. She uses drama with
her students about once every two
or three weeks. She often gives them
short extracts from plays and they
have to decide things about the
scene - who the speakers are, how
they feel. how they say their lines,
etc. Then they prepare their scenes
in pairs and groups.
Her students were working happily
and productively, though some of them were working more slowly than the others. One
of her students called her over in a loud voice. ' Miss,' he said enthusiastically, ' I like doing
drama very much.' Her students often tell her things like that!
Later, when they had practised their scenes, the students stood up in pairs and small
groups and acted them out in front of the rest of the class. It was truly enjoyable.
Late that evening as she sat on the ferry taking her back over the Bosphorus to the other
side of lstanbul." lsil wondered whether she could plan a workshop about drama for an
international teachers' conference that she wants to go to. She has never spoken at a
conference before, but she could possibly practise on her colleagues at school.

What is an adverb?

ADVERBS modify verbs - they say how, when or where a verb happens. In the stmy
about Isil, the one-word adverbs are yesterday, happily, productively , enthusiastically, later,
truly and never.
ADVERBIAL PHRASES (where two or more words act as a phrase and
once eve1y rmo or three weeks, in front of the rest of
the class, back over the Bosphorus and at a conference.

We can also make

behave like one-word adverbs), such as

ADVERBS OF MANNER describe how something is done (Her students were working happily
and productively, called her over in a loud voice).

ADVERBS OF PLACE describe where something is done (acted out their scenes in front of the
class, sat on the ferry).

ADVERBS OF TIME say when something is done (Yesterday !sit asked her students, later,
when they had practised their scenes).

FREQUENCY ADVERBS say how often something is done (She often gives them . . . , she has
never spoken at a conference, she uses dranza with her students once every two or three weeks).

ADVERBS OF CERTAINTY say how sure it is that something is done (she could possibly practice).

ADVERBS OF DEGREE say how much something is done (I like doing drama very nzuch).

Some words, like

detail in

32

-+15.

late, can be both adverbs and adjectives. We look at this in more

I ntroducing adverbs

How to make one-word adverbs

We can make one-word adverbs by addin g

If the adj ective ends in

When the adjective ends in

-ly to ADJECTIVES, (productive - productively).

-y, we change the y to i and add -ly (happy - happily).

-ic, we usually (but not always) add -ally (enthusiastic -+

enthusiastically).

'i\Then adjectives end in

-e, we sometimes (but not always) take off the final -e

(true - truly), but i f the adjective ends in -le we always take off the e and add -y
(possible -+ possibly).
-

Then we want to compare the way people do things, we usually add

more (some of

them were working more slowly than othen).

Where we put adverbs

We can put some adverbs at the beginning of a sentence (Yesterday Isil asked her
students . . . ), in the middle (She often gives them short extracts . . . ) or at the end ( . . . she
could possibly practise . . . at school).
Te don't usually put an adverb between a verb and its object. We say I like

drama very much, not Ilikeverymuchtleingcl!-,;tm.:t .

doing

Adverbs of place and manner usually go at the end of sentences, not in the middle

(Her students were working happily and enthusiastically, she could plan . . . for an

international teachers' conference).

Adverbs of time do not usually go in the middle of sentences.

Frequency adverbs often go in the middle of sentences (She often gives them, she had
never spoken), immediately before the LEXICAL VERB (but after the AUXILIARY VERB) .

We can sometimes put

usually, normally, often, frequently, someti-mes and occasionally at

(Occasionally lsil goes on holiday to Bodrznn), but we don't
usually do this with always, ever, never, rarely or seldom .
the beginning of sentences

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.

. . .

. .
.

.
.

Teaching ideas: adverbs

We often teach frequency adverbs by showing graphs of how often people do things and
then getting the students to make sentences l i ke She often goes to the cinema on Fridays.
We can practise adverbs of manner by showing our students a short playscript. They
have to decide how the speakers should say their lines (angrily, sad ly, happily, etc.) When
students act or take a role in a roleplay, we can secretly give them a n adverb (for exa m p l e

passionately, in a bored manner, enthusiastically) and t h e other students have to guess what
the adverb is.
We look at an exam ple of adverb teaching in

'7.

.
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.

Using drama in the classroom

Drama is a very good way to get students to repeat the same phrases over and over aga i n (in
performance and i n the rehearsal stage). We can also use d rama to train students to speak
and act really well, using good STRESS '26 and

INTONATION '27 so that their English

sounds wonderful. It can be enormously motivating. We look at using drama i n '64.

33

lntrocing
nouns

On her way home from the language institute in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. where she teaches,
Roberta stopped off at the supermarket. The Hunt family were coming over for dinner and
she needed to get some things which she had forgotten to buy earlier. She bought sugar and
some milk, in case any of her guests liked milk with their coffee. She didn't know them well.
and anyway they were English. (They had only just moved out to Rio where Sarah Hunt was
the new academic director at a bilingual school. Roberta had first met Sarah in the changing
room at her gym.) 'Do the English like milk with their coffee?' Roberta asked herself.
When she got home she checked the mail. There was a postcard from her mother and a
letter from her daughter's school. But there was no news about the teachers' conference
which she wanted to go to. She had written to the organisers weeks ago, but so far they
had not sent her a reply. That disappointed her. Perhaps there would be an email later.
A few minutes later, Francisco got in from his weekly game of football and they started to
prepare the meal.
In the end, the dinner went very well. The H unts seemed happy. And the milk? Sarah Hunt
had milk with her coffee, but her husband didn't, and their teenage daughter didn't have
any coffee at all.

Different kinds of noun

In the story about Roberta and Francisco's dinner party, the words Roberta, dinner, things,
sugar, milk, coffee, mail, postcard, letter, conference, rep61, email, meal and daughter are all
NOUNS. But not all of them (or the other nouns in the story) behave in the same way.

Roberta, Francisco, Rio and Sarah are all PROPER NOUNS. They give the name of a place,
a CAPITAL LETTER.

person or thing. Proper nouns start with

Supermarleet, dinner, postcard, school, conference, game and daughter are all COUNTABLE
NOUNS (sometimes called COUNT NOUNS) . This means that we can talk about them in the
SINGULAR (a supe1market, a dinner, a postcard, etc.) but we can also make them PLURAL
- and we can count them (two supermarkets, three dinners, four postcards, etc.). We can
use these nouns with singular or plural verbs.

34

Sugar, milk, coffee and mail are all UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS (sometimes called NON
COUNT NOUNS) . We can't make them plural or talk about 'one' of them. \Ve use

Introducing nouns

uncountable nouns with singular verbs (the milk is cold, coffee tastes lovely). Notice that
although mail is an uncountable noun, email is a countable noun - we can say I got
fifty-six emails today! But we have to be careful about this. Roberta bought some sugar
(uncountable) but after dinner Sarah Hunt had two sugars in her coffee (countable).
This is because when we say two sugars we are talking about things (spoonfuls of sugar,
not the sugary mass). In other words, the same word can sometimes be either
countable or uncountable, depending on the exact meaning that it has.

Family is a COLLECTIVE NOUN. It describes a collection of things. We can say The family
are coming to dinner if we are talking about the individual members of the family or
The family is coming to dinner if we are talking about the family as a unit. (In American
English singular verbs are normally used with collective nouns.)

Supernzarleet, postcard and football are all COMPOUND NOUNS. In other words, two nouns
(e.g. post and card) are joined together to make a new noun (postcard). Sometimes with
compound words, we separate the words (bilingual school, language institute) and
sometimes we use a HYPHEN (changing-room) so that there is no ambiguity - the room
itself is not changing.

News is a PLURAL NOUN, but we always use it with a singular verb (The news is terrible).

The English is an example of an ADJECTIVE which turns into a collective noun when we
put the definite article in front of i t and use it to talk about people or things in general
(the rich, the poor, etc.).

Pronouns
In the story about Roberta and Francisco's dinner party there are a number of PERSONAL
PRONOUNS:

She, they and he are SUBJECT PRONOUNS in phrases like she teaches English, they were
English and they started to prepare the meal. Other subject pronouns are I, you, it and we.

Them and her are OBJECT PRONOUN in phrases like she didn 't know them well and they had
not sent her a reply. Other object pronow1s are me, you, him, it and us.

Her, his and their are POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES because they pre-modify nouns by saying
whose it is/they are. There are no POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS in the story. Mine, yours, hers,
his, its, ours and theirs are possessive pronouns, used in sentences like The idea was
mine. That house is ours.

Herself in Roberta asked herself is a REFLEXIVE PRONOUN. Other reflexive pronouns are
myself, yourself, himself, itselj; ourselves, yourselves and themselves. We generally use

reflexive pronouns in English when we want to emphasise that we did something

ourselves (I cut myself, Didyou write this composition yourself?).

Where and which are RELATIVE PRONOUNS which introduce RELATIVE CLAUSES -+2. Other
relative pronouns are whose, where, that and whom. However, that in That disappointed
her is one of four DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS (this, that, these and those). We use them to
identify which 'thing' we are talking about.

We suggest teaching ideas for nouns in -+17 .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.

The pronoun gender problem

English has no gender-neutral pronoun I We have to say thi ngs l i ke If a teacher doesn't plan

his or her lessons, he or she may hove problems. Some writers use they instead, e.g. If a teacher
doesn't pion their lessons, they may have problems, but that is not a very good solution. A better
way of doing it may be to say If teachers don't pion their lessons, they may hove problems.

35

Steve's big idea

Articles
I 9

When he was at university Steve had an

idea. Actually he had a lot of ideas (that's
what a university is for!), but the idea that
changed his life for ever was the one about
teaching.
The idea came to him when he was listening
to the radio (Steve likes radio programmes).
An i nterviewer was asking the Prime Minister
about his policies for the unemployed. 'We
live at a time,' the Prime Minister said, 'when
people can't just expect to get a job
automatically. Work does not come to people.
People will have to go looking for work.'
Steve wondered where he could look when
he had finished university. Then he
remembered a friend of his. The friend had
done a teacher training course and now he
was a teacher of English in China. Wow,
Steve thought, I've always wanted to see the
Great Wall of China. I've dreamed of seeing
Sugarloaf Mountain in Rio de Janeiro. I've
imagined standing in front of the Kremlin i n
Red Square in Moscow. That's it. I 'm a native
speaker of English. Surely I can get a job like
my friend!

What are articles?

cypes of article, the INDEFINITE

a
(he
was
a
teacher
of
English)
and
the
DEFINITE
ARTICLE
the (he was listening to the
ARTICLE
radio). Some people also talk about a ZERO ARTICLE - which means the times when we don't
need to use an article at all (People will have to go looking for work).

In the story about Steve there are two (or maybe three!)

Using the indefinite article

a before a word which starts with a CONSONANT (a teacher, a native speaker) or a
VOWEL which sounds l i ke a consonant (a university). We use an before a word that starts
with a vowel-like sound (an idea, an interuiewer).
\Ve use

a and an before singular COUNTABLE NOUNS which refer to something in general,

(Steve had an idea . . .) or when we want to talk about 'one
of a kind' (An interviewer was asking . . . I'm a native speaker . . . that's what a university isfor) .

\Ve use

rather than something specific

a or an before certain professions (He was a teacher of English) and before some
QUANTIFIERS 14 (He had a lot of ideas).

\Ve use

36

Articles

Using the definite article

We use

the when we are describing something specific (the idea that changed his life)

or

before a noun that has already been mentioned (so people know which specific noun
we are talking about), e.g.

teacher training course.

We use the when we assume that people will know what 'thing' we are talking about,
e.g. the radio.

We use the when what we are talking about is unique (there is only one of them),
e.g.

Then he remenzbered a friend ofhis. The friend had done a

the Prime Minister.

We use

the to talk about a

group of people who are clearly plural, e.g.

the unenzployed

'12.

the in some proper names (the Great "Wall of China, the Kremlin)
(Sugar LoafiWountain, Red Square).

We use
others

but not i n

No article I zero article

vVe don't generally use

We don't use

a or the when we talk about general

(rather than specific) things:

a or the when we talk about abstract concepts and/or uncountable

Work does not come to people, . . . when he hadfinished universiry.

nouns

in general, e.g.

vVe don't use a or the when we talk about plural nouns in general, e.g. Steve likes radio

programmes.

a or the when we talk about institutions in general,

universiry or about meals, e.g. Steve had lunch at one o 'clocle.

We don't use

e.g.

Steve was at

However, if we then refer to any of these things specifically, we would use the, e.g. The
work I did last week . . the university where Steve did hisfirst degree . . . the radio programme
I listened to last night.
.

e e . e e e 9 . e . e e . e . e e . e . e . e . e e e e e . e e e e e e . . e I e e . e e e I . e e e e . a e I e I I e e e . e I e I
.
.
.
.

Native speaker or non-native speaker?

Some people t h i n k that the best language teachers are

NATIVE SPEAKERS (people who

acq u i red the language as a f i rst or HOME LANGUAGE) But this issue is compl icated for a
n u m ber of reasons: What is a native speaker7 For example, if you have a German mother
and an English father and at home they speak to you i n German and English, but you were
born (and went to Spanish-speak i ng schools) i n Madrid, are you a native speaker of Spanish7
Native speakers of English may not be good models of I nternational English (if the ( regional)
variety of English they speak is not understood by everybody). Some native speakers are
really good language teachers; others are notl
Non-native speakers of the language they teach a re good examples for their students.
They can say (to their students) 'If I learnt English, so can you l ' and they may understand
their students' learning problems better than someone from 'outside' their students'
language. Some are fantastic teachers; some are not!
However, native speakers can be good language models, too, and students may be interested
in how they speak and the cultural information they bring.
Most people now agree that the most i m portant question is not 'native speaker or non
native speaker7'; i nstead the two tests are 'Does the teacher speak English that is good
enough?' and 'Does the teacher know how to teach7'
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37

Surprise!

Quantifiers

Because she was correcting homework and planning lessons,

Brittany went to bed late - and then she overslept!
She had a quick shower but she didn't have any time to put
on her makeup. Luckily, she doesn't wear much anyway, but
she had wanted to put on some lipstick at least. Too bad! She
made herself a coffee and checked the mail. But nobody, it
seemed, had remembered her birthday - except for John and Clare whom she had invited
for dinner later in the day.
At school. none of her colleagues seemed to have remembered that it was her birthday
either and that made her miserable, but at least the children in her second grade class
were in a happy mood. It cheered her up, and so every time one of them did something
good or gave her a correct answer, she gave them a gold star. They loved that. Luckily, she
had enough stars so everyone went home with at least one!
When she got home, Brittany was still tired, so she lay down to have a bit of rest but she
didn't get much sleep because her parents rang her from the UK to wish her a happy
birthday. At least somebody had remembered ! When she finished the call there was no
time left for sleeping. She had to get dinner ready.
A few minutes later the doorbell rang. She opened the door. There were a lot of people
outside. All of them were wearing party hats! A few of them were carrying plates of food.
Most of them were colleagues from her school. but there were many others, too. And then
they started to sing 'Happy Birthday .. .'.

What are quantifiers?

QUANTIFIERS are words which tell people how many things (or how much of a thing) we
are talking about. In the story about Brittany, the quantifiers are a bit, a few, enough, a lot
of, all, any, many, most, no, none and some.

Quantifiers, nouns, sentences and questions

A bit of (a bit ofa rest) is a less FORMAL way of saying a little (I'll havejust a little rest).

We use a few (a few minutes later, a few ofthem were carrying) with COUNTABLE NOUNS.
When we use few (without a) with countable nouns, it has a negative meaning (Few of
tlmn were happy).

We use a lot of (there were a lot ofpeople outside) with both countable and UNCOUNTABLE
NOUNS. Lots of is more informal and is normally used in conversation or speaking-like
writing (I've been to lots ofpmties!).

All is used with countable and uncountable nouns (all of them were wearing) .

Any (she didn 't have any time) is used in NEGATIVE SENTENCES and in QUESTIONS (Did she
have any time?). But we sometimes use it in AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCES such as I'll read any
books (I like them all). In this case, any is stressed.

Quantifiers

Enough (she had enough stars) is used with uncountable and countable nouns.

Every (eve1y time) is used with singular nouns (every day, every week, etc.).

We use many with countable nouns (many others). We often use many in negative
statements and questions, such as Then aren 't many people here. How many people went

to his lecture? In affirmative sentences we often use a lot ofwith quite in sentences l i ke
Quite a lot ofpeople left early.

Nluch (she didn 't get nzuch sleep) is often used in negative sentences. We also use much
in questions, especially with How (How nzuch do you want?).

We use

Some (she had wanted to put on some lipstick) is used vrith cow1table and uncountable
Some people are nicer than others!
It can have a negative meaning, too (I don 't like some people), but usually with
countabl e nouns only. We also use some in OFFERS and REQUESTS such a Would you like
so'fne ten? Could I have some sugar, please?

no (there was no time left) with plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns.

nouns and has a positive meaning in sentences like

Quantifiers plus!
Many of the quantifiers in the story about Brittany are used with

of+ PRONOUN i n

phrases such a s Most of them. were colleagues a n d a few of them were carrying. This i s a
common way of talking about specific things. We can also use a quantifier + of+
prono un/the

+ noun in phrases such as none ofher colleagues.

JV!any and much are often used with so . . . that . . . i n sentences such as Then were so
many people that they didn 'tfit in the house and She ate so rnuch chocolate that she felt sick.

Nobody (paragraph 2) and somebody (at least somebody had renzenzberecl') are not strictly
quantifiers, but we make a number of words with any, every, some and no + body, thing,
place, where (anyboc61, everybody, nobody, something, anything, eve1ywhere, somewhere,
nowhere, etc.). These words occur with si ngular verbs - we say everybody was late

(not evevybed]werelate) .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.

Praise, medals and rewards

Teachers often think a bout how to
give their students 'meda l s' when
they do something wel l . But what
should we give them7 Gold stars
( l i ke Brittany) or PRAISE ( We// done!
Fantastic! You are so clever! etc.)?
Praising students too much - and
for no particular reason - probably
doesn't work. It may even have a
negative effect. But not praising
them isn't the answer. We know that

YOUNG LEARNERS -+91-101 want

and benefit from teacher praise.
O lder students (including ADULT

LEARNERS) want this,

too! We look

at appropriate praise and teacher

FEEDBACK in -+72 .

. .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. .

. . . . . .

. . .

. .

. . . .

..

. . . . . .

. .

. ..

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

..

. . .

39

lntroding
adjectives

The spicier the better

Hiro and Sam are in a restaurant.
Hiro:
Sam:
Hiro:
Sam:
Hiro:
Sam:
Hiro:
Sam:
Hiro:
Sam:
Hiro:
Sam:
Hiro:
Sam:
Hiro:
Sam:
Hiro:
Sam:
Hiro:
Sam:
Hiro:
Sam:
Hiro:

I'm sorry I got here late, Sam.

That's OK. We said we would have a late dinner.
I had to go and see my father in hospital, remember?
Oh yes, I forgot. How is he?
He seemed well and happy. H e was better than yesterday, anyway, more cheerful.
He should make a good recovery.
That's great. You must be happy about that.
When I got there he was sitting up in bed wearing a large, new, red and green silk
jacket that my sister had given him. She likes you, by the way.
Who? Your sister? Me?
Yes, she says you're really good-looking.
She does?
Hey, come on, don't look so uncomfortable.
It's just that, well . . .
Forget I said anything.
Anyway, this is your first time in a real Mexican restaurant - a Japanese-Mexican
restaurant - so what are you going to eat?
I want to trY some of those world-famous jalapeno peppers.
It's not jalapeno, Hiro, it's jalaper'io.
Are you saying my pronunciation is bad?
Hey, don't get mad at me. It's just that I worked in a Mexican restaurant once.
OK, OK.

Here, try one of mine. But be careful. They are very spicy.
I don't care about that. The spicier the better.
Sure?
Yes, of course. Let's see. May I? Wow that is the hottest, spiciest, most delicious
taste I have ever ... water I Water!

What are adjectives?

ADJECTIVES describe NOUNS. The adjectives in the conversation between Hiro and Sam
include better, careful, cheerful, delicious, first, good-looking, g;reat, green, happy, hot, late, mad,
Mexican, new, red, spicy, uncomfortable, well and world-famous.
Some words can be both adjectives and ADVERBS. In the sentence We said we would have a
late dinner, late is an adjective because i t is describing the dinner. But in the phrase I got
here late, it is an adverb because i t is describing the verb (got here). vVhen Hiro describes
his father in the phrase He seemed well and happy, well is an adjective. But in sentences like
She plays the clarinet well, well is an adverb because it is modifying a verb.

Making adjectives
(a late dinne1 a good recove1y, a Mexican restaurant, they
are very spicy) or made up of two words such as good-looking (adjective + PARTICIPLE) and

Adjectives can be single words

40

Introducing adjectives
. .. ... . . . . . .. ..... .... . ..
.

.. .. . .

....

..

world-famous (noun + adjective). Other combinations include adjective/noun +

PREPOSITION (rolled-up sleeves, a cast-ojfjacket) and noun + participle (a life-changi.ng
event). 1\vo-word adjectives are normally j oined by a HYPHEN (-) -+12.

Many adjectives can be changed or made with AFFIXES -+19 such as un (comfortable
uncomfortable), dis (agreeable -> disagreeable), less (clueless) and ful (careful).

You must b e happy about that is an example o f the lcind o f adjective that i s always
followed by a specific preposition (about), whereas mad (= angry) in Don 't get mad at
me! can be followed by at or about (1 was nzad about what he said).

Better, more cheerful a n d spicier are examples of COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES. vVi th short
adj ectives we add -er for the comparative form (nice -> nicer, young -> younger). I f the
adjective ends i n y, we change the y to i (spicy -> spicier, noisy --> noisier). I f the
adjective ends in VOWEL + CONSONANT, we double the last consonant (:11Jet --> wetter,
thin - > thinner).

I f the adjective i s longer, w e usually say more

+ adjective (more cheerful, more expensive),

(clever cleverer, more clever). Some
words have comparative forms that are i rregular (good -> better).
though some words can be said in both ways

->

Hottest, spiciest and most delicious are examples of SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES. \Ve give short
adjectives a superlative form by adding -est (nicest, youngest) and, if necessary, we
change the spelling in the same way as for comparative forms. With longer adj ectives
we add

most. There are also irregular superlative forms like good --> best.

Ho adjectives work
\Vhen we use more than one adjective before a noun, we separate them with commas

(that is the hottest, spiciest, most delicious taste . . . ) .

\Vhen we use more than one adjective after verbs like

be and seem, we usually put and

(He seemed well and happy). vVe use and when two colours are
describing the same thing (a large, new, red and green jacket).

before the last adjective

vVhen we have a sequence of adjectives, we usually put general qualities (such as

big)
red). GENERAL ADJECTIVES
usually appear in the sequence size ( big), physical properties (heavy), age (new, young)
and shape (square). SPECIFIC ADJECTIVES appear i n the sequence colour (red), origin
(Japanese), material (silk) and purpose/use (musical). This means we say a large, new,
red and green silk jacket rather than a9edandgreensitk, new, la1-ge,jat:ket.
before adjectives which describe the specific type (such as

We can use comparative form adjectives i n the p attern

the . . . the better (the spicier the

better), and sometimes we repeat comparative adjectives to emphasise the adjectival
quality (It was getting hotter and hotter).

Superlative adjective forms are often used in phrases such as the most . . . I have ever
seen/tasted, etc. (the most delicious taste I have ever experienced).

We can use adjectives with the

DEFINITE ARTICLE '13 to make general nouns (e.g. the

blind, the rich, etc.).

Do you like being corrected?

H i ro was not very p l eased when Sam corrected h i s pronunciation. Most of us don't
particula rly l i ke it when people tell us we are wrong.
The language classroom is no d ifferent, and yet we frequently have to te l l students when
they make m istakes and help them to CORRECT themselves (or correct them ou rselves).
That is why the way we do it is so important

'73.

41

What comes
after nouns?

Social networks
Going into the small room at the end of the corridor, Roberta
sat down in front of the computer. It was the computer she
had bought when her old one's hard disk had started to go
wrong. Her new computer was a laptop with a lot of extra
features and she needed it for her on line work with her
students. Roberta had started to worry that her students
would be bored unless she used modern technology in her teaching.
She turned on the switch at the back of her computer. She looked at all the email
messages waiting for her answer, but she ignored them. Then she looked at the homework
posted on a special site she had created for her students, but she didn't feel like correcting
it. I nstead she went to her favourite social network site and looked at all the news about
her friends. She sent messages to her favourite people and she had many online
conversations about teaching and other things. She posted some new messages on her
own web page and then watched a film clip on a video site which her friend had told
her about.
By now it was late and she realised that she had spent too much time talking to her
friends online. She was very tired. She would have to do all her work in the morning.

Before and after

In the

PHRASE the small room at the end of the corridor (in sentence 1 of the story about
room with an ADJECTIVE before i t (small) and a phrase after

Roberta) we describe the NOUN

it (at the end of the corridor).

Nouns in the story such as computer, laptop, work, switch, messages,

conversations are also described by phrases or CLAUSES which come
e.g.

homework, site and

after them,

conversations about teaching.

Describing nouns
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES a PREPOSITION + a group
a laptop with a lot of new feat:ures, her online work with
her st:udents, the switch at the back ofher computer, all the news about herfriends,
some new messages on her own web page and a film clip on a video site.

Many of the nouns are described with

of words - in phrases such as

Three of the nouns are described with RELATIVE CLAUSES '2 in the phrases the computer
she had bought, a special site she had createdfor her st:udents, a video site which her
friend had told her about.

Two nouns are described by

waitingfor her answer)

PARTICIPLE PHRASES: a PRESENT PARTICIPLE (the email messages

PAST PARTICIPLE (the homework posted on a special site).

and a

Participles (and gerunds)

Present participles and

GERUNDS are both formed with the BASE FORM of the verb + -ing.

But how do we know which is which?

What comes after nou ns?

\Vhere the

-ing form is part of a verb or behaves like a verb, it is a participle, for

the small room or she is talking to herfriends. But
if the -ing form can be replaced by a NOUN and is being used like a noun - it is a
gerund, for example in phrases such as teaching is a wonderful occupation or listening to
music is one of my favourite things.
example in phrases such as going into

Participles can also be verb-like adjectives (e.g. a

crying baby, a loving husband).

But we

have to be careful ! \Vhen Roberta worries that her students will be bored, she is using
a past participle (bored) as an adjective. Students often mix up the two participles and
say things like I am boring (= that's my character) when they mean to say I am bored (=
that's how I feel) .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.

Technophile or technophobe?

Some teachers use nothing more in class than

BOARD and a book. Others use computers,

INTERACTIVE WH ITEBOARDS (IWBS) or more
mobile technology, such as SMART PHONES,
TABLET COMPUTERS and various forms of
a

e-reader. I n some countries, access to the

INTERNET is free for all

and many c h i l d ren are

taught using computers and on line resources

rather than using books, etc. But in other
countries there are fewer possibilities.
G ood teaching is about how teachers and
students relate to (and interact with) each
other - and about how teachers can hel p
students get and remem ber knowledge.
Technology - from o l d -fashioned boards to
modern i nternet resources - can help, but it's
not what we use that matters, but how we
use it
However, in the modern world, it is i mportant
for teachers to keep up with new developments
in educational technology so that they can
take advantage of new and exciting
possibil ities if they are appropriate.
We look at classroom resources i n

85-87.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.

Teaching ideas: post-modification

Post-modification is about the words that come after the noun . Pre-modification is about
words that come before the noun. We can help students to recognise both of these by
getti ng them to u nderline exa m p l es in any TEXT they come across.
We can have them reorder phrases to make whole sentences, e.g.

a) Looked at the watch I on his wrist I The man I waiting at the station
b) in a pink floral dress I in his hand I The woman I walked towards a man I with a big suitcase
We can give students a sentence a n d get them to underline the nouns. They then have to
add post-modification u s i ng prepositional phrases, relative clauses, participle phrases, etc.
We can put objects a l l over the classroom and get the students to move them around using
no pre-modification (so they can't use colour adjectives, etc.) For example, Put the box with
the flowers on it next to the book about history

43

Elements of the noun phrase

A

Teaching the
noun phrase

NOUN PHRASE can be a) just one NOUN such as love, b) a noun w.ith something in front of

i t - such as an ADJECTIVE - to describe it, such as romantic love, or c) a phrase in which the
noun has, for example, ARTICLES, QUANTIFIERS and adjectives before it and extra description
after it, e.g.

The extraordinarily strong love which he suddenly felt. Noun phrases are based
love).

on the noun at the heart of the phrase (in this case

In this tmi t we look at ideas for teaching some of the elements of the noun phrase, and
activities to help students to make longer noun phrases.

1 Countable and uncountable nouns (1)

Countable
nouns

Uncountable
nouns

banaV1a

m i lk

We can show our

ELEMENTARY students a p icture of a shopping basket. They first h ave to

milk, sugar, bananas, juice, hamburger, etc. with the items in the

match words such as

basket. Next, they listen to an audio in which someone is talking about their shopping .
They have to decide whether they are COUNTABLE NOUNS or UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS -+12 and
put them in the correct place in the chart on the left.
Finally, they use the words to talk about what they like to eat and how i t i s made.

2 Countable and uncountable nouns (2)

We can ask ELEMENTARY students to say what Maggie is going to get at the market.
They have to choose whether to say a (COUNTABLE) or some ( UNCOUNTABLE) . For example,
they can say She's going to buy an

apple or She 's going to buy some flour.

3 Articles
We can ask

INTERMEDIATE students whether they can put a(n) or the in the following
ARTICLES altogether -+13.

sentences - or whether they can leave out

1 _ war never solves anything.

2 _ First vVorld War was one of the worst in history.
3 It was
day like _ any other day, but then the soldiers came, etc.
_

We can use similar gapped sentences with items such as

sentences like

He's the man

RELATIVE PRONOUNS -+12 in

I met.

4 Possessive pronouns
\i\Te can create a lost property office and fill i t with a range of objects. We can then show
elementary students different people. The students have to . guess who has lost what using

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS -+12, saying I think it's hers, I think it's theirs, etc.
5 Prepositions

\i\Te can get our LOWER-INTERMEDIATE students to learn and practise PREPOSITIONS -+16 by
showing them a picture of an adventure trail/obstacle course. They have to match the
following sentences with the activities shown in the picture:
a) Climb _ th e net.

b) Crawl _ the tunnel.

c) Jump _ the wall.

d) Run _ the trees.

e) Slide _ the skyline.

f)

\i\Talk

the wire.

and then complete the sentences with the correct preposition from this list:
along

down off

over

through (x2)

up

The students can then design their own adventure trail.

44

Teaching the noun phrase

. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . .

6 Comparative adjectives

In the following DISCOVERY activity -+46, elementary students see these adjectives and
their comparative forms:
quicker --+ quicker
fast --+ faster
nice --+ nicer
noisy --+ noisier

lovely --+ lovelier

thin -> thinner
big --+ bigger
good --+ better

bad --+ worse

comfortable -> more comfortable
expensive --+ more expensive

We then ask them how we make short adjectives comparative (add er), what happens i f
they end in y (we change it to i ) , what happens when one-syllable adjectives end in
VOWEL + CONSONANT (they double the consonant), and what we do if the adjective is
long (we add more), etc. -+15.

When we want our students to practise COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES, we can ask them to write
down words within a certain category (methods of transport, for example) on separate
pieces of paper. They put the pieces of paper into a hat (or bowl). A student then takes
out two pieces of paper and compares the things that they have selected. If the words
are truck and bicycle, they make a sentence such as Trucks are usually bigger than bicycles.

Making noun phrases

1 Adjective order

We can ask INTERMEDIATE students to think of their favourite object. They have to write
down as many adjectives as they can think of to describe it - including size, colour,
price, where i t comes from, what i t is used for, etc.

The students now have to describe their objects using at least three of their adjectives
before the noun. Can they get the adjective order correct? -+15

2 Pictures to make an information gap

We can show pairs of students two different pictures to create an INFORMATION GAP -+SO.
They have to find differences between the two pictures in order to practise such things
as PREPOSITIONS (A: In my picture the girl is sitting opposite the boy. B: A1y picture is different.
The girl is standing in front of the boy) or clothes vocabulary (A: In my picture she is wearing
trousers. B : In my picture she is wearing a skirt).
3 The never-ending sentence
vVe can give the students a sentence. In pairs or groups, they have to expand i t by using

as many words and phrases as possible. For example, the sentence The man kissed the
lady 's hand might be transformed into The good-looking old Spanish man with grey hair and a
luxurious grey beard gently and ajfection"tttely kissed the beautiful tall lady 's outstretched hand
which she had held up to him . . .
4 Definitions from the dictionary

Student B

We can play a version of the GAME 'Call my bluff'. In teams, the students have to
write three DICTIONARY definitions for a difficult word or phrase -+82. One of the
definitions is true but the other two must be false. Students in Team A read their
definitions. Team B must decide which is the true one.

vVith more advanced students, we can play a 'random definition' game. Without
looking at the dictionary, a student from Team A gives a page number, column
number and word number (e.g. the sixth word). A student from Team B finds the
word and reads out the definition. Can the Team A student identify the word?

45

What words
mean

I rina was fast asleep when the alarm went off. She opened her eyes with difficulty.
Her head was throbbing - she had a headache; but she still had to get ready to teach at
her school. After she had finished breakfast, she put on her coat and headed to the bus
stop. When she got to the staffroom, she found that all the other teachers were having a
meeting about Svatislav Melaschenko, the new head of the school. They were unhappy
about him because {Vladimir said) his new power had gone to his head. H e wouldn't listen
any more. He had become very pig-headed. Should they go and talk to him about it, they
wondered. In the end, Vladimir tossed a coin - heads or tails {heads = we go to see him,
tails = we forget about it) - and it was heads. They decided that they would all go and see
him during the lunch break. Irina didn't want to be part of this so she tried to keep her
head down, but in spite of this she somehow found herself at the head of the little
procession as they marched down the corridor towards M r Melaschenko's office.

What does head mean?

In the text about Irina the word head has many different meanings (we call two words
which have the same spelling and pronunciation, but mean different things, HOMONYMS) .

In her head was throbbing, head refers t o the top part o f a body, the part that is
supported by the neck. In the third sentence of the story (the new head), head means
the principal of a school. In the last sentence (at the head of the little procession), head
m eans at" the front. In all of these cases head is a NOUN 12.
In the second sentence of the story (. . . and headed to the bus stop), head means to go
towards. It is a VERB 4.

Head also appears in various IDIOMATIC phrases 21 (power had gone to his head =
made him feel more important than necessary, heads or tails = what we say when we
toss a coin, trying to keep her head down she didn't want people to notice her).
=

46

What words mean

How head is related to other words

Sometimes head can join with other words

to make new

(headache, head teacher, headword, headband)

COMPOUND words "12.

There are words which have an opposite meaning to

head (e.g. tails in the expression

heads or tails). vVe call words with opposite m eanings ANTONYMS.

In the phrase headed to the bus stop (sentence 2 in the story above) we could use
proceeded instead of headed because proceed is a SYNONYM it means more or less the
same as head. But as with many other synonyms, it doesn't mean exactly the same. And
-

what is a synonym (or an a ntonym) for one meaning of a word may not be a synonym

for a nother. Synonyms (S) and antonyms (A) for rich in the sentence The food was really
rich (S = filling, A light) are not the same as fo r The president wasfantastically rich (S
well-off, A = poor).
=

Irina's principal i s described as pig-headed. This means the same as stubborn or

strong-willed, but it has a more negative CONNOTATION. A connotation is an idea or

feeling that a word suggests, which is more than just its meaning.

An other kind of relationship is between words that are a pan of something. So, for
example, ears, eyes, brows and chins are parts of a head. We call head a SUPERORDINATE and
say that ear is a

HYPONYM of head. Eye, ear, brow and chin are caJled co-HYPONYMS

because they are all at the same level in a hierarchy of meaning - as this diagram shows:

c\t\i.

We also have relationships between words that are a

buses, cars, trains, trucks, etc. are types of vehicle) .

type of something (e.g. bicycles,

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.

Teaching ideas: word meaning

The exam ples of the word head tel l us a lot about how we can

ELICIT and teach voca b u l a ry.

The most i mportant t h i ng to decide is which meaning or meanings of a word to introduce

and what level to do it at. For example,

BEGINNER or ELEMENTARY students need to know

the meaning of head (= the t h i ng on top of your neck), but probably won't need to
recognise or use head of a procession until they are

UPPER-INTERMEDIATE level or a bove. We

decide which words to teach on the basis of FREQUENCY (how com mon a word is), how
useful it is (for students at that particular level), and how appropriate it is for the students:
the word stethoscope, for example, i s a frequent and useful word for beginner students of
English for nursing, but may not be so useful for general English students at beginner leve l .
We shouldn't just teach individual words. Words occur as COLLOCATIONS ( l i ke fast asleep
i n the story about I rina) and in

IDIOMATIC phrases and LEXICAL CHUNKS, such as heads or

tails, keep your head down, I can't make head or tail of it (= I can't understand it at a l l), It's
doing my head in (=

INFORMAL British

Let's put our heads together on this (

Engl ish for 'I am confused and angry about it') and

let's collaborate to find a solution). So we should

teach collocations, p h rases and lexical chunks, too, starting with those that are the most
frequent, useful and appropriate. We d iscuss words which often occu r together in

'20.

It is often helpful to teach words together with other words that they are related to.

We don't usual l y teach empty without teaching full, for exam ple.

47

A problem solved

How words
are formed

Brittany is sitting in a diner having brunch. She calls it

'brunching' {which her British friends think is funny) and she
likes to do it at the weekend after a long week's 'lessoning'
(another of her made-up words which she uses instead of
teaching). So today she slept late, inputted some lesson plans
on her computer, got on her bike and came to the diner.
Her mobile phone rings. She retrieves it from her handbag {Brittany still likes using words
like handbag instead of the American purse) and presses the green button with her long
thumbnail. She lifts the phone to her ear. It is Amelie's mother. Amelie is a child in
Brittany's class.
At first, when Amelie joined her class, Brittany thought the girl was really intelligent, but as
the weeks went by she began to think that she had overestimated her ability. And then,
gradually, she became aware of the girl's unhappiness.
She tried to find out what the problem was but it was impossible to get Amelie to talk to
her - at first. But in the end she d iscovered that Tracy, another girl in the class, was the
ringleader of a gang of girls who had been bullying Amelie. Brittany's head teacher wanted
to exclude Tracy, bt Brittany disagreed. She worked with Tracy, Amelie and the whole class
and now the situation has improved.
That's why Amelie's mother has rung. She wants to say thank you.

Making words from different bits and pieces

WORD is made up of three different elements.
ROOT WORD (similar to the BASE FORM of the VERB -+4) is the ADJECTIVE happy. We can
add the SUFFIX -ness (changing the -y to -i) to make the NOUN (happiness) and we can add
the PREFIX ztn- to give it a negative meaning (unhappiness) . There are various ways in
Brittany notices Arnelie's unhappiness. This

The

which we can man ipulate root words:

AFFIXES are small elements of meaning that we can add to the begi n nings (prefixe ) and
endings (suffixes) of root words. Prefixes i n the story about Brittany and Amelie
include retrieves, overestimated, u nhappiness, impossible, discovered, exclude wd disay;reed.
There are two suffixes in the story, u nhappiness and situation.

We add the -s MORPHEME (as a n affix) to make INFLECTIONS in words like rings, retrieves

and lifts. We add the -ed morpheme to inflect base forms of verbs i n words like jo in ed,
discovered, disay;reed and improved.

We use the term WORD FAMILY to talk about the different words that are created with a
root word - through affixation, etc. When Brittany worried that he had overestimated
Amelie's ability, ability is part of a family that includes able, ably, enable, disable, etc.
can join two words together to make new COMPOUND WORDS, such as weekend,
handbag, ringleader and head teacher. \i\Te discuss COMPOUND NOUNS (and whether they
are separate or have a HYPHEN, etc.) i n -+12.

We

We can mix two words together and create a new

( brea/(fost + lunch) .
=

48

BLEND in words like brunch

How words are formed

We can shorten words and just use one part of them, e.g.

11Zobile phone, bike i nstead

Some people change a word's grammatical class. Brittany talks about brunching and

lessoning

and these may be her own special words - but nouns like

regularly used as verbs in sentences like

input are now

She inputted so11Ze lesson plans on her co11Zputer.

.
.

of telephone or

phone instead

of bic)'cle.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.

American and
British English

Teaching ideas: word formation

We can get our students to complete charts with word fam ilies (xxxxxx means there is no

British English and

form), e.g.

American English a re

Adjective
able

Adverb

Noun

ably

u nable

usually very similar, but

Verb

a b i l ity

enable

inabil ity

d isable

some t h i ngs have d i fferent

names, e.g. cellphone
(American)

d isabi l ity
i n te l l igent

intel l igent l y

u n intelligent

un intell igently

i n tel ligence

mobile phone

( B ritish), purse (America n)

xxxxxx

handbag ( British), candy

(American)

sweet

(British).
We can ask them to change the form of a word and rewrite a sentence to i nclude it, e.g.

Other varieties of English

INTELLIGENT
Sf.ie spoke infell iqenfly abouf mofivafion

She spoke about motivation.

We can get the students to

have their own words, too.

For exa mple, Austra lians
may talk about this arvo

NOTICE what kinds of ending different grammar words have.

(British = this afternoon)

-or exa m p l e the endings -ion, -ence, -ness, etc. are usually nouns; -able, -ic and -y are often

and I rish speakers may

adjectives, -ly often comes at the end of adverbs.

We can get o u r students to make up their own words ( l i ke Brittany) using prefixes and

suffixes and then use them to tell a story.

enjoy good craic (British

English = fun) .

.
.

Bullying
Many children a re bul l ied (or bul ly) at school. It is something that happens But it shouldn't.
I t is harmful for both the bul lied and the bully. Many child ren who bully have been b u l l ied in
their t u rn, and many children who are b u l l ied - face to face or t h rough cyber-bu llying (using
mobile phones and the INTERNET for example) - become extremely unhappy. Both their
schoolwork and their development can suffer.
Teachers and schools need to have a clear pol icy on bu l lying so that children u nderstand that
it is unacceptable, and why. They need to know that if they are being bul lied, they should ta l k
about it to someone.
Children who are being bullied need to know who they can tal k to. They must be sure that
they can say what is going on without suffering any consequences. I f they cannot talk to an
adu lt, they should tel l their friends what is going on.
Teachers should talk to children who b u l ly others and help them u nderstand why it is
wrong -this is a lways better than just punishment (which can seem l i ke just another form
of bu llyi ng).
Teachers should involve the whole class in d iscussions about why b u l lying is wrong anEl-how
to stop it.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. .
.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

Collocation and
lexical phrases

Hassan was in a bad mood. He hadn't slept a wink all night. In fact, he'd been sleeping
badly ever since the director of the school had announced that he was coming to observe
Hassan's lessons. It was amazing how much it made him nervous. He was
absolutely convinced that he could teach, but the problem was that when people watched
him, he sometimes forgot what he was doing.
Oh well. He looked out at the grey sea. The sun had not yet risen above the buildings of
Alexandria behind him. I 'd better get a move on, he thought. He hadn't finished preparing
his lesson.
When he got back to the flat his mother, who is English, was already up. 'Would you like a
cup of coffee?' she said.
' Don't worry. I'll get it myself,' he replied in an aggressive tone of voice, without thinking.
His mother looked as if she would burst into tears, and he was instantly sorry.
'It's because of this observation,' he explained.
'I'm sure you'll be OK,' she told him.
'Yes, it'll be fine,' he replied, but he didn't feel as calm about it as he sounded.

Words alone, words together

Hassan is

absolutely convinced that he

can teach. Of course, we can use the word

convinced

by itself (he was convinced that he could teach), but we often use the COLLOCATION absolutely
convinced when we want to make it sound stronger. Collocations are words which are

frequently used together. There are quite a few examples of collocations in Hassan's story:

50

Hassan was in a bad nzood - mood coilocates with

mood, a foul mood, a black mood).

Hassan had been sleeping badly sleep also collocates witl1 other ADVERBS '11 (sleep
well, sleep soundly/deeply, sleep peacefully, sleep late).

Hassan s mother nearly burst into tears tears also collocates with other VERBS "'4 apart
from burst into, such as break down in tears, be moved to tears, bring tears to
sonzebotly's eyes, be reduced to tears, (his) eyesfilled with tears, tears ran/rolled down
hisface, etc.

otl1er

ADJECTIVES "'15, too (a good

Collocation and lexical phrases

. . .......... . .............................................

Lexical phrases, lexical chunks

Poor Hassan

hadn 't slept a wink all night. Unlike sleep + badly, not sleep a wink is not a
LEXICAL PHRASE - often referred to as a LEXICAL CHUNK. In a lexical phrase,
two or more words join together and together act as if they are one unit of meaning.
Phrasal verbs like run out ofpetrol are lexical phrases, too. There are several lexical
collocation, it is a

phrases in the story about Hassan:

When Hassan thinks I'd better get a

move on, he is using a FIXED LEXICAL PHRASE. You

can't change any of the words in the phrase. People often use thi s phrase when they
need to leave.
When Hassan says I'll get

it myself? he is using a SEMI-FIXED LEXICAL PHRASE. We can

I'll do/make it myself

change the verb in the phrase and say, for example,

Hassan's mother asks

Would you like a cup ofcoffee? The phrase would you like a . . . is a

lexical chunk which acts as a 'stem' to which you can add di fferent words and phrases

(cup ofcoffee, drink, lift, etc.). We can also change the chunk by saying Would you like
some/any . . . ?

Some lexical phrases, such as

it was amazing how much it made him nervous, act as

SENTENCE FRAMES.

Why collocations and chunks matter

If we want to know a word, we need to know what other words go vv'ith it. Teachers
should show students which words 'live with each other', and offer activities like matching
activities

48 and dictionary research 46 to help them to come across them. They

the bed and not organise or tidy the bed!

need to know, for example, that we say make

All languages have lexical chunks, and if we want to speak a language fluently, we need
to be able to use tl1ese chunks as if they were one word. Fluent speakers never pause or
hesitate in the middle of a lexical ch!illk - they don't say I'd (pause) better get (pause)
a move on. They just say the words as one continuous phrase. That is why these chunks
are so important.
Teachers should draw their students' attention to lexical phrases when they occm. They
should help them say phrases like See you later as if they were one word (we look at how
words sound together in 25). The same is true for some grammar-like phrases such as

Have you ever been to . . . ? i n questions like Have you ever been to Egypt?
.

Being observed
Most teachers are nervous when somebody - a d i rector of studies, principal, col league, etc.
- comes to watch them teach. But observation is a great opportunity for people to learn from
each other. You can always see something new when you watch somebody else's lesson;
and you can always learn something about yourself when someone watches you and you
have a good conversation afterwards. It is worth remembering that directors of study and
principals have all been observed i n their time.
It is i m portant for the observer and the teacher to discuss when an observation will take place
- i nstead of the observer just announcing the time - and both teacher and observer should
know why it is happening. I f the teacher is i nvolved i n when and why the observation is-going
to happen, he or she will feel a lot better about i t l
W h e n teachers in a school watch each other ( PEER OBSERVATION

78), t h e observers c a n

tell the other teachers - i n teacher meetings - about t h e exciting a n d i nteresting things they
saw in their colleagues' lessons. That way, good l esson ideas a re passed around the school.
#

51

Metaphor,
idiom, proverb
and cliche

Today Nicole thinks her classroom is full of glittering jewels. Her students are laughing and
playing like a swarm of summer bees or spring lambs playing on a hillside. How unlike her
own schooldays!
Nicole didn't get on well at school and she dropped out on her sixteenth birthday. It nearly
broke her mother's heart, but her father was furious ( 'saw red' is how her sister described
it) and shouted with rage. He was always boiling with rage about something or other. She
couldn't stand it.
Nicole left home. For the next few years she did lots of poorly paid jobs in and around
Toronto, the city where she was born. She had a horrible boyfriend, a real wolf in sheep's
clothing; he seemed to care for her but he didn't really. She was miserable and unhappy.
Her life hit rock bottom.
And then one day Nicole bumped into her fairy godmother, the only teacher from her old
school she had ever liked. And so, to cut a long story short, this teacher, Mavis Saavedra,
took an interest in Nicole. She helped her get back on her feet and persuaded her to go
back to school, and then to teacher training college.
Now Nicole is snowed under with work - preparing lessons, marking, making things, no
.
sleep, being a primary teacher. But, as Mavis always says, every cloud has a silver lining.
And it's true: Nicole is doing a job she loves. 'I'm over the moon! ' she likes to say and
Mavis tells her off for speaking in cliches.

Describing one thing as something else

When we use words to mean exactly (and only) what they mean, our conversation does
not sound very exciting. But when we use m ore 'colourful' language, things are more
interesting

Sometimes we describe something as if it was something else and has the same
qualities as that something else. This is what happens when Iicole thinks of her

children as glitteringjewels. They aren't literally jewels, of course, but i n her mind
Nicole sees them as i f tl1ey were. We call this kind of description a METAPHOR.
52

When we compare one thing with something else and we want to be sure that our
reader/listener understands the comparison, we can say things like Her students are like
a swarm ofsummer bees or pring lambs playing on a hillside. VVe call this kind of a
connection a SIMILE.

Many metaphors end up being

IDIOMS if people use them a lot and they become a

normal part of the language. An idiom is a phrase like drop out of school. vVe know what
all the individual words mean, but unless we know that

drop out ofmeans 'to leave a

school or university before you reach the end of your course', we will not understand

PHRASAL VERBS '9 such as tell off(= Mavis criticises Nicole),

out of (petrol), run up (a large bill), etc. have the same kind of idiomatic meaning.

the whole phrase. Many

rrzm

Some idioms, such as

every cloud has a silver lining (= there is always something good

PROVERBS. These are phrases that a particular

even when the news is bad), become

society uses to give advice or to say things that are generally true.
We call metaphori cal/i diomatic phrases l ike

I'm over the moon CLICHES because we are

bored with them - we think people use them too much.

More about metaphors

i\i1any cultures use

colours to describe feelings. In the text above, Nicole's father saw red
red has a different
meaning. If British people call someone yellow, it means he or she is a coward, but for
and this means h e became ve1y angry, but i n other cultures

people from other cultures the colour refers to spirituality or enlightenment!

Nicole nearly

broke her mother's heart (= made her very unhappy). We can also say
her heart wasn 't really in it (= she wasn't very keen on it) or talk about
a change ofheart (= changing the way we think). Most parts of the body, such as mouth,
e)1e, foot, nose, etc. can be used in metaphorical phrases.
things like

Nicole is s1zowed under (= she has far too much work). \i\Te use many other weather
metaphors, such as storm

out (= to leave very quickly and in anger) or cooking metaphors

boiling with rage about something (= always very angry) .

- Nicole's father was always

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.

Teaching ideas: idiom and metaphor

Many idioms are very 'culture-specific'. Nicole's boyfriend was a wolf in sheep's clothing;
this animal idiom is understood in Brita i n and the U nited States to ind icate someone who
appears harmless but is really dangerous. However, she thinks she's the cat's whiskers ( = she
thinks she is the best) is more com mon in Britai n than in America - but it isn't very common
in Britain. We should not spend too m uch time teachi ng idioms that a re not common - even
though it might be great fun !
S o what can we do?
We can draw our students' attention to idioms a n d metaphors when they occur.
Recognition is more i mportant here than production, and over-using cultura l ly
inappropriate idioms in a foreign language is not a good idea.

We can get our students to

RESEARCH '46 a common a rea of metaphorical

language

(like the body) by looking up words in their dictionaries and listing some metaphorical
phrases. Perhaps they can d raw a metaphor WORD MAP ' 22.
We can make sure that students learn metaphors as

LEXICAL CHUNKS '20.

We can tell our students to b ring 'new' metaphors they find to class.
We can give the students some metaphorical phrases (or p h rasal verbs, etc.) They then
have to use four of them i n a story.

53

How do students remember words?

Meeting and
remembering
words

It is important to teach new words to students and to introduce them in TEXTS and
activities. But how can we help our students to remember new words after they have
learnt them? How can we try to ensure that the words are 'there' (available to them)
when they want them? There are four possible ways:
Arousal and affect: the 'cuddle factor' (A&A)

Students are far more likely to remember words if they have an AFFECTIVE meeting with
them (that is, if their feelings are engaged). A class once told their teacher that they
remembered the new word cuddle because they liked the meaning of the word and how it
sounded. If we can provoke the same kind of 'cuddle factor' with other words, our
students are much more likely to remember them than if they are not emotionally
engaged when they first meet them.
Cognitive engagement: working it out (CE)

Students are far more likely to remember words if they have to do some work with them
- that is, if they have to use their brains to solve puzzles using the words or put them
into categories.
Retrieval and use (R&U)

Students will remember words when we encourage them to go and get them - to dig
them up from wherever in their brains they are hidden. vVhen we encourage them to use
language, especially in COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITIES, they have to retrieve words in this way,
and the more they do so, the more these words will become a permanent part of their
language 'store'.
Repetition of encounter: meeting words again and again (RofE)

If students only meet a new word once or twice, they are unlikely to remember it. They
need to meet it again and again. And it helps if they keep meeting the new word over a
period of time. Just seeing a word three times in one lesson is not enough. Students need
to meet the word repeatedly over ;; period of time - and with gaps in between their
meetings to let things settle.

Examples of word-remembering activities

In the following examples we will say which of the four chatacteristics (above) the
activities encourage.
Poetry spaces (A&A, CE)

We can read and show the students a poem witl1 the same words or phrases blanked out
each time they occur. The students have to try to guess what the words and phrases are.
If the students are engaged and like the activity (and the poem), they will remember the
words. vVe look at more POETRY activities in 63.
Desert island words (A&A, RofE)

At the end of a period of study, the students can look at a list of the words and phrases
they have studied. They can then be asked which five words they would take with them
to a desert island and why. Another idea is to decide which words they will put in the
fridge (they'll keep them for later), the dustbin (they don't need the words) or their suitcase
(because they want to use them now).

Meeting and remembering words

Categorising words (CE)

We can make our students think about words by categorising them. For example, we can
ask them to be word detectives and look through all the words they have studied over the

last few weeks and put them in different categories, such as transport, words which
express emotions, verbs which describe work, etc.
We can ask the students to categorise words with similar meanings in order of how
strong they are. For example, we can ask them to look at a list of words and then place
them on a love-hate dine:
dislike

don't like

enjoy

hate

like

love

egative

Positive

Odd one out (CE, RofE)

vVe can give the students groups of words and ask them to decide which is the odd one
out, for example aeroplane, bicycle, bus, car, train (the answer is bicycle because it uses
human not mechanical power).

A variation is to give the students any one

of the words

and they have to prove that it is the odd one out.

Word map 1 (R&U)

E!.m>

We can put a word map like the one shown in diagram

below on the board. In pairs or

groups, the students have to expand the diagram as far as they can. Diagram

2 shows how

they might start.

vept-iles

Word map 2 (CE)

\Ve can choose a word and get the students to fill in a word map diagram like this:

colloc<>1\-io\\S

Wove>-

For more on

CONNOTATION and FREQUENCY, see '82.

Storytel ling (R&U)

We can give students at any level (except complete BEGINNERS) a list of ten words (or any
other number). They have to use five of them (or another number you choose) in a story.
They prepare the stories i n

GROUPS '67. One member of each group then goes to

another group to tell the story. Then a member from that other group goes to another
group to tell the story. Soon all the stories have been told three, four or even five times.
Each time the storytelling gets a little bit better.

GENERAL ENGLISH in '44-64, for YOUNG

LEARNERS in ,91-101 and for CLIL in '102-110.

There are many more teaching ideas for

55

The Qhonemic
alphabet

.. Although she was feeling tired after her last lesson and she had a bad cough,
English teacher Shengmei didn't go home immediately. She sat in the teachers' room going
through her lessons for tomorrow. Then she called her cousin Xiaobing and suggested that
they have an early dinner. Xiaobing said yes and so they agreed to meet up in a restaurant
four blocks from the famous Lao She Tea house. When Shengmei got to the restaurant, she
couldn't see Xiaobing anywhere, but in the end she found her at a table right at the back.
She rushed over to her and when they had ordered, their meal, she told Xiaobing her
exciting news.

Sounds and spelling

Some students of English find English spelling difficult - and they find it especially
difficult to know how to say words when they see them written. This is not surprising
when we think of the number of different ways that we can pronounce the

ou spelling

- as shown in the story about Shengmei. In although, ou has the same sound as in so.
Ou has the same sound as off in the word cough, whereas in through, ou sounds like true.
In

cousin, ou has the same sound as sun and ou in found sounds like how. Clearly, then,

alphabetic spelling is inadequate when it comes to telling us what words sound like. We
need a different writing system to show all the different sounds and we call this
the

PHONEMIC ALPHABET.

The phonemic alphabet

When we write i n English, we have the

26

letters of the written alphabet to choose from.

But the combination of these letters, and the different spellings we have, give us many
more sounds (or PHONEMES) , as listed in the phonemic chart on the next page. This allows
us to write the word cough as /kof/ in PHONEMIC TRANSCRIPTION.
through is /8ru:/ancl cousin is /'k.Azm/, etc.
56

Although is h:l'C\;m/,

Vowels and diphthongs

Consonants
p

professor

board

written

tense

teacher

dictionary

ce

language

cough

classroom

game

luck

look

phone me

verb

Cl

about

happy

theme

v
(j

together

i:

teach

a:

snident

teachers

::>:

taught

u:

genre

3:

l earner

o:

shi p
house

a fter
boo t
d og (Am)

loch

er

play

ar

buy

tj

research

d3

language

;:n

toy

ClO

go (Br)

motivation

noun

OU

so ng

word

IC>

go (Am)
h e ar

au

I]

eci

sound
pa irwork

learner

nng

UC>

pure

UC>

actual

you

ici

peculiar

Should students learn the phonemic alphabet?

Many teachers t h i n k that phonemic symbols are useful for teaching. Others, however,
d isagree.

Yes

DICTIONARIES (if there

It helps them when they consult

It is really useful when teachers want to point out pronunciation problems - they can

is no audio available).

point to a phonemic symbol and the students will know which sound they are talking about.

It helps students focus on specific 'problem' areas - especially when they have sounds
that are particularly difficult for them.
Teachers can do activitie s, exercises and games using phonemic symbols.

No

It just confuses th e m - it's one more t h i ng they have to learn, and it's one thing too much.

Modern online d ictionaries and many mobile devices have audio so students don't need
phonemic symbols - they can just listen to the audio.

Using phonemic symbols in teaching

In many classrooms there is a

symbols to make words

Students can play

PHONEMIC CHART. Teachers or students can point to the

l:I!m>.

NOUGHTS AND CROSSES (also called TIC-TAC-TOE) where they have to say

correctly a word which includes the sound in each square they have chosen so that
they can draw a straight line of three Os or Xs horizontally, diagonally or vertically.

Some teachers

give their students words written in phonemic script.

They have to try

to work out what the words and phrases are before they hear the phrases on the audio
or the teacher says them. Notice that in the example below, the symbol ' shows the

MAIN STRESS -+26 .

.. Write the following words and phrases using the normal alphabet. Then
listen to the audio to see if you were correct.

a)

/kof/

b) /'celfabet/
c) /'restaront/

d) /ci bced 'kof/

e)

/(j;:i ' ti:tjaz ru:m/

f) /h3: r ek'sartIIJ nj u:z/

We discuss how to demonstrate sounds in

-+24.

57

Diagram

Where sounds
are made

._, Last week Begofia put up a new picture in her Madrid

classroom. It is a diagram of a human head and it shows all the
different parts of the mouth. Begona uses it to explain how to
make different sounds in English - especially when they are
different from the sounds that her students use in their own
language (Spanish). Some students find the diagram useful,
but others still have problems saying difficult sounds.
Nose/nasal cavity
Soft palate (velum)
Alveolar ridge
(The bump behind
your teeth)
Lips
(Top and Bottom)
Teeth
(Top and Bottom)

Making consonants
B egofi.a wants to be able to show how sounds are made when parts of the mouth and lips
come together and air from the lungs has to pass through them and past them. This is
how different consonants are made:

top and bit are BILABIAL PLOSIVE consonants. To make these

BILABIAL) , and then air comes
up from the throat, pushing the lips apart in a little explosion (that's what plosive means).

Ip/ and /b/ in words like

sounds we close both our lips (that's why they are call ed

It/ and /d/ in words like

tin and dog are ALVEOLAR PLOSIVES because the tongue is stuck

to the ALVEOLAR RIDGE until the air pushes them apart.

/ kl and /g/ in words like can 't and dog are VELAR PLOSIVES because tl1e back of the
tongue and tl1e SOFT PALATE (VELUM ) are stuck together tmtil tl1e air pushes tl1em apart.

If/ and /vI in words likeferry and

very are LABIODENTAL FRICATIVES. The top teeth touch

labiodental) and air is forced between them

the bottom lip (that's why they are called

- but there's no explosion; the sound is caused by air friction (that's why they are
called

FRICATIVES) .

Is/ and /z/ in words like

students and teachers are called ALVEOLAR FRICATIVES.

/8/ and /(j/ in words like

maths and this are DENTAL FRICATIVES (the tongue is touching

the top teetl1).

!JI and /3/ in words like sure and pleasure are called

/tJ/ and /d3/ in words like

Ill in words like

PALATO-ALVEOLAR FRICATIVES.

church and judge are called PALATO-ALVEOLAR AFFRICATES.

AFFRICATES start like a plosive and end like a fricative.
Liverpool and language is a LATERAL. The tongue closes the airflow at

the alveolar ridge, but air flows out around the side of the tongue.
58

Where sounds are made

/j/ and /w/ in words like

university and world are called APPROXIMANTS because they are

almost more like vowels than consonants.

J\
'

........_ ____,,...-...,

Vocal cords open (seen from

above) for voiceless sounds.

/ml, In/ and /rj/ in words like must,

not and sing are NASAL CONSONANTS because the air

ALVEOLAR NASAL and /fJ/

comes through the nose. !ml is a bilabial consonant, /n/ is an

is a

VELAR NASAL.

What vocal cords are for

VOCAL CORDS
VOCAL FOLDS) behind the larynx - the Adam's apple. When they are

If you could look down inside someone's throat, you would see the two
(sometime called

relaxed, they are apart - and so air from the lungs can come up the throat and out
through the mouth without us using our voice. That's why sounds like /p/, It/, If!, Is!,
!JI, /8/ ltJ! and /k/ are called

VOICELESS consonants .

However, when we close our vocal cords together, the a i r coming u p from the lungs
pushes them apart and together and apart again in a rapid movement, so that they vibrate
- and we are using our voice. That why we call consonants like /b/, !di, Iv!, lzl, /3 /,
/d 3 /, /{j/ and /g/ VOICED consonants. Note that all vowels are voiced.
Vocal cords closed (seen from
above) for voiced sounds.

Making vowels
When w e make vowels, n o parts of the mouth a n d throat touch each other, though the
shape of the mouth is important. The tongue changes shape in the mouth, the shape of
the lips changes and the lower jaw moves.

When we say

CLOSE VOWELS, the tongue is raised and is near the front of the mouth i n

sounds like Ii:/ sheep (the l ips are stretched) and h i ship (the l i ps are spread loosely);
with /u/

book, the tongue is further back in the mouth and the lips are rounded; with

/u:/food, the tongue is at the back of the mouth and the lips are rounded.
rounded

In

MID VOWELS like /e/ egg, ld/ pho_tograph, 13:1 word and h:/ horse, the tongue is neither

high nor low in the mouth.

stretched

In

OPEN VOWELS like /re/ hat, It..I hut, la:! heart and /o/ hot, the tongue is low.

Making diphthongs
DIPHTHONGS start with one vowel and end with another.

We call Ira/ hear, /e-;;i/ pair-work and /ua/ pure

CENTRING DIPHTHONGS because the end

sound is /a/, which is a centre vowel.

neutral

Lip positions

We call /er/ play, laJ.I buy, hrl

toy, /au/ go and /au/ found CLOSING DIPHTHONGS because

the end vowels /r/ or /u/ are close vowels .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

..

.
.

. . . . .
.
.

Show, explain or listen?

Begona knows that we can show people how some sounds are made, though for others i t

is more difficult. For example, i n sounds like /f/ and /v/ we can demonstrate (or use a
diagram to explain) how the teeth and the lips make contact. We can demonstrate the
position of the l ips ( ROUNDED,

STRETCHED or NEUTRAL) , too. The most i m portant t h i ng is for

the students to be able to hear and d istinguish the sounds so that they can produce them
themselves .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

We look a t teaching sounds i n

'28.
59

Sounds in
com bination

... Steve has got his first teaching job at a school in Dubai. He is talking to his friend,
Sean in a London cafe.
Sean:
Steve:
Sean:
Steve:
Sean:
Steve:
Sean:
Steve:
Sean:
Steve:
Sean:
Steve:
Sean:
Steve:
Sean:
Steve:
Sean:
Steve:

I saw Ana at the concert last night.

Was it a good concert?
Yes. But she doesn't know about Dubai.
You told her?
No, of course not. That's your job.
Yeah. I should have told her.
Yes, you should. You still can. When are you flying to Dubai?
Next week.
Are you looking forward to it?
Yes, I am. I wouldn't have applied for the job otherwise. But I don't know quite
what to expect. I'm a bit nervous.
You are?
Yes. First teaching job. N ew country. New culture.
Where are you going to live?
I 'll probably get an apartment near the school.
Sounds fantastic.
I hope so. Look I have to go.
Call Ana, OK?
All right.

Sounds alone, sounds together

Because we use parts of our mouth to make sounds -+24, things often change when one
sound follows another. For example, if we say the word looking on its own, i t ends with
the sound II]!. This is a

VELAR PLOSIVE and happens at the back of the mouth. But when
it? in the conversation above, II] ! changes to In/ in

Sean says Are you looking forward to

/lukmb:wdd/. This i s because it would b e too much effort for Sean to change from a

consonant at the back of the mouth II]! to one at the front /f/ - a LABIODENTAL FRICATIVE
and so he uses In/ (a consonant nearer the front of the mouth) instead. In connected speech
-

we make a lot of sound changes like that. Here are some of the more important ones.
60

Sounds in combination

We often contract AUXILIARY VERBS in s pe ech . For example, Ste ve doesn't actually say
I should have told he1-. Instead he uses the CONTRACTION I should've told her, in which
/hcev/ becomes /'av/. In the same way, when Sean asks Where are you going to live? h e
doesn't say /wea a: ju: gau1iIJ ta hv/. Instead /wea a:/ becomes /we a ra/ and he ays
/wearaju:gauriIJ tahv /.

We often leave out sotmds like /t/ and /d/ at the end of words when sounds are
teve says /nekswi:k/. We lose the final /d/ i n
p h ra s es like w e stoppedfor a coffee. We call this ELISION .

connected i n p h ras e s like next week.

SCHWA (/a/) often disappears in connected speech in UNSTRESSED SYLLABLES 26.

I'll probably get an apartment.
Sometimes, instead of saying a word l i k e /sekrateri/ (secretmy) people say /sektri/.

Th e

Instead of saying /pmbabli/, S teve says /pmbli/ in

The final sound of looking in the phrase

ASSIMILATION

lookingfonvard to it i s an example of

where a sound changes because we wan t to get ready for the next sound

that is coming. When Steve asks

Was it a good concert? the /d/ at the end of /gud/

apartment /apa:pmant/.

becomes /g/: /a g u gkons a t/ . Also It/ cha n ges to /p/ in

vVhen Sean says

I saw Ana

and

Coll Ana, OK? He pms

in th e

LINKING SOUND /r/ to

make the change from one vowel to another easier, e.g. /s;:i:rc.ena/ and /k;:i:lc.enarauker/.
The same thing ha ppens between where and are in liVhere are you going to live?

When Steve says Yes,

I am, he includes the linking sound /j/ between the vowels /aijc.em/.

When Sean says J'Ou

are? he uses a linking /w/ between the vowels /u: / and /a:/ to say

/ju:wa:/.
When

someone says Wouldyou like /m;:i:rars/? they could be saying more ice or more rice

This is an exam p l e of JUNCTURE. However, we n o rmally understand what i s be ing said

because of the context.

.
.

.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.

Do students have to learn sounds together?

. .
.
.

ft\J:r- we say I'm. We can a l so use finger contractions

hand = I, and the other = am. When we join them

:::>oe s it matter if students don't understand contracted

=

contractions are made. For example, we can say that one

n't use contractions a nd other features of connected

:'.leech? No, of course it doesn't. They will still be understood.

.
.

Teaching ideas: contractions

Many teachers use physical gestures to show how

:::>oes it matter if speakers of English as a second language

................................................. ............

glish and other features of connected speech? Yes, of

Jrse it does.

e most i m portant t h i ng is that students should hear

-2-ural speech where these features occur - and we can

-:a e students aware of what they are hearing.

- may be difficult (and a waste of time) to try to get students

:f English to use assimilation, juncture and el ision as effectively

=:s some

NATIVE SPEAKERS.

What we need to do, therefore, is

: choose what connected speech we can and should teach.

example, we will teach contractions such as I don't know,

s 's not coming, you should've told me. We will focus on

::ssimilations l i ke the way the sound /d/ changes to /t/ for

--,e -ed past tense ending ( walked - /w;:i:kt/) or to /1d/

ited

/weind/), on the elision of past tense endings with

.
.

You shou/d've told her.

You should have told her.
.
..............................................................

; lowi ng sounds (e.g /wotJ ti:vi:/) for /wotJt ti:vi:/ and the
::"'erent sounds for plural endings C/J1ps/. /dogz/. /wotJ1z/).
e can make sure that some features, such as assim ilation

::-id linking, are used in phrases the students are studying

e.g. Yes, I am) because we can then get them to say the

rases correctly.

.
.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

1-C--0-n-t_ro_v_e_r_s_y_!

....,

__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__

Stress

.-, Nicole is talking to her friend Katazyna.

Nicole:
Katazyna:
Nicole:
Katazyna:
Nicole:
Katazyna:
Nicole:
Katazyna:
Nicole:
Katazyna:
Nicole:

Robert gave me a lovely p resent.

Wow. I would never have expected that of Roger.
No, not Roger! Robert gave me a present.
Oh I see. What was it?
It was one of those clickers.
A clicker? What's that?
You are so old-fashioned sometimes! Don't you know anything?
Well, I may be old-fashioned. Archaic even! But I am dependable!
If you say so.
Yes, I do say so! But I still don't understand. What is a clicker?
It's one of those remote-controlled things, so I can change the slides in my
PowerPoint presentation.
Katazyna: Presentation? You're going to present?
Yes. To the teachers. To you! Next Wednesday!
Nicole:
Katazyna: What's it about?
Nicole:
Reading comprehension - about the vocabulary controversy. Shou ld we teach
new vocabulary before students read or after?
Katazyna: Don\ you mean controversy?
Honestly! You're impossible sometimes!
Nicole:

All words have a stressed syllable

SYLLABLE is stressed (we use more breath and the voice is
Robert has two syllables,
and the stress is on the first syllable: RObert. The stress is on the first syllable in PREsent,

In every English word one

louder). In the first line o f Nicole and Katazyna's conversation,

too. When one syllable in a word is stressed it means that the other syllables are
UNSTRESSED. Unstressed syllables often have the SCHWA sound lJ/ in words like
/d11penddbdl/

(dependable) and /;)'baut/ (about).

'
\Vord stress does not always happen in the way we expect, but here are some guidelines:

In two-syllable NOUNS and ADJECTIVES the first syllable is usually stressed in words like
LOVely, PREsent, CLlckers, TEAchers, WEDnesday.

In two-syllable

In

VERBS the stress is on the second syllable i n words like presENT.

COMPOUND NOUNS we usually stress the first word, e .g. POWerPoint, but in
old-FASHioned.

compound adjectives we often stress the second adjective, e.g.

In words ending in -ic we often place the MAIN STRESS on the penultimate syllable (the
one before the end) as in archAic (which means old and no longer used). We usually
stress the penultimate syllable, too, in words ending in -sion and -tion, such as

compreHENsion and presen TAtion

We usually stress the pre-penultimate syllable (three syllables from the end) in words

which end in

-al or -able,

such as

dePENdable (meaning you can always

trust me to do

the right thing). We also, usually, stress the pre-penultimate syllable in words which
end in

62

-ry, -ty, -phy and -gy,

such as

deMOcrary and phoTOgraphy.

 We do not stress

PREFIXES or SUFFIXES -+19 in words like imPOSSible.

People often disagree about where to stress some words, like

controversy (Nicole puts

the stress on the first syllable, Katazyna prefers the second) and television. Different
VARIETIES OF ENGLISH use stress differently, too. For example, British English speakers
usually say adVERtisement, but American English speakers often say advertTISEment.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.

Showing stress
There a re many ways of showing word stress.
I n d ictiona ries

-+82 stress is often shown

like this: /1prezan'te1Jan/ Notice that the m a i n

stress is on the syllable /'te1/, but the word also has a secondary stress on /,pre/

depevido.bte depevido.bte.
We can underline the stressed syllable l i ke this: dedo.bte
We can use squares or circles above the words l i ke th is:
We can use gestures to show stress, too.
We look at teaching stress and

INTONATION i n -+29.

.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

All phrases have a main stressed syllable

Honestly! You 're impossible sometimes! she uses two PHRASES in one
UTTERANCE (Honestly and You 're impossible sometimes). Each phrase has one stressed syllable:
'Honestly! You 're inz'possible sometimes! Notice that the PITCH of the voice changes on the
stressed syllable in a phrase -+ 27. vVe usually stress CONTENT WORDS, which carry
meaning; if students know this, it will help them to LISTEN FOR SPECIFIC INFORMATION -+60.

When Nicole says

vVhen students learn new phrases, they need to learn where the main stress is

-+29.

We can change where and how we place stress in a phrase

vVith most English phrases, the stressed syllable is at the end of the phrase, because that
is where we usually put the most important new information. For example,

Robert gave

me a lovely 'present.
Katazyna doesn't hear correctly. She thinks that Roger (not Robert) gave the present.
VVhen Nicole replies, she puts the main stress in a d ifferent place and says 'Robert gave me
a present because now it is Robert tl1at is the important new information - or at least this
is the information that Nicole wants Katazyna to be clear about. VVhen we move the
main stress to give special emphasis l ike tl1is, we call it

CONTRASTIVE STRESS.

However, i f Katazyna had instead suggested tlrnt Robert's present was not nice, Nicole
might have replied

No, Robert gave me a 'lovely present, because it was tl1e loveliness of the

present that was the new and/or important information that she wanted to give.
VVhen Nicole says

fyou say so, she is not taking her friend's comment (I am dependable,

etc.) very seriously. But Katazyna wants Nicole to agree 1 00 % that she is dependable,
and so she replies

I 'do say so - stressing do because she wishes to be emphatic about it.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.

Giving presentations
Many teachers gai n a lot from presenting their ideas to their co lleagues - and later at
teachers' conferences. It is one of the best ways for us to reflect on what we do and
contributes towards TEACHER DEVELOPMENT -+78. Using

PRESENTATION SOFTWARE such as

PowerPoint, Keynote or Prezi can help to get our ideas across .

.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

63

The end?

Intonation
i

.. Steve has gone to see Ana at the cafe where she works.
Ana:
Steve:
Ana:
Steve:
Ana:
Steve:
Ana:
Steve:
Ana:
Steve:
Ana:
Steve:
Ana:
Steve:
Ana:
Steve:
Ana:
Steve:
Ana:
Steve:
Ana:
Steve:
Ana:

Hello, Steve. What are you doing here?

I called in to see you.
That's really nice of you. Any special reason?
No.
No?
Well . . .
Come on, then! Out with it!
I 've got a job.
At last! That's fantastic! Well done! What is it?
I 've got a teaching job.
You've got a teaching job?
Yes. Don't sound so surprised.
Where is it, this job?
Well, that's just it.
You don't want to tell me, do you ?
No, it's not that. It's just ...
You're going abroad, aren't you ?
Yes. To Dubai.
You're going to Dubai?
Yes.
So that's the end for us, is it?
No. Not necessarily.
Why? What are you suggesting?

What is intonation?
vVhen Ana asks Steve if he has any reason for seeing her, he says

no but he doesn't sound

(no) but when she says it, i t sounds different: like a
question. And when Steve says well, we know from the s und of his voice that he wants to

completely sure. She repeats the word

tell Ana something. Those sounds - the different music tunes that Steve and Ana use are examples of INTONATION.
W'hen Ana says

That's really nice ofyou, the main STRESS is on the syllable nice. But

something else happens when Ana says nice. The PITCH of her voice (that is whether it
is high or low) falls from the higher l evel i t had for That's really . . as if i t was falling
.

off the edge of a cliff. Intonation is all about pitch change like this.

nice) are called TONIC

SYLLABLES. There is one tonic syllable in every spoken phrase.

Syllables which are stressed and have a pitch change (like

\Vhen Ana says

You don 't want to tell me, do you? there are two tonic syllables, tell in the
(you don 't want to tell me) and do in the second (do you?).

first spoken phrase

RISING TONE 71 in
So that's the endfor us, 71 is it?, the FALLING TONE :::,i in questions like What are
you doing :::,J here? and the FALL-RISE TONE 71 :::,J in phrases like not neces71 :::,Jsarily.
The three most common intonation tunes (pitch changes) are the
sentences like

64

Intonation

What do pitch and intonation mean?

When Ana says

That's fantastic! Well done! she sounds really enthusiastic. We know this

because the pitch of her voice is higher than normal. Higher pitch often conveys
emotions such as fear, excitement and enthusiasm.
When Ana says

You don 't want to tell me, do you? the

overall pitch of her voice is lower

than usual and this make her sound fed up or resigned. Lower pitch often indicates
displeasure, resignation or boredom.
Even though Ana's pitch is lower than usual at the start of You don 't want to tell me, do
on do you? This suggests that she i s expecting S teve to

you? she uses a falling tone

You 're going abroad, aren't you? for the

TAG QUESTIONS in --+3 .

agree with her. She uses a falling tone on

same reason. We discuss

We generally use falling tones for statements like I've got a teachingjob and we often
use them for questions which start with QUESTION WORDS such as what, when, how, etc.

in questions like What are you doing here? What is it? Where is it, thisjob? What are you
suggesting? We use falling tones for QUESTION TAGS like do you? and are you? when we
think we know the answer, or when we expect the other person to agree with us.

In conversation, we use a falling tone when we have finished speaking and we are
giving another person a chance

(TURN ) to speak.

We can use rising tones to show that we haven't finished - that there is more
information to come - or when we want the other person to speak. This often
happens when we ask questions which expect the answer yes or

71 reason? We often use a rising tone with question

answer, e.g. So that's the endfor us, 71 is it?

no,

as in Any special

tags when we are not sure of the

We use a fall-rise tone when we are unsure of what we are saying or asking: when we
are surprised or doubtful. This often happens when we are repeating what someone
else has just said, as in questions like No? You've got a 71 teachingjob? 71 Why? and

You 're going to Du71 bai?

..

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.

Showing intonation
We can show i ntonation with arm gestures - a fa l l i ng arm for a fal l i ng tone, a rising arm
for a rising tone and a u-shaped gesture for a fall-rise one.
We can draw i ntonation tunes on the board in a n umber of d ifferent ways. For exam ple:

I .
2. I've 80+- ' l'li\\8 job.
> Yo1/ve Bo+- ' +-i\\8 job?
4 Wl'lev-, t-l'li
5' Yov..' v-e 80l\\8 'b, +- yov..?
Note that in examples 4 and 5 there are two tonic syl la bles.

..

. . . .

Some people even whistle i ntonation tunes! See also '29.

. . .

.... .. .
.

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . ................................ . . ... ...

. .

. .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . ..

65

Distinguishing between sounds

Before we can expect students to say sounds correctly, they need to be able to hear them.

Teaching
sounds

The students' HOME LANGUAGE can sometimes make this difficult 37. Many speakers of
Chinese and Japanese often say /la1s/ when they mean /rais/ because they find it difficult
to distinguish between the sounds /1/ and /r/. Spanish speakers may say /beri/ instead of
/veri/. In the following examples, the students listen first and then say the sounds.

1 Same letter, different sound

... The students hear a list of words which all contain the same letter (in this case

o).

They have to write them in the correct column, depending on their sound.
/-;,:/

/n/

/-;,1/

la/

/au/

/au/

/u:/

WOY-YI

SoY\q

boLf -

leSSOYI

qo

c.ow

pool

compare

conquest

fool

frown

sew

torn

go
town

contrast (noun)

horse

long

no

contrast (verb)
.
.
poison pnson

divorce
saw

do

soldier

enJOY
source

toy

2 Same sound, different letters

m. The students hear a number of words which all have the same sound (in tl1is
case /o/ ) . They have to say what the sound is, underline it in each word and then list the
different spellings which tl1e sound has.
because
watch

bottle

clock

dog

fog

quality

knowledge

sausage _ topple

what

3 Minimal pairs
Ill The students see pairs of words

a) could good
b) cave gave
c) clue

d) lock

e) ankle

(MINIMAL PAIRS), which differ i n only one sound.

log
angle

glue

Listening to the words on their own helps students to focus on the sounds. However,
hearing the words in sentences such as

I could help you or It's very good may be more

helpful since they will be hearing the sounds in a natural context.

We show an example of a minimal pairs exercise in

lll!Ll'> .

4 Same sound rhymes

The students have to draw lines to connect words which have the same vowel sound.

Another way to get students to see/hear rhyme like this is to have them reorder jumbled
lines of POETRY 63 and 1!19 or SONG LYRICS 64.
66

Teaching so nds
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .

5 Odd one out

The students hear a list of words and they have to say which is the odd one out on the basis
of sounds. For example, in the list sun nzoon
it doesn't have the sound

love must one, moon is the odd one out because

IA/.

6 Weak or strong?
The students listen to a number of sentences with the word
whether it sounds like a) /u:/ in food or b)

to. They have to say

la/ in photograph.

1 I want to ask you a question.

2 I didn't want to see this film anyway!
3 How is this film going to end?

I'll do everything I can to help you.

5 You have to open the package first.

6 Do I want to learn to play the tuba? Yes, of course I want to.
Note that

to is usually pronounced /ta/ if it is followed by a consonant, but is

/tu:/ if it is followed by a vowel or if it is on its own.

pronounced

7 Sounds and grammar

VVhen we are teaching grammar, such as PAST TENSE -ed endings (-+4), the PLURAL
PRESENT SIMPLE, we can draw the students' attention
MORPHEMES. The students have to listen and put the verbs

's' or the third person singular of the

to the different sounds of the

in the correct columns. For example:

lzl plays

Is/ walks

get

go

live

march

practise

seem

smg

IIz/ watches

take

wash

write

Every time they learn a new verb, they have to say which column it goes in.

8 Tongue twisters
Some teachers like to give their students tongue twisters: sentences which are difficult to
say quickly.
Even if students and teachers are not very keen on tongue twisters, i t is often a good idea
to invent sentences for our students to say which have a lot of the sounds we want them
to practise.

a)
b)
c)
d)

A proper copper coffee

pot

Pink lorry, yellow lorry

Red leather, yellow leather
Nine nice night nurses nursing nightly

9 Your pronunciation
vVhen the students have a list of words (at the end of a unit, for example), they have to
underline the sow1ds that

they personally find difficult. They then have to find these

words in a dictionary and practise saying them correctly.

Not all students have the same sound 'problems'. We need to encourage each individual
to recognise their own strengths and weaknesses.

Hearing stress and intonation patterns

The main objective when teaching stress and intonation is to develop the students' ability
to hear where the stress falls in words and phrases so that their listening and speaking skills

Teaching stress
and intonation

improve. We want them to understand why speakers use certain

STRESS and INTONATION

patterns - and what they mean. We want them to be able to va1y their own stress and
intonation so that they can express a variety of meanings and emotions when they want to.

1 Word stress: syllables and stressed syllables

llD Students at the INTERMEDIATE l evel hear a list of words. They h ave to write each
one in the following table in the column which has the correct stress pattern .

llVIVIOUV1C.emeV1f

announcement

application

electronic

internet

television

video

calculator

microphone

camcorder

microwave

computer

orgamser

electric

personal

The students then say the words and think of/find other words with the san1e stress pattern.

2 Sentence stress: stress and meaning

11'.nJt; Students at the intermediate or UPPER-INTERMEDIATE l evel hear a sentence said in

four different ways. They have to match the sentences with fonr possible responses that
a listener might have.

1 JOI-IN wrote the music while he was at university.

2 John wrote the MUSIC while h e was at university.
3 John \VROTE the music while h e was at university.

John wrote the music while he was at UNIVERSITY.

a) He Wrote the music? That does surprise me. I thought he wrote the words.
b) How surprising. I thought he did it at school.
c) I am amazed. I thought he just took someone else's melody.
d) I don't believe you; I thought Paul wrote the music!

The students can then say similar sentences. Other students have to show their surprise,
changing the stress appropriately, e.g. A: John wrote the
B : JOHN wrote it? I don 't believe it! I thought Paul did.

music while he was at university.

3 Intonation 1: question, exclamation or answer?

The students hear the following phrases and they have to put a

EXCLAMATION MARK or a QUESTION MARK, depending on what they hear.

a) She won some money

b) She's going to give it to a cats' home

She's going to give all of it to a cats' home

d) She loves cats

e) S he won fifty thousand pounds

FULL STOP, an

4 I ntonation 2: bored, interested or surprised?

m. The students listen to two speakers. They have to say if the second speaker is
bored, interested or surprised.
a) I passed my driving test.
b) I'm feeling really happy.

Did you?
_ Are you?
c) I've bought myself some new shoes. Have you?
d) I'll drive to Boston this evening.
V\Till you?
e) I love driving.
Do you?

5 Stress and intonation 1: nonsense words

mD The students read the following comments. They are in answer to the question
What did you think of the film?
a) I absolutely loved it.
b) I really enjoyed it.
c) Fabulous.

d) Absolutely terrible!
e) It was one of the worst films I've ever seen.

f) It was really wonderful.

g) I h ave never been so bored in all my life.

The students then hear the comments said with nonsense syllables (e.g. do-de-do). They
have to identify which phrase is being said. They can then try the activity for themselves.
6 Stress and intonation 2: tonic syllables and intonation tunes

lliiJI)- The students listen to the following extract from a dialogue. They have to mark
the TONIC SYLLABLES and say whether the speaker uses a FALLING TONE, a RISING TONE or a
FALL-RISE TONE.

A: Have you got anything you want to say?

B: Have you?
A: Listen, John, I ask the questions.
B: Says who?
A: Says me. Now tell me, where were you last night?
B: At home.
A: I'd like the truth.
B : That i s the truth.
We look at more ways of using drama in "64.
7 Stress and intonation 3: reading aloud
READING ALOUD (when students read sentences from a TEXT) has been very popular for
many years, but it is often not very useful since it does not help them to understand a
text, and many of them do it very badly.

If we want our students to read aloud, they should have a chance to prepare what they
are going to read first so that they can decide where the tonic syllables are and where to
pause, etc. We can help them to do this by looking through texts with them and _
discussing how sentences should be read.
A good (and realistic way) of getting students to read aloud is to ask them to underline
their favourite sentence in a text. They can then think about how to read it in the best
way. Then they can say It says here . . . before reading out their favourite sentence Imm> .

(Reading aloud is, of course, a ve1y good way of TESTING a student's pronunciation.)
69

The after-school club

Language
functions

Hiro and Mari are getting a room ready for a test.

\ .....................................

Hiro:

It's really cold in here.

Mari:

Do you think so? I don't. I like a bit of fresh air.

Hiro:

No, it is. I'm freezing.

Mari:

Poor Hiro! Would you like to borrow my sweater?

Hiro:

No, it's OK. Couldn't you close the window instead? just a little bit?

Mari:

Oh all right, anything to make you happy! Hey, you don't have to worry about
finishing here. I'll do it.

Hiro:

No, it's OK. I have a meeting with Mr Sakamura, but it's not for another twenty
minutes. Hey, Mari?

Mari:

Yeah?

Hiro:

I was wondering if you wouldn't mind helping me out this evening.

Mari:

Might do. It depends.

Hiro:

On what?

Mari:

Well, what exactly does 'helping out' mean?

Hiro:

It's just that I have an after-school club and ...

Mari:

Sure I'll help you.

Hiro:

You will?

Mari:

Yes. As far as I'm concerned, after-school clubs are really good for the kids' morale.

Hiro:

Yeah, that's true. So see you at about five?

Mari:

Yeah.

Hiro:

Promise?

Mari:

I promise.

What we say and what we mean

vVhen Mari says I promise, the word and the act are the same. In other words, when we
say we promise something, we are actually performing the act that the word says. If all
language was like that, it would be very easy to understand! But when Hiro says It's really

cold in here, things are not so clear. In one sense he is just commenting on the
temperature. But what he is really doing is suggesting that Mari should close the window
or do something else to make the situation better. The words and the intention do not
match in the same way. We call promising and suggesting LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS.

Language and language functions

In Hiro and Mari's conversation both speakers perform a number of different language
functions, although it is quite difficult to describe them exactly.

70

I'll do it and I'll help you are examples of offering help, whereas Would you like to borrow
my sweater? is an example of offering something to somebody.

It's really cold in here is an example of suggesting a course of action, but so is Couldn't
you close the window instead? (although we might also describe this as requesting
somebody to do something). However, the main difference is that Couldn't you close the
window instead? is more D I RECT than It's really cold in here.

\i\Then Hiro says

I was wondering ifyou wouldn't 'flZind helping 'flZe out this evening,

he is

requesting someone to do something (we could also describe this as asking for help).
However, his request is quite

TE NTATIVE,

rather than direct (in other words, he sounds

unsure). Perhaps this is because he is worried that Mari might say no.

"What exactly does 'helping out' 'flZean? and

as I'm concerned, after-school clubs are really
good for the kids' morale. Hiro is agreeing with an opinion when he says Yeah, that's true,
but Mari disagrees with Hiro when she says Do you think so? I don't.

Mari is asking for clarification when she says

she gives an opinion when she says As far

Teaching language functions

Students of a foreign language need to be able to do things like offer help, give their
opinions, suggest courses of action or disagree.

Many functional language exponents are examples of either fixed or semi-fixed

PHRASES.

LE XICAL

Students can learn and practise them so that they can produce the phrases

without hesitation (and without pauses in between the words). This will make them
(sow1d) much more :fluent.

The same function, such as requesting, can be expressed by a wide range of different
LANGUAGE EXPONE NTS (the actual phrases that are used). Hiro can say Could you close the
window? Close the window, please. Would you 'flZind closing the window? I would be grateful if
you would close the window or just The window! In order to make ourselves clear, we
-

use a variety of I NTONATION 'tw1es' - and perhaps

GESTURES.

The difference between language exponents is often a difference between directness

(Close the window!) and tentativeness (Could you possibly, perhaps close the window?). It can
FORMALITY (Could you possibly close the window, please?), I N FORMALITY
(Close the window, yeah?) or the use of a more neutral exponent (Could you close the
window?). \i\Then we teach functions we need to be sure that our students understand
differences of RE G ISTE R -+33.
also be between

\iVe need to be careful when we choose which language exponents to teach. We will

base our choice partly on the students' level, and partly on what functions the students
want or need to be able to use .

........................................................ .......................................
.
.
.
.

Teaching ideas: functional dialogues

We often use functional dialogues to teach typical language exchanges, as in the following
example for elementary students l!l!JD :

Would you like

a drink?

Yes, please.
Coffie or tea?
Coffie, please.
Would you like

milk?

Yes, please?
Sugar?
Yes, please.
Here you are.
Thanks.
You're welcome.
The students can then substitute different items and language for the phrases in italics.
SU BSTITUTION D I ALOGUES

like this have been used in language teaching for a long time.

Notice that some phrases like

Thanks and You're welcome are the kind of LEXICAL CHUNKS that

all students need to learn.

.
.
............................................................... ..................................

71

Looking forward to the conference

Written and
spoken English

Shengmei is chatting on Skype with her friend Nicole Harrison

in Canada.

L_
j
t

Nicole Harrison

f:le eec:_eeey! he_r:i_gm how AE you?

_
_ _

__

Wang Shengmei

I'm great.
Nicole H arrison

Cool.

---

----------

"

-----

Wang Shengrnei

I'm really happy.

Nicole Harrison

'!!_tyj_7

__

____ __- -

Wang Shengmei

My paper got _<J-Ccepted for the teachers' conference in the UK.

Nicole H arrison

Wow! Wow! Fantastic!!! That means we're both doing talks! Hey!!!
We'll finally get to meet f2f.
_
Wang Shengmei

Yes. And I'm looking 4ward to meeting 2 teachers called Manuela and Ratih, and
ing in the Uf< for the first time. Manuela's from Argentina & Ratih's from Indonesia.
_
------

1
1-

Nicole H arrison

Cool.

pq

Wang Shengrnei

Yeah, met them on Twitter.

Nicole Harrison

--------9--!:_Y'!':1__ru_ ariving_?
Wang Shengmei

24th eve u?
Nicole Harrison

-:_)

..

I'm arriving on the 24th, too. Can't wait. Big hug

------ --- -

Wang Shengmei
1

24 g

Speaking or writing?

The communication between Shengmei and Nicole is, in many ways, a written text
because both of them are using their computer keyboards to write messages. But it is also
like a spoken conversation, in some ways, because they use conventions such as one-word
sentences or short exclamations like

Can't wait and COLLOQUIAL expressions like Big hug.

Sometimes it is easy to identify text as spoken (e.g. in a face-to-face conversation) or

written

(in a novel or a newspaper), but at other times it may be easier to talk about

text as being either

SPEAKING-L I KE or WRITING-LIKE. VVhen Nicole writes Heeeeeeeeeey!

Shengmei, how ARE you? it 'sounds' very like speech. VVhen Shengmei types My paper
got accepted for the teachers' conference in the UK, it looks very much like written prose.

The conversation between Shengmei and Nicole also includes a number of ABBREVIATIONS
such as when ru arriving(= are you),f2f (=face to face), and looking 4ward to (forward).
Shengmei and Nicole also use EMOTICONS (smiling faces, etc.) to express their feelings
quickly and efficiently. These are all typical of I N FOR MAL digital writing.

Written and spoken English

Differences between speaking and writing

When we write, we normall y use complete sentences such as

very bad.

We use appropriate

PUNCTUATION

The weather forecast is

and we expect grammar, spelling and

vocabulary to be more correct than in speaking.

In speech, we can say things like Forecast's bad - using

foncast's )

and missing out words that we don't need

CONT RACT IO NS

(ELLIPSIS) .

(forecast is-+

When we speak informally, we don't have to be so careful with grammar. For example,
many speakers say things like
should/would write

There's two people at the door in speech even though they

There are t"iVO people at the door.

When we write, we need to be coherent and we use a number of linguistic devices to

make sure that our writing hangs together in a logical and easily understandable way.
We discuss

COHERENCE

and

COHESION

in

34.

\iVhen we speak, we use spoken 'tricks' to keep the conversation going <md to organise
what we are saying. For example, we

STRESS

26 the syllables which conta.in the

most important information, repeat what other people say to us m1d use a variety of
INTONATION 27 patterns so that people can understand the l ogic of what we are
saying. We use words and phrases like

enn, you know and well as spoken punctuation.

Vilhen we write, we can use punctuation such as question marks(?) and exclamation
marks(!) to show emotion and grammatical function in sentences like Why? and That

means we're both doing talks! In informal writing, some people use a lot of exclamation
marks(Fantastic!!!) something which we don't do in more FORMAL writing(see REGISTER
33). We can also use devices such as capital letters(How ARE you?) or repeated
words - such as Wow! Wow! to show emotion in informal writing.
-

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.

Punctuation
We use a F UL L STOP ( . ) when we finish an idea, as in sentences like
We use a QUESTION MARK

We'// finally get to meet f2f

(7) to show that we are asking a question, such as Why?

(!) to show surprise. humour and other emotions, e.g. Wow!

We use an EXCLAMATION MARK

We use COMMAS (,) to separate clauses and as breathing spaces between ideas in
sentences like And

I'm looking 4ward to meeting a couple of teachers called Manuela and

Ratih, and being in the UK for the first time.

We use COLONS ( : ) when we list things in sentences like There are many punctuation
symbols: full stops, commas, exclamation marks, etc.

S EMICOLONS

show pauses that are bigger than those shown by commas, smaller than

those shown by full stops. We use them to join clauses in sentences like

I like being a

teacher; life is never boring.

We use CAPITAL LETTERS for the beginnings of sentences

(That means we're both doing

talks), for the pronoun I, for proper names (Nicole) and for certain important roles/jobs
(the President of the USA).

We use HYPHENS in multi-word adjectives and phrases such as good-looking and

out-of-work actor. But it is sometimes difficult to find rules for when to use them. It is often
best to consult a DICTIONARY.

We use APOSTROPHES to show contractions in sentences like

I'm really happy and to show

possession, as in teachers' conference.

We use BRACK ETS (or DASH ES ) when we want to insert an extra idea (or comment) into a

sentence.

We use INVERTED COMMAS to show direct speech in sentences like 'I'm coming to the UK
teachers' conference,' she said. Notice that the comma (or question mark, exclamation
mark, etc.) comes before we close the inverted commas.

73

0 NEW

( [email protected]
( [email protected]

[ro:
[From:

Genre

=121

MESSAGE

Dear Shengmei Wang,

Thank you for registering for our annual conference. Your registration
form will be processed as soon as possible. If you haven't included
payment details, we advise you to pay before arriving at the conference
to avoid delays. Your registration number is:
KLG217
(Please quote the above registration number on all communications.)
Your conference registration will not be completed until full payment is
received.
-

-- --- - - -

--

- ---

- --

Manuela
Got my talk accepted 4 conference, cu all
there Yaay!
12 hours ago "'('):{ Favorite t.. Undo Retweet +-"I Reply

@-nie

leaves aye .t:'all inq

like winfey love elf ifs end
Iwo baYe fwiqs Yemain

d'd not go on like

normal way,but it i
he day started in the

that.

t to
of coffee, and wen
made herself a cup
.
Gr ace got up,
h
saw
1
im,
'
she
. A nd that s when
mai
er
h
ect
coll
the door to
nt door He was not
sted gla of her fro
blu rred through the fro
r
familiar
ere "' as someth ng
d there.
stoo
just
He
.
n
movi g
u ht
_.
..
_......_
...-
...
,.,...
..,, ....
. ,,,.-.
....
..
.. -...
about him,she tho g . ,.,,.....

__

____"-1

What is genre?
The five written texts above are examples of five different types (GENRES) of writing.

The writer of extract 1 has used well-formed grammatical sentences such as Thank you
for registering for ... and PASSIVE constructions such as Your registration form will be
processed . .. and Your conference registration will not be completed until full payment is
received. The text gives Shengmei a registration number and then offers the
instruction Please quote the above registration number on all communications. Lastly, there
is no personal signature. All this clearly tells us that this is an official communication,
perhaps produced automatically.

74

Genre

Extract

2 is the TWEET that Manuela published on TWITTER, a social-networking

program. We recognise that this is a kind of digital informal writing because she uses
SPEAKING-LIKE 31 features such as ELLIPSIS and ABBREVIATIONS such as CU and 4.

Extract

3 is a billboard advertisement that Brittany saw on her way to work the other

day. She lmew it was an advertisement because a) it was on a billboard and b) it is

written in a typical advertising style.

Extract 4 is a poem that Hiro wrote(he has recently started writing poetry in

English). We lmow it is a poem because the lines are uneven and because it uses

imagery in a poetic way. Many people will also recognise that it is an English-language
version of a HAIKU(a Japanese poetry form which has three lines of five, seven and five
syllables, and which usually refers to seasons and emotions).

Extract 5 is the start of a novel called Glass

Doors. We lmow that it is

a literary story

because of the first sentence, which is clearly a dramatic introduction and because of
tl1e way sentences start witl1 CONJUNCTIONS (and) or are very short, to create effect(He

was

not moving). Novelists often write like this.

How do we know about genre?

Imagine that you had never seen a billboard before. How would you know that the

London advertisement(extract 3) was actually an advertisement? But you have seen a

billboard before and so you do lmow what it is. We recognise different writing genres

because we have seen them before and because we are accustomed to seeing them.
However, if you have never seen

Yl.l)itter before, Manuela's message(extract 2) may be

difficult to identify.

When we write, we obey the rules or conventions of the genre we are writing in so
that everyone else in our DISCOURSE COMMUNITY(people who share the language
customs of a social group) will recognise what we are doing. This will help our writing
to be more successful.

Sometimes we have opportunities.for creativity(there are many different kinds - or

SUB-GENRES

of advertisements, for example, and so we have quite a lot of freedom to

write what we like). But sometimes the rnles of a particular genre are much stricter, as
with haiku, a sub-genre of poetry. If we don't write three lines with the correct
number of syllables in each, our poem will not be a real haiku.

Sometimes writers - especially poets and novelists - disobey genre conventions on

purpose in order to create an exciting effect.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.

Teaching ideas: genre

Students can't be expected to write or speak successfully i n a genre unless they have seen
examples of it beforehand. If we want them to write a speech, a business letter or a report,
they need to have seen a speech, a letter or a report already so that they know what the
conventions are. If we want them to write newspaper headlines, they should see examples
such as

First snowfall blocks roads or Hamilton takes poll position in Monaco race.

When students see examples of a genre, we should ask them to analyse how they are
constructed: how many syllables per line for the haiku, what verb tense is very common i n
news headlines (the present simple), where the address goes i n a letter, etc.
We want our students to read and analyse examples of a certain genre, but that doesn't
mean that they have to copy them exactly. If we only show them one example of a genre
(e.g. an advertisement), they will write one that is more or less the same. If we show them
more examples of genres and sub-genres (different types of advertisement), they can select
the kind of language and layout that they like best.

75


A new life

Register

@ Part of the novel that Steve was reading on the plane

G)

Emilio had made what for him was the long journey to

Part of the flight announcement on

Steve's plane

Tesquiliapan, leaving his nets bunched on the shore and his

wooden-hulled boat to scorch in the glaring sun, to tell the old
revolutionary's wife, and all her people, of the death of a mutual

Ladies and gentlemen, I would ask that you

relative, a woman who had lived an astounding number of years,

please direct your attention to the flight

being famous all along the coast, and beyond, for her magical

attendants as we review the emergency

medicinal remedies which cured every manner of ill from

procedures for this flight. There are six

heartache to problematic pregnancy, from disappointment to

emergency exits on this aircraft. Take a

indigestion.

minute to locate the exit closest to you.

Note that the nearest exit may be behind

@ Steve's quick email to his friend Ana

you. Should the cabin experience a sudden

loss in pressure, oxygen masks will drop

down from the panel above your seat ...

I G NEW

'

@ Steve walks out of the customs hall

A:

Steve? Steve Olsen?

B:

Hi.

A:

I'm Caroline Green. Welcome to Dubai.

B:

Nice to meet you.

A:

Good flight?

B:

Yeah. They had some great movies.

A:

That's good. Anyway, let's get going.

The car's over there.

B:

Yeah. Er, I was wondering if I could just

use the bathroom.

A:

76

Sure. I'll wait for you here.

MESSAGE

[ro:
[From:

t
t

( [email protected]
{ [email protected]

Hey Ana
Come and visit. Soon.

Steve x
I

Sent from my iPhone

Steve s first tweet from Dubai

r

Steve
Dubai. New life. Gr8 2b
here. l think!
09Apr 19:20

-=@

It was a rubbish flight. Miss you already.

"

,.

Register
......
. .........

What is register?
When Steve writes

Gr8 2b here (It's great to be here) he uses ABBREVIATIONS because he

doesn't want to use too many characters (letters) and because that is the style that some
people use on TWITTER (a social networking site) "'32. However, when Steve says I was
wondering ifI could just use the bathroom he uses a PAST TENSE with present meaning and the
modal could because he is feeling TENTATIVE and thinks he needs to sotmd more FORMAL.
In both cases he has chosen the type of language to use. We call this kind of language
choice REGISTER.

When Steve arrives at the airport, he is met by Caroline, his new boss. They use a
mixture of fairly NEUTRAL language

(Welwme to Dubai/Nice to meet you), INFORMAL

(Good flight?!Yeah. They had some great nzovies), and formal language (I was
wondering ifI couldjust use the bathroom), but they are always POLITE to each other.
language

Politeness is different from formality; in other words, we can be polite whether or not
our language is formal.

When Steve says I

was wondering if I couldjust use the bathroom, he is tentative because

The car's over there and he doesn't want to upset her by

his new boss has just said

making her wait. We choose our words based on the PARTICIPANTS in a conversation
and the relationship we have with them.

Steve writes

It was a rubbish flight. Miss you already in a very informal and friendly

TONE. He uses an informal adjective (rubbish) and ELLIPSIS (Miss you already). He can
write like this because he and Ana are close friends and because of the MODE (type of
communication) he is using (an email).

The chief flight attendant uses more formal language when he says I would ask that you
please direct your attention to the flight attendants as we review the emergency proceduresfor
this flight. This is because of a) the TOPIC he is talking about, and b) the mode (an
official announcement - a MONOLOGUE) .

The sentence from the novel that Steve reads on the plane is extremely long, uses a
number of subordinate clauses, very LOW-FREQUENCY vocabulary

in the glaring sun ... medicinal renzidies).

(nets bunched ... scorch

It is typical of a kind of LITERARY prose.

Register, therefore, is a combination of the kind of activity and topic we are writing and
talking about (sometimes called FIELD) , the

tone we wish to use (based on the participants

mode of the communication (for example

and their relationship to each other) and the

email, formal oral announcement, literary novel or tweet).

.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
What do

think? R txt msgs gr8 or not?

When young people started sending TEXT MESSAGES in the 1990s, many people were very
worried. T hey said that the language would be damaged and that nobody would write well
anymore. In fact, this has not happened. Text messaging was (and is) just a different
language register.
However, there

would be something to worry about if students started to use abbreviations

liker (for are) and gr8 (for great) in more formal writing because it would not be appropriate.
We need to be sure that they recognise this, and one way of doing it is to draw their
attention to the register of the texts they read and hear.
When students write themselves, they should consider field, tone and mode so that they
can use

APPROPRIATE LANGUAGE: language that is right for the situation.

If they are writing a

formal essay, they need to use formal language rather than the kind of colloquial language
and abbreviations that are found on social networking sites. But if they are communicating
informally, they will want to be able to use some of these written devices in order to be
appropriate.

77

Ratih's conference biog

About

Cohesion and
coherence

My first day!

........................................

by

RATIH on NOVEMBER

LEAVE A COMMENT

This is my first blog from the teachers' conference in the UK. The
organisers gave me the 'first-time' speaker scholarship. They really
liked the topic of my talk! It is all about what should be in a
pre-service teacher-training course.
I arrived from Jakarta in the afternoon. Then I went to the opening
ceremony and party. I met some really interesting people including
Hassan (from Egypt), Arnulfo (from Mexico), Isil (Turkey) and Begoii.a
(Spain). She used to live in Jakarta so we had a lot to talk about!
Today I went to four presentations. The first was by a Chinese
woman called Shengmei. She organised a fantastic workshop about
the problems that Chinese speakers have when they are learning
English. After that I went to a talk by a Canadian teacher called
Nicole about teaching writing. She described her class and the kinds
of lesson she teaches so that they learn about coherence and
cohesion in writing.
In her session, Roberta, a secondary school teacher from Brazil,
showed us how to teach using Twitter. Her students formed a 'Twibe'
and wrote collaborative stories together. It was great fun. On the
other hand, I couldn't imagine doing it with my young learners.
They would be too scared!
The last one I went to was by someone called Manuela from
Argentina. Her session was all about using Skype for private lessons.
I have never had private students but it sounds very challenging.
So that's my first day! All in all it's been great! But tomorrow it's my
turn! I'm really nervous.

What is cohesion?
COHESION is the use of certain stylistic devices to guide readers and show how the
different parts of a TEXT relate to one another. These devices are the 'glue' that helps us
to connect different sentences and phrases to each other.

Ratih uses the words teacher, teach or

repetition gives it LEXICAL COHESION.

Ratih glues her blog together by using SEMANTIC FIELDS (groups of words that have
related meanings - another form of lexical cohesion). She writes about presentations,

teaching

quite a few times in her blog. This

workshop, talk and session. She also mentions learning, teaching, class, lesson, students,
learners, private lessons, etc.

Most of Ratih's blog is written in the PAST TENSE. Consistent tense usage helps to make
a text cohesive.

When Ratih says They really liked the topic of my talk, 'they' refers back to the
organisers. We call this PRONOUN reference 'ANAPHORIC' (see also She organised

fantastic workshop
78

. .

. which refers back to Shengmei and

it sounds really challenging

Cohesion and coherence

where she is referring back to using Skype for private lessons). vVe also use CATAPHORIC
REFERENCE to refer forward (for example Here she comes, the next speaker) and EXOPHORIC

REFERENCE to refer to things outside the text (for example, This is myfirst blog, where

this= this thing that you are reading).

She uses a number of TIME ADVERBIALS

-+11 (then, today, after that, tomorrow) to

structure her narrative.

Ratih uses ELLIPSIS like

The first (instead of the first presentation) to refer back to

(I went to four presentations).

something she has already mentioned

She joins ideas together by using LINKERS such as then (Then I went to the opening
ceremony), so (She used to live in Jakarta so we had a lot to talk about), after that (After
that, I went to a talk), on the other hand (it was great fun. On the other hand, I couldn't
imagine doing it) and all in all (All in all, it's been great). Linkers show the sense
relationships between different elements.

W hen Ratih writes The last one I went to . . . she is substituting one for the word
presentations. We use substitution with words like one, kind, etc.

What is coherence?
Even if we use COHESIVE DEVICES, it doesn't mean that people will automatically
understand what we say or write. We need to be able to put our ideas together in such a
way that people understand us - and understand our purpose for writing or speaking.

If atih had written

She organised a fantastic workshop about the problems that Chinese

speakers have when they are learning English. The first was by a Chinese woman called
Shengmei. Today I went to four presentations, we wouldn't understand what she meant
because the ideas are in the wrong order. Sequencing our ideas appropriately - so that
they have internal logic - makes our texts (written and spoken) COHERENT.

For a text to be coherent, we need to be able to understand the writer or the

speaker's purpose.

Ratih assumes that her AUDIENCE will know more or less what she is talking about.
But if she gave this text to a group of cement engineers, it might not be coherent
because there would be too much there that they did not understand. We need to
consider our audience if we want people to understand what we write and say.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.

Teaching ideas: cohesion and coherence

Students need to understand how cohesion works. They need to think about how to present
their ideas coherently. Most of all they need to consider the audience they are writing for since this will affect what they write and what

REGISTER they use -+33.

We will draw our students' attention to cohesive devices so that they can use them. We
should also try to make sure that our students plan their writing so that they express
themselves coherently.

Going to conferences
Teachers' conferences are good places to learn about other people's experiences and to get
new and exciting ideas. They also offer great opportunities to meet people and discover that
teachers share many of the same triumphs and preoccupations.
We discuss teacher development (including conferences) in -+78.

79

Section B: Background to language

teaching methodology
In this section we look at some of the background issues which language teachers need
to think about when they plan how they want to teach and what kind of lessons they
want to offer their students. For example, we look at what people have said about how
we learn languages and we list some of the most prominent learning and teaching
methodologies that people have used.
We consider student mistakes and errors as part of the learning process, rather than
something terrible that they do wrong!
We look at various differences in language learning. For example, learning takes place
in many different situations. But whatever the situation, learners are not all the same: a
lot depends on what l evel they are at, how old they are and what kind of learners they are
(because different individuals are, well, different). We discuss how to deal with
these differences.
We emphasise the importance of student engagement and consider how students can
take responsibility for their l earning - and we look at the crucial issue of student
motivation.

35 How people learn languages 1

36 How people learn languages 2
37 Students make mistakes

38 Learning at different ages

39 Student-centred teaching
40 Learner characteristics
41 Different contexts, different levels

42 Large and mixed-ability classes

43 Motivation

81

Acquisition and learning

Unless some physical or mental condition gets in d1e way, all of us speak and understand
at least one language well. We got d1at language from our parents and from od1er people

How people learn

languages 1

around us. As far as any of us can remember, we didn't have to think about the process of
getting that language; it just happene d . All we had was a lot of EXPOSURE to the language
(we heard it all the time, especially when people talked to us) and opportunities to use it
as much and as often as possible. In od1er words, this kind of LANGUAGE ACQUISITION is a
subconscious process.

Many children acquire more d1an one language in childhood. Indeed, in many
countries and societies it is unusual for people to be MONOLINGUAL (able to speak only
one language).

Age seems to be an important factor in l anguage acquisition

-+38. Children often

acquire (and forget) l anguages easily, partly because they get such a l ot of exposure
to d1em, and partly because of their DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES -+91 and the lives tl1ey are
leading. TEENAGERS and ADULTS don't seem to acquire l anguages so automatically.
However, they may, in fact, be more efficient learners, in part because tl1eir
circumstances and developmental stages are different.

If acquisition is a subconscious process, LEARNING, by contrast, is sometlung we do

consciously - for example, when we study how to use the PRESENT PERFECT -+6, d1ink
carefull y about what order ADJECTIVES go in
word we should STRESS -+26.

-+15, or concentrate on which part of a

Why does the difference between acquisition

and learning matter?
In classrooms all over the world, students leam langiiages. They are taught GRAMMAR,

FUNCTIONS and VOCABULARY. But perhaps that's the wrong way to do it. Perhaps we should

only give students a lot of exposure to the l anguage, toged1er wid1 opporttmities to use
it - just as we do witl1 cluldren.

In a theory that he called tl1e INPUT HYPOTHESIS, the linguist Stephen Krashen
suggested that people acquire language if they get COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT. This means
that they are exposed to langiiage that is just above their own LEVEL-+41 but wluch
they more or less understand. He suggested that this is

all they need.

Krashen also suggested tl1at d1e langiiage d1at we learn consciously is different from
the language we acquire through comprehensible input. We can use 'learnt'

l anguage to check (or MONITOR) our conversation (or writing), but these checks may
stop us being fluent because we are worrying about whether we are speaking
correctly. In the 1980s, Krashen said that

learnt language

could not become

acquired l anguage.

Many researchers questioned K.rashen's Input Hypotl1esis. They said it was difficult to
test because people cannot usually say if their language was acquired or learnt, and if
you can't say which it was, then the tl1eory cannot be proved or disproved.

Many people suggest that exposure to comprehensible input is not, in itself, enough
for people to know and be able to speak a l anguage. There has to be an element of
conscious attention to the actual l anguage that is being used in the input. Trus is
especially important for learners who have reached (or gone through) puberty

-+38-39 - i.e. teenagers and adults.

82

Which way is best?

Perhaps the best way to get a n ew l a n guage would be to go and live in a country where
the language is spoken. There would be both exposure to the l anguage and opportunities
to use i t. But wou l d that be enough for children or adults?

Most people learn languages in classrooms. They don't have the opportunity to live in
a foreign country, and they don't get the same amount of exposure to the l anguage
that children do when they learn their first language.

learn language - to STUDY

-+38. For them, acquisition-like activiti es may

Most educationalists believe that children are not ready to

grammar, etc. - because of their age
be the best.

Some students seem to acquire a new language without too much effort. Many
others, however, like, need and want to examine and understand what they are being
exposed to.

Most language-learning lessons today include a mixture of activities, some more

focused on acquisition and some more focused on learning.

Many teaching methods have focused more on learning than acquisition. Teachers
following these methods have offered their students individual grammar and
vocabulary items one by one. \i\Te look at these methods in more deta i l i n

-+44-48.

Some teaching m ethods have concentrated more on acquisition than l earni ng.
Teachers have involved their students in communication and encouraged them to
think more about the CONTENT of what they say or do than the FORM of the language
they are using.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.

How Fernando learnt

English
Fernando Torres, a footballer from
Spain who has played in the U K,
says that he learnt English there
by listening to the radio a lot and
(while he was doing it) trying to

concentrate on what he was

hearing. He also looked at big
advertisements at the side of the
road and tried to see - to

NOTICE -

what they said and what the

meaning was. When he had noticed
the words in the advertisements
(= concentrated on the words
so that he could recognise them
again),

then he could learn them.

In other words, he had exposure to

the language, but then he thought
consciously about what he was
seeing and hearing .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

83

Four methods
Although there have been many attempts to find the perfect language-learning method,
no one has yet come up with the 'best' one. This is partly because different students

How P.eople learn

languages 2

learn differently (we discuss DIFFERENTIATION in

42), and partly because teaching

metl1ods often change as society itself changes. However, some methods are worth
discussing because they are either a) widely used, b) talked about a lot or c) still h ave
influence in modern teaching practice. Methods
whereas methods

1 and 2 below are more LEARNING-based,

3 and 4 are sig1lificantly more ACQUISITION-like 35.

1 Grammar-translation
GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION was the most common way of learning languages for hundreds of
years. S tudents studied the grammar of sentences in tl1e TARGET LANGUAGE (tl1e language they
wanted to learn). They translated them into their own language - or the other way round.

Adrian's story
At his English secondary school Adrian learnt French up to lower-intermediate level with
grammar translation. He had to translate sentences such as

My uncle's garden is bigger than

my aunt's pen into French and he had to learn the rules of French grammar. When he went to
France at the age of 1 7, he could say very little for a few days, but then suddenly he started to

be able to communicate and he became more and more fluent over the next three weeks.
Many people learnt (and continue to learn) languages in ways that are similar to this.

Grammar-translation became unpopular because students translated written sentences

rather than spoken conversation, and because they didn't do enough speaking. However,
it is clear tl1at asking students to translate into and out of their language and English can
teach them a lot about the similarities and differences between the two languages.

2 Audio-lingual methodology
AUDIO-LINGUAL METHODOLOGY (A-L) gave students a lot of speaking practice by using
habit-formation DRILLS. Students repeated sentences again and again until they were
memorised. A-L metl1odology is connected to the theory of BEHAVIOURISM .

........ ............ ......... . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.
.
.
.

Pavlov's dogs

Perhaps the most famous example of early Behaviourist

theory is the story of Pavlov's experim ents with dogs.
The dogs responded to a stimulus (a ringing bell) by
salivating. This is because they had been conditioned to
expect a reward (food) when they heard the sound of
the bell. Every time they heard the bell, they salivated
and this response was reinforced, in their minds, when
food arrived.

84

A-L methodology uses a STIMULUS-RESPONSE-REINFORCEMENT approach to language

learning. A stimulus (a teacher's prompt) provokes a student response (a sentence),
and this response is reinforced by the reward of, for example, teacher PRAISE and

student satisfaction. If you repeat this procedure often enough, some people
suggested, the language will be learnt.

Eehavourist theories of language learning were heavily criticised. It was argued that if
all language was the result of stimulus-response-reinforcement, how come we can all
say new things that we have never said before? These new things can't be the result of
Eehavourist conditioning, surely! One of the results of this was that teachers stopped
using only A-L methodology.

However, one the main ingredients of audio-lingualism (language drilling -+47) is

still used in many lessons because we believe that frequent repetition is a key to
successful learning. One of the most popular ways of teaching new language, PPP
(PRESENTATION, PRACTICE AND PRODUCTION -+44), mixes drilling with contextualised
explanation and opportunities for language use.

In -+73 we discuss a method called the SILENT WAY.

3 T he communicative approach/communicative language teaching
THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH/COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING (CLT) focuses on the
idea that people get language if they have opportunities to use it, and that if students
have a desire to communicate and a purpose for communicating (rather than just
practising a grammar item), then language learning will 'take care of itself'.

In CLT, students do many speaking and writing tasks, o.ying to use any and all of the
language that they can. CLT focuses more on CONTENT than on FORM ; it concentrates
on how successfully students can conznzunicate, rather than on whether they are
speaking or writing correctly. CORRECTION often takes place after the students have tried
to speak or write communicatively -+74.

We look at examples of communicative speaking activities in -+52-53 and

communicative writing activities in -+58-59 .
4 Task-based learning (T BL)

TASK-BASED LEARNING (TEL) is an approach where teachers set their students larger
tasks, such as writing a newspaper article, giving an oral presentation, creating an
online film reviews page or arranging a meeting, rather than conceno.ating only on
the language. The students may STUDY language, too, of course, but only if this will
help them do the task; it is the planning and the completion of the task that is most
important. A TEL approach would base its SYLLABUS -+80 on tasks rather than lists of
grammar items. In some versions of TEL, language study comes after the task - to
deal with any mistakes tl1at occurred during the task.

In a task-based sequence we might get INTERMEDIATE or UPPER-INTERMEDIATE students to

plan a trip to a city in a foreign couno.y by looking for information on tl1e INTERNET
and then writing an itinerary; we might ask the students to design a questionnaire
which they can then use for video or audio interviews in tl1e so.eet.

How people learn; how people teach

Most teachers don't follow any one method, but use elements of many different
approaches. This ECLECTICISM seems to be the best response to different claims about how
different students learn. Everything will d epend on the balance of exercises and activities
- how we get students ENGAGED, how we get them to study and the opportunities we
provide for them to ACTIVATE their knowledge -+80 .
A lot depends, too, on tl1e role of the teacher. Should we transmit knowledge as
lecturers do, SCAFFOLD learning (provide guidance and support) by helping students to do
what they want to achieve or facilitate learning by providing tl1e right kind of activities?
We look at the ROLES OF THE TEACHER in -+65 .
85

Students make
mistakes

We all make mistakes

When people are learning a language, they never get it right first time: they make
MISTAKES. This is a normal part of learning a first, or any other, language. Native speakers
of a language make mistakes, too, especially in informal conversation.

Why do learners make mistakes?

When people are learning a second language, they make DEVELOPMENTAL ERRORS.
These happen as a natural part o f l anguage learning because (either consciously or
subconsciously) the learners are trying to work out how the language system works.

Then children are learning English as their first language, they often learn early on
how to say past tense forms such as went, came, ran, etc. However, later, when they
become aware of regular PAST TENSE endings, they start saying g&ed, wmed, etc.
'
We call this OVER-GENERALISATION because the child is using the new 'rule' too widely.
I n the same way, learners of English as a second language often say things like Hemust
to-go, because they appear to be over-generalising to + INFINITIVE, which they have
become aware of in sentences like He has to go.

When students are learning a second language, they often make INTERFERENCE errors.
These happen because they are (consciously or unconsciously) trying to use their first
language knowledge to speak the new language. For example, Japanese speakers may make
sentences such as Skiing is very interesting (because the Japanese word which they would
use in this sentence, onzoshiroi, means both great ftm and interesting), Spanish speakers
may get their word order wrong and say She isa'l:BfJ'l'lanbeautifal (because in Spanish
the sentence would be Es una mzger bonita), Arabic speakers may say 14ZbenIamseeyeu.'
(because in Arabic there is no subject-verb inversion for questions) and Turkish students
might say I-happy (because in Turkish Ben mutluyum doesn 't contain an overt verb).

Researchers talk about a language learner's INTERLANGUAGE - that is their own version
of the language they are learning at a certain stage in their language development.

There is a danger that if mistakes are left uncorrected for too long - or if the learner is
unaware of them - they may become FOSSILISED. They are then more difficult to put right.

What kind of mistakes do students make?

Students make several different kinds of mistakes.

86

Sometimes they make SLIPS. We can think of these as the result of tiredness or because
the students are speaking quickly and are careless. In other words, they know how to
use the language correctly, but it just comes out wrong.

Sometimes students make ERRORS. These suggest that they either don't know
something, that they have learnt something incorrectly, or that their knowledge of
the language has been affected by developmental or interference factors.

Sometimes students make ATTEMPTS to say things which are beyond their language
knowledge and so they have a go and make a bit of a mess of it

We need to be aware of what kind of mistake is being made so that we can CORRECT it

appropriately -+73. Students can often self-correct slips, but may need more help and
explanation if they have made an error. Attempt mistakes are perfect oppornmities for
teaching new language because it is language tl1at the sn1dents clearly want.

What do mistakes look like?

Language learners may make pronunciation mistakes, many of which are caused by
L1 interference. For example, Chinese speakers might say I /fi:wrw/ instead of I feel ill.
Learners may make grammatical mistakes, such as word order problems (Jlike VC1)'
'fflfttf3h..-#), tl1e omission of ARTICLES (Sheisteaclm-) or the addition of words tlut are not
necessary (They'Flttt5ttehelpus) .

They may make mistakes in word formation, such as cooker instead of cook, or misuse
grammatical categories, such as I am interesting (PRESENT PARTICIPLE) instead of I am
interested (PAST PARTICIPLE) .

Students may use wrong or inappropriate vocabulary; they may select the wrong word
in COLLOCATIONS, saying childish crime instead ofjuvenile crime, for example.

Do mistakes matter?
We all know people who speak fairly 'broken' English (or another language), and yet
they can make tl1emselves understood perfectly well and no one worries too much about
the errors they make. However, in certain circumstances, both inside and outside the
classroom, mistakes do matter.

When students speak, they may have an accent which is influenced by their first or
second language. There is nothing wrong with this unless what tl1ey are saying is
UNINTELLIGIBLE. PRONUNCIATION teaching -+28-29 is all about making sure tlut tl1e
students are as intelligible as possible to as many people as possible. We will need to
concentrate on STRESS -+26 and INTONATION-+27, especially, since when mistakes are
made witl1 tl1ese, they can affect meaning-.

Mistakes matter in writing. This is partly because writing doesn't flash past like
conversation, but stays there for us to look at again and again. People can tl1ink that
someone's English (or other language) is worse than it is if they see spelling mistakes,
bad handwriting and poor vocabulary use - whereas if they heard the same person
speak, tl1ey might have a better impression.

In lessons we often make a difference between language activities which concentrate

on ACCURACY (the students' accurate and correct use of language) and activities which
concentrate on FLUENCY (the students' ability to commtmicate effectively and
spontaneously) -+73.

When we are working on the students' accuracy, we are helping tl1em to study
language (that is, to understand the construction of GRAMMAR, a LEXICAL PHRASE, a LANGUAGE FUNCTION , etc.). Because of this, we will probably correct mistakes when they
occur and try to help tl1e students to say or write things correctly.

When we are trying to encourage fluency, we probably won't correct quite so

immediately since the sn1dents are learning how to communicate.

87

You ng learners

Learnin_g at
different ages

.Many people think that children are better language learners than other age groups
35. As a result, English is taught to young and very young children in many countries
around the world.

Children need a lot of good exposure if they are to acquire a language. One or two
hours a week is usually not enough for successful ACQUISITION, though it may a) give
students a taste of the new language, b) make them feel very positive about l anguages
other than their own and c) be a lot of fun.

Children take in information from everything around them, not just what is being
taught. They learn from things they see, hear, touch and interact with. This is often
just as important as more formal explanations.

Children are usually curious about the world and like learning.

Children often find abstract concepts (such as grammar rules) difficult to understand.
Ho-wever, this depends on what DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE they have reached. We look at
developmental stages in more detail in 91.

Many chil dren are happy to talk about themselves, and like learning experiences
which involve and relate to their own lives.

Children are pleased to have the teacher's approval.

Children often find it difficult to concentrate on the same thing for a long time.

The Russian educational psychologist Vygotsky (1 896-1934) said that children learn best
when they are in the ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD): when they are ready for the
next bit of learning. Later experts have suggested that teachers should SCAFFOLD 91
students' learning (provide guidance and support) w1til the students can do it for themselves.

'i\Te need to remember, however, that children develop at different rates and that there
is a clear difference between a child of five, for example, and a child of ten .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . .
.
.
.
.

T ips for teaching young learners

Change activities frequently.

Combine learning and play.

Use a ppropriate activities (incl uding songs, puzzles, games, art, physical movement, etc.)
for different kinds of student.

Make the classroom an attractive, light and convenient learning environment.

Pay special attention to your own English pronunciation - children are good i m itators I

.
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . .

We discuss YOUNG LEARNERS i n more detail in 91-1 01 .

Adult and older learners

How are adult learners different from children?

88

Adults can think in abstract ways and so there is, perhaps, less need for them to
engage in activities such as games and songs in order to understand things.

vVe can introduce a wide range of topics into adult classrooms and expect that the
students will have some lmowledge of what we are talking about.

Nlany adult learners have strong opinions about how learning should take place, often
based on their own schooldays. They sometimes dislike teaching methods that are
either different from those they are used to or which remind them of earlier learning.

Learning at different ages

. ..

.. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . .

Although some adults have good memories of learning success, others have experience
of learning failure and are worried that they will fail agai n.

Adults usually (but n ot always) behave well in class - at least better than some other
age groups.

Many adults (but not all) understand what they want and why they are learning. This
means that even when they are a little bored, they can still keep working.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.

T ips for teaching adults

Find out what interests different student

individuals in order to plan the most

a ppropriate lessons.

Be prepared to explain things (such as grammar rules). But remember that many adults
learn by doing things, too.
Discuss the best ways of learning with your students so that everyone is happy with
your lessons.

Provide clear short-term goa l s so that the students can achieve success at each stage.

.
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

We discuss teaching adults in more detail i n 739.

Adolescents
For many teachers, ADOLESCENT students are the most exciting - but also the most
challenging - people to have in classrooms.

Depending on their stage of development, teenagers can start to think in abstract

terms. In other words, they can talk about ideas and concepts in a way that yotrnger
children probably cannot.
Many adolescent students become passionate about the things that interest them.

Many adolescent students have a large amount of energy. This is sometimes a good
and creative thing, but sometimes, if we don't channel it correctly, it can lead to more
or less serious DISCIPLINE problems 771 .

Many adolescents are extremely conscious o f their age and find it irritating when adults
continue to teach them as children - even though, in many ways, they still are children.

Adolescents usually have not chosen to come to our English lessons. They are there
because they have to be tl1ere. They may not see any good reason for learning English.

Many adolescents want and need PEER APPROVAL (the good opinion of their classmates)
far more than they want and need the approval of the teacher.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.

Tips for teaching teenagers

Encourage teenagers to have opinions and to think critically and questioningly about what
they are learning.
Use the students' own knowledge and experience as much as possible.
Treat the students like adults but remember they are still children.
E ncourage the students to have AGENCY

739

(take responsibility for their own learning).

Be super-organised I Teenagers like to know what they are doing and why.

Be con sistent when there are discipline problems. Criticise the behaviour, not the student.

We discuss teaching adolescents in more detail in 7 39.

89

The right priorities

The most important thing in a classroom is not how the teacher teaches, but whether
(and how) the students learn.

Student-centred
teaching

Personalisation, agency and learner training

There are things we can do to help our students have some control over their own
learning.

PERSONALISATION is one of the most important stages of any learning c.ycle. When
students use new language to talk about themselves, or to say things that matter to
them (for example in the PRODUCTION phase of the PPP procedure -?44), they have to
think about the right l anguage to use to express their own ideas and to talk about
their own lives and what interests them.

When learners have some responsibility for their own learning, they are more
likely to be engaged than if they are just doing what the teacher tells them to.
In other words, if students are sometimes 'in the driving seat', they have some
AGENCY some conuol over what is happening in their learning. They might decide
such things as which words from a list they wan t to focus on, what topic they want
to discuss, what activity they want to do next, or what HOMEWORK -? 76 they think
would be most useful to them. We might discuss with them how and why they want to
be CORRECTED -? 73-75.
-

Many students find it extremely useful to think about how they l earn and we can help
them by providing LEARNER TRAI NING. This means getting them to think of the best
ways of doing things, such as writing words down to remember them, what to do in
conversation when you don't know a word, or how to take notes.

Talking about adults

Adult students bring a lot of previous learning experience to the classroom and they
bring their own ideas about what good learning looks and feels like.

90

Some adults are not keen on COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHI NG -?36, for example,
because it is not like the way they were taught at school . As a result, we need to explain
why we use PAIRWORK and GROUPWORK -?67: to help the smdents to ACTIVATE their
language knowledge because we think activation helps them to process the language
they have ACQUIRED and LEARNT -?35.

We need to listen (where possible) to our students' own l earning preferences. For
example, they may want to TRANSLATE every word of a reading text into their own
language (or have every word explained), but we want them to read for GIST -?54.
We can make a bargain, where they agree to uy to do what we want (read for gist) and
we agree, when they have done this, to work with individual word meaning.

Some older learners have (or appear to have) more problems with memory than
younger students. We need to RECYCLE and REVISE what we have done constantly, and
we should back up what they STUDY with visual and other resources.

v\Then we teach middle-aged and older adults, we should find out how they like to be
addressed (not everyone likes to be called by their first name) and take care that what
we show and tell them is both clearly visible and audibl e.

Student-centred teaching

Talking about teenagers

Although teenagers often learn faster than children or adults, there are other issues we
need to take account of.

Teenagers don't always see (or want to see) why we are aslcing them to do the things
we are suggesting. It is important, therefore, to explain what benefit they will get

from an activity or a lesson. They need to understand the LESSON OUTCOMES

we expect for them.

'79

Because some teenagers have unresolved problems with SELF-ESTEEM, we need to be

sure that we don't do anything that wil l make them fee l vulnerable or embarrassed in
front of their PEERS. For example, instead of malcing them READ ALOUD from a text they
h ave never seen before (and therefore risk them not reading very well), we may let
them choose what they want to read and give them a chance to practise reading it so
that when they do, they can have some confidence that they will be successful '29.

Teenage students can be incredibly creative - offering i deas, energy and enthusiasm.
We need to direct that creativity, pointing them in the right direction and helping

them to focus on how to make TASKS manageable.

Students at this age are far more likely to enjoy (and be engaged with) lessons if they
can see the relevance of what they are doing to their own lives and interests. For
example, instead of malcing our students work with music that

we

like (although there

is nothing wrong with that), we may tty to get them to talk about music that

they like.

Instead of usi ng the STORIES of famous historical people, for example, we may h ave the
students work with stories of their contemporaries, people in the school or characters

from TV shows that they watch or online games that they play. However, it is worth

remembering that teenage students do not necessarily want to share their world with
adult teachers, so we have to be careful about how much we become involved with

their interests.

Teenage students want to know and see that their teacher is interested in their

progress and their wellbeing and that, above a l l , the teacher is fair and treats all

students the same. This is especially i m portant so that DISCIPLINE does not become
a problem

'71 .

91

Getting to know our students

If we want to know how to teach our students, we need to know what the students are
like. How are they different? How are they the same?

Learner
characteristics

The good learner

Many studies have tried to identify the characteristics of GOOD LEARNERS . There are
variations in the conclusions that are reached, but most people say that good learners:

try to guess when they don 't know something - and often succeed;
try to get their message across even if their knowledge of the language isn't very good;
are prepared to make mistakes;
try to figure out how language works;
practise whenever they can;
analyse the way they and others talk;
have a good self-image and confidence.

\i\Te need to remember that many good LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS tend to represent a
'western' view of learning. Nevertheless, we should encourage our own view of good
learner behaviour, in particular by rewarding appropriate efforts and by talking about
how to learn.

Talking about differences

.i\!Iany people sLiggest that some students have m01:e APTITUDE for language learning
than others - in other words, some students wi ll automatically be better at it than
others. However, it is di fficult to know how to measure this, and a lot will depend on
how, when and where people are learning and what their MOTIVATION is '43.

Some people suggest that intelligence plays a part in language learning. However, i t
is clear that most people are capable of learning a language whatever their
intellectual level.

The psychologist Howard Gardner proposed a the01y of MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES (Ml

THEORY) to show how we can think about people's knowledge and abilities. 'It is not,'
he wrote, 'how intelligent we are that matters, it is how we are intelligent. ' He
suggested that everyone has the same intelligences: spatial (the ability to visualise
things), linguistic (the abili ty to use, understand and memorise language), !ogica!111 athe111atica! (the ability to reason with and understand numbers and other
abstractions), musical (the ability to respond, reproduce nd interpret music), bodi61kinaesthetic (the abili ty to understand, use and control one's bodily actions skilfully) ,
intnpersonal (the ability to empathise and interact with others), intrapersonal (the
ability to think and reflect internally), naturalistic (the ability to understand and enjoy
the natural world) and existential (the ability to see and empathise with spiritual,
religious and psychic belief). However, according to Gardner we are all different: for
some of us, perhaps, our musical intelligence is more developed than our
interpersonal intelligence. Others may have a strong bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence,
and this may be more developed than their logical-mathematical intelligence.

Emotional intelligence - which is similar to Gardner's interpersonal intelligence - has

been described by a number ot different psycho\ogists as the abihty to understand and

deal with our own emotions and the emotions of others.

92

Many people have tried to categorise students according to their LEARNING STYLES - the
way they behave when they are learning in classrooms. According to these categories,
enthusiasts, for example, uy to take part and listen to the teacher, whereas rebels want
to do it 'their way' ; communicative learners tty to do everything by letting the language
flow, whereas analytic learners spend their time trying to understand everything.

Learner characteristics

The only problem with these descriptions is that very few students remain one 'type'
or the other, even if we could clearly establish what the different types were. Perhaps
it is more helpful to think of different lesson stages where different styles are more or
less appropri ate.

NEURO-LINGUISTIC PROGRAMMING (NLP) - which is a model for psychotherapeutic

counselling - has been used to explain learner differences. The founders of J\TLP,
Richard Bandler and John Grinder, wanted to help people to re-frame their

experiences (visualise things in a different way) to help them perform better. They
also suggested that all people respond to the same stimuli visual (what we see),
-

auditory (what we hear), kinaesthetic (associated with physical movement, touching,

etc.), olfactory (what we smell) and gustatory (wh at we taste) - but that for each of us

one of these VAKOG elements has more 'power' because it stimulates us more than the
others do, and this is different for different people.

People have raised doubts about the scientific status of both NLP and

MI theory (and

about m any attempts at learner categorisation). However, they all remind of us of an

essential truth: different students are good (and not so good) at different things. They

respond better to some things than to others.

What to do about student differences

We need to make sure that we use different lessons to cater for different kinds of student
preferences. We might use visual stimuli in one l esson, but rely on music for the next.

We wil l give the students exercises for analytic l earners at one stage of the lesson, but
balance them with more holistic communicative activities at other times.

We should keep a record of what kinds of activities are successful with which kinds
of student so that we can m ake effective fuuire decisions.

We need to try to encourage LEARNER AUTONOMY (the students learning on their own and
relying on their own abilities) by offering LEARNER TRAINING, where we get the students
to think about how they learn best. Learner training involves tasks such as showing

the su1dents different ways of note-taking and asking them to think about which ones
they prefer, or talking about different types of listening text and the SKILLS and the

SUB-SKILLS that are appropriate for them. It involves thinking about the best ways of
remembering words -722 and what the students can do to help this h appen, etc.

We discuss DIFFERENTIATION in

-742.

93

Different kinds of English learning

English language learning takes place in many different situations and for many
different reasons.

contexts,
different levels

The vast maj ority of students are learning GENERAL ENGLISH : they are learning the
language for no special reason. This is the case in many school situations and in many
(private) language institutes, where groups are made up of students from a range of
ages and backgrounds.

In some schools around the world, teachers use CONTENT AND LANGUAGE INTEGRATED

LEARNING (CLIL), especially at primary and secondary level. CLIL marries the
learning of new language to the learning of school-curriculum SUBJECTS. We discuss
CLIL in '102-110.

Many students study ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES (ESP). If they are aircraft engineers,
they may study the special English of engineering. If they are air traffic controllers,
they will learn language specific to that occupation.

Many people study BUSINESS ENGLISH . Classes can a) take place in schools where
students are learning business and English at the same time (pre-service) or b) can be
given to people who are already working in the business world (in-service). The
teacher may travel to a company to give lessons.

ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES (EAP) is studied by many people who need to use
English at college and university.

We need to think about why our students are learning English and what kind of
English they wa1t and need. We can do a NEEDS ANALYSIS to find out what future
contexts they will need to use English in. B usiness English teachers, for example,
will find out what situations their students need English for (perhaps business
meetings) and what they will need to do in such situations (make presentations, give
opinions, ask for clarification, etc.).

Students around the world study in anything from classes of one to groups of 30, 60
and even more than 100. \Ve discuss LARGE CLASSES in '42.

In ONE-TO-ONE CLASSES (one student, one teacher), we can find out exactly what our
student needs and wants. vVe must be well prepared for lessons, but at the same time
we will need to be flexible as tl1e lesson progresses.

In one-to-one classes vve can adapt to our student's feelings and wishes about language
learning. We can negotiate the content of the course.

In countries such as the USA, Canada, Australia, Ireland, Iew Zealand and Britain,
students in a group may have a range of first or HOME LANG,UAGES (u). As a result,
English is botl1 the language of instruction and the language of communication.
In other places, the students all share tl1e same first language and, as a result,
teachers can teach and students can learn in different ways. We discuss the uses of the
L 1 in '77.

Language levels
For many years, people have suggested that tl1ere are six different language learning
levels (see diagram 1 ): BEGINNERS (witl1 little or no language), ELEMENTARY, LOWER-/
PRE-INTERMEDIATE, INTERMEDIATE, UPPER-INTERMEDIATE and ADVANCED. Although these terms
can mean different tl1ings to different people, it is often said that su1dents can complete
a level in between 90 and 1 2 0 hours.
Some people make a difference between R EAL BEGINNERS (who know nothing at all)
and FALSE BEGINNERS (those who have already picked up a few words and bits and pieces
of English).
94

Different contexts, different levels

Many teachers enjoy working with begirrners because their delight in learning is
obvious - and because there often seems to be a clear connection between what is
taught and what is learnt.

Teachers sometim es talk about the PLATEAU EFFECT, which often happens when smdents

have reached the intermediate level. The students feel that they can speak English and
find i t difficult to see when they are making more progress. It i s vital that we should

provide clear goals for them to aim at, and explain what they are learning and what
progress they are making.

There are other ways of describing levels, too. The Council of Europe and the
Association of Language Testers of Europe (ALTE) produced the COMMON EUROPEAN

FRAMEWORK OF REFERENCE FOR LANGUAGES (CEFR), which is now used in countries around

the world. As you can see in d iagram 2, the CEFR has six levels from Al (beginn er) to

C2 (very advanced).

What makes the CEFR special is that i t can be used for any language because l evels

are described i n terms of CAN-DO STATEMENTS, such as (for writing) 'can complete basic

forms and write notes including times, dates <rnd places' (B l ) or (for speaking and

l istening) 'can contribute effectively in meetings and seminars within their own area

of work or keep up a casual conversation with a good degree of fluency, coping with

abstract expressions' (C2).

Students can use the CEFR to judge their own language level. fa recent years, many

COURSEBOOK writers and CURRICULUM designers have encouraged students to evaluate

their own progress by checking whether their l earning has been successful. For

example i f, at the end of a unit, they tick the statement I

and refuse invitations,

were being taught.

can invite people out and accept

it m eans that they have learnt one of the l anguage functions that

\Ve need to give students more support when they are beginners, and teaching

procedures such as PPP 44 may be more appropriate than for students at higher
levels. It may be easier to encourage LEARNER AUTONOMY 43 at higher levels than at
beginner level. At lower levels we will use a lot more demonstration when we give
instructions

69 than we do at higher l evel s.

We need to choose appropriate tasks, topics and language for students at different
l evels. \Ve wil l not expect beginners to d iscuss complex issues an d we wil l not ask
advanced students to do simple language drills.

Different student levels

advanced

upper-intermediate

intermediate

lower-intermediate/pre-intermediate

elementary

real beginner

elementary

beginners

A1
false beginners

A2

false beginner

intermediate

B1

pre-intermediate

B2

advanced

01

d2

upper-intermediate

Levels and CEFR levels

95

Large and
mixed-ability
classes

Teaching large classes

Some teachers dislike the idea of teaching large classes (30 to 1 00+ students), and it is true
that it is more difficult to give individual attention to students when there are so many
of them. However, teach ing in such circumstances can be rewarding and productive.
Big classes can develop a strong group identity, and the atmosphere can be exhilarating.

96

It is important to be ve1y organised when teaching large classes. We must be sure that
we have all the material that we and the students need. 'ii\Te need to have a clear i dea of
what we are going to do.

The bigger the class, the more important it is to give very clear INSTRUCTIONS (and
check them) '69 so that everyone understands exactly what they need to do. We
should plan exactly how we are going to explain things and think about how to
demonstrate what we want the students to do.

\i\Te need to make it clear when we are moving from one STAGE OF A LESSON to the next. All
tl1e students, even tlle ones at the back, should know exactly what is going on. We need
to vary our voice and the pace of tl1e lesson when we move from one stage to the other.

It helps to establish clear routines. Students need to know when tl1ey should quieten
down at the end of an activity "70 and what signs and signals we use to indicate
this. We also need to have a clear system of collecting in and giving back HOMEWORK
'76, etc.

We will maximise the use of PAIRWORK and GROUPWORK '67. For example, students
can do INFORMATION-GAP activities 'SO or rehearse scenes from plays '64. We can
ask them to reconstruct stories or do STORY CIRCLE-type activities '58.

Students can complete WORKSHEETS and do reading and listening tasks in pairs and
groups.

We can use CHORAL REPETITION for reaction and practice "47. We can divide the class

e' reading al ? ud
vVe can use activities (such as poetry fill-ins 63, 'It s
_ down' hstenmg ' ' ) where we give all the
'29, 69 and mD> or 'stand up, sit
students the same input, but they have to think and respond individually.

into two or three groups for choral practice lll!Z:Ii> .

;) fp<;

Large and mixed-ability classes

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . .

Teaching mixed-ability classes

In a sense, all classes are mixed ability because students are all individuals and have
different LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS -+40. And even in a class where everyone is supposed
to be at the same level (UPPER-INTERMEDIATE -+41 , for example), it is unlikely that the
students will all be able to speak, listen, write or read as well as each other. In primary
and secondary education, children learn at different speeds and there is often a much
greater range of ability, even where classes are STREAMED from, say, group 1 (high
achievers) to group 3 (low achievers).

DIFFERENTIATION (teaching different individuals in a different way) means trying to

provide different learning experiences for different individuals - for example, offering
different learning material or activities to suit different abilities and needs.

\Ve need to try to ensure that every student has a chance of success so that they can

enjoy praise which they believe they desenre -+72.

\Ve can give different students different material. For example, we can give out
TEXTS at different levels. vVe can refer students to different Online websites or give
them different exercises and activities to do. However, this creates a lot of extra
work for teachers.

\i\Te can put the students in ability groups so that groups of stronger students work
on different content or tasks from the weaker groups. In effect this is like in-class
streaming.

\i\Te can put students in groups where weaker and more able students are working
together. We can give the group a task and say that it will not be complete until all the
students (stronger and weaker) have completed it. As a result, the stronger students
have to help out the weaker students.

\i\Te can give students different roles when we give them tasks so that the stronger
ones act as 'chairpersons' and take on the more difficult parts of the activity.

vVe will take great care to respond to each individual student in a way that is
appropriate for that student. This ill affect such things as our choice of CORRECTION
techniques -+ 73, 75, how we reward and PRAISE students -+ 72 and how we respond
to DISCIPLINE problems -+71 .

We can give all the students the same task, but expect different responses. For
example, we can get some students to answer all 2 0 questions about a reading text, but
only expect others to deal with the first ten. We can give a series of tasks which start
by being general but then go into more detail. Some students do the first set of tasks,
the others do the second.

We will remember that weaker students need more help, not less. For example, when
the students are working with a reading text, the stronger ones may go straight into
the reading tasks and then move quickly to the FOLLOW-UP TASKS -+56, whereas the
weaker students may spend longer in a pre-reading prediction phase, and we may
give them more help with the language that they are likely to encounter in the
reading text.

We need to have material ready so that we can give those students who finish early
something interesting to do whilst the rest of the class catch up.

One of most important ways of dealing with both large classes and mixed-ability classes
is to include LEARNER TRAINING -+40 so that individual students can take responsibility for
their own learning and progress.

97

The importance of motivation

It almost goes without saying that students who are not motivated find learning difficult,
whereas students who are motivated usually have more chance of success. But what is

Motivation

MOTIVATION and how can teachers have an effect on it?

Where motivation comes from

When we want something badly enough, when we want to feel better about ourselves or
when we want to know that other people like what we are doing, we get into a state of
mind that provokes us into doing something. In other words, if we want something
badly enough, we act on that desire. That state of mind is what we call motivation.

Experts talk about EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION, which comes from outside the learner and
may, for example, be related to a need to pass an exam, or the desire to elicit praise
from the teacher, or because the learner has a forthcoming trip where the foreign
language would be an advantage. INTRINSIC MOTIVATION, on the other hand, comes from
the task itself - and exists because the learner has a drive to learn.

Differences have also been drawn between INTEGRATIVE. MOTIVATION (where a language
learner wishes somehow to integrate into the target language culture) and

INSTRUMENTAL MOTIVATION (where a language learner is studying because with English

they will get a better job - or for some other more materialistic reason). It has been
suggested that integrative motivation has a more positive effect on student success
than instrumental motivation, but perhaps it is more sensible to say that the
strength of a student's motivation is what matters, wherever it comes from and
whatever kind it is.

The students' motivation may be affected (negatively or positively) by a number of

factors such as a) the society they live in and that society's attitude to l anguage
learning, b) the people around them and how important those people think that
learning a foreign language is, c) whether or not they have a definite goal for language
learning (students who are preparing for exams are often highly motivated

89) and

d) by the natural curiosity that most students possess.

The students' motivation will also be affected by their learning experiences.

Although motivation is personal to each learner, what teachers do can have a
profound effect upon it.

98

Motivation

Sustaining motivation
Most teachers can motivate their students. It is, after all, one of the things we are
supposed to be able to do, and when, for example, we are asked to substitute for a
colleague, it is not difficult to produce our 'best' lesson for the students to enjoy. Being
a SUBSTITUTE TEACHER can be great fun. In the same way, the students' natural curiosity
often makes the first lesson of a semester with a new class an enjoyable event. Helping
our students to sustain their motivation throughout a semester or a year requires more
effort, however.

Students are far more likely to stay motivated if they think that their teacher cares
about them - if their AFFECT (feeling) is positive. We need to listen, watch and respond
to our students in a genuine and interested way. We discuss the importance of RAPPORT
(the relationship between teacher and students) in -+66 .
Nothing succeeds like success, and students who succeed in language learning are far
more likely to remain motivated than students who constantly fail. However, it is
important that students' ACHIEVEMENT should be the result of some effort. If everytl1ing
is either too easy or too difficult, achievement will be either meaningless or
impossible. Good teachers set an appropriate LEVEL OF CHALLENGE so that individual
students can experience appropriate success (we discuss DIFFERENTIATION in -+42).
They set achievable GOALS at every stage of the language learning process.
Students are far more likely to remain motivated if iliey think their teacher has a
professional ATTITUDE. The way that we present ourselves to the class is important.
Students need to !mow tlrnt we have thought about what we are going to teach
(PLANNING -+79-80) and that we know what we are doing. Part of a teacher's job is to
convince t11e students, whatever the reality, that they have this kind of professional
competence.
Students will always stay more motivated if we involve t11em in enjoyable and
challenging ACTIVITIES. However, not all students enjoy or respond to the same things
in the same way. It is important for teachers to keep a record of what works and what
doesn't (for the class and for individual students). REFLECTIVE TEACHERS do t11is anyway,
and it helps them to decide what to do next.
Students are far more likely to remain motivated if t11ey have AGENCY (that is, if they
have some control over what is happening). When students can make some decisions
themselves - when t11ey are t11e agents of their own actions - then they stay engaged
in the process of learning because they have a stake in it.
Because we believe that students should have agency, we encourage LEARNER
AUTONOMY, where students do some or a lot of the work on their own. We want t11em
to take charge of their learning by doing such t11ings as DISCOVERING things for
themselves -+46, doing a lot of EXTENSIVE READING -+54 and listening to PODCASTS,
completing HOMEWORK tasks -+76 and doing their own language investigation.
We will provide LEARNER TRAINING, encouraging our students to think about the best
techniques for their own individual learning. For example, how can they remember
vocabulary best? What is the best way of studying at home?

None of these t11ings will sustain motivation on their own, but taken together they offer
us a clear guide about how to keep students motivated over a period of time.

99

Section C : Teaching language and

language skills

---

In this section we look at ways of teaching the language system (grammar, vocabulary,
etc.), and we also look at ways of teaching language skills (reading, writing, listening
and speaking).
We start by looking at ways of introducing, researching and practising language - and
give examples of a large number of different types of exercises and activities.
In the language skills units we discuss different issues to do with speaking, reading,
writing and listening - and then we go on to look at a range of different activities for
each skill.
There are activities which involve poetry, too, as well as ideas for using music and drama.

44 I ntrodu cing n ew language 1

45 I ntroducing n ew language 2

46 Researching n ew language

47 Repetition and drilling

48 Practising n ew language 1

49 Practising n ew language 2
so Practising n ew language 3

5 1 Teachi n g speaking 1

52 Teach i ng speaking 2
53 Teachi n g speaking 3

54 Teachi n g reading 1

55 Teaching reading 2
56 Teaching reading 3
57 Teaching writing 1

58 Teaching writing 2
59 Teaching writing 3

60 Teaching l iste ning 1

6 1 Teaching listening 2
62 Teaching listening 3

63 U s i ng poetry

64 U s i ng music and drama

101

A popular way of introducing new language

.i\llany teachers use a procedure called

PPP (PRESENTATION, PRACTICE AND PRODUCTION) to

introduce simple language at ELEMENTARY and INTERMEDIATE levels. We present the FORM

Introducing
new language 1

(the construction), the meaning and use of the new language, and then the students
practise it (often using DRILLING and CONTROLLED PRACTICE

"47). Finally, when they have

become familiar with the new language, we ask them to produce their own sentences or
phrases using what they have just learnt.

An example of PPP in action

In this example

m!mf>,

the teacher is introducing the third person singular (he, she,

it)

of the PRESENT SIMPLE tense to describe habitual actions. He wants to make sure that his

students understand the way we use the present simple to talk about what people do on
a regular basis. He wants to ensure that they understand that we need to add the

-s

MORPHEME to the verb with the third person singular. He also wants the students to hear

the different pronunciations of s (/z/ in goes, Is/ in

works,

etc.).

Stage 1
Conor (the teacher) shows his elementary students a picture of a young woman. He tells
them that her name is Meera. He asks them to guess what Meera does, before
confirming them that she is a doctor. Guessing helps to engage the students' attention

and we often ELICIT language or information from the class in this way.

Stage 2
Conor puts the picture of Meera next to a clock face, which shows six o'clock. He now

introduces the i dea of habitual actions by saying (with the students):

Wednesday, Thursday, Friday . . . every day.

elicits the sentence he wants.

Monday, Tuesday,

He then MIMES the action of getting up and

Stage 3
Conor MODELS the sentence by saying:

She gets up at six o 'clock . . . get . . . sss . . . gets . . . she

gets up at six o 'clock.

Notice how he says the sentence normally but then he ISOLATES the main grammar point

(gets). He distorts it ( get . . .

102

...

get . . . s) before modelling the sentence again in a clear voice.

Introducing new language 1

Conor could also have written the sentence on the board like this:

But in this case he didn't think it was necessary.

Stage 4
Conor now gets the students to repeat the new sentence using CHORAL REPETITION '47
(they all say the sentence at the same time) and then INDIVIDUAL REPETITION .
Stage 5
The students now see different pictures to teach sentences such as She works in a hospital,
She goes to work by car, etc.
Stage 6
Conor now organises a CUE-RESPONSE DRILL '47. He points at different pictures and the
students have to say the sentence for the picture.
Final stage
When the students have practised all the sentences about Meera's daily routine, Conor
encourages PERSONALISATION ,39 by asking them to make their own sentences about what
they themselves do eve1y day (I get up at seven o 'clock, I take the train to work, etc.). This is
the point at which the students take the language for themselves and make it their own.

Teaching ideas: showing langage construction

We can use fingers and arms to show language construction (word order, contractions, etc.)

We can use diagrams to show grammatical relationships. For example, we can use a
squiggly line to show the meaning of the present perfect continuous in the sentence

They've

been playing together in the orchestra since 2009.

\1-\ey sr,,..vre.A
pl,,..yil\3 1-\eve.

\1-\ey O\Ye Srill

pl01yil\3 ro3erl-\ev.

200"1

We can also use lines, boxes and arrows to show such

things as the relationship between statements and
questions. We can use different coloured pens to
highlight such things as verb tense construction or
show agreement between subject and verb.
At various stages during a PPP procedure we can CHECK MEANING (make sure the students have
understood the new structure) by asking concept questions, such as Does she get up at six o'clock

on Thursdays? (Yes, she does because she gets up at six o'clock every day), Does she go to work
by bus? (No, she doesn't She goes to work by car). We discuss checking meaning in '69.

Apart from PPP there are other ways of introducing new language '45 .
103

Ways of introducing new language

There are a number of ways in which we can introduce new language.

' "

Introducing
new language 2

.........................................

Situations
We used a SITUATION (Dr Meera's daily life) to introduce the PRESENT SIMPLE using PPP
'44. Situations like this are extremely useful for introducing language at lower levels,
as the following few examples will show:

We can teach the WILL FUTURE with an imaginary visit to a fortune teller (the fortune
teller can say You will '17Zeet a handsome stranger, etc.).

We can teach can and can 't by talking about someone in prison (He can 't go to the
cine'l7Za, he can exercise for one hour every day, etc.).

We can teach PREPOSITIONS OF MOVEMENT by describing an adventure trail (Run to the

tree. Climb up the rope ladda: Walk along the wire, etc.).

\iVe can teach POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS ('17Zine, his, yours, etc.) by describing a lost property
office. The students are told what colours certain people like so that when they hear
that there is a blue purse in the office, they can say It's hers.

Stories
Stories can be used to contextualise new language. For example, we can tell the students
the following STORY (and use pictures to illustrate it, if we want):

One day seven.years ago, TVpresenter Mary woke up late because her alar'l7Z didn't go off
She ran out ofher door andfell down the steps. A neighbour called an ambulance and
Mary went to hospital. In the hospital she '!7Zet a handso'IJZe doctor. She offered him a job on
her TVprogramme. They started to work together. Theyfell in love and got '!7Zarried.
Now they have three children.
Now we ask the students to imagine if things had been different, using the THIRD
CONDITIONAL '2. For example, IfMary's alarm had gone off, she wouldn 't have got up late.
Ifshe hadn 't got up late, she wouldn 't have run out of her door, etc.
\iVe can tell stories about our own lives and experiences to contextualise new language.
We can get our students to tell stories about their lives (where appropriate) and use these
stories to introduce and explain the language that they need. Students can also read
stories '54-56 or listen to them '60-62 on an audio track.

Dialogues
Dialogues can be used to introduce language. At pre-intermediate level, for example,
we can draw two faces on the board (or show two people on the screen). We can then
pretend to be each of the characters, one by one. We can stand in front of each picture
in turn and elicit a dialogue as in the following example:

A:
B:
A:
B:
A:
B:
A:
B:
A:
B:
A:
104

Would you like a drink?

Yes, please.
Coffee or tea?
Coffee, please.
Would you like milk?
Yes, please.
Would you like sugar?
Yes, please.
Here you are.
Thanks.
You're welcome.

Introducing new language 2

vVe wil l need to use MIME, GESTURES and exaggerated INTONATION so that students can
understand what is happening ll:l!.ml> .

Texts
Many teachers get their students to meet new language in TEXTS; they read (or listen to)
a text and then study some of the language they find there.

Pictures, objects and mime

Even i n a technological age, teachers still
need to be able to draw quick pictures and
diagrams when they are needed. For
example, we can show pictures of people
getting off, onto, out of, into cars, buses, etc.
We can draw happy and sad faces, or rain or
snow. But we can mime these things, too,
just as we can mime people sleeping, having
a shower, making a cup of coffee or frying
an egg.

Learning by doing
Learning by doing is especially useful for students at low levels. Using GESTURES and
movement, we can get our students to follow instructions such as Stand up! Sit down! Go
to the window! Open the window.' etc. They can then start giving instructions themselves.
This way of doing things, first suggested in the 1 970s, is called TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE
(TPR) ,4.
We look at more ways of introducing (and practising) language in '7, 17, 22.

Alternatives to introducing new language

In DISCOVERY LEARNING we ask students to RESEARCH language. We look at this in more
detail in '46.
We can change the sequence of PPP and put the production stage at the beginning (rather
than at the end) of the sequence. This was once amusingly called the DEEP-END STRATEGY
- like throwing people in at the deep end of a swimming pool to teach them to swim!
In other words, we can put the students in situations where they have to use language
- and then, later, teach them the language they couldn't manage, or which they used
incorrectly. Some people call this procedure TEST-TEACH-TEST. It has the advantage of
making the students need to use the new language, and so it helps them to see what they
need to learn.
In TASK-BASED LEARNING (TBL) '36 we ask students to perform TASKS rather than just
learn new grammar and vocabulary, and perhaps we only deal with language they had
difficulty with after the task is over. In many ways this is like test-teach-test - a kind of
bigger deep end strategy. V/hat is special about TBL is that l anguage learning only
happens because of the task; tl1e task comes first and the students learn language in
order to do it.
All the ways of introducing language in this unit are appropriate for grammar teaching
or for a more LEXICAL APPROACH, where we introduce vocabulary, lexical phrases, etc., for
example in th e teaching of language functions '30.
105

Making discoveries

Researching
new language

Many students often learn and remember new language well if they have to do some
work to get it - for example, if they themselves have to go and look for it in DI SCOVERY
ACTIVITIES, and use their intelligence to understand (with the teacher's help, of
course) '22.

Puzzling it out
We can give our students puzzle-like activities to get them thinking. They can work out

the 'rules' for themselves (see below).

Looking for information (research)

We can get the students to find out information by themselves by searchi ng

DICTIONARIES and GRAMMAR books. They can also search language CORPORA '87
or use INTERN ET search engines such as Google.
We have to suggest search tasks carefully. Students have to be able to understand the

information they find. Some search tasks may not be appropriate if the students are
not at intermediate level or above.

It often helps if the students have to explain what they have discovered to their
colleagues. Explaining makes us concentrate on what we know.
It is often a good idea to give research tasks as follow-ups to
.

CORRECTION

'73-75.

Mining texts
All TEXTS, whether written or spoken, are goldmines ful l of language. We can train our
students to be language 'miners', digging for the treasure of interesting l anguage
examples. For instance, we can ask them to identify the different PAST TENSES in a story;
we can ask them to find any two or more ADJECTIVE combinations in a text and say what
order they are in; we can ask them to listen to a conversation and say how the people
feel, also get them to identify how they know this (INTONATION) , etc.

Accidental meetings

YVe should encourage our students to bring to class any English they have come
across accidentally. They can do this regularly - perhaps at the start of the week, for
example. Is there a song lyric they want to understand? Have they heard something in
the street that they don't understand? Students often learn best when they really want
to know something.

Teaching ideas: discovery puzzle

We can ask intermediate students what the rule is for QUESTION TAGS

in these sentences. T hey can discuss this in PAIRS or GROUPS .

It is worth noticing that many question tags can be replaced by right,
e.g.

You're Brazilian, right? but this is often only done in more IN FORMAL

situations.

106

You're Brazilian, aren't you?

You are not a teacher, are you?
You di dn't arrive yesterday, did you?
You flew from Sao Paulo, didn't you?
You can't stay for the whole week, can you?
You can stay for a few days, can't you? etc.

Researching new language

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.

Teaching ideas: research

INTERMEDIATE or UPPER-INTERMEDIATE students to research

COLLOCATE with them.
For example, we can give them a list of NOUN PHRASES, such as:

We can ask

the uses of make and do and find out what nouns

She usually walks to work.

The bus is often crowded.

She often walks to work.

The bus is sometimes crowded.
She sometimes walks to work.
The bus is never crowded.
She never walks to work.

and they have to find the nouns in a dictionary or on the internet to see
whether they are used with make or do.

someth i n g h a p pens.

Adverbs of frequency come after the verb be:

And they come before other verbs:

The bus is always crowded.

We can ask INTERMEDIATE students to find out how we use sprained,

broken and swollen when we talk about parts of the body. T hey can use
a search engine like Google. I f they type in sprained, Google will

She sometimes walks to work.

In

negative sentences, they come between

don 't/doesn't and the verb:

immediately suggest a number of possible search terms involving the

I don't usually buy magazines.

word sprained; this amounts to a list of common collocations. From this,

they will discover that

We use adverbs of freque ncy to describe how

often somebody does something, or how often

BEGINNER and ELEMENTARY students to find out how to use

FREQUENCY ADVERBS by looking at a grammar book. The kind of

We can ask

information they might find is shown here.

3

She always walks to work.

The bus is usually crowded.

a diagram a difference a drink a fool of yourself

a good job a headstand a list a lot of work a noise
a promise a survey the bed the dishes the ironing
the shopping your homework

The bus is always crowded.

sprain collocates commonly with wrist and ankle.

In q uestions, they come before t h e verb:

Do you always have brea kfast?

We can use every + n o u n , too (e . g. every day,

every week, every year) . Every day/week, etc.

come at the begi n n i n g or end of the sentence:

I phone Emma every day.

Every month we visit my grandparents.
From Grammar Practice for Elementary Students by Viney Walker and
Elsworth (Pearson 2007)
.
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

..

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Teaching ideas: mining a text

between different CONDITIONAL SENTENCES and to introduce the concept of

the THIRD CONDITIONAL.

Students will find out that apart from the

ZERO CONDITIONAL (I always

help if I can), the FIRST CONDITIONAL (I will if you want me to be) and the
third conditional (If I had seen him, I wouldn't be asking for help), there are
also different combinations (I am going into town if . . ., I thought I would . . .
if you don't mind)
if CLAUSE can come first (If I had seen him . ) or
( if you want me to be).

They will learn that the

second

We can also mine the text for other interesting language, such as

leave

something with you, lend, asking for a favour, call in, etc.

B:
A:
B:
A:
B:
A:
B:
A:

.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . .

. . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .
.

I will if you want me to be.

That's great because I am going into
town if I can finish answering all this
morning's emails.
And?
So I thought I would call in and leave
something with you if you don't mind.
Of course I don't. \Vhat do you want
to leave?
A guitar. I'm lending Steve my guitar.
Didn't you see him last night?
If I had seen him, I wouldn't be
asking you for this favour, would I?
Don't get upset! I always help if I can.
You know that.
Yes I do. And if I can think of a gGod
way to thank you properly . . .

to underline any sentences with the word if. T he purpose is to differentiate

. . .

Will you b e in tomorrow?

A:
B:

In this example, at the intermediate level, we can ask the students

.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

107

Repetition: choral and individual

Repetition
and drilling

We frequently ask students to repeat things that we have said or that they have heard. \Ve
do this because it is useful for them to try to make the new sentences or try out new words
- to see what it feels like. REPETITION is usually part of an introduction sequence '44, but
we can also use it at any stage if we want to re-present things (for example, if we just
want to have the students say a word correctly in the middle of some other teaching).

We can use CHORAL REPETITION to get the students to repeat a sound, a word, a PHRASE
or a SENTENCE all together. This helps them learn how to say the new language using
correct sounds, stress and intonation. It gives individual students confidence and it
can be enjoyable for tl1em.

\Vhen we want our students to repeat in chorus, we have to give a clear MODEL '44.
We must make sure that all the students start at the same time so we will use GESTURES,
like a conductor, to get them going. We can beat time with our hands, arms (and even
stamping feet!) to establish a clear rhythm and to try to keep the whole class together.

An example of choral repetition

Teacher:

She gets up at six o'clock . . . listen . . . gets . . . gets . . . get . . . s . . . get . . . s . . . gets .
gets . . . she gets up at six o'clock. Everybody.

Students:

She gets up at six o'clock.

Teacher:

Again.

Students:

She gets up at six o'clock.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

' '

Choral repetition is highly motivational when we get the students to CHANT phrases,
sentences, rhymes, poems and songs, etc.

Choral repetition works well with words, phrases and short sentence. It is more
difficult to organise for longer sentences.

We can use BACK CHAINING to build up sentences and phrases from the end. For
example, if the sentence is You should've told her, the teacher can h ave students repeat:
her . . . told her . . . should've told Im . . . you should've told her. (The teacher, Conor, does
this in E'!l:D.)

We can use HALF CHORUS work by dividing the class in two. For example, we can have
half the class say a line from a dialogue, and then get the other half of the class to say
tl1e next line of the dialogue E!.Zm>.

We often use INDIVIDUAL REPETITION to give the students a chance to say a sound, word,
phrase or sentence on their own, and to check that choral repetition has been a success.
First of all, we NOMINATE a student and then, when they have repeated the phrase or
sentence, we give feedback. We can nominate by using a student's name, by looking at
individual students or by gesturing towards them. However pointi
seem rude. It
is better to use the hand with the palm upwards as Conor does i n .

f)t;

08

.
. . .

. 'I ,

. ' :

It is important not to nominate students in order (by going along a row from left to
right, for example); it is much more dynamic to nominate individual students in
random order. The students will then pay more attention because they don't know
when they will have to speak.

Repetition and drilling

..... ... ... . . ... ... . . . .. . . . .

.

..

.. .

..

Drills and drilling

When we start nominating individual students one after the other and we ask them to
repeat, we call this a DRILL. vVhen we have more than one target sound, word, phrase or
sentence and we get the students to choose which one to say, we call this a CUE-RESPONSE DRILL.
In a cue-response drill we give a CUE (we indicate what we want the students to say),
then we nominate the students we want to speak and they respond.
Cue-response drills are especially useful when we want the students to practise
questions and answers. \iVe can, for example, give a question word as the cue and the
student has to make a question with that word .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.

An example of a cue-response drill

Teacher:
Teacher:

(gives a cue by holding up a picture of a clock saying 6 o'clock)

(nominating a student) Alice.

Alice

She gets up at six o'clock.

Teacher:
Teacher:

(gives a new cue by holding up a picture of Meera the doctor at work)

(nominating a different student) Mohamed.

Mohamed:

She works in a hospital.

In the example of a cue-response drill on the DVD, the teacher (Conor) uses gestu re rather

than calling the students by name r:r.mI) .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.

An example of a question and answer cue-response drill

Teacher:

Question . . . what . . . Mohamed.

Mohamed:

What does Meera do?

Teacher

Answer . . . Alice.

Alice:

She's a doctor.

Teacher:

Question . . . what time . . . Piotr.

Piotr:

What time does she get up?

Teacher:

Answer . . . Yumiko.

Yumiko:

At six o'clock . . . she gets up at 6 o'clock.

Have a good mumble!

Sometimes, when we ask students to say something in a drill, or in other practice or speaking
activities, it is a good idea to allow them think about what they are going to say before we ask
them to speak. In fact, we can suggest that they

MUMBLE the words to themselves for a bit

before they have to say the word, phrase or sentence out loud.
When all the students are mumbling to themselves in a classroom, it does sound a bit
strange, but it gives them a chance to try something out and, as a result, gives them
confidence when they have to speak in front of the teacher or their classmates.

How much repetition and drilling is the right amount?

\Ve have said that drills help students to get used to the new language. But if we continue
with drills for too long, they quickly lose their appeal. We have to judge when they stop
being useful and challenging. That's the moment to move on to something else.
109

Controlled practice
In CONTROLLED PRACTICE activities we want the students to use and think about specific
l anguage item(s) as often as possible. In this unit we will look at SENTENCE activities,
DICTATION, DICTOGLOSS and MATCHING activities. We generally use very controlled practice
activities at lower levels. When students are more advanced, the practice is often freer
and less teacher-controlled.

Practisjng
new language 1

There are more controlled practice activities in '49 .

Sentence activities
Sentence completion
\i\Te can have our students make and complete sentences in a number of different ways.

Example 4

Example 1
Complete the sentence/text with the correct
form of the verb in brackets.

Rewrite the following sentences using the word

in brackets.

When I (see)
cafe. He (read)

If you don't arrive on time, you will miss the bus.

(Unless)

__

Mike yesterday he (sit)

a n ewspaper.

__

in a

__

Example 5

Example 2
Complete the following sentences with one word
for each gap. The first letter is given to you.
In the evening Shelly likes w
she g
to bed.

__

television before

Complete the sentences with words from the box.

a dventure animated comedy
documentary horror romcom

western

__

In
films people draw the characters with pens or
on computers.
__

Example 3
Complete the following sentences with some or any.
I went shopping but I didn't see

__

shoes that I liked.

Sentence pictures
We can show the students a picture and have them make as many sentences as they can,
using certain target structures or vocabulary.

Example 2

Example 1
The students are shown a picture of a kitchen with
many ingredients on the table and the worktops.
They h ave to write/say as many sentences as possible
using There is/there are + some/any (e.g. There is some
sugar on the table).

The students see a picture for 45 seconds. In the picture

people are sitting in a cafe doing different things
(drinking coffee, talking on a mobile phone, playing
the guitar, etc.). The picture is then taken away and
the students are asked what they can remember. Who
can remember what everyone was doing? Who can
remember the most sentences using the past
continuous (A girl was talking on her mobile phone, etc.)?

Many INFORMATION-GAP ACTIVITIES 'SO encourage students to make sentences in similar

ways.

Dictation

We can DICTATE short texts to the students using specific language items.

The students can dictate sentences and texts to each other.

\Ve can use a RUNNING DICTATION. The students are in groups. They each send

representatives to the front of the class to read a text, line by line, and take the lines
back to the group and dictate them. Who can finish first? This is especially effective
with short poems -763.

We can do a SHOUTED DICTATION. The students shout a sentence or paragraph to a

partner (the other students are all doing the same). It is noisy, but fun (and good for
listening practice) m.!.m?)_

Dictogloss

Dictogloss is not quite a dictation as the students don't write down eve1y word.

The students hear a short text. The text is written to illustrate a particular language
item(s). In this example, for elementary students, Emily wants her smdents to notice
the use of would to talk about habimal actions in the PAST. She uses this text:
\\Then I was a child, we used to go to Spain every year by car. We'd take the ferry
to France and we'd drive from France to Spain. In Spain we'd spend most of our
time on the beach.

a great idea

a trip to the cine ma

me to the cinema
tomorrow

The students try to understand what they hear (they can make notes, but they don't
write down everything). They then try to reproduce it as accurately as possible.

The students compare their text with the original. They see the difference between
what they have written and what was in the original. This helps them to focus on the
language in the original (we'd take the ferry, we'd drive, we'd spend most of our time on

the beach).

Do you fancy
How about

You can see this sequence on 1!1!.mi>.

Matching activities

I'd love to but

I'm afraid I can't

T -

We can get students to match lists and cards to practice questions and answers, phrases
and sentences.

Example 1

I'm not

if I can

some other time

Not to
sure
That's

In the following activity to practise questions with how, the students have to match the
questions in column A with the answers in column B.

A
1 How many brothers has Mary got?
2 How often does John go to the gym ?
3 How o l d i s John's brother?
4 How old is M ary?
5 How tall is John?
6 How well does Mary speak Chinese?

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

He's one metre 82.

He's twenty three.
She's completely fluent.
He's nineteen.
Three times a week
Three.

vVhen they have done this, they can practise asking and answering the questions. They
can then ask each other the same questions.

We can do
worry!
ould you like to
Yes I'd

Example 2
Each student is given a card like the ones in the margin with half a phrase on it. They
walk round the class and find another student who has the other half of their phrase.
You can find more practice activi ties for PRONUNCIATION in -729, VERBS -+7 and the
NOUN PHRASE in -717.

111

Practice of specific language items

Practising
new language 2

CONTROLLED PRACTICE ACTIVITIES (like the ones in this unit and in 48) are different from
more COMMUNICATIVE SPEAKING ACTIVITIES because we want the students to use specific
language ACCURATELY, rather than trying to use any or all of the language that they can.
We look at more comrnw1icative speaking activities in 52-53 .
Most of the activities in this unit can be adapted for a number of different specific
language items.

Story chains
Example 1: things I have never done (present perfect)
The students sit in a circle. The first student says, for example, My name is Roberta and I
have never eaten raw fish. The next student has to say Roberta has never eaten raw fish. My name
is Thais and I have never climbed a mountain. The third student has to say Roberta has never
eaten raw fish, Thais has never climbed a mountain. My name is Marcus and I have never . . . , etc.

Example 2: the never-ending story (first conditional)

The students are told to imagine a woman having breakfast. They are then asked to
imagine the consequences if she has another coffee. Student 1 : Ifshe has another coffee, she
might miss her bus. Student 2 has to continue the story: Ifshe misses her bus, she will be late
for work. Student 3 continues: Ifshe is late for work, her boss will be anpy. Student 4 goes
on: Ifher boss is angry, . . . We can keep the story going until the students cannot think of
anything more to say.

Interviewing each other

Students can INTERVIEW each other in order to practise specific language items.

Ii

Example 1 : what can you do? (questions for beginners with can and can't)
The students have a CHART like the one in the margin. They have to walk around the
room interviewing their colleagues, using can + one of these verbs:
bake

paint

play

speak

use

write

They ask Can you play the guitar? Can you bake a cake? etc. If a student replies Yes, I can,
they write that student's name in their chart.
We can extend this kind of chart activity by designing a FIND SOMEONE WHO ... chart. The
students have to find someone who likes watching movies, has at least one brother and sister,
got up early this morning, etc.

Example 2: present perfect with since and for (lower-intermediate)

This example is slightly more complex. The students have to complete some or all of the
following SENTENCE STEMS about themselves - some suggestions are given in brackets:
I live in . . .
I study English at . . .
I have (pierced ears/a tattoo) . . .
I play (football/tennis/the violin, etc.) . .
I work in a . . .

They then give their sentences to a par01er. The par01er has to ask about their sentences.
For example: How long have you lived in England? How long have you played the violin?
And tl1ey have to answer: I have lived in England since 2008. I have played the violin for ten years.

Practising new l anguage 2

Quizzes
QUIZZES can be good fun and provide a lot of practice of specific language items at the
same time.

Example

1:

superlative adjectives (elementary to lower-intermediate)

The students have to write general knowledge questions about world geography (or any
other world facts). They may have to do some research for this. For example:
What is the tallest mountain/building in the world?
What is the highest capital city in the world?
What is the biggest ocean/desert/country/lake in the world?
The students now divide into two teams and ask each other their questions.
We can get the students to write general knowledge questions about discoveries, works
of art, buildings, etc. They can practise SUBJECT QUESTIONS -+ 3 (Who discovered penicillin?
Who wrote Romeo and Juliet) or questions using the PASSIVE -+1 ( Who was penicillin
discovered by? Who was Romeo and Juliet written by? etc.).
( We need to remember that 'general' knowledge isn 't necessarily shared by everyone.
Different people know different things, especially when they come from different
cultural backgrounds.)

Example 2: our students' lives

We can make a class quiz with questions about the students themselves. They can ask
questions such as Who livesfurthest fronz the school? Woo is the oldest student in the class?
Who has the most cousins? etc.

Games
Many games (some of which were designed for radio or for general use) can also be used
for language practice.

Example 1 : 20 questions
The students have to find out what a mystery object is by asking 2 0 (or fewer) YES/NO
QUESTIONS -+3 . The person who uses the fewest questions wins the round.

Example 2: mystery description

Students at the intermediate level have to make sentences about a 'mystery' object using
passive sentences (It's made of/usedfor . . . ). For example:
It is often made of plastic.
It is sometimes made of metal.
It is used in the kitchen.
It is used for stirring soup and things like that.
How many sentences can they make before their classmates guess what the object is?

Example 3: backs to the board

One student from each team (Student A) sits with their back to the board. The teacher
writes a word or phrase on the board. The other students in the team have to give
Student A information so that they can guess the word or phrase on the board.

Example 4: charades
The students take turns to act out the names of books, play and films. Their team has to
guess what it is by asking questions. The acting students can only answer yes or no.
We will look at more GAMES (for younger learners) in -+93 . See also NOUGHTS AND
CROSSES -+23.
113

Information-gap activities
Many practice activities (and COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITIES, too) have an INFORMATION GAP to
make the activity/practice more meaningful.

actismg
new language 3

An

The students don't show each other their information. They have to talk to each other
to close the information gap.

We can make information-gap activities CLOSED (the students can use only specific
language items) or more OPEN (they can use a range of language i tems). When they
can complete the task using any of the language that they know, we say that the
activity is a communicative activity.

information gap is created when two (or more) students have different bits of
information. They have to share these pieces of information if they want to understand
the whole thing - a bit like the way in which different jigsaw pieces make a whole picture.

Describe and draw

In DESCRIBE AND DRAW activities, Student A describes a PICTURE to a partner, Student B .

Student B cannot see the picture, but has t o try to draw it a s exactly a s possible from
Student N.s description. The following picture could be used for this:

Student B can ask Student A for more information or for clarification.

We can use these activities to practise various prepositional phrases, such as at the
bottom of the picture, in the top right-hand corner, in the background, behind, in front of, etc.

Finding similarities, finding differences

Student A and Student B have different pictures. They have to ask each other questions
like vVhat colour is the woman 's hat in your picture? or VVhat is the woman wearing on her
feet in your picture? in order to find either what is similar about them or what is different.

We can use almost any pair of pictures for this activity. For example, they can show

sueet scenes, groups of people, different buildings or different scenes from fi lms.
Teenage and younger learners can compare two pictures of a teenager's bedroom
before and after it was tidied! (In my picture thejeans are on the floor. In my picture the
jeans are on the chair - very tidy!)

We can use this activity with poems, too, as we shall see in 63.

Practising new language 3

Information-sharing

Students can use CHARTS to ask and answer questions, using specific language. In the
example below, both students in a pair have information about different countries.
For example, Student A has the foll owing information:

A's information:
Name: Wales
Where: Western Britain
Capital cfry: Cardiff
Languages: English, Welsh
Most popular sport(s): rugby, football, cricket
Interesting information: \Vales has its own parliament.

A and B also each have the fo llowing chart. They have to complete their chart by

Where isyour country? What's the capital?

What languages do people speak there? They can answer each other's questions but must

asking their partner questions, such as

not say the name of their country. vVhen they have completed the chart, they try to
guess their partner's country.
\Vhere?
Capital?
Language(s)
Most popular sport(s)
Interesting information

Using texts for information-gap language practice

We can use

TEXTS

for i nformation-gap activ ities.

We can give Students A and B texts with different words blocked out. In the following
extract, the students have to ask each other questions (A:

What did Mandela do at

school? What happened to Mandela in 1962? etc.).

Student A
After school (where he was a keen ( 1 )

__

and runner), Nelson .Mandela became an

important member of the African National Congress, which fought against the
anti-democratic racist government of South Africa.
Mandela was (2)
were spent on

__

(3)

in 1 962 and stayed in prison for

__

2 7 years. Many of those years

, a notorious prison outside Capetown.

Mandela was relased from prison on (4)

__

He was elected president of South Africa in 1 994 and served until

Student B
After school (where he was a keen boxer and
important member of the (2)

__

(1)

__

(5)

__

) , Nelson Mandela became an

, which fought against the anti-democratic racist

government of South Africa.

Mandela was arrested in 1 962 and stayed in prison for

(3)

__

years. Many of those

years were spent on Robyn Island, a notorious prison outside (4)

__ .

Mandela was relased from prison on February 1 1 , 1 990.

He was e lected president of South Africa i n

(5)

__

and served until 1 999.

In JIGSAW READING, students can be given three different texts which each tell only part
of the same story. They have to ask each other questions about their texts to complete
the whole story. We will look at reading in more detail in

'54-56.
115

The reasons for speaking activities

There are a number of reasons why we ask students to do speaking activities in class.

Teaching
speaking 1

We want to get our students to speak so that they have to retrieve and use the

language that they lmow. RETRIEVAL AND USE is one of the ways in which students are
helped to remember language

-+22.

In genuinely COMMUNICATIVE SPEAKING ACTIVITIES we want to give the students a real

desire to speak and a communicative purpose for doing so. The content of the
communication - and the achievement of the speaking task - are as important, in a
way, as the language they use.

We wil l not tell the students exactly what language to use because we don't want them
to focus on specific language items in the same way as we do for PRACTICE ACTIVITIES

-+48 .

Speaking activities give tl1e teacher and the students a good idea of how well eve1yone
is doing.

We should take care to match the speaking task with the LEVEL -+41 of tl1e students.
BEGINNER students will not find it easy to h ave a discussion unless it is very structured.
ADVANCED students will not be motivated by simple speaking tasks.

Building the speaking habit

The following activities (mostly game-like) aim to make students relaxed and
enthusiastic about speaking.

\Ve can DICTATE sentences to the class, such as 'One ofthe nzost beautiful things I have
ever seen is . . '. The students have to complete the sentence witl1 a word or phrase.
.

They then read their sentences out. Any SENTENCE STEMS can be used in tl1is way.

We can write topics on pieces of paper and put tl1em in a hat or bowl. The students
take turns to pick out a piece of paper and have to say at least one sentence (instantly)
about the topic they have chosen.

The students have a dice. They choose one topic for each of
the numbers 1 -6. One student throws the dice and has to

speak immediately (one or more sentences) about the topic

for tl1e number that occurs. If we use two dice, then we can
list

1 2 topics.

The students h ave to talk about a topic, such as

f!Vbat I did yesterday.

Every time they

say a sentence, they can pick up a counter. \Vho has the most counters at tl1e end of
the discussion? \Ve can also turn the activity around so that the students each start

with five counters. Every time they say a sentence, they can put a counter into a bowl.
\Vb.o finishes tl1eir counters first?

\.Ve can choose two or three students. They have to construct an instant 'letter' to a

writer, thinker, artist, musician or celebrity of tl1eir choice. But they h ave to speak

Dear, Student B :
C: I, Student A: anz, S tudent B : writing . . \Vhen they have finished

their letter one-student-one-word at a time. For example , Student A:

President,

Student

tl1eir letter, three other students have to reply in the same way. This game is funny,
makes tl1e students dunk about words and syntax (what can follow what), and takes
away speaking performance nerves.

Interviews
We can use INTERVIEWS to practise specific language items, but we can also use them for
more commmucative speaking activities.
116

Example 1 : the hot seat

The students have to prepare short statements about what they did last weekend or
their favourite sport or hobby, etc.
One student now sits in the HOT SEAT and delivers a statement. The other students as
as many questions as they can about it.
When the student nms out of things to say, someone else goes to the hot seat.

Example 2: interview the picture

The students look at a PICTURE which shows several people - perhaps a famous work of
art or a photograph. They have to write questions for the people in it.

Several students come to the front and pretend to be the people in the picture. The
rest of the class ask their questions and the students at the front have to imagine how
the characters might answer.

Turning on the inner voice

In a lesson there is usually not enough time for individual students to do as much
speaking as they or we would like. We can compensate for this by getting the students to
use their I NNER VOICE - the voice we all use in real life when we imagine conversations we
could have or could have had.

\Ve can encourage the students to use their inner voices for 'silent' speaking activities.
For example, we can tell them to imagine that they are going to an English-speaking
doctor and have to explain what is wrong with them. They can imagine that they meet
their favourite fil m actor by accident. What will their conversation be?

\Ve can encourage the students to think about what they are going to say (using their
inner voice) before we ask them to speak out loud in a DISCUSSION or a S IMU LATION (or
ROLEPLAY) '53. This will give them a better chance of speaking success.

We can set inner-voice tasks for students to do on their own. For example, on the way
home they could imagine that they have a blind person sitting next to them and they
must describe everything that they see. vVhen they notice (in the street) a person that
they think is interesting, they could imagine how they would introduce themselves
and the conversation that they could have with that person. After school they can
imagine ringing up an Engli'sh-speaking friend and telling them about their day.
117

Discussions
When

Teaching
speaking 2

DISCUSSIONS

are organised well, they can be highly motivating and successful.

Example 1: buzz groups

At almost any stage we can put the students into

BUZZ GROUPS,

where they can quickly

discuss anything from what they are going to read about to what they want to do next.
Buzz groups are normal events in the life of a classroom.

Example 2: from sentence to discussion

We can give the students a topic, such as boxing or mass tourism or school uniforms
(anything that people hold strong opinions about). They have to write three sentences in
favour of the topic (e.g.

Boxing is exciting to watch or Mass tourism helps poor countries) and

Boxing encourages violence or Mass tourism destroys

three sentences against the topic (e.g.

the environment). Then one student reads out a sentence and another student has to
either agree (Yes, I agree and boxers are ve1y brave) or disagree (J don 't agree; boxing is a
horrible sport). We can also put the students into 'for and against' teams.
Example 3: prompt cards
vVe can give the students

PROMPT CARDS,

each with a point of view a bout a topic, as in the

following examples:

SC.hoo l UV1 ifov-r11 s o.v-e foo

0.rt O.Vld
SC.hool uV1 ifon1'\S look sr11
0.qe .
ir11
qood
qive fhe school o.

e)(peV1s ive fov- some po.v-eV1fs .

SC.hool uV1 ifov-ms r110.ke o. 1 1 fhe

WhC'VI sfudC'VlfS weo.v- SC.hool

c.h i ldv-eVI look fhe same .

uV1 ifov-ms, fhey doVI '+ have

fo wov-v-y abou+ fo.shioVI aV1d
C.or11 pef if ioV1 .

Childv-eVI VIC'ed aVI

oppov-fuVl ifLJ
fo C')(pv-ess fhe
mse1 ves +hv-ouqh
+he C. lofhes fhelj
weo. v- . SC.hool
UV1 ifov-ms doV1 '+
a l low +his .

We then give the students time to think about what they can say to support the points of
view on their cards before we start the discussion.

Example 4: formal debate

We can decide on a motion (an idea, a proposition) for a debate, such as Women have

better lives than men

(or the other way round). We divide the class into two groups, one
for the motion, one against. Each group has to prepare arguments for their position and
think of three questions for the other side. Each group then chooses someone to speak
first and someone to speak second. The others (from both groups) are the audience. The
debate sequence is Team A speaker 1 followed by Team B speaker
can speak and ask questions. Then Team B speaker

Team A speaker

1 . Then the audience

2 makes concluding remarks and

2 makes concluding remarks. The audience votes. Who won the debate?

Example 5: panel discussions

We can set up a panel discussion on just about any topic - or indeed replicate the kinds
of 'contemporary issue' panel debates that are common on television in most countries.
Students may feel easier if we give them
j udged on their own opinions.
118

ROLES

53 to 'hide behind' so that they are not

Teaching speaking 2

Although successful discussions are frequently prepared in the ways we have discussed,
some happen quite by accident, in the middle of a lesson. \iVhen this happens, we have to
take an instant decision about whether to let tl1e discussion continue (often a very good
idea) or whether to stop it because there are other things we have to do. We will discuss
MAGIC MOMENTS like this in ...:; 79.

Reaching a consensus
Consensus-reaching activities work because the students have to speak in order to reach
a decision.

We can give the students a situation (such as You see a parent treating their child badly in
the supermarket) and five options about what tl1ey could do:
1
2
3
4
5

Do nothing.
Look at the parent and show them that you disapprove.
Go and speak to the parent and ask them to stop.
Ask the people around to help you stop the parent.
Call the police.

The students reach a CONSENSUS on tl1e best option.

-:;53, telling them

We can guide the conversation by giving each student a

which option they should argue for.

Any decision-making activity (e.g. which out of five video clips should win a prize) is
good for this kind of discussion.

In PYRAMI D DISCUSSIONS, we start by putting students in pairs to decide, for example, on

five things to put in a time capsule for future generations to find. When they have
made their lists, two pairs join together to form n ew groups of four. They have to
negotiate their five-item lists so the new list is agreed by tl1e group. We then join two
groups of four and the new group of eight have to negotiate their lists.

ROLE-CARD

The teacher's roles in speaking activities

When students are tryi ng to express themselves in speech, we should do everything we
can to make this work.

We will often need to be a PROMPTER -:;65, pushing students forward, suggesting things
they might say next, and helping them out of difficulties. We may also need to keep
on encouraging them to speak in English rather than using their first language -:;77_

Sometimes we may decide to take part in the activity as a PARTIC IPANT. This will allow
us to keep the conversation going from within. However, we need to be sure that we
don't dominate tl1e activity.

At the end of a speaking activity we need to give FEEDBACK, showing not only what errors
may or may not have occurred, but also (perhaps more importantly) telling the students
what was successful, and conunenting on the content of the speaking activity -:;72 .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
.
.. Turn-taking
We can help our students to be good at TURN-TAK I N G (knowing when we can speak in
conversations). We can teach them expressions such as:

Could I just say something here? You may have a point, but on the other hand ..
I'd like to say something if you don't mind. Before you go on, I'd just like to say etc.
.

...

119

Telling stories
Storytelling is good for speaking, not only because it encourages the students to use a lot
of language, but also because we tell stories all the time in real life.

Teaching
speaking 3

Example 1: reconstructing a story

For a STORY RECONSTRUCTION activity, we can put the students into six GROUPS . Each group
is given one or two of a series of PICTURES that tell a story .

After each group has had a chance to study the pictures, we take the pictures away. Now we
form new groups 6f six; each of the new groups has one student from each of the original
groups. They have to tell each other what was in their pictures and try to work out a story
that connects them all. When they have finished, the different groups compare stories.

Example 2: string things together

We can give the students pictures of any four items and ask them to work out a story
which connects them.

Example 3: what happens next?

We can show the class a F ILM CLIP from YouTztbe or Vimeo and stop it half way through.
The students have to imagine what happens next. "''h en they have made their
suggestions to the class, we show them the whole video to see if they were right.

Example 4: taking time away

A student tells a story, based on a text they have read or something that has been
discussed in class. They have a time limit to tell the whole story. The next student has
to tell the same story, but the time limit is shorter. Each time a new student tells the
story again we take some time off so that they have to tell it more and more quickly. This
activity is good fun. It also ensures that the storytelling will get more and more efficient.

Example 5: truth and lies

In groups of three, the students prepare three stories. One of them is true, the other t\vo

are false. They tell their stories to the class. Can the class guess which is the true story?

Making oral presentations

"'Then students make an O R A L PRESENTATION, we should give them time to prepare what
they are going to say. If we want oral presentations to be successful, we need to find
tasks, too, for the students who are listening to the presentation.
120

Teaching speaking 3

We can give the students topics to choose from and questions to guide their

presentations. For example , we could prepare the following questions for students

Who was
the first sound effects expert? Where are sound effects used? Can you describe some typical
sound effects and how they are nzade? etc.
who choose to give a presentation about sound effects in radio, TV and film:

We can help the students to research their topic by finding

WEBSITES

and other sources

for them to look at.

We can encourage the students to use

PRESENTATION SOFTWARE

and the

INTERNET

to back

up their presentations.

In a multilingual/multicultural group, the students can prepare talks about their

countries or their region.

We can show the students model presentations and discuss how to introduce and

I'd like
to start by . . . Another thing I would like to say is . . . In conclusion, I wouldjust like to say
that . . .

develop a topic. We can give them language for the different stages, such as

We can set up

POSTER PRESENTATION

sessions. The students prepare a talk and create a

poster to back i t up. Half of the class stand i n front of their posters. The other half
visit them one by one and listen to the presentations. They have to report back on the
two or three presentations they enjoyed the most and why. Then the two halves of the
class swap round. We can also get the students to stand in front of pictures and
describe them as if they were art gallery guides.

We can ask the students to write at least two follow-up questions as they listen to each
poster presentation. vVe can choose students to summarise the presentations they
have heard.

Simulation and roleplay

In

SIMULATIONS,

we give the studen.ts a chance to rehearse real-life encounters. For

example, we can move the classroom furniture so that we represent a station office
with a ticket window. The students simulate an exchange between a passenger and a
travel clerk.

In ROLEPLAY simulations, the students are given a role. For example, Student A
(the passenger) can be given the following ROLE-CARD:
You want to buy a ticket to Boston. You are very nervous and you are in a great
hurry because the police are chasing you.
Student B (the travel clerk) can have a card saying:
You don't like your job and you hate it when passengers start trying to make you do
everything

in a hurry.

B ecause they are playing roles rather than being themselves, students often find
roleplays very liberating.

Some simulations and roleplays can involve considerable preparation and time. For
example, we can set up a job INTERVIEW situation. The i nterviewing panel can prepare
the questions they want to ask, and we can give the candidates role-cards. At tl!_e nd
of the process, the panel have to choose the successful candidate.

Students can roleplay TV programmes, parties , United Nations debates, etc.

See also using

DRAMA

'64.

121

The need for reading

\Ve all need to be able to read

in our own language, whether from books, documents,

computers, mobile devices, signs or billboards. Students of English need to be able

Teaching
reading 1

to read these things i n English, too. But reading also helps them to learn and
acquire English.

We can divide reading into

EXTENSIVE READING

and

INTEN SIVE READI NG .

Extensive reading
Reading at the appropriate level is one of the best ways for students to get
COMPREHEN SI BLE INPUT

'35 - that is, language that they can understand. The more

comprehensible input they receive, the better their English gets.

\\Then students read extensively, they are not j ust looking for specific language or
trying to do vocabulary and comprehension exercises. They are reading either for
pleasure or for information that interests them.

We need to encourage our students to read on their own so that they can keep

learning and acquiring language even when there is no lesson and no teacher to

help them.

Students will get the most benefit from extensive reading i f they read at an
appropriate level. If the text is too difficult, it will be more like work than pleasure.
If it is too easy, it may not be very engaging.

Students will get most benefit from reading texts that they themselves want to read.
Different students have different i nterests: this means that they should, if possible,
read different books.

Many publ ishers offer

GRADED READERS

range in level from beginner

(sometimes called

learner literature). These

(C EFR Al) to advanced (CEFR C l ) '41.

Some of them

re-tell stories from famous books or films. Some describe the lives of famous people.
Some are original stories written especially for the appropriate level.

\Vhere possible, we should have a collection of books (or texts) that individual
students can choose from. vVhen they themselves choose whai: to read, they are more
likely to be enthusiastic about reading.

\Ve can give students time to read in l essons - say ten or 1 5 minutes a week.
Some teachers (and schools) have

DEAR

(drop everything and read) moments to

encourage this.

We can ask our students to tell other students about what they have been reading.
They can do this orally, or they can fill i n fairly simple report forms such as the
following (for intermediate students):

TITLE:
AUTHOR:
Type of book (non-fiction, thril ler, romance, etc. )
What you like/don't l i ke about it

Would you recommend the book to your colleagues? Why? Why not?

Teaching reading 1

. .

. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Students can also, of course, fill i n

WORKSHEETS

with language exercises based on a

book, but they should only do this after they have read the book, usually as
HOMEWORK -+ 76 or private study.

Some students enjoy reading more than others. Some of them will read extensively
(and enthusiastically). Some will not. Nevertheless, we should encourage extensive
reading, expl ain why it is such a good idea, have DEAR moments and make our
classes 'reading friendly'.

Intensive reading
We often get students to read intensively i n class. This means that they will look at a
short reading text and do various exercises based on it. Texts for more advanced students
are usually longer than those for students at lower levels.

Good reading exercises help students with

of meaning) and

BOTTOM-U P PROCESSING

TOP-DOWN PROCESSING (getting a general idea

(understanding individual words, phrases and

text construction).

Intensive reading is often used to train students in different reading skills, such as
READING FOR GIST
IN FORMATION

(getting the general meaning from a text) or

READING FOR SPECIFIC

(looking for particular things, such as the times of a film at a cinema,

rather than trying to get the general picture).

Reading for gist is sometimes called

S KIMM ING .

We often ask students to read a text

quickly (skimming over its surface) and get the main idea(s) first, before we ask them
to read for more detailed information.

Reading for specific i nformation is sometimes called

SCA N N I NG

- because the eye is

searching around just for the special information that we want - a bit like a computer
scanning for only the information it needs.

Some people say that we don't need to teach reading skills like scanning and
skimming because these are things that people do in their L 1 anyway - and they can

transfer them to learning English. Others say that many students (especially those

from certain cultural and language backgrounds) don't read very much even in their

L l , so it is a good idea to train them when they read in English. What is certain is

that it is a good idea for students to read i n different ways as often as possible since
this helps them to practise reading. It also helps them to see new and previously
learnt language in context.

When we get students to read in class, we often give them a more general task first
(such as skimming or scanning) before asking them to look for more detailed
information (relating to both meaning and language).

Although we use intensive reading for showing vocabulary and grammar in context,
we should never forget that the best response to any text is to ask whether or not the
students like the text and why. This makes them think about the content and the
language and encourages them to re-use both.

Any text can be

MI NED

for l anguage -+46.

We look at ways of using intensive reading in

-+SS.

123

Read the text and choose the summary of it

Teaching
reading 2

he narrator was given a gliding lesson as a present and loved it.

She really ertjoycd it.

e Whnt clid the nami.tor think of lhe experience?

Id;, ..1re0fi
h! ukfiba h
ere.
b side and lhe other behind

ac

pl

in the text that mean the following:

e where planes and gliders

take off and land

IN GROUPS, talk about:

Wh<lt happemd when they got thel'e?

rhey \vere sirling

C
d

a How inany 1>eo1}le were in the car?

b Where \\"ere they going?
c Why were they going there?
d

a a

Look back at the text and answer these questions.

Find words or phrases

b peopl who travel with you

playing with, moving something
the place where a pilot sits i11 a plane or glider
e beating strongly

He wanlS LO do it again.
b Christophe took the narrntor's daughters for a mght in his glider.
c The narrator was gi\en a gliding lesson as a present. It terrified
him and he is unlikely LO go :tg.'l.iJl.
d Christophe bought his aughter a gliding lesson as a present.
a

whether you have beeit - or would like to go - gliding

the mos1 exciting lhi.Jl.g you have ever done

,..,hat you would like to try that
..-you h,.'lve never tried before

e
s
B

him
him.
If he said he didn'I wont ;o doe ii, Irey would loogh o him. So he
l:.eo/h2:1d;e up lo the clubhouse and got out. The non in charge d
the airfield opened the door and let them in.
'Come for yoJr flight?' he scid
'Yes, he replied, more cheeifulo/ d"K:n ne feh
'F1rs1 lime? looking for....
1
ord ro ii? '
He looked round of his two comporncru. "'.rey \vere smil no ond
hoppy wi*1 1he pre:cienl 1hey hod chosen for him. How c01Jld he tell
them that he
absolutely te111fied2
A
man come up to them. 'Hi,' he soid, 'My OOMe's
Ch1islophe. I'l be raking you up. '
He greered Christophe and shook his hcnd
r 1' \1v;ufflihisr! 1;l{se
m. choning owoy o xl
r gi gling. Then Chris1ophe helped him on with
i
o e
1r:k doch ute? :
hs:-izfow 9 i:
s!rooped hi mse!f in. Chrislaphe go1 in behind him. And rhe'l suddenly,
fa< !er loo quidly, lhey were bouncing
lhe gross behind he
fowplone ond before he cou!d soy 'Slop, I wonl lo get t' they were
bouncing up into the oi1.
He tried 10 remain dam. Tried 10 tell h msel/ 1no1 he was sole and
'
h:\0fudcnvhs ,0dn(1 rli\n1ng
togethe1. Every nme they slipped in the wind, he housh1 he v.:ould
be sick.
Ch1iSl'ophe \...as char.ing a-.-ay hoppio/. 'look!' he said. lcio\ down
rh ee. Th
or's R .
r eir heignt of 2,000 feet And leh sick again
So he loo ked from h
The High: on lasted obour 25 minules. hough ii seemed 90 on
for ever But 1n the end they dipped ro the righl and come th udding
d0\vl1 onto 1he gross. siopping few feei from where hs t-...o
daughters were stcnding. then hoi llying in the w nd.
He got onlO the gross and suddenly as he woll:.ed uo to 1he rvvo
iris he le!r a sense of Fiuge exc11emen1,
greet iee!ng of triumph, a

ooe

\'JOS

ne-.v

over

to

oui

ee'(fstnb?; dnonl.

What texts should we give students for intensive reading?

We should give our students

TEXTS that are appropriate for their level. We need to give

them material on a variety of topics and let them read in a variety of GENRES -+32

Things I know

(stories, advertisements, reports, poems, newspaper articles, etc.).

What to do before students read a text

It helps if we give the students a chance to think about what they are going to read.
That's why we give them
Things I think I know

PREDICTION

activities so that they are thinking about the topic

and getting their brains ready for reading with the knowledge they have about the genre
or the topic of the text.

We can tell the students what the topic of the text is and ask them to guess what they
will find in it. Sometimes they can form

-+52 to do this.

We can ask them to read some questions about a text before they read the text i tself.
They should uy to guess the answers, and then read the text to see if their guesses are
correct 1!1!.lm).

Things I would l i ke to know

\i\Te can tell the students what the text is going to be about and ask them to fill in a
CHART

124

BUZZ GROUPS

like the one on the left about the topic.

\Ve can also get them to write their own questions about the text.
We can show the students any PICTURES which accompany the text (or headlines,
captions, etc.) and get them to guess what will be in the text.

Teaching reading 2

We can give the students words or phrases from the text and ask them to gues what

the text is about. We can give different phrases to different students in a group
(instead of the pictures we used for the STORY RECONSTRUCTION activity -+53). They
have to guess the story which links all the phrases.

\i\Te can project the first line of a text on the screen. The students have to guess what
the next word will be. \Ne show the next line and again they h ave to guess what the
next word will be, as in this example:

It is difficult to remember what it was li ke before educational technology

changed classrooms for ever. Once we were l ucky if we had a board and
some chalk, but now many classrooms have a variety of educational

Like poetry with blanks for the students to complete -+63, this keeps the students'
attention and makes them think about language.

We can display part of a text and ask the students to predict what comes next. They
then read the next section of the text to confirm their predictions before predi cting
what comes after that.

Reading activities
\i\Te can ask our students to do almost anything with a reading text. Here are some of
the most common activities. They are designed so that the students get a general
understanding of the text first.

The students read the text and then tell each other if they liked it and why (or what
they agreed with or didn't agree with). This kind of GIST reading exercise -+54 makes
them think about meaning in general, and invites them to ENGAGE -+80 emotionally
with the text.

The text is presented as a reading puzzle. We cut it up and give the students the
different paragraphs in random order. They have to work out how to put the text back
into the correct order.

For JIGSAW READING we can divide the students into groups of three (or more) and
create an I N FORMATION GAP -+SO. Each student has a text which tells part of a story (or
contains part of the information they need). They cannot show each other their texts.
They h ave to ask each other what is in their texts in order to tell the whole story.
Jigsaw reading gives the students a reason to read and understand what they are reading.

We can ask students to TRANSFER I NFORMATION from texts to graphs, charts or other
graphics. We look at this in more detail in -+105.

We can ask students to answer gist questions about the text, such as the following:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

\i\Thich of the following topics are mentioned in the text? Tick the boxes.
Choose a title for the text.
Read the text. \Nhat three things does the writer suggest?
Read the text and match the statements to the different paragraphs.
Read the advertisements. \iVhich one is about a . . . . , b . . . . , c . . . . ? etc.
Say whether the following statements about the text are true or false.
S ay which of the statements about the text are true.
Read these short summaries. \i\lhich (a, b or c) is the best summary of the text?

We can set a time limit for reading tasks and stress that the students should use the
appropriate SUB-SK ILL to get what they need from the text in the time they have.

At higher levels, many teachers help their students to get used to reading TEST
exercises, such as MULTIPLE-CHOICE questions -+89 and other question types.
125

Teaching
reading 3

Responding to a text
\Vhen the students have read a

TEXT

in class, we can ask them to respond to it in various

ways. They may answer questions which they chose or which they were given. They;
may discuss whether they liked the text or not. Or they may go back to the text and read
it for different reasons.
Before we ask individuals in the class to give us their responses to questions, it is a good
idea to let them compare answers in

PAIRS

or small

GROUPS

-.:;67. This is good for

co-operation and helps to reduce any tension that the students may be feeling.

More comprehension
\Vhen the students have read a text for the first time (for general comprehension), we
often ask them to read it again and look for more (detailed) information. This allows
them to absorb more information and language and helps to ensure that they have really
understood what they have read.

We can get the students to look for details using WH-QUESTI ON S -.:;3, For example, i f

they have read a text about the Wright brothers, the inventors o f the first aeroplane,

Who first had the idea? What did Wilbur Tright do

next? Wben did the Wright Flyer 1 first leave the g;round?

we can ask them questions such as

We can give the students a series of numbers such as 2, 7, 1 2 and 1 903. They have
to search the text and say what the numbers refer to (2 = the wings on their flyer,

12

the number of Wright brothers, but only Wilbur and Orville were involved,

the seconds in the air of the first flight,

1 903

the date of the first flight, etc.).

\Ne can ask the students to give more detailed answers to questions such as In your
own words how would you describe ? about characters, places, ideas or things.
. . .

Different students can be asked to find out detailed information about different
people or things in the text.

\Ne can ask the students to find sentences jn the text which either confirm or
contradict different statements that we give them.

Teaching reading 3

Language questions
We often ask students to look at a text to find out things about words and phrases, as in
the following examples:

Vocabulary
1 Find a word or phrase in the text that neans . . .
2 Match the words i n blue (in the text:) with the following meanings . . .
3 Replace the underlined word in these sentences with a word which means the
same thing.

4 Explain the meaning of the phrases in blue.

Granunar
1 Find all the uses of had in the text. Which are examples of the past perfect?
Which are examples of something else?

2 Look at the text. Find comparative forms of the following adjectives . . . How do
we make comparative adjectives?

3 Read the text again. How many different ways of referring to the future can you
find? vVhat is the difference between them?

4 Find six verbs in the text. Do they refer to the past, the present or the future?

Follow-up tasks
Wh.en the students have read a text and done the exercises that go with it, we will often
want them to do some kind of FOLLOW-UP TASK, using the topic of the text or exploiting
some of the language in it.

At the

I NTERMEDIATE

level (or above) students can discuss any issues that were in the

text. They can get i n to groups to decide whether they agree or disagree with what the
text said. We can use the text as preparation for a

FORMAL DEBATE

-+52.

The students can read a text and then tell the same story from different points of view.
For example, if they have read a story about an argument between two neighbours
(about how each neighbour's children are behaving), they can tell the story as if they
were one or other of the neighbours, or one of the children concerned.

Students can

ROLEPLAY

-+53 a situation l eading from the text. For example, if the text

is about a neighbours' argument (see above), they can roleplay a police

INTERVIEW

or a

TV or radio i nterview about what happened.

The students can do more research (in the libraiy or on the

) about the topic

I NTERNET

of the text.

The students can rewrite the content of a text as a dialogue, a newspaper report, etc.
They can write a real or imaginary letter to the characters in the text or to a
newspaper about the content of the text.

We can introduce or practise some of the language that was in the text. For example,
i f the text contains some

MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS

-+8, we can ask the students to look at

how they are used and practise saying or writing sentences using them.

vVe can use the content of the text as the springboard for some new language
presentation. For example, if the text tells a story, we can retell the story imagining

what would have happened if . . . to introduce the

THIRD CONDITIONAL

-+ 2. We can use a

text about an animal or animals as the start of a longer lesson in which we teach

vocabula1y about animals.

-+46 a text for any language that is interesting, such as how ADVERBS
-+16 are used in it.

We can

MINE

-+11 or

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

127

The importance of accuracy

Teacl]i_og
writing 1
J

When we make mistakes in spoken English, we can correct ourselves quickly - or say
the same thing in a different way. But when we write, we need to be more ACCURATE.
People don't tolerate mistakes in writing as generously as they do spoken errors.

Teaching the 'nuts and bolts' of writing

Students need to learn a range of technical skills if they are to write successfully.

Although many people use COMPUTERS or MOBILE DEVICES -+86 for written
communication, there are still many occasions when we use handwriting in English.

Some students find English script difficult to master, especially if the way people write
in their language (the symbols that they use) is very different from English. We will
need to give them training in letter formation by using specially lined paper to help
them imitate typical handwriting.

Name:

7\ u -8- 6- - -GJ-c- - -fjd - - - - - - - -

\.Ve can also give them gradually disappearing letters to teach them the pen strokes
for each letter.

This kind of training is vital because readers sometimes judge people on the basis of
what their writing looks like.

Students need to learn when to use PUNCTUATION features in writing -+31. vVe can
explain the rules and we can give them unpnnctuated paragraphs like this and ask
them to put in capital letters, FULL STOPS (PERIODS), COMMAS and INVERTED COMMAS
(QUOTATION MARKS):
h e remembered the day they had met i n a cafe in new york after five minutes he
said you're the one for me and she laughed that was twenty-five years ago

The process of writing

When we write in our first language, we usually think about what we are going to say
before we do it, and we often check what we have written to see if it looks OK before we
put the paper or card in the envelope or we click on Send on the computer. This is part
of the WRITING PROCESS.

128

In the PLANNING STAGE we think about what we want to write and, where appropriate,
make notes. We also think about the AUDIENCE we are writing for -+34.

We can then start the first DRAFT (the first attempt) of what we want to write.

Teaching writing 1

\Ve

The writing process does not go in only one direction, however. For example,
sometimes we plan what we are going to write, but after we h ave drafted it we go
back and plan all over again. Sometimes at the last moment (the final version) we
rethink what we have written and go back to the planning or the editing stage.
The writing process is a bit like a wheel, in other words, and we tend to go round it
and across it in many directions.

REVIEW

what we have drafted and

The writing process

Planning

it before writing the final version.

Final Version?

EDIT

D rafti ng

Editing

Fin a l Version

Sometimes (but not often) we have a thought, and with almost no planning we write
a TWEET '32 or an EMAIL (for example) and send it without reviewing or editing it.
As a result, our writing may have spelling and/or typing mistakes and if we had
thought longer, we probably wouldn't have sent it! Reviewing and editing are almost
always a good i dea.

We can encourage our students to think carefully about writing by having them plan
what they are going to say. They can discuss ideas in BUZZ GROUPS '52. They can
research ideas on the INTERNET or 'in the school library and make notes either on paper
or on the screen.

We can encourage the students to review and edit what they have written before they
produce a final version. This is important for exam training. Students need to check
through their answers before they hand them in.

We can give the students a checklist to use while they are reviewing their work. For
example, if they are writing emails, we might give them the following questions:

Checklist
1 \Vhat have you put i n the subject line? Does it give a clear idea about the
content of your message?
2 How do you greet the person you are writing to? Is it appropriate (not too
informal or formal, for example)?
3 Have you made your message clear? Have you separated parts of your
message into paragraphs? \Vhy? \iVhy not?
4 Have you used correct punctuation? Do you think i t i s necessary for this email?
5 How do you sign off? Is i t appropriate for the person you are writing to?

When the students have written a first draft, we can look at their work and RESPOND
-?72 to what they have done, making suggestions about the CONTENT, their use of
English and whether or not their writing is COHERENT ' 34. We can become a kind
of EDITOR '65.

We can ask the students to look at each other's work and to make suggestions. This
kind of PEER REVIEW only works when the students trust each other. We will have to
watch carefully to make sure that everyone is happy with the idea.
129

Encouraging writing
Many students don't enjoy writing very much and so our task is to make them
comfortable and enthusiastic about it.

Teaching
writing 2

Spontaneous writing
'Ne can ask our students to write things instantly (without worrying too much).

We can say U11'ite down three things you want to do before you are 3 S or Jilihte down one

thing you like about learning English and one thing you don 't like about it.

We can ask the students to write an 'instant sentence' about someone in the class
(or someone well known). The students pass their sentences round the class. Can they
identify the people in the sentences?

We can give tl1em a simple sentence, such as A man was playing the guitar. They have
to expand the sentence using as many adjectives, clauses, etc. as they can, but the
sentence still has to make sense '17.

We can give students in PAIRS '67 a time limit. Student A suggests ideas and Student
B has to write as quickly as possible. Then it is Student B's turn to write. They correct
each other's work.

Students writing together

There are a number of activities which provoke

130

COLLABORATIVE WRITING.

vVe can get the students to write a sentence and pass it on to another student, folding
the paper first so that the next student cannot see what the person before them has
written. In tl1e example below, Student A completes the first blank (e.g. Peter) and hands
the folded piece of paper to Student B who writes, for example, Sally. The paper now
goes to Student C who has to write where they met, for example at the swimming pool.
The paper then goes to the next student to continue the story. "\Nhen the activity is
finished, the paper is straightened out and the students can see the whole story.

The students sit in a STORY CIRCLE and each has a blank sheet of paper. We dictate a
sentence, such as When he opened his eyes that morning, he did not know where he was.
We then ask them to write the next sentence in the story. "\Nhen tl1ey have written the
sentence, they all pass their papers (in the same direction) to the person next to them.
Each student now writes a sentence for the story they have in front of them (which is
not the one they started out with). For each new sentence, tl1ey pass tl1e papers to the
person next to them again. "\Nhen the papers get back to the original writers, they
have to write a conclusion .

Teaching writing 2
........................... L---

The sn1dents work in groups. We give them a controversial sentence, such as

likesfootball. The groups have

Everyone

to rewrite the sentence so that everyone in the group

agrees with it.

We can get the students to write

EMAILS

to each other. If they don't have access to a

computer, we can give them sheets of paper which look like email windows.

We can get the students to

TEXT

each other (using their mobile phones) to arrange

a meeting.

The students can complete a

wiki story using an

online

WIKI

87. Each student adds a

sentence to the original story (with, perhaps, a differen t colour for each). They can do
this activity on the board, too (perhaps in teams): one by one the students have to
write a story, sentence by sentence.

The students have to compose a story using social media such as

TWITTER,

where they

can only use a certain number of characters each time.

We can give the students the first and last lines of a story. In groups, they have to

write what comes between them.

S tudents do a

RUNN I N G D ICTATION

or a

SHOUTED DICTATION

48.

Pictures and writing

We can give the students a series of holiday postcard

imaginary messages, such as

slopes and one black one.

PICTURES.

They have to write

Today the snow was really beautiful. I went down three red

The other students have to guess which postcard they are

writing about.

We give the students famous portraits. They have to write a diary entiy for each one.
They can also write letters or emails from one portrait to another.

We give the students pictures. In pairs or groups, they write a story to connect them.

Music and writing

There are various activities which use

MUSIC

(without words) to stimulate writing.

We can play music and ask the students to write down what they think the composer
is describing.

We can play any music which has a strong feel (sad, happy, dance-like, etc.) and ask
the sn1dents to write words that come into their minds while they hear it.

We can tell the students that they have to write a description of a scene in a movie.
They should listen to a piece of music and then write directions, such as

A street. It is raining . . .

Night.

We can dictate a sentence to the sn1dents, such as As he came round the corner he
saw her. We tell them that this is the first line of a story. They have to continue the
story when we play them some music. Perhaps we play them some really sad music.
We then dictate the same sentence again and they have to write a new story, but
this time the music is cheerful. The students then swap papers and read out one of
the stories in front of them. The rest of the class have to guess which piece of music
it was.

We discuss music in more detail in 64.

Many teachers use

POETRY ACTIVITIES

to engage their students in creative writing. We l ook

at poetry in 63.

131

Producing a finished product

We will involve our students in an extended

WRITING PROCESS

57 if they are going to

produce something which they are going to display in public or put i n their portfolios -

Teaching
writing 3

or which is going to be graded.

Preparing for writing

Before we ask our students to do any substantial writing, we need to encourage them to
start planning what they are going to write.

Students can get into

BUZZ GROUPS

52 to discuss the topics they have chosen and

think of any words and ideas that might be involved.

We can put a

SPIDERGRAM

or

WORD MAP

22 on the board. The students can come up

and extend the diagram with new ideas.

We can ask the students to group their ideas in a logical sequence.

We can give them a checklist to think about as they start (and continue) to write and
review their work.

From analysis to production

We can demonstrate

COHERENC E

and

COHESION

34 by giving the students paragraphs

and sentences in the wrong order. They have to reorder them and discuss why they
made their choices.

If we want our students to write within a certain

will get them to start by doing

GENRE ANALYS IS.

GENRE

32 or type of writing, we

This means looking at various examples

of the kind of writing they are going to do to see how the genre is normally written.
For example, if we want

INTERMEDIATE

or

UPPER-INTERMEDIATE

41 students to write

their own online newspaper article, we might ask them to look at a number of online
texts in order to answer questions like the following:

1 What is the audience for the article? In other words, who do the writers expect
will read it?

2 Who wrote the article?

3 How many headlines are there?
4 What l anguage is used in the headlines? What tenses are used? what language
(if any) is left out?

5
6
7
8
9

How many paragraphs are there in the text?

What content is in the first paragraph?
What is the content of the other paragraphs?
What verb tenses are used in the article?
How does the article end?

Portfolio writing
We can ask our students to keep a PORTFOLIO (a collection) of their writing. At the end of
a semester or a year we (and they) can use this as part of their FINAL ASSESSMENT 88.

We can give the students examples as models for their own writing. For example, we
can show lower-level teenage students a text l ike the one on page

1 3 3 . The students

now have to write about their own friends, saying where they live, where their parents
are from, what l anguages they speak, how long they have known their friends and
what they do together.

Teaching writing 2
........................... .. ......

. ,-Yv'"(J

be..s_f 6ll..l...e..YI.cl '-s._Q_osfas

_He_ i....ve_s L"'- Joi..os. Hw eaf/...e_fl_ J
l...S 6ll..oyv-.. Gll..e_e_c..e a'Y':>d_ A.l...s
-mofh_e fl_ l...S 6/l_O'W\ J ff
-
C O .
He y;e..ak..s Gll..eek.. aY1.d
__ "'if-R1...sA. aY1.d ttll..abl...c.... t-Je
_A.ave.. k..Y\OVVY\ eac..A. e>fAefl- 6oll.. __
Six 0eall..S. t-Je o6feYI. f-Ra0
6oofba-R-R DI'\ afuhd"fj a"'-d
we So-mef_i_-mes Jo sa;...,Ri..Yl.J
--i
_ ____

__

:j
_

____

---====-i

Portfolios can also contain the students' POETRY '63, emails, letters, cards and any
other kind of writing they wish to do, They can keep their work in folders or online if
they are using an ONLINE LEARNING PLATFORM.

Writing journals
We can encourage our students to write JOURNALS in which they talk about the things
that interest them most,

It is a good idea to encourage students to write journals because they can use them to
reflect on what they are learning - and the more writing they do the better.

Journals are a good place for teacher-student dialogue. We can find out what our

students are thinking, and encourage them to use writing for real communication.

W hen we respond to journals, weshould always focus on the content of what the
students write before correcting mistakes. We can ask the students if they want us to
correct their mistakes or not.

\.Ve can give class time for our students to write their journals. This will encourage

them to continue writing.

We cannot respond to all our students' journals all the time. There are not enough hours

in the day (or week) for that! We can look at different students' work over a period of
time, making sure that we read and respond to every student's work during that period.

Biogs, wikis and contacts

We can get our students to write SLOGS '87. They can do this either on an INTRANET
(which is only viewable by the class or the school) or online (where everyone can see it).

We can tell them how often they should post a message on their blog (perhaps once a
week). We can set a time limit of, say, a month or two months for them to keep
blogging. If we don't do this, they may well lose interest.

We will encourage our students to comment on each other's SLOG POSTS.

vVe can get the students to build up a WIKI with their writings, pictures, audio or video
clips. We discuss blogs, vtikis and other ways of sharing information in '87.

Students can exchange information with students in other countries. They can do this
via EMAIL or on blog sites using WEB 2.0 tools such as Eduglogster and Wal/wisher '87.

We discuss writing for HOMEWORK in '76.

133

The importance of listening

For many people, speaking on the telephone is one of the scariest things to do in a
foreign language because, when you can't see the speaker, you just have to rely on what

Teaching
listening 1

you hear. In a face-to-face conversation we get clues from the speaker's facial
ex'Pressions, gestures, etc., but when all we have is the sound of the voice, these dues
aren't there to help us.
Many students feel the same about listening in classrooms! But listening is a vital skill in
any language, and in language learning it also helps students ACQUIRE (and LEARN) --+35
WORDS, LANGUAGE CHUNKS, GRAMMAR and PRONUNCIATION.

Types of listening
Most of the listening that students do happens when their teacher is talking. This kind of
COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT --+35 is very useful for language ACQUISITION. However, there are
two other main sources of listening input.
We use RECORDED LISTENING when we want our students to hear dialogues and

monologues from COURSEBOOKS --+81, news broadcasts, radio programmes, PODCASTS,

phone messages, film annow1cements, etc.

Recorded listening TRACKS are great for letting students hear different voices and
different accents. They are extremely useful because students can listen to them again
and again - and they will aJways hear the same thing.

Recorded listening gives students potential access to the whole English-speaking world.

Although we hear recorded listening in real life (in phone messages, automated

information on company phones, on the radio, etc.), it sometimes seems wmatural to

have a class of 30 people all listening to the same audio track at the same time,
especially since speaker-listener interaction is not possible.

We use LIVE LISTENING when a speaker (the teacher or some other visitor to the
classroom) is in the same room as the students.

Live listening includes GENRES --+32 such as lectures, conversations between two
teachers (which the students watch and listen to), face-to-face interviews, readings
from books, poetly, drama, etc.

Live listening works because the students can see who is talking, observe their body
language and their facial expressions and, sometimes, interact with the speakers.
\Vhen the speakers are in front of other people, they often speak differently from tl1e
way they speak in front of a microphone.

Live listening is more likely to expose students to speech phenomena such as

hesitations, repetitions, interruptions, etc. tl1an some recorded listening does
(especially in some COURSEBOOK DIALOGUES) . It is important for students to experience
speech phenomena.

\Vhen students listen to audio

tracks (or a live speaker) in the
classroom - and do activities and
exercises - we call this INTENSIVE
LISTENING. \Vhen they listen
outside the classroom, often by
themselves and for pleasure, we
call this EXTENSIVE LISTENING.

134

Teaching listening 1
...........................

1 . . . . .

Audio devices and who uses them

A wide range of AUDIO DEVICES can be used for recorded listening.

In some classrooms around the world teachers still use cassette recorders. These are
extremely versatile, especially if they have counters, which can help you find where
you are on the cassette. Rewind, fast forward, play and stop are easy to use. However,
cassette machines are rapidly disappearing as newer devices take their place.

Many teachers use CD and DVD players. These are easy to use when they have track
numbers, but can sometimes be more difficult (than cassette recorders) for fast
forwarding and rewinding within a track.

Many teachers play audio (or VIDEO '62) from computers or the interactive
whiteboard (IWB) '85. This is ideal since by using sliders with a mouse, a pen or
your finger it is easy to find your place on the track or control the volume.

Students can listen to recorded audio in LANGUAGE LABORATORIES. Sometimes the whole
class listens to the same thing at the same time, but at other times we can have
different students listen to different audio tracks. Language laboratories are now
much less common than they once were.

Many students have their own listening devices. These can be used for INDIVIDUAL
WORK -+67 in lessons. The students can all download the same track, or listen to
different tracks for JIGSAW LISTENING (where each student listens to part of a text so that,
by sharing what they have heard, they can reconstruct a story or a report).

"When we use audio devices it is vitally important to try them out before we go into
class so that we know how to find the track we are looking for and so that we don't
waste time and look unprofessional.

Although teachers usually control the audio device, we can sometimes let our students
be the controllers, too.

We can let the students become 'remote controllers'. They can tell a live speaker to
stop, pause, rrtlJind or fast forward. .

How often should students listen?

There is disagreement, sometimes, about how many times students should listen to the
same thing, whether recorded audio or live listening.

In real life, students often only listen to something once and they need to practise
that skill. We can make sure that our students are given 'one-listening' tasks to help
them get used to this. These are often GIST (LISTENING FOR GENERAL UNDERSTANDING) or
SCANNING-type tasks (listening for specific information) -+54.

A language class is not, however, like the outside-the-class real world. In intensive

listening, we want to give our students chances to listen more than once so that they
get the maximum benefit from what they are hearing. "When they listen for the second
or third time, they can focus on different things, such as sounds, intonation or stress
or the way speakers use certain words or grammar.

135

Teaching
listening 2

Prediction
There is almost no limit to what can be done with RECORDED AUDIO or LIVE LISTENING 60.
However, it is important to give the students a chance to PREDICT what they are going to
hear. This will allow them to get ready and to remember what they already know about
the topic and the listening genre that is coming. We call this knowledge SCHEMATA.

Before listening
There are many things that we can do before the students actually listen to the speaker
or the audio track:

The students can look at the questions which accompany an audio recording (or a live
listening session). They have to predict what the answers will be.

The students see a picture or pictures related to the SITUATION or topic of the listening
and they have to predict what they will hear.

Vle can give the students words or phrases from the audio - perhaps in the lesson
before - and ask them to guess what it will be about.

We can give the students a form, telephone message pad or chart which they are
going to fill in when they listen to the audio. They use this to predict what kind of
information they will hear on the audio before they listen to it.

If we can bring a visitor to the lesson to speak to the students, we can tell the students
the general TOPIC that the visitor is going to talk about. They then have to think of
questions to ask the visitor.

The students are told the topic they are going to hear about. They have to do some
research (or form BUZZ GROUPS 52) about the topic. They can say what they know
about the topic, what they think they know, and what they would like to know.

We can play a short extract from the audio recording and ask the students to tell us

anything they heard - and what they think about the speaker(s). They can predict
what is coming next.

Teaching listening 2

We can play the whole recording but tell the students not to listen for meaning.
Instead, we ask them to tell us about any other information they have understood: the
location, relationships benveen the speakers, etc. Using this, they predict the content
of what they will hear when they listen for a second time.

Should we PRE-TEACH VOCABULARY before the students listen? If we don't, there is a

chance that they will not understand enough. If we do, however, they may
concentrate too much on the words we have taught and so not hear all the other
words that are rushing past. A sensible compromise is to pre-teach only that
vocabulary which is absolutely necessary for the topic - or vocabulary which is
impossible to guess from the context.

Listening tasks

If we are organising live listening, we can teach the students to be good listeners.
They do this by showing their agreement or disagreement, and by asking questions
when something is not clear.

We can give the students a live listening lecture. Every minute or two we can stop and
let pairs or groups of students reconstruct what we have said before moving on to the
next stage of our talk.

Each student can be given a bingo card with, say, 12 words from a listening text on it.
Each card has different words. The students cross out their words when they hear
them. W ho crosses out all their words first?

We can choose a text to read to the class. \Ve take some (not all) the words from the
text and arrange them in random order (or alphabetically) on the board. Each student
then has to choose one of the words, whichever one they like. They can talk to their
neighbour to make sure that they haven't both chosen the same one. We then divide
the class into two teams and get all the students to stand up. We read the text aloud
and each student can only sit down when they hear their word. \Vhich team sits
down first?

We can ask different students to read different texts aloud (or tell different stories)
all at the same time. It will be very noisy! Other students have to try to listen to just
one of the speakers and write down what they say. How much can they hear and
understand? This SHOUTED DICTATION 48 is a way of making students feel less
anxious about listening in general .

We can play an audio track (or tell a story), but keep stopping. Each time, the students
have to say what they think is going to happen next. Then we continue and they see if
their predictions are right.

The students can listen to a series of vox pop (mini) interviews on a topic, such as
favourite hobbies. They have to match the speakers to different hobbies (football,
reading books, playing chess, going to the cinema, playing music, etc.).

The students listen to a NEWS BROADCAST and have to list the five topics they hear.

The students listen to a picture description and have to choose which one of four
pictures is being talked about.

The students listen and put a sequence of pictures in the right order.

The students listen to an audio track and identify some differences between what they

hear and a written version of the same content.

The students listen to phone messages. They have to fill in phone message pads.

The students listen to an interview or a conversation and have to fill in a form, chart
or graph with the information they hear.

137

Teachi_ng
listening 3

Listening again
When the students have listened to a live speaker or an audio recording for the first time,
we can ask them to listen again and do a variety of tasks.

We can ask them to listen again to try to identify more detailed information, such as
names, facts, numbers, times and dates.

We can ask them to listen again and transfer the information in the audio recording
(or what a live speaker has told them) to a different genre. For example, if they hear a
st01y, they have to rewrite it as a newspaper article.

When the students hear a NEWS BROADCAST or a story, we can ask them to retell it as if
they were one of the people in it.

Students can act out the roles of people from the original audio recording.
Students have to retell what they have just heard, making one (or more) rnistake(s).
Can their colleagues find the rnistake(s)?

Like real filmmakers, the students have to draw/design STORYBOARDS showing the
scene and the camera angle for the speakers they have just heard. They film the scene
with video cameras or their mobile phones -+87.

Listening again: language matters

We can also ask students to listen (again) in order to study language.

Students are given a section of the written TRANSCRIPT with blanks in it. They have to
complete the blanks and then listen again to check if they were correct.

We give the students a WORKSHEET with excerpts from the listening. They do a
language exercise. They then have to use the language in sentences of their own.

The students look at a written transcript of what they have just heard. They rewrite a
section so that any grammatical MISTAKES, hesitations and other speech phenomena are
cleaned up. W ith the teacher, they discuss the differences between speaking and
writing -+31.

The teacher and the students MINE -+46 the listening for interesting language.
When the students have listened to a dialogue, the teacher displays it on the BOARD.
The students read it aloud. Then the teacher starts to remove words and phrases one
by one. Each time, the students have to continue speaking the dialogue. By the end of
this DISAPPEARING DIALOGUE activity, they can do the whole thing from memory.

138

Teaching listening 3
.. ........ . . . . . . ............. ........

Extensive listening
If students really want to improve their English (especially their PRONUNCIATION -+23-29
and speaking -+51-53), they should listen to as much spoken English as possible.

EXTENSIVE LISTENING means listening for pleasure, usually outside the classroom.
Most audio material can be heard on CDs, MP3 players or online via COMPUTERS and
MOBILE DEVICES.

Extensive listening is most successful if the students choose what TOPICS they want to
listen to and the level they want to listen (or feel comfortable listening) at.

We can encourage our students to listen extensively by talking about the advantages
of listening in this way and showing them where they can find material.

We can ask our students to keep a record of what they have listened to, including
language that they have found interesting or puzzling. vVe can ask them to
recommend good listening material to other members of the class.

Students can download PODCASTS -+87 from English-language-learning sites (we can
help them find sites like these with a simple internet search), from news organisations,
radio programmes and any other podcast outlet.

Students can listen to English-speaking radio online.

Students can access the wide range of freely available VIDEO CLIPS on sites such as
YouTube, Vinzeo and Videojug.

Students can listen to audio recordings of books, including GRADED READERS -+54, and
COURSEBOOK audio material (although some teachers prefer them not to do this before
the lesson because it spoils the 'surprise' of coursebook-based lessons).

Using video
VIDEO is an extremely useful resource for listening, especially now that we can share
FILM CLIPS on sites such as YouTube and Vinzeo. But students can also watch video clips
from DVDS, COMPUTERS or MOBILE DEVICES and IWBS, for example -+85.

\Ne can play the students a video clip and then stop it so that they have to guess what
happens next. They can do this in PAIRS or GROUPS. \i\i'hen they have discussed their
predictions, we show them the end of the video.

If we are using a DVD, we can fast forward a video clip. Students then discuss what

they have seen and try to work out what happened and what the people in the video
said. Then we play the video clip at normal speed.

We can play a video clip with the sound turned down. The students have to guess
what the people are saying and/or what background sounds they will hear.

\Ve can play a video clip so that the students hear the sow1d but don't see the picture.

They have to say where the speakers/participants are and what is going on.

We can let the students watch a video clip without sound. They do this two or three
times. Then they have to invent their own conversations and speak along with the
people in the video clip. 'Doubling' like this can be very funny.

Students are given a list of the VERBS -+4 (or NOUNS -+12, etc.) from a video clip.
They have to watch the clip and put them in the right order.

After the students have watched a video clip for the first or second time, we can give
them the transcript (if it is short enough) with BLANKS. They have to try to FILL IN the
blanks before they watch again.

139

Choosing the right poems

Because poems can express big ideas and stories in just a few ljnes, they can be used for
comprehension, writing and language work. However, we have to choose the poems
we use very carefully because some poetry is extremely complex and culture-bound.

Using poetry

We need to find short, clear poetry at the right level for our students.

Predicting poetry
As with a lot of reading, we can get our students to make PREDICTIONS about poems they
are going to read or hear.

We can give the students the title of a poem (or poems) and ask them to guess some of
the words that might be in it.

We can give them some or all of the words from the poem - perhaps in a WORDLE like

the one below. The students have to guess what tl1e poem is about.

f1ead
fI ms
plays

en
CJI
... misses
miss c; Like news g c::
3CtlVttleS every
fVery Watch peopleE
tef11
3: comfort
sending c...
:t'Cl ott ru:
-meetings
nllahs
3:
see .!! blessings
.

m .Ig ht

cutht1Imn ke
=

......

'"--

"CJ

-=

CJ\

war
.

e
moving ecumenical talk
else c:1:a::-c:J-
e s . someone. always terminal
a ready
Elblu eon1 m an1 ne
books a> o
!:I
company 1
ove day know

en

r=
c=!
We can give the students words from a (short) poem. They have to uy to use tl1em to
write tl1eir own poem. They then compare their attempts with the original.

Poetry and language

vVe can use POETRY REORDERING ACTIVITIES like the one shown below. For tl1is, we put

students in GROUPS of eight. Each student is given a line of poetry on a STRIP OF PAPER.
ave to put
h

They can speak their line, but tl1ey must not show it to anyone else.
the lines in the right order to make a poem called

y;

Buying a new phone

We will need to go round the groups helping them, whe;e necessary.

Ijusf panicked.., coutd.n Y

letter of each blanked word. W hen we read the poem for the tlllrd time, they can see
the first two letters of each blanked word, and so on. This is a very good activity for
making students search their own mental lexicon (their store of words).

As I Wl'lS sfa,nd..i ng d f/r.e sink

rbelI
When SOMeore ra..ng ttie d-oo

\/Jtiicti a..MUsed140

MlJ

ldf/e d..aughfer

Using a COMPUTER with a DATA PROJ ECTOR, or an OVERHEAD PROJECTOR (OHP), we can

Next we reveal and read the poem again, but this time the students can see tl1e first

fo MlJ ew
,A.rJ., raised tt-ie d-ishc-lot/r.

I puf IV":J MObile in ft,e wd

er

(spaces where words should be). We use a nonsense word or sound for the blanks.
The students have to uy to guess the missing words. They will find this very difficult!

r-

Buf Mlj phone d..ied... So I'M tiere

reveal (and speak at the same time) the lines of a poem with a large number of BLANKS

fj,11k:-

,A.nd., Mlj /VoObile sfarfed.. ringing

The students study a poem and think about how they would speak it. We give tl1em a
chance to MUMBLE '47 the poem to themselves. We then read tl1e poem or play a
recording of it (which we can make before the lesson if we have to). The students read
as they listen and try to work out where the pauses are, what words are stressed '26,
etc. They mumble tl1e poem again. \Ve can then use SHADOW SPEAKING (they speak
along with the recording). Finally, after more mumbling, the students will be able to
speak the poem well.

Using poetry

. ........................

Poetry and meaning

We can give the students different poems. Without showing each other their poems,

they have to discuss the similarities and difference between them. This is a kind of
INFORMATION-GAP activity -+ 50 .
vVe can ask the students to write a word, phrase or sentence saying what a poem

means to them (they can write 'nothing' if that's how they feel). They do this in
silence. They then go round the classroom (still in silence) reading each other's
sentences.
We can ask the students to discuss who they would like to read a poem to and why.

Writing poems
We don't expect our students to be great poets (though some of them may be!). But we
can use POETRY FRAMES and shapes to help them produce something enjoyable.
For all poetry-writing activities it is important that the students have a chance to
BRAINSTORM ideas and vocabulary first, perhaps in BUZZ GROUPS -+52. vVe cannot expect
them to be instantly creative.
We can get our students to fill in frames which make simple poem-like verses. For

example, we can choose any topic (such as food, music, clothes, sports). They have to
fill in the following frames:
I like ...
I like ...
I like .. .
But I don't like ... because ...
How could anyone like . .. ?
We can ask the students to write acrostic poems. They write a vertical word on the

left-hand side of the page. Each line of the poem then starts with a letter of the word.
For example:
Liking English is not
Easy because grammar is
Always difficult but it's

Really good fun and I will

Never stop trying to speak it well

We can ask more advanced students to write SPI NE POEMS. They take titles from the

spines of books (for example

Dragon Tattoo).

The Old Man and the Sea, War and Peace, The Girl with the

They write the words vertically down the page and then write poems

similar to acrostic poems, with each line beginning with one word from the title.
We can have the students write HAIKU -+ 32.
Vh can take one copy of a poem to the lesson and use it for a RUNNING DICTATION .

We put the poem on a desk at tl1e front of the classroom. The students are in small
groups. One representative from each group comes up to tl1e desk and reads (and

remembers) the first line. They go back to their group and dictate it. Then another
student comes up to the desk and does the same for the second line. For each line,
new students come up to the desk to take their lines back and dictate them. Which
group finishes the poem first?

141

Using music
and drama
; ., . . ......................................

Using songs and music

Many (but not all) students love working with English-language SONGS. They provide
memorable and engaging ways of working with the language.
We can give the students words from a song and ask them to predict what the song is

going to be about.
We give the students the jumbled lines of a song. They have to reassemble the lines in

the correct order. They listen to the song to check that they have done this correctly.
This is similar to poetry reordering -763.

We give the students the lyrics of a song. The last word of each line is missing. We

give them the words and they try to put them in the right place, using meaning and
rhyme to help them.
We give the students the jumbled verses of a song. They have to listen to tl1e song and

put them in the right order.

If we type a grammar point such as

into

Google

IfI had or I should have or I wish I'd and tl1en lyrics

(or another search engine) we can find a wide range of songs with that

specific piece of grammar or lexical chunk.

Each student chooses a song that they like. They explain the meaning to the rest of

the class and play the song.

The students listen to a song (which we hope they have not heard before) by a

singer-songwriter. They have to decide whether to tell the artist either a) Write
more songs - you've got real talent, b) If you must sing, sing other people's songs, or
c) If you must sing and play, do it in private - why should other people suffer?
We discuss using songs ,v:itl1 YOUNG LEARNERS in -794.

Talking about music and songs

We can use songs and other types of MUSIC in many different ways.
We can ask the suidents to tell the class about a song that is really important to them

and why it is so special. This is a very good activity for getting classes of adults and
young adults to introduce themselves to each otl1er at the beginning of a course.

Suidents discuss which five songs tl1ey would take to a desert island or a trip to the
moon and why.

142

Using music and drama

... . ... . ..... .... ........................ ..

We can ask adults and young adults to discuss their 'inheritance tracks': the music

they have inherited from their parents/during their childhood. We can then ask what
music they would like to pass on to their children.
The students listen to a song and discuss what kind of a video they would make to

accompany it and why. They can do this in pairs or groups.

\Ve can show the students a music video without the sound. They have to guess what
the song will be.

We can play excerpts of music. The students have to say what colour the music is,

what mood it is describing, what temperature it is (boiling hot or freezing cold, for
example), where they would like to hear it and who they would like to hear it with.
We can show a FILM CLIP without any sound. The students have to guess what music goes

with the film clip. They then watch the clip with sound to see if they were correct.
We can play the students some music from a film. They have to guess what kind of
SCENE it might be describing. They then watch the scene to check if they were right.

Being careful with music

We can use music to motivate and engage students, but not all students love music - or singing.
We should keep a record of who is engaged (or not engaged) by the music we bring to class.
We can discuss music with the students and find out who likes it and who doesn't.
vVe can ask our students to bring their own music to class. The other students can say

if they like it or not.

We should ask our students if they would like us to play background music, while they

are working in groups, for example, rather than just making the decision ourselves.

Using drama
W e can use DRAMA fo r a number o f different purposes.
After the students have read and understood a drama extract or short PLAY, the teacher

can discuss it with them. \Vhich words and phrases should be STRESSED '26, for
example? They practise and then act out the scene.
The students read a scene (or extract) from a play. They have to write in their own

stage directions, including ADVERBS OF MANNER "'11 (such as

angrily, in a strange voice,

etc.). VVhen they practise (and then perform) the scene, they have to speak and act in
the way that the adverbs say.
The students read a PLAY EXTRACT. They have to tell someone else what happened.
They read a play extract and each student chooses to be a character from the play.

The class INTERVIEWS that character and asks them how they are feeling, why they did
what they did, what they are going to do next, etc.
The students write the scene that occurs immediately before a play or after it ends.
The class chooses a location (such as

a street) and an event (such as someone gets knocked

off their bicycle) and the participants (such as the cyclist, a pedestrian, the people watching, a
policeman, fint aiders, etc.). They discuss what each person would do and say. They

then write the scene and act it out.

In groups, the students act out a story in MIME (without using any words). The other

students have to guess the st01y.

In CHARADES, students have to act out the title of a book, play or film without using

words. The others have to guess what it is.

143

Section D: Managing learning

and teaching
\Vhatever we are teaching, the way that we manage the classroom is of vital importance.
In a well-managed classroom, students can learn and they are likely to be engaged. In a
badly-managed classroom, this is not nearly so easy for them.

In this section we consider pairwork and groupwork and how to use them, as well as

looking at using the whole class or having the students work as individuals.

We discuss the issue of students and teachers talking in lessons. \Vho, for example,

1-r /1-r7

should do most of the talking, and if and when teachers talk, what kind of talking should

""

they do? (Note: there is an appendix of teacher classroom language on pages 247-249.)
Teachers need to be sure that their students have understood instructions and meanings-\
and so there is a unit on this. We also need to know what to do at the beginning of a
lesson or if a student is late, for example.

') (.Q,Qc, i'> '.'tl '-

1'v\.,f1

'

,.it

_,

We especially need to know how to prevent disci.pline problems, and what to do when
they happen.

\")-.

>1..-

1..

t.

-2--

0ne of the most sensitive areas for learners and teachers is correction - how and when to
do it. In this section there are four units on giving feedback and on offering appropriate

;:,

)_ ' .
We also discuss the use (or non-use) of our students' home language (LI) - and we
and effective correction.

'tJ
._/

'

discuss ways of making homework 'work' for teachers and students.

65 Teacher roles

66 Teachers and students

67 Where students sit

68 Teacher language

69 Giving instructions, checking meaning

70 Classroom moments
71 Discipline

72 Giving feedback

73 Correcting speaking 1

74 Correcting speaking 2
75 Correcting writing
76 Homework

77 Using the L 1

78 Teacher development

A variety of roles

Teach er roles
'

VVhen we think of people who have taught us, we can, perhaps, remember times when
they stood at the front of the class and told us things; there may have been times when
we were working in groups and they came to help us; or perhaps sometimes we were
working on our own and the teacher didn't seem to be doing very much at all. In each
case they were fulfilling one or more of the different ROLES OF THE TEACHER.

Teachers are at all times FACILITATO RS of learning. This means that we must always do
eve1ything we can to make learning happen smoothly and appropriately for the
learners - making learning possible, but without making it too easy.

TRANSMISSION TEACHING (when we are giving the students information or explaining

things) is only one way for students to learn things. We must make sure that that we
also play many other roles in the classroom.

We need to be CONTROLLERS when we are explaining things, taking the CLASS REGISTER or
telling the students what to do. This often involves standing at the front of the class
and being ve1y clear.

VVhen we are acting as ORGANISERS in order to set up and start an activity, we should
1 ) ENGAGE the students in the task, 2) give our INSTRUCTIONS clearly and where possible
demonstrate the activity, 3) start the activity and 4) organise FEEDBACK -+72. We look
at instrnctions in detail in -+69.

We often act as EVI DENCE GATHERERS. When students are doing a groupwork activity, for
example, we will want to MONITOR and make notes (gather evidence) of what they say
or do so that we can provide feedback later. We will check that the students know
what to do and are doing the right thing.

We often act as PROMPTERS, pushing students to make new sentences and encouraging
them to speak when they are reluctant. We can offer words and phrases to help them
say what they want to say. However, we must be careful not to intervene too much if
they are trying to learn how to communicate on their own.

We need to act as a RESOURCE for our students. They can ask us questions about things
they don't understand. \Vhen they are involved in individual or groupwork activities,
we should be available to help them and answer their questions. However, we should
remember that no teacher knows eve1ything about the English language and so we
also need to be able to tell them where they can find the answers to their questions
(in a GRAMMAR BOOK, a COURSEBOOK, a DICTIONARY, etc.).

vVe often act as FEEDBACK PROVIDERS when we CORRECT students' mistakes, make a
comment on what they have said or praise their efforts. Feedback is discussed in -+72.

.........................................

\i\Te

often act as a kind of EDITOR, for example, when the students are writing in English
or preparing an ORAL PRESENTATION . This means responding to what they have written
(or what they plan to write or say) with comments, questions and suggestions. We
should try not to insist on what they should do, but instead try to make them think
more carefully about what they want to achieve.

We can act as TUTORS to individual students. This means giving them personal advice

and information about English and going through their work with them. We can
correct or edit their work- or make suggestions about what they can do. It is helpful
to organise tutorial sessions while the rest of the class is working on some other task.
If we can tutor a few individual students in a lesson, we can, over a period of time,
see all of them individually.

\i\Te should remember, too, that one of the teacher's most important jobs is
COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT PROVIDER to the students, speaking to them in ways that will help
their language acquisition -+35.

Teacher roles

................................ . . . ......................................................................... . .........................

.
.

What scaffolding means

Many people use the term SCAFFOLDING to describe the ro l e of the teacher. Scaffo lding
derives from the work of Jerome Bruner, amongst others. It means su pporting the students,
providing the framework to hang t heir knowledge on, just as we use scaffolding to support a
structure that is being built.
People who tal k about scaffol ding say it is like a music teacher guiding a child's arm as they
move the violin bow from side to side until the child can make the correct moment alone or like parents hel ping their c h i l dren to ride bicycles: they hold on u ntil the child can keep
u pright on their own, but even then they stay close to provide emotional support until the
child is truly independent.
Although both exam p l es concentrate on teaching children to d o t h i ngs, scaffolding is,
perhaps, a good METAPHOR for supporting students at any age.
We discuss scaffolding for YOUNG LEARNERS in

,91.

.
.
Ii

The teacher's role, the teacher's place

Because we have many different roles in a classroom, we tend to move around quite a lot.
For example, if we are transmitting information or taking the register, we will often be at
the front of the class. But if we are gathering evidence, we may want to move round the
class listening to (and observing) the different groups at work.

Sometimes we wilI act as a prompter, resource and feedback provider while working
with just one pair of students.

Sometimes we will set up a desk at the side of the class so that we can tutor
individual students.

We

need to think of the best place to be for the different roles we play.
147

Establishing rapport

Teachers and
students

One of the most important elements of a successful lesson is the relationship between
the teacher and the students. If this relationship goes wrong, learning is difficult because
everyone is preoccupied with emotions like nervousness, mistrust, anger or boredom.
\iVhen the relationship is satisfactory, everyone can concentrate on the lesson, rather
than their negative feelings.
vVe call the relationship between teacher and students RAPPORT (which is very important

for MOTIVATION '43). Although it is difficult to say exactly how to create good rapport
(because so much depends on tl1e individual personalities in a classroom), we do know
how to help it flourish.

The teacher in the classroom

148

Some teachers are loud and extrovert; some are quiet and shy. Some teachers like to
command the class; some prefer to take a back seat. As teachers, in other words, we
are just as varied as any other human beings.

However, whatever our personality, we are always performing in class, playing

different roles '65. So whatever our personality outside the classroom, it is how we
behave in the class that matters.

Students expect to see teachers behave like professionals. The way we walk into a
lesson matters. The way we stand in class matters. The way we dress matters (though
different schools - and different cultures - have different ideas of formality).

\Ve should think about where to stand or sit in the classroom. We should not always
be at the front. We should be prepared to move around when the students are
working in G ROUPS, etc.

Students like it when they can see clearly that we know what we are doing. Even if we
have not prepared the lesson in detail '79, the students should have the sense that
we have thought about an appropriate lesson just for them.

We need to be able to react to what happens in the lesson. Students will respect
teachers who can react quickly and appropriately '79.

Teachers and students

Celebrating success
vVe should celebrate the good work that our students do.
All students - not just the really good ones - react well to PRAISE (but they have to

deserve it ..;;;7 2). We must find something to praise for eve1y student. It might be a

piece of HOMEWORK ..;;;76 they have done, the fact that they have tried to answer more
questions than usual or even the fact that they have not interrupted as much as before.

When we praise students for what they have done, we should then give them a GOAL
(a mission) for the future. vVe might say: That was a ve1y good piece of homework. Well

done (praise). Foryour next piece of homework I wantyou to concentrate more on

punctuation - when to use commas, for example (future goal).
When students produce good pieces of work, we may put them up on the classroom

walls or shuw them round to the rest of the class.

We can collect work from all the students in the class and put it in a special

'achievement' folder.

If students submit good work online on a learning platform such as MOODLE or

BLACKBOARD, we can tell the other students about it or make it available for them to see
as an example of good work (we will ask the students if they mind this - and if they
would prefer it if we didn't say who did the work).

vVe can encourage the smdents to write BLOGS and/or record short video and audio

clips to upload onto public or internal WESBITES ..;;;8 7. However, we may want to make
sure that the work is of a particularly high standard before the students put it online
(where it may be seen by people outside the school/institution).

Respecting students
If we are to have good rapport with our students, the students need to feel that we respect them.

Students need to feel that we know who they are. This is not easy when we teach six or

seven groups in a week. But over time we need to tiy to show them that we know who
they are. Students often say that a good teacher is 'someone who knows our names'.

We can ask the students to put name cards in front of them so that we can see who they are.
We can make notes in the CLASS REGISTER next to our students' names to help us to

remember which student is which.

vVe can ask the students to sit in a pre-arranged class plan. However, we have to be

careful to make sure they do this, and we may want to change seating arrangements
for GROUPWORK, etc. '67.
vVe need to Uy to respond to different students differently, especially when CORRECTING

them ..;;;73-75.
vVe need to listen to what our students say and show them that we are interested in it.

This means sometimes stopping what we are doing so that a student can complete a
sentence or a thought.
We need to show - by the way that we look at them - that we are interested in our

students. We create rapport with our eyes, our expressions and our gestures just as
much as with our mouths and ears!

\Ne should respect what our students say and do rather than being critical and

sarcastic. This is especially important when we correct them..;:; 73. If we suggest that
they are stupid (for example) because they are making mistakes, it will be difficult

for

them to feel comfortable in the classroom and rapport will suffer.

It is especially important to treat all students the same, particularly when we have
DISCIPLINE problems ..;:; 71.
149

Wher
students sit

What classrooms look like

Traditional classrooms have straight lines of chajrs or benches facing the front - where
the board and the teacher are. Tills can be very useful for some forms of WHOLE-CLASS
TEACHING, such as explaining things, demonstrating, showing pictures or films and

making announcements. However, there are other possibilities, too:

Students often have individual chairs with a fold-down surface at the side which they
can write on. Tills is

m1

ideal situation since they can move their chairs round if they

want to work in pairs or groups. It is always a good idea to insist that they lift their
chairs up when they move them, otherwise it can get very noisy.

We can organise the class in a

horseshoe shape, with the teacher (and the board,

etc.) at

the open end. This is an ideal arrangement since the students can all see each other
and it is easy for the teacher to get round the horseshoe.

Some teachers seat their students in a circle. This can help to create a feeling of

equality and inclusiveness.

Some teachers have their classrooms orgm1ised with groups of students seated round

individual tables. This is appropriate for a large range of GROUPWORK tasks,

but it can

sometimes make teacrung the whole class more djfficult.

If the chairs are not fixed, we can ask the students to move arom1d, sometimes sitting
in horseshoes, sometimes sitting alone and sometimes in groups around tables,

depending on the activity we are organising. We can have them stand up and move
around the room, forming pairs and groups in different comers. For many students,
moving around helps them to learn and concentrate.

Working alone, working together

Students can work alone or in a number of different pairings and groupings.

Whole-class teaching helps to build class spirit, the feeling that everyone is involved,
together. It is rughly suitable for lecturing, explaining things and controlling what is
going on -+69. However, it is less appropriate for COMMUNICATIVE SPEAKING ACTIVITIES,
and many students don't like speaking or performing in front of the whole class.

150

Where students sit

vVhen we involve students in SOLOWORK (working on their own), we can go round the

class helping them one by one. Students can work at their own pace, reading texts
doing exercises, writing compositions, planning talks, etc. Classes are often quiet

when students are working on their own. However solowork does not always help to

promote class harmony and it may be difficult for the teacher to get round the
whole class.

PAIRWORK greatly increases the amount of speaking time that each individual student

has. It promotes LEARNER AUTONOMY (because the pair is doing the work, not the
teacher). It is highly sociable and is very useful for comparing answers, creating and
practising DIALOGUES, rehearsing dramatic scenes -+64, etc. However, it can be very
noisy and students can get distracted and go 'off-task' (tl1ey start talking about
something else). Some students don't always enjoy pairwork; tl1ey prefer to work
with a teacher or in groups.

Groupwork increases individual STUDENT TALKING TIME (STT) -+68. It encourages

co-operation and allows tl1e students to work on a range of tasks, such as BUZZ GROUPS,
discussion -+52, story-circle writing -+58, story-reconstruction -+53 and planning.
However, some students do less work in groups than in a whole-class setting. We need
to create tasks that involve MANDATORY PARTICI PATION (every single student has to take
part). Some students are not ve1y keen on groupwork and it can be very noisy.

Good teachers use a variety of different student groupings and use them for
different tasks.

We can sometimes vary student gToupings during a task as, for example, in story

reconstruction.

For pairwork and groupwork to be successful, teachers need to give good instructions
and clear demonstrations -+69.

Putting students into pairs and groups

We have to decide who should workwith whom and there are various ways of doing this.
We can put the students into pairs witl1 the people sitting next to tl1em, in front of

them or behind them. This is ideal when chairs are fixed to the floor in straight lines.

We can tell the students to get into pairs or groups and let them choose who tl1ey
work with. This is very easy but it can be chaotic and it may be difficult for some
students to find friends to work with.

We can tell the students who to work with, making sure that they have to move so

that they are not always working with tl1e same people.
We can have the students stand in inner and outer 'wheels'. They work in pairs with

the person in front of them. W hen the outer or inner wheel moves, they work with
the new person they are standing opposite.

We may want to group students according to ability so that we can give tl1em different

tasks. We can also mix students of different abilities so that the stronger students can

help the weaker ones (and learn more by doing it).

'

We can group students by chance. For example, we can have them all stand in a line in
order of, for example, their birthdays or the first letter of tl1eir name and then group
the first five, then the next five, then the next five, etc.

lmil

We can ask the students (privately, in confidence) who they do and don't want to work

./

with. We can draw a SOCIOGRAM (a diagram with arrows between students who say
they can work together) for tlus.
W hen we want our students to move, it is often less confusing (and more efficient) if

we make them stand first before we tell them where to move to.

151

Teacher
language

Who does the talking in class?

If you walk into some classrooms, the only voice you hear is the teacher's. In a language
learning lesson, however, this may not be in the best interests of the students.

\rVhen there is too much TEACHER TALKING TIME

(TIT) in class, there will not be

enough STUDENT TALKING TIME (STT), even though it is the students who need speaking
practice, not the teacher!

One of the ways of maximising student talking time is to have the students working
in PAIRS and GROUPS 67.

There are, however, good reasons why some teacher talking time is a good thing.

Teachers are the best source of COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT 35 (language that students
more or less understand the meaning of, even though it is above their own speaking
or writing level).

If we want to be comprehensible, we need to 'rough-tune' the language we use. In

other words, we will simplify what we say, use repetition, say the same thing in
different ways and (sometimes) use exaggerated intonatiqn. ROUGHLY-TUNED INPUT is not
the same as baby talk (although that

is a form of roughly-tW1ed input in a different

context); it is, instead, a way of helping students to ACQUIRE language.

Most of the everyday language that students hear (especially at

LOWER LEVELS 41)

comes from their teacher, and it is the teacher's voice that is the main model for the
students' way of speaking the foreign language - at least at the beginning.

The teacher's voice

Our voices are perhaps the most important CLASSROOM RESOURCE that we have. We need
to use them wisely and well.
We need to be audible in class so that even the students at the back can hear us clearly.

However, this does not mean shouting! Shouting usually soW1ds unattractive - and

when teachers shout too often, students no longer listen (or just talk more loudly so
that they can hear themselves). This is especially true when we are trying to quieten
students down or regain control.
152

Tea cher langauge

When teachers shout, it often looks as if they are not calm, and calmness is important

when there are DISCIPLINE problems 71 in a lesson.

It is important to vary our voice in a lesson. If we always speak at the same volume, at
the same speed or in the same tone of voice, then our students will get bored - and it
is more difficult to play different ROLES 65 for different STAGES OF A LESSON 80.

Teachers need to look after their voices. v\Te should try to relax our shoulders, breathe

properly (from the diaphragm, not just the upper chest), and make sure that there are
moments in every lesson when we are not straining our voice.
When teachers have throat problems, they should speak as little as possible and avoid

caffeine, alcohol and very cold drinks.

Giving instructions
One of the most important things that teachers do is GIVING INSTRUCTIONS, for example
when we want to put students into GROUPS -+67, start an INFORMATION-GAP ACTIVITY -+SO
or set up a DEBATE 52 or a team GAME -+49.
When we give instructions, we shoul d keep them as simple as possib l e and try to put

them i n a logical order.

If we are going to give students a handout or ask them to open their books, it is a

good idea to do this after we give our instructions. If we do it before, the students will
look at the handout or book: they will not listen to us.
When we have given instructions, it is often a good idea to check that the students

have understood them. \Ve can ask the students to repeat the instructions back to us.
We can ask them questions, such as vVhat must you do first? Is it OKfor you look at each

other's pictures? (for DESCRIBE AND DRAW 50), How long have you got far this activity?
If the teacher and tl1e students share a language, the teacher can ask tl1e students to

translate the instructions into their L1 -+77. This will clearly indicate whether or
not they have understood the instructions. However, this may break the 'English
atmosphere' in the class.
The best kind of instruction is

DEMONSTRATION. If we really want our students to know

how they should do an activity, we can get them to do it first with our help. One of
the best ways of doing this is for the teacher to do the activity with one student (or a
group of students) while the rest of tlle class watch. The teacher can guide the
demonstration students through the activity and then eve1yone knows exactly what
to do .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.

Teaching ideas: demonstrating a Find someone who

When we use a

FIND SOMEONE WHO

...

activity

-+49 for the

...

activity

first ti me, the students need

to u nderstand exactly how it works. They have to go round the class find ing someone who
does/has done/w i l l do (etc.) the t h i ngs o n their chart - and writing down the names of
people who say yes
One of the best ways of doing this is to put the c h a rt on the board (or have a student at the
front of the class with their chart i n their hand) The teacher can

ELICIT the questions for the

chart a n d show the students what to write - depending o n the an swers they get.

We look at giving instructions and checking meaning in more detail in -+69.

153

Giving instructions
There are a number of things we need to do when giving instructions.

Giving
instructions,
checking meaning

We should keep our instructions simple, using short simple sentences. For example,
instead of saying (for a DESCRIBE AND D RAW activity '50) :
Today I would like you to get into pairs with the person next to you and when that's all sorted
out, then I'll give you one of the pictures I've got here which I'll hand out pair by pair and
then one ofyou takes the picture and he or she nzustn 't show the picture that I have given them
to their neighbour . . .

we can say:

OK, I wantyou to work in pairs. You andyou. You two. I'm going to give one student a
picture. Do not show it to your partner . . etc.
.

We need to break down the instructions we want to give into manageable chunks so
the students don't have to take in too much information at the same time. We discuss
SCAFFOLDING in ,65, 91.

We must make our instructions logical and COHERENT '34. For example, instead of
sayi ng 1 ) Don 't show the picture to your partner. 2) l'nz going to give you a picture, we will
give the instructions in the sequence 2 , 1 .

Where possible, we will demonstrate the task. We can get a student or several
students to help us.

v\lhere possible, we should let the students see us doing the activity. For example, if
we want them to get involved in a DEAR reading activity '54, they should see us
reading, too. If we want them to learn how to use dictionaries, they should see us
using them appropriately.

\i\Te don't have to give our instructions all at once. We can feed in new instructions as

an activity progresses.

An example of instruction giving

The teacher (Conor) wants the students to do an activity cal l ed
' It says here
instructions,

. ' '29. Notice the times that he 1) gives clear

2) marks stages of the activity and 3) DEMONSTRATES

parts of the activity by reading himself so that the students can

see him, and then model ling what he wants them to do.
Conor:

(1) What you need to d o is read the text and find your
favourite sentence. 0K7 Cool.

(3) Conor reads the text, too, as an example.

Conor:
Conor:

(2) O K, one more minute.

(2) OK, so we've a l l read the text. What we're going to

do now is look at the text and this time (1 ) I want you to

choose your favourite sentence, O K, and then practise

reading it. Choose your favourite sentence and then
practise read ing it.

(3) Conor practises reading himself.

Conor:

(2) OK, good, so what you're going to do now is (1) read

your sentence to the class and make it sound l i ke the

most exciting, crazy thing you have ever heard. For
example

(3) (he exaggerates) 'The l argest n u m ber of

300,000 fo r the

extras in a f i l m was for Gandhi 1 998;

funeral scene' Wow! Yeah, I know, it says here. (He

reminds the students of the task) 0K7

.
.
e e e e e e e e . e e e e . e e e e . e . e e e e e e e . e e e e e e e e e . e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e . e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e II . II II e II II II II II II II II e II II II II II II e e II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II e e II II II

154

Giving i nstructions, checking meaning

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .

Checking instructions
\Ve need to be sure that the students have understood our instructions.

We can ELICIT the first answer (or get the students to do the first part of a task) to see

if they h ave understood what to do.

We can demonstrate the activity and make deliberate mistakes to see if the students

notice that we are getting it wrong.

We can ask small detailed questions about the task, such a

gotfor this activity? or Can you look at your partner's picture?

We can stop activities at any stage, and say things like

t 1;: how long ha

you

Can anyone tell me what

Student A should be doing right now?

Checking meaning
\iVhen teachers ask Do you

understand?

students often say yes, because, perhaps, they

think that is the answer we want - even i f the answer should be

no

We have to find

better ways of making sure they know what is going on.

We need to include CONCEPT CHECKING when we introduce new language -+44.

For example, if we have presented the sentence I managed
ask the students to choose the best way of explaining it:

a)
b)

It was easy but I did it.

It was difficult but I did it.

c)

It was difficult so I couldn't do it.

d)

I tried and I did it, etc.

to open the window,

we can

We can use questions to check meaning. For example, if the students are studying the

-+2 with senteces like If the alarrn clock had gone off, he wouldn 't
have been late, we can ask CONCEPT QUESTIONS such as Did the alarm clock go off? What
time
does he usually get to work? What time did he get to work today? What was the reason? etc.
THIRD CONDITIONAL

We can get our students to give us more examples of the concept we have introduced.

For example, if we have introduced the word

vehicle,

we can ask members of the

class to come up with more examples of vehicles. This will tell us if they understand
the word.

We can ask the students to draw PICTURES of the words we have introduced. We can
also get them to act out the meanings of new words.

155

Classroom
moments

How to start a lesson

Some teachers put on music before the students start com ing into class. This sets the
mood for what is to follow. However, we need to remember that music may not be
popular with everybody 64.
We can make TAKING THE REGISTER/ROLL an enjoyable activity. Instead of just sayjng yes
when we call their names, the students have to answer with a word i n a category we
give them (such as food, transport, feelings or PHRASAL VERBS 9) or with a sentence
about what they did at the weekend, etc.

Some teachers start their lessons with WARMERS to get the students in a good mood
for a lesson. These are often connected with the topic of the lesson that is coming.
Activities like this are also sometimes called ICEBREAKERS. They are often games or
activities such as RUNNING DI CTATION 48, POETRY REORDERING 63 or MATC H I NG
activities 48, where the students have to move around or puzzle things out.

\Ve can go straight into the lesson by asking for a class story. We give the students the
fi rst line and they have to continue sentence-by-sentence; the storyteller changes
every time we throw a ball, blow a whistle or use some otl1er metl1od.

When students are late

There are a number of things we can do when students arrive late.

vVe can get class agreement on what to do about lateness. We can include this in an
agreed CODE OF CONDUCT 71.

\Ve can make sure tllat we start lessons with an engaging activity so that the students
don't want to be late. For example, we can say that at the beginning of the next lesson
they can ask us about a forthcoming test and that we wi ll answer honestly.

\Ve can get late students to explain why they were late and allow the class to give
their excuses a 0-5 GRADE.

We can get the rest of the class to swnmarise what has happened so far for the
students who are late.

We can tell late students that they will have to give their reasons for being late at the
end of the lesson.

We can say that students cannot come into the lesson if they are more tllan five

minutes late.

156

Classroom moments

We need to be sure that our actions are in line with the policy of the school and that they
are not hurtful to the students involved.
We discuss DISCIPLINE in 71.

When the class needs to be quiet

We often need to be able to quieten the students down - especially after a noisy activity.
When we want to end an activity, we need the students to stop what they are doing.

When teachers shout too of ten, the students ignore them and the noise level
increases. However, if the teacher speaks very loudly and this is unexpected, it may
m ake the students stop what they are doing because they are curious.

Some teachers start talking very quietly to the people at the front of the class and hope that

the others will quieten down because they are all interested in what tl1e teacher is saying.

Some teachers raise their arms. vVhen they do this, the students have to raise tl1eir
arms, too, to show that they have seen and to indicate that they are quietening down
and finishing the activity.

Some teachers use little bells or miniature cymbals or a whistle (or some otl1er musical
noise) to indicate that an activity is over.

Some teachers count backwards from five or ten. \i\lhen they finish, the class has to be
quiet and stop what they are doing.

Some teachers stand (usually in the same place each time so the students know what is
happening), watch and wait until the class has quietened down. It helps to maintain
eye contact with the class when we do this.

We need to find the technique which suits us and our students best. It is important tlrnt
we talk about it witl1 tl1e students so that they recognise the technique when we use it.

Finishing the lesson

One of the most difficult things for many teachers is to finish the lesson before the bell
goes! Getting our timing right can be challenging, especially if MAG IC MOMENTS or
UNFORESEEN PROBLEMS have happened 79. However, if we can, i t is sensible to finish the
lesson properly and end on a positive note.

It is a good idea to summarise what has happened in the lesson and ask the students to
tell you what tl1ey have learnt.

Some teachers like to tell tl1eir students what they can look forward to in the next
lesson. They want tl1e students to be enthusiastic about coming back to class.

Some teachers like to end their lessons by asking the students to write down (three)
things that they have learnt, or (tluee) things that they think are the most useful for
them now or will be in tl1e future.

Some teachers like to end lessons with an enjoyable activity such as a GAME 49,
a SONG 64 or some other fun activity to send the students away in a good mood.

Some teachers like to end witl1 some quiet EXTENSIVE READING 54 or, especially with
young learners, with a READING CIRCLE 96 where they read to their students.

"\ATe can ask our students to write their own TEST question 89 which they can give
to a colleague to take away (and bring back in the next lesson).

The most important thing, perhaps, is to vary the way we end our lessons so that our
students look forward to the end of the lesson for tl1e right reasons!
We discuss PLANNING in 79-80.
157

Discipline

Reasons for discipline problems

All teachers have had to deal with DISCIPLINE problems in their lessons at various stages in
their careers. It is part of the life of being a teacher.
There are many different reasons for discipline problems.

Some students have low SELF-ESTEEM (they doubt themselves and h ave no confidence).
They seem to need the approval of the teacher or their peers (fellow students). They
may try to get approval by asking for attention all the time or by behaving badly. \i\Te
discuss self-esteem in YOUNG LEARNERS in -+91 .

Some students become very

Some students are afraid of the strongest members of the class and so they do what
those stronger members do, even when they know that i t is wrong.

Students feel very upset if they think that the teacher does not respect them or if they
think the teacher treats i ndividual students differently. 'It's not fair!' is often stage 1 of
future discipline problems.

Some younger learners come from families where education is not important. It is
difficult for teachers to change that attitude.

Some students are unhappy in their home life and they bring this unhappiness into class.

DEMOTIVATED

-+43 when they fa il.

Preventing discipline problems

If we create successful well-behaved classes, discipline problems are unlikely.

Te can talk to the class about what good behaviour means. We can ask the students
what they think is acceptable (e.g. We will respect other people's opinions. We will wait till

the lesson finishes before getting up and leaving the class. We should not interrupt people before
they have finished jpeaking, etc.).

158

After a discussion about good behaviour we can negotiate a CODE OF CONDUCT, a kind of
contract between us and our students. They can help us by agreeing ' rules', such as
(for YOUNG LEARNERS -+92) No laughing at each other, Eve1)'one has a turn, No jpeaking
when someone else is speaking, We put our hands up ifwe want to say something, etc.

Discipline

It is a good idea to remind the students about the code of conduct from time to time
- and sometimes we may need to discuss it again so that everyone understands clearly
what is acceptable and what is not acceptable.

D iscipline problems are much less likely if the teacher focuses on success rather
than failure.

Discipline problems are always less likely if teachers know what they are going to do.
If the teacher is in control, the students are less likely to get out of control!

Discipline problems are less likely if the students are engaged with the lesson. \ e
should always think about how to make this happen before we go into the classroom.

Discipline problems are much less likely if we treat all our students equally. If we have
obvious favourites, for example, the students may resent this.

Discipline problems are less likely to continue if we always act in the same way - and
with determination - when things go wrong.

But when there are discipline problems, what then?

The most important thing to do when things go wrong is to stay calm - or at least to
look calm, even if we don't feel it! Students of whatever age find it difficult to respect
teachers who panic.

When something goes wrong, we should act immediately. If we wait and hope that
things will get better, they probably won't.

Most discipline problems (but not all) disappear when the teacher shows that the
behaviour is wrong.

We can make students go and sit somewhere else so that they are not next to the
person who is helping them to cause trouble.

We should always try to respond to the behaviour rather than the character of the student.
If we use sarcasm or personal insult, it is more difficult to regain control. But if we focus
on what happened instead of who was responsible, it will be easier to stop the problem.

We can use the code of conduct to stop discipline problems. We ask the class what
everyone agreed to do and what not to do and then show that someone is behaving in
a way that breaks the code.

When we praise students, we try to give them a GOAL for the future 66. In the same
way, we should always look towards the future when a discipline problem happens.
Once we have stopped what is happening, we should talk about what will happen next
or how things could be better in the future.
Sometimes it is better to walk up to a student who is behaving badly. However, we
don't want this to look like a physical challenge. \Ve should keep our distance, keep
eye contact and remain calm at all times.
We should never threaten to do things that we are not going to do because students
will soon stop listening to our threats.
When it is possible, we should talk to students in private. We can ask what they think
is the problem. We can discuss what happened. We will only tell them off (lecture
them about their behaviour) if the discussion does not go well.
If we are having difficult and worrying discipline problems, we should always talk to
colleagues and to the co-ordinator, head teacher, etc. There is no shame in this. All
teachers have discipline problems sometimes.
We should find out exactly what the discipline policy of tl1e school is and always act
according to that policy. The students should know what the policy is, too, so that
they are clear what will happen next if a discipline problem goes on being serious.
159

Teacher feedback
v\Th en students say or write things, they usually expect feedback from the teacher.
This often comes in the form of some kind of EVALUATION . Here is a typical example

Giving
feedback

(the teacher is organising a question and answer drill -+47) :

Question . . . what . . . Guido.

Teacher:
Student (Guido):

v\That's the boy doing?

Teacher:

Good.

When the teacher says

Good,

she is giving feedback. She is telling Guido that he said the

question correctly. This kind of evaluation feedback is exnemely common and useful, but
tl1ere are many other ways of responding to students' work too, as we shall see in this unit.

Acknowledgement and evaluation

It is important that our students know that we have heard what they have said or read
what they have written. v\Te need to ACKNOWLEDGE their connibution and conunent on
both the language they have used and on how well we think they have performed a task.

Students like to lrnow if their writing or spealcing is correct. When we say

Good

(like the teacher above) or just repeat what the student says without comment, this
indicates that we are happy witl1 what they said, e.g.
Student:

Last night I went to the cinema.

Teacher:

Yol:l went to the cinema.

However, we need to be careful to use approving and enthusiastic intonation -+27 so

that the students understand tl1at we are happy with what they have said.

"Te should be careful not to praise students too enthusiastically too often. If we say

Fantastic! or Well done.' to everything that they say,

the words lose their meaning.

S tudents don't enjoy being praised if they cannot see a good reason for it.

We often need to show tl1e students that what they have said is incorrect. They can often
correct themselves when we do this. We look at how to correct students in -+73-75.

Going further
Instead of only giving evaluation feedback, we can follow up what students say or write
with repetitions and comments which will make tl1em say or write more.
We can REFORMULATE or RE-CAST what the student has said, e.g.

Student:
Teacher:

I have been to the cinema yesterday.

Oh, you went to the cinema yesterday.

This is a popular correction technique -+73, but it is also a useful (and communicative)
way of encouraging the students to hear and think about otl1er ways of saying things.
"'e can repeat what the student has just said wiili a rising INTONATION, e.g.

Student:

I went to the cinema yesterday.

Teacher:

You went to the cinema yesterday?

Depending on our facial expression and tl1e intonation we use, this shows
we want them to tell us a bit more (about what they have just said)
more about what tl1ey have said to see if they think it was correct.

or

either that

to thi nk a bit

Giving feedl:iack

\Ve can ask our students to clarify what they have just said, e.g.
Student:
Teacher:

I went to the Arts Picture House last night.

Oh, you mean you went to see a film?

This is a useful way of making them try to explain themselves more fully or in
different way.
We

can comment on the

Student:
Teacher:

CONTENT

of what the smdents have just said, e.g.

I saw 'The King's Speech' at the cinema last night.

Oh you saw that film, did you? I hope you enjoyed it. I did when I saw it.

Students appreciate this kind of (genuine) acknowledgement and it m ay encourage

them to say more.

\rVe can use

Student:
Teacher:

FOLLOW-U P QUESTIONS

to encourage students to say more, e.g.

I saw 'The King's Speech' at the cinema last night.

Oh really. Did you like it? What was your favourite bit?

Which kind of feedback?

We have to decide on which kind of feedback (or follow up) we want to use.

If the students are involved in

feedback -+73.

v\Then they are involved in more genuine communication, we often ask for
clarification, comment or use intonation to show that we want to hear more.

There are many occasions, however, when any of the types of feedback and follow up
might be useful for students. \Ve have to decide instantly which is more useful for a)
their accuracy, b) their creative use of the language or c) getting them to remember
language they know but aren't using much.

DRILLS

or CONTROLLED PRACTI CE, we often use evaluation

Giving feedback on written work

A5 we shall see when we discuss CORRECTING WRITTEN WORK -+ 75, we give feedback on
written work in a variety of ways.

Evaluation means telling the students when they have done well or made mistakes.

\Ve often use CORRECTION SYMBOLS for this -+75.

COMMENTING means reacting to the content of what the students have written. We
might write something like:
1 V"ea l l'-1 l i ke LJOUV" desc.Y ipf ioV\ of fhe foum fhaf LJOU vis ifed . Do LJOU fhiVlk LJOU w i l l qo

fheV"e aqa i V\ ?
-

- -

- --

.,-- ......,._.--....,,.

.......-

--

<"'

---

This shows the students that we are interested in what they have written, not just how
well or badly they have done it.
means commenting on students' written work and suggesting ways that
they might want to change it. This is especially useful when they are involved in
PROCESS WRITI NG -+57. We might write something like:

RESPONDING

YouV" sfoV"LJ is veV"'-1 ey:c. ifiV\q, buf '-1ou oVllLJ use fhe pasf s imple feV1se . C'aV\ '-1ou Think of

f i mes when LJOU c.ould use fhe pasf c.onfiV1uous oV" fhe pasf pedec.+ ? H m iqhf make
'-1ouV" sfoV"LJ moV"e iV1feV"esf iV1q .
......

--

_
=">:i.. , -

-.---,.c---...,,,,_ _

.,.,..,.
,_
,,..._
.
_
__
_

161

Different kinds of correction

The way we CORRECT mistakes will depend on the kind of mistake the student makes

-+37 and what kind of activity the students are involved in -

Correcting
speaking l

We can make a difference between activities which focus on ACCURACY and those which
focus on FLUENCY -+37. When students are rryjng to say (new) language correctly
during PPP sequences, for example - we call this accuracy work. But when they are
engaged in COMMUNICATIVE SPEAKING ACTIVITIES -+51 , we say that they are focusing on

j'

fluency - trying to

speak spontaneously using any and all of the language they know.

We tend to correct more during accuracy work. We help the students to say new

language correctly, partly by showing them what mistakes they are making so that
they can fully understand what they are learning.
When students are involved in fluency work, we are, perhaps, more careful about

when and how to correct. If we correct too much, we will stop the stu dents expressing
themselves; we will stop the RETRI EVAL A N D USE -+22 which are important elements for
remembering language. However, correction can still be appropriate during fluency
work. It depends how we do it.

Students correct themselves

If we think that students can correct themselves, there are a number of things we can do
to make tl-Us happen.
We can show tlrnt something is wrong by using FAC IAL EXPRESSION (for example a raised

eyebrow or soi:ne other surprised or quizzical expression), or by using GESTURE and/or

body language to show surprise. This can be amusing, but it can also offend certain
students, so we must be very careful and try not to do this inappropriately.

We can echo what the student has said using rising INTONATION. This indicates that we

expect something more. The students may realise this and then be able to correct

themselves:
Student:

If I won a million dollars, I buy an aeroplane.

Teacher:

If I won a n-lll lion dollars, I buy an aeroplane?

Oh, yes. If I won a n-Ullion dollars I would buy an aeroplane.

Student:

We can draw the student's attention to the actual n-ll stake by stressing the part of

the sentence where the n-llstake was made:

Student:
Teacher:
Student:

If I won a million pounds, I am travel round the world.

H I won a nUllion pounds, I AL\1 TRAVEL round the world?

Oh, yes. I would travel round the world.

Or we can just repeat one word or phrase so that students know what part of the
sentence to try to correct:
Student:

I have winning a n-ll llion pounds, I would buy a house for my mother.

Teacher:

Have winning?

Student:

Oh, yes. If I won a million pounds, I would buy a house for my mother.

vVe can also use explicit statements and questions to show incorrectness in the hope

that the students can correct themselves:

Student:

H I won million pounds, I would help the poor.

Teacher:

Do we say 'million pounds'?

The teacher could also say

162

Do we use an a1,ticle with million, hundred, etc. ?

Correcting speaking 1
. . . .... . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . .. .... . . .

Students correct each other

If the students

cannot correct themselves, what do we do then?

We can ask other students in the class to help the student who is having problems.
Student (Yutaro):
Teacher:

If I am winning a
If I AM winn ing?

million pounds I am stopping work.

. . . (the studen t is uncertain and cannot correct himself)

Student:
Jun, can you help??
Teacher:
I f I won a million pounds I would stop work.
Student Gun) :
Yutaro?
Teacher:
Student (Yutaro) : If l won a million pounds I would stop work.
Very good.
Teacher:

We should be careful when using students to help each other. Some people don't like
being made to look 'weaker' in this way.

. . . . . . . . " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.

The Silent Way

Caleb Gattegno

(1911-1988) promoted a teac h i ng method cal led THE SILENT WAY, so c a l l ed

because teachers do as l ittle ta l k i ng as possible.

After model l i ng new l a nguage, the teacher nominates the students in turn (usua l l y with a
si lent gesture). The students each have to say t h e new l a nguage If they can not do this, the
teacher si lently nomi nates other students and keeps doing this until one of them says the
new l a nguage correctly. The teacher then uses that student as a model u ntil everyo ne e l se
can say the new l a nguage as well as the successful student
The students' relia nce on each other is very powerful a nd forces them to pay attention rea l ly
carefully. However, it can a lso be quite stressfu l .

Reformulation
We can REFORMULATE (or re-cast) what students say '72, using the correct language form.
Student:
Teacher:

If is raining, I am getting wet.

right. If it rains, you will get wet.

Yes y ou' re

For some students (but not all) this may be enough to make them (and the rest of the
think carefully about what they have jus t said. They may correct themselves - or at
least notice the difference between what they said and what the teacher says.

class)

From correction to (re)teaching

Sometimes we have to break off from what we are doing and (re)teach something that
are having difficult with.

ou r students

As an example, imagine that a teacher is not getting any response when she tries to
correct students who are using furniture as a COUNTABLE NOUN '12.

The teacher stops the sequence and puts two headings (Countable nouns, Uncountable
nouns) on the board. She elicits nouns that the students know (includingfitrniture) and
writes them (or gets the students to v.rrite them) in the correct columns.

Th e teacher then reviews the rules for countable and uncountable nouns before
returning to the previous activity.
163

When should we correct?

As we saw in '73, we use correction differently if the students are involved in a
COMMUNICATIVE SPEAKING ACTIVITY.

Correcting
speaking 2

If we correct our students all the time when they are trying to say something

interesting, we may make them feel nervous. \Ne may stop them trying to find the
best way to say things in English - one of the main reasons for doing activities
like this.

Many students say that they want to be corrected at the exact moment when they

make a mistake. However, if we do correct all their mistakes in tl1is way, they generally
become frustrated and the speaking activity is less successful.

However, it may sometimes be appropriate to correct students when they are trying
to say something that is important to them. They may have a strong MOTIVATION to
speak correctly.

We have to decide how much to correct while a communicative speaking activity is

taking place. If correction will stop tl1e activity, then it is probably better to wait until
afterwards. But if it is fairly easy to help the students out through correction - and
this does not stop the conversation - then we may decide to go ahead.
It is a good idea to ask the students when and how they want to be corrected and to

come to an agreement with them about how i t will happen.

Correcting while the activity is taking place

If we correct while a speaking activity is happening, we will try to do so without

disrupting tl1e activity too much. Our correction will often be more like SCAFFOLDING

'65 than direct teaching.

We can use REFORMU LATION

' 72 as a gentle reminder to the student who is speaking,

as in the following example:

Student:

So I like listen to music when I driving and also in the house.

Teacher:

You like listening to music when you are driving.

Student:

Yes, when I am driving and I like l istening to music in the house, and . . .

Notice that once the teacher has reformulated the student's sentence, she does not
insist on the sentence being said again. She hopes that her gentle reformulation will
be enough.
We can, of course, say things like

Remember 'furniture' is an uncountable noun

in the

middle of a communicative activity, but as with reformulation we don't usually insist

on the students stopping to correct themselves.

However, if the mistakes that are being made are having a bad effect on the
activity, the teacher may feel that they should stop the activity and do a bit of
(re)teaching "'73.

Making a record of what is being said

\Nhen our students are involved in a speaking activity, we will make a record of
what they say so that we can give FEEDBACK and correct them when the activity
is finished.
We can 'eavesdrop' on what is happening. In other words, we listen without

interrupting - and without dominating the event. We can sit just outside a group or

stand to one side of the class, listening to what is being said.

164

Correcting speaking 2

While we are eavesdropping on groups or on the class, we can make a note of

anything that we want to talk about later - both mistakes that we hear, and also things
that students do or say well. However, we should not be too obvious about this since
this will be almost the same as instant correction.

We can use a chart to help us record both the successful and the less successful
aspects of what we hear, such as the following:

Content

Grammar

Words and phrases

Pronunciation

\Ve can use a microphone or video camera to record a speaking activity, though this
will only work if the microphone quality is good enough.

Correcting after the event

We can use the information we recorded to make corrections after the students have

finished a speaking activity.

We will respond to the CONTENT of what the students said, not just the language

they used.
\Ve will tell the students what we liked (content and language). Positive feedback has

a strong motivational effect.

vVe can write a few mistakes that we recorded on the board. We can ask the
students to say how they could correct these. Ho wever, we will not say who made
the mistakes on the board because we don't want to make any particular student feel
bad .
.

We can watch or listen to our audio or video recordings with the class and point out
where things were successful or not successful.

We can play the audio/video recording and ask the students to comment on successful

and less successful uses of l anguage.

We can ask the students to transcribe a short section of a video or audio recording.
We can then analyse the transcriptions and a) say what we like and b) make any
necessary corrections.

Correcting for the future

The point of correction is to help our students achieve more success in the future.
\Vhen the students are preparing to make an ORAL PRESENTATION

-+53, we can let

them practise their presentation and give them feedback (making suggestions
and corrections) so that when they do their (final) presentation again, it will be
even better.

W hen students are creating DIALOGUES for acting out, we can go round the class
helping them to say things in a more correct and appropriate way.

If we have the students tell stories more than once -+53, we can comment on
what we hear the first time round so that the next (and subsequent) tellings of the
story will be better.

165

How much to correct

Corrting
writing
t

It is often difficult to decide how many mistakes to CORRECT in a student's written work
and how to do it. We do not want to cover their paper in a discouraging mass of red ink
(or its equivalent).

We have seen that it is important to comment on the CONTENT of our students' work
rather than just focusing on the language that they use 72.

We

have said that when we are helping students in PROCESS WRITING 57, we respond
to their work and suggest ways that they can improve it. This is rather different from
giving correction.

However, when we return corrected students' HOMEWORK 76 or other written work,

we want them to look at the corrections and suggestions and, where possible, to
rewrite their work correctly.

What to correct
If we correct everything, then students may be DEMOTIVATED 43 by the number of
corrections we make. There are ways of correcting only some things:

We can select what we are going to correct and tell the students before they do the
work. For example, we can say that we 'Arill only be correcting SPELLING. As a result,
the students are likely to think more carefully about how to spell than they would
otherwise have done.
v\Te can ask the students to choose what we should correct when we check tl1eir work.

\Ve can give UPPER-I NTERMEDIATE students a list which includes grammar, vocabulary,

spelling, PARAGRAPH CONSTRUCTION, good text organisation (introduction, argument,

conclusion, etc.) and ask tl1em to put them in order of importance. Students will pay
more attention to correctness in tl1e areas they have put at number 1 !

We

can give our students a writing checkJist to use when tl1ey have finished their
writing. We can ask questions such as Does the first paragraph ofyour text introduce

the topic? Do your verbs agree with their subjects (singular - plural)? Have you put your
adjectives in the right order? etc.

Using correction symbols

Correction symbols

Many teachers use CORRECTION SYMBOLS to try to avoid too much 'red-ink' marking.
Although there is no agreed list, the follo'Aring symbols ae common.

Symbol Meaning
s

WO

A mistake in word order.

grammar mistake.

The asnwer is obvious.

I like very nzuch it.
I am going to buy sonze fimiiture.

Wrong verb tense.

I have seen him yesterday.

Something has been left out.

He told J.. that he was sony.

Wrong word.

I am interested on jazz music.

Something is not necessary.

He was not {too} strong enough.

The meaning is unclear.

That is a ve7J' excitedphotowaph.

WW

{}

'?M
p

F/I
166

A spelling error.

Example error

Concord mistake (e.g. the subject and verb agreement). People iI_ angry.

A punctuation mistake.

Too formal or informal.

Do you like London,

Hi Mr Franklin, Thank you for your letter . . .

. .

Correcting writing

. . . . . . . . . ... . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. ... . .

We n eed to train our students to lmderstand our correction symbols. We can do this
by a) getting them to find mistakes in sentences, b) asking them to say what kind of
mistake it is and c) choosing a symbol for each type of mistake.

When the students submit work on paper, we can lmderline a mistake in a written
sentence and put the correction symbol in the margin.

When our students submit work electronically, we can underline words and phrases
and put correction symbols in brackets.

We can get the students to try correcting each other's work using correction symbols.

We should remember to include ticks (./ ) or EMOTICONS and other symbols to show
when we approve of what the students have written.

{}
WW T
c Sp

{}
WW

"

T
--

Most o-f peopILke to !J12 sbQ.pplri![- bid-_ 1 pre-fgx_to_do

other thLnff ] /)') tifrie paint. -f_Qr exOftlp le
e
n
Wh
CJ'Q- hoppin!f-lfQU neecis lots o-F ti.n,e a.nd pa.lie-nse to t
e-nod thi.n_aJ ntCe_prtCes. You must tQ_ p-0-k to f)')Q.n soJes
persons who Ln ne@_ru:_e, stptcl_ahPl.!:.i:49i::_ nec?-t-hj.
]t Ls dt-f-ftcult when th send u to_wronl( plo.,ee,s ll.r}cl t_h -
don1t kl)OwLni o..nswers _Q__ lfQur ueshons_ a.ba_l.lt the shoppLri!f

_______.

_
_

________,

____.__,,

"=-"

----

Other kinds of correction

When we correct written work that has been submitted electronically, we can write
our own comments (in different colours) or use reviewing tools (such as Track
Changes) to add comments.

Peo p l e..are very h a p py he is com i ng to my cou ntry to [offer a concert.

;;,;=ram"
Defeled

a :m

However, it is just as demotivating to over-correct el ectronically as it is to do it_ with

a pen.

We can send our students AUDIO or VIDEO FEEDBACK, with a mixture of comments,
corrections and suggestions. Students can listen/watch as they read through their
own writing. Some teachers record themselves making corrections on screen, using
software like Jing or Camtasia. The students can hear what the teacher says and, at the
same time, see on the screen what corrections the teacher is making to their work.
167

Homework

The magic of homework

HOMEWORK is like magic ! The more that students do it, the better their English becomes.
Th.is is especially important when lessons provide the students' only other exposure to English.

Homework is like music practice or physical training. It encourages

43 because we will be asking the students to work on their own.

LEARNER AUTONOMY

What kind of homework?

It is important to set varied homework tasks so that the students don't get bored with. the
whole process, and also because different students respond to different things and often
have different LEARNING STYLES 40.

We can ask our srndents to complete exercises in their

that we give them.

The students can submit audio and video material via email or by using an
LEARNING PLATFORM such as MOODLE, BLACKBOARD, etc.

\i\Te can ask them to do exercises on a learning platform and submit their work ONLINE
87.

WORKBOOKS

or on

WORKSHEETS

ONLINE

We can ask the students to submit homework with photographs and drawings

attached. In other words, homework does not always have to be words only.

\i\Te can ask the students to research a topic for homework. For example, we can ask them
to find facts about a topic (such as tourism) in preparation for a FORMAL DEBATE 52.
vVe can ask them to collect six different newspaper headli11es from online sites, bring
them to a lesson and explain them to the class. We can ask them to look at dictionaries,
newspapers, magazines or WEBSITES and find, for example, six new PHRASAL VERBS 9.

We

can ask our students to learn a

POEM

or a

SPEECH

by heart 63 .

We can ask them to write a text to be included in their writing PORTFOLIO (a collection

of their work that they add to over a semester or a y ear) 59.

We can ask the students to write a new BLOG POST 87 or to comment on at least two
other students' blogs.

Using mobile devices for homework

Many students have a range of MOBILE DEVICES 86: MOBILE PHONES (cellphones), digital
cameras or TABLET COMPUTERS. These can be used for doing a variety of homework tasks.

168

We can ask them to make short VIDEO or AUDIO RECORDINGS. For example, they can
describe their day or show their house or their street (with. commentaries).

Homework

We caJJ ask the srudents to use their mobile devices to record interviews with family,

friends or suangers (provided that we are sure of the i r safety).

We can ask the students to record ORAL PRESENTATIONS

,53.

(pictures from strange angles) on their

devices. They then bring them into tl1e lesson and the other students have to

We can ask them to take ' mystery photographs'

m obile

say what they are. We discuss more uses of mobile devices in class in

'86.

Making homework 'work' for students

There are a number of ways i n which we can m a ke homework a positive experience
for students.
\i\!e can include doing homework in the CODE OF CON DUCT we agree with our students

'71.

We should find out what homework our students have to do for other lessons. We
don't want to overwork th em.

\i\!hen students submit homework, we should do our best to mark i t and give it back

as promptly as possible. This is not a hvays easy, but i f we give homework back late,
students may start to submit it late, too.

One of tl1e best ways o f making sure that students do their homework is to give GRADES
for each piece of work that is completed. Th is grade can be instead of (or as well as)
any other mark that we give. The 'completion' marks all go towards a fin a l grade.

We can ask tl1e students to decide what homework they want to do. They could

discuss this in groups. They can choose anytl1ing, such as working witl1 a song or

watching/listening to a football conm1entary, provided that it eitl1er uses English or

helps them to learn English. \i\!e can use their (sensible) choices as homework tasks.

Students can decide (with our guidance) how their homework should be graded.

Teachers should keep a HOMEWORK RECORD so that tl1ey know who has done h omework

and when.
\i\!here it is appropriate, witl1 younger learners, teachers should give each student a

homework notebook. In this book the teacher writes each homework task. The
student's parent or guardian signs tl1e record to show that they know the homework
has been assigned. The teacher signs the book when the homework is done.

Making homework 'work' for teachers

Teachers are happy when students do homework well, but marking and record-keeping
can take up a lot of our time!

We shouldn't ask d i fferent classes to submit homework all at the same time.

vVe should set clear homework limits (number of words, etc.) and ask tl1e students to

respect them.
We should encourage the students to suggest ideas for h omework. This will be

interesting to mark.

We can try selective marking. In other words, we don't need to comment or correct

everything in a piece of homework. For example, we might concentrate on verb tenses

but not comment on minor SPELLING mistakes.

We can mark only a selection of papers each time (and make sure that eve1y student's

work is marked over a period of weeks).

We can get the students to mark (and/or comment on) each other's homework (and

check that they are doing i t well).

169

L1 in the classroom
For many decades, teachers have discussed the following question: Should we allow
students to use their HOME LANGUAGE(s) in the English-language classroom?

Using the ll

Some background facts

There are a number of reasons why people have different attitudes to the use of the L l
in the English-language classroom.

W hen people reacted against the GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION methods -+36 of the past,
they wanted to replace them with the DIRECT METHOD. The direct method encouraged
speaking the TARGET LANGUAGE in class instead of speaking about it.

Many English teachers (NATIVE SPEAKER TEACHERS -+13 and others) travel to different
countries around the world to teach. If they can't speak their students' language, their
lessons have to be in English all the time.

Many classes (especially, but not only, in countries such as Australia, Britain, Canada,
Ireland and the USA) are MULTILINGUAL: the students come from a variety of different
language backgrounds.

Many people around the world grow up speaking two, three or more languages.
\iVhen we discuss this topic, however, we tend to talk about a student's L l to refer to
their first/home language.

v\lhen people are learning languages, especially at the beginning, they translate from
one language to another in their heads whether we like it or not!

Arguments against using the students' L1 in the classroom

Even in MONOLINGUAL classes using the Ll may not be a good idea.

The more the students speak in their L l , the less English they speak.
S tudents get fantastically good COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT from the teacher in English. If
the teacher uses the students' L l , they won't get as much English exposure.
We want our students to think in English, not in their L 1 . We want to create an
English environment in the classroom.
Students learn best by trying to express themselves in English. The more they
communicate in English, the better. There is no point in COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITIES if
the students are using their L l .

Arguments i n favour of using the students' L1 in the classroom

There are also a number of reasons why using the L l may have advantages.

170

Part of a student's i dentity comes from the language(s) they speak. We should
encourage our students to celebrate their multilingual identities.
Using the students' L l , especially at lower levels, allows us to talk to them about
many different matters to do with class management, etc.
We can help our students with any problems if we can communicate with them in their Ll .
The use of the L l can make a good contribution to the atmosphere in the class and
the RAPPORT -+66 between teacher and students.
Students learn a lot by comparing English with their L l . They will do it anyway, so it
is better if we help them.

Using the Ll
. .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

An L 1 'policy'
Since using the students' L l h as both advantages and disadvantages, we need to make up
our minds about what to do.

We should always acknowledge the students' L l (and other languages which they
speak), for example by aslcing them to contrast that language with English, or tailing
about pronunciation differences.
Teachers should not overuse the students' L l . Remember, it is an English lesson!
The more advanced the students are, the less need there is to use their Ll in class.
However, we may want to make use of a range of TRANSLATION ACTIVITIES at any level
(see below).
We should make sure that the students know when it is OK to use their L l (when
th ey are discussing answers in pairs, for example) and when it is not (when they are
trying to communicate in English, for example). It is a good idea to get them to agree
a policy about this, perhaps as part of a CODE OF CONDUCT '71.
We should use the L l (if we are able to) to help our students understand differences
between English and their L l .
If our students start using their L l at inappropriate times (e.g. during a spealcing
activity), we should use encouragement, persuasion and prompting to get them to go
back to spealcing in English.

Translation activities
Translation can aid motivation and help the students to think more carefully about language.

We can evaluate om students' progress at the end of a course of study by asking them if
they can translate the phrases and structures they have been studyjng back into their L l .

The students can translate different sections of a text and then share their translations
to build up the complete story in an activity similar to JIGSAW READING '55.

Students can translate short texts and then compare their translations with those of
their classmates.

Student A translates an English sentence into their L l . They give the translated
sentence to Student B (who shares the same L l). Student B translates it back into
English. Is Student B's English sentence the same as Student N.s?

The students discuss different idioms in different languages and cultures.

We can get our students to use online web translators and ask them to say what, if
anything, is wrong with the translations.

Teaching ideas: translating a poem

Amanda Wilson asked a m u ltilingual group of students in the UK to translate an
anti-drug-use poem i nto their d ifferent languages. The activity was a big success
and very m otivating because the students:
wanted to 'parade' their Ll s when they read t heir translations aloud.

enjoyed hearing eac h other's la nguages and comparing them with their own.

had to think rea l l y h a rd about gra m m a r, lexis, syntax, etc. when t rans lati ng.

cou ld recite the original poem in English from memory by the end of the lesso n .

felt e m powered because they had been able to translate a whole poem from
English into their own l a nguage.

Amanda's students' poems on display

.
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

171

Continuous professional development

Teache1
development

The best (and happiest)

teachers continue to learn and
discover new things all
through their teaching
careers. Development activity
is just as important for
teachers as it is for students.
It can make us more
enthusiastic about teaching
(and about our lives) and it
can also help us through
episodes of BURNOUT.

Burnout just around the corner?

Many teachers and trainers worry about the possibility of teacher burnout.

Burnout happens when teachers lose interest in (and enthusiasm for) teaching. It can
cause (or be caused by) stress.

B urnout does not mean the end of a career (though it can do). It is often a temporary
state of affairs . .Most teachers get through it and come out the other side.

Burnout is caused by such things as teaching too many CONTACT HOURS (hours in the
classroom), having too much HOMEWORK '76 to mark or by other conditions at work.
B ut it can also be the result of factors such as time spent travelling to and from work,
pressures at home or things going on in teachers' private lives.

The best route out of teacher burnout is to re-engage with teacher development activities.

Doing it ourselves
There are many things that teachers can do to help themselves continue l earning,
thinking and enjoying teaching.

The best teachers are REFLECTIVE. This means that they reflect on (think about) what
happens in their lessons. Some teachers keep journals to help them do this.

Teachers can do their own ACTION RESEARCH . This means a) asking themselves a
question about teaching (for example, TtVhy are sonze students quiet during groupworle?),
b) tryi ng to answer the question by doing something different in class (for example
giving each student in a group a specific task), c) reflecting on what happened when
they did this (for example, did those different tasks mean that all the students took
part?) and d) deciding what action to take next.

An

effective type of personal reflection takes place when teachers watch themselves
teaching on film. Even if this only means putting a small video camera at the back of
the classroom and leaving it there while we teach, we can learn a lot by watching
it afterwards.

172

Teacher development

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .

One of the best ways of thinking about our own teaching is to write an article for a
teachers' magazine, present a seminar or talk at a teachers' meeting or conference.
This makes us think about what we do and why we do i t. It may make us feel nervous,
but other teachers are usually very supportive.

One of the best things we can do for our teaching is to become learners ourselves.
Perhaps we can study for a further teaching qualification or take a postgraduate
course, for example. But it is also extremely invigorating to learn something
(anything) completely new, whether it is a new language (it helps to put ourselves in
our learners' shoes), a new sport, a new musical instrument or any other fresh and
exciting challenge.

Doing it with others

Some of the most effective teacher development takes place when we work and share
with colleagues and other professionals.

We learn a lot (and develop) when we co-operate with others. For example, if we
have just tried a new activity in class but we don't know what to think about it,
talking about it with a supportive colleague will often help us to clarify our ideas.

The worst thing we can do if we are having problems or suffering from burnout is to
keep it to ourselves. We need to talk to other people about it.

It is a very good idea to set up regular sessions where two teachers take turns to be
the listenerlunderstander and the speaker. The listener/understander listens non
judgementally - in other words, they don't say 'that is good' or 'that is bad' before asking questions to try to get the speaker to clarify their thinking. Having a
non-judgemental listener gives the speaker confidence. After a set time, the two
teachers change roles.

Teachers can organise their own teacher development groups which meet at
pre-arranged times. All the teachers in the group can vote on what they want to talk
about, and every week a different teacher can lead the session.

Teachers can write or comment on

conversation with colleagues.

Teachers can have discussions (and form groups) using social networks such as
TWITTER. They can take part in WEBI NARS or other ONLINE meetings.

We can keep our eyes open for seminars which are organised in our locality. If
possible, we can attend some of the many teachers' conferences, either in our region,
our country or abroad.

Fellow teachers can plan, discuss and observe each other's l essons. However, such
PEER OBSERVATION will not work if the teacher being observed feels that they are being
judged. The main reasons for peer observation should be a) for the observer to learn
new things and reflect on their own teaching, and b) for the observed teacher to have
a chance to talk about their lesson with an observer they can trust.

When schools organise peer observation, it is a good idea to have a meeting

afterwards where people talk about the good things they h ave observed. This means
that everyone gets to hear new ideas.

Many teachers feel nervous when a di rector of studies (for example) comes to watch.
If the OBSERVATION is going to be really helpful for the teacher (rather than just an
evaluation), the teacher should be able to negotiate the time and content of the lesson,
the follow up should be a conversation (rather than a report) and the emphasis should
be on future success, not past failure. It is worth remembering that anyone in a senior
academic position has al most certainly been observed many times themselves.

Teachers can watch

BLOGS

VIDEO RECORDINGS

'87. This can be like a very good

of each other teaching and discuss what they see.

173

Section E : P lanning, reso urces

and assess ment
In this section, we discuss a range of issues to do with planning lessons, what resources
we can use and how to test students along the way.
We look at the essential elements of lesson plamung and of how to plan a sequence of
lessons. (Note: there is separate lesson planning appendix on pages

250-2 56.)

We look at a range of materials, both in book form (coursebooks, supplementary

materials, dictionaries, etc.), and also using other forms of technology (whether this is
a class board or a tablet computer or other hand-held mobile device, for example).
In addition, we discuss teaching without any materials at all.
Finally, we look at the basics of assessment and testing. (Note: we also discuss testing
for young learners in Unit

1 0 1 and for CLIL in Unit 1 1 0.)

79 P lanning lessons

80 Plan ning seq u en ces

81 Using coursebooks

82 U s i ng dictionaries

83 S upplementary materials and activities

84 Teac h i ng without materials

85 Classroom tec h n o l ogy 1

86 Classroom tec h n o logy 2

87 Classroom tec h n ology 3

88 Assessment and test i ng

89 Test items and h ow to teach- t h em

90 Marking and gradi ng tests

175

Planning
lessons

Different attitudes to planning

Some teachers spend hams PLANN I NG what to do in their LESSONS the next day. Others
don't seem to need the same amount of time to think about what they are going to do.
Some schools and i nstitutions expect teachers to provide detailed plans. Some teacher
qualification exams expect teachers to present plans for the lessons they are going to teach.

To plan or not to plan?

When teachers don't plan - and leave everything to chance - they sometimes have

wonderful l essons, full of creativity and fun. But it's a big risk. Sometimes the lesson is

just chaotic and no one learns very much. If this happens too often, the students may
start to thin k that the teacher is unprofessional and this is bad for teacher-student
RAPPORT

-+66.

When teachers plan too much and then follow the pl:1;n exactly, without changing a
single tl1ing whatever happens in the lesson, the lesson may be uncreative and boring.

We need to be ready for MAGIC MOMENTS (when students do or say something really

interesting) and be prepared to change our plan to take advantage of them. \iVe also

need to be ready for U N FORESEEN PROBLEMS (when something happens which we had not

anticipated) and be prepared to change our plan to deal witl1 the m .

What are lessons like?

We need to have an idea of what we hope the students will achieve in a lesson. We

need to clun k of the best ways to help tl1em do this. \i\Then we start to clunk what ilie

AIMS of a lesson are and how we will help the students to achieve those aims, we are

already planning, whetl1er we write the plan down or not.

Lesson plans are like m aps. They tell us where we are going and help us to take tl1e
best route to get there. But we still have to make decisions as we travel. Should we
take a detour? Do we p refer me motorway or a country road, for example?

176

Planning lessons

. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .

When we think of a lesson as a journey, it is just one METAPHOR

-+21 we can use. We

might also think of a lesson as a film or a novel or a meal - and use those metaphors to
help us put the pieces together to make, for example, a narrative or a fantastic dining
experience.
Lesson ideas can come from many different places. They can be inspired by films we

see or something we read. They can come from the ideas of our colleagues or from
something we have read about in a teachers' magazine or heard from an online
community. They can come from the SYLLABUS we are following or the COURSEBOOK we
are using - or they can simply arise because we think our students need some extra
work on something. They may be part of a SEQUENCE OF LESSONS -+80, perhaps
pla1med around a central TOPIC or THEME -+100.

What goes into a plan?

Different schools and institutions (and exam boards) have different plan forms and
formats. But they all have several things i n common:
The most important part of the pla1ming process is to decide what our precise

learning aims are. In other words, we need to consider the learning OUTCOMES. We can

think of a learning outcome as the answer to the question

What will my students know

or be able to do at the end ofa lesson (or lesson stage) that they could not do or didn 't know at
the beginning?

We need to consider TI METABLE FIT. In other words, we will say what the students have

been learning recently and what they will be doing i n the next l esson(s) after thjs one.
We need to have (or write) a good CLASS DESCRIPTION. This needs to say who the

students are in as much detail as we can give. We can say what they find easy and
difficult, how well they participate in lessons, etc. When we know who our students
are, we can plan especially for them - and plan activities that D I FFERENTIATE between
different students -+42.
We need to list the LANGUAGE EXPONENTS (GRAMMAR, VOCABULARY or PRONUNCIATION

items) that we are going to teach or the LANGUAGE SKILLS (reacting, writing, speaking
and listening) we will focus on.
We will say what ACTIVITIES we are going to include in our lesson and what TEACHING
AIDS we need to achieve them.

We will describe the PROCEDURES that will happen in our lesson and what I NTERACTIONS

will be taking place - in other words, who is working with whom. For example,
perhaps the teacher is talking to the whole class. Or perhaps the students are working
in PAIRS or GROU PS -+67.

It helps to estimate the TIMING of each lesson stage. If we include this in our plan,
when we are teaching we will know if we can slow down or if we need to speed up.

We often include PERSONAL AIMS. In other words, we say what we (the teacher) hope to

achieve. This is different from our aims for the students. We rught say something like

In this lesson I am going to r;ualuate what itfeels like to teach without using any technology at
all. All lessons are opportunities for TEACHER DEVELOPMENT and ACTION RESEARCH -+ 78
l i ke this.
It helps to ANTICIPATE PROBLEMS that our students might have with the lesson we are

preparing. If we do this, we can then imagine POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS to these problems.

We wil l list ADDITIONAL POSSIBI LITIES so that if the class goes more quickly than we

anticipated (or in a different direction), we have something ready.

We discuss planning for CUL lessons i n -+109.
For examples of LESSON PLANS, see Appendix C on pages

2 5 0-256.

177

Plann!!lg
sequences

Lesson shapes, stages and sequences

v\Then we plan lessons, we may use

come up with a LESSON SHAPE -+79.

We think about establishing different episodes or LESSON STAGES within a lesson period
(the total tim of the lesson). This is because we believe that VARIETY within a lesson
is important.

\iVhen we teach a lesson, we need to make it clear when one stage is over and the
next one begins.

We need to plan a coherent sequence of stages (and the activities and sequences within
them). Variety is important, in other words, but chaos probably isn't.

We discuss activities and how to evaluate them in -+83.

METAPHORS

like maps, films, books or meals to

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.

ESA
Any teaching sequence needs t h ree essential elements:

We need to ENGAGE the students so that their hearts as wel l as their minds are involved so that they a re emotio n a l l y connected because they a re cu rious, happy or provoked.
Students need to STUDY somet h i ng at some stage during every teaching sequence,
whether this is gra m m a r, vocabula ry, pronunciation or paragraph/text construction.

We need to give the students a cha nce to ACTIVATE a n y a n d a l l the la nguage they know.
They do this when they speak freely, but they a lso do it when they read a text for mea n i ng
a n d use the language they know to understand it.

Some lesson sequences (such as PPP

-+44) follow the pattern

E-S-A We engage students

with en enjoyable situation or picture. Then we present the new l a nguage and practise it

(study) before we let the students try to activate ( u se) it.

Some lesson sequences fo l low an E-A-S sequence. For example, we m ight get the students

engaged in a situation before getti ng them to activate their l a nguage i n a ROLEPLAY -+53.
Afterwards we might do some la nguage repai r by studying grammar or vocabulary that they
had problems with in the roleplay.
Many sequences a re much more l i ke a patchwork, where the ESA elem ents a re jumbled up.

178

Planning sequences
..........
. ... . ...... . . ........ . ... . .

Planning a sequence of lessons

\i\Then we plan a sequence of lessons (say for two, three or four weeks or longer), there
are a number of th.ings we w.ill want to consider.
We may dec.ide to base our sequence on TOPICS AND THEMES

100. For example,

we could take photography as a top.ic and then plan lessons wh.ich look at a) the

development of photography, b) photographs that have changed the world,

c) snapshots that we take, d) the impact of digital photography on film, e) the way we
use photographs for social networking and

f) the ph otographs we wish we had been

able to take (such as ph otographs of an event from hist01y).

We can base our sequence on the language wh.ich we want our students to learn,

including GRAMMAR, VOCABULARY, LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS and TEXT AND DISCOURSE features.
Over a two-week period, for example, we might concentrate on narrative, with an

emphasis on tenses ( PAST SIMPLE, PAST CONTI NUOUS, PAST PERFECT) , time LINKERS

(first, and
then, later on, after that), LEXICAL PHRASE starters (J hadn 't intended to, I realised that I had,
TVhen I found that . . . ) and vocabulary that we have dec.ided is important for our

students to know.

\i\Then we plan a sequence of lessons, we try to ensure a balance between the different
LANGUAGE SKILLS that the students need to work with and the different ACTIVITIES we are

going to ask them to do.

\i\Then we plan a sequence of lessons, we think about short-term and long-term goals.
SHORT-TERM GOALS are the OUTCOMES which we hope the students will achieve by the end

of a l esson or a sequence within a lesson. LONG-TERM GOALS are the ones wh.ich we hope
they will have realised at the end of, say, a month or even a semester.

S tudents need short-term goal s so that they have something to aim for, something
which is not so far away that it is invisible. Short-term goals keep students MOTIVATED

43, especially when the long-term goals seem too remote and far away.
Although we may plan a sequence of lessons in advance, we must be ready to change

and amend om plans as the sequene continues and the lessons in it take place. If th.ings
are going faster than we expected, we may need to add extra activities or material. If
th.ings are taking a longer time, we may need to speed up or cut some activities or
material we had planned to use. If the students are not responding to a topic or theme,
we will have to decide on how to make changes so that they respond better.

It is probably not a good idea to plan a sequence of lessons just on language, just
around a topic or only based on the range of activities we want the students to take
part in. Instead, we will create a MULTI-SYLLABUS which includes all of these elements
threaded together.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.

Syllabus, curriculum, course

Some people use t h e terms syllabus and curriculum to mean the sa me thing, but this is
inaccurate.
A CURRICULU M is the overa l l plan for a school o r a SUBJECT. It expresses the content, t h e
overall goals, the p h i l osophy (ideol ogy) beh i n d the progra m me, and the way(s) i n w h i c h
eva l u ations w i l l t a k e place.
We ca l l a particular n u m ber of weeks of teaching at the LOWER-INTERMEDIATE level
(for exa mple) a COURSE. We can say what course are you studying7

Most cou rses have a SYLLABUS: a l ist of the language or other coritent that w i l l be taught
and the order that it will be taught i n . For exa m ple, we can talk about a GRAMMAR
SYLLABUS (a l ist of grammar items), a TASK SYLLABUS (a list of tasks), a FUNCTIONAL
SYLLABUS (a l ist of language functions), etc.

. . . . .

..

. . .

. . .

... . .
. .

. . . .

..

. . .

. .
.

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. .. ..
. .

. . . .

. . . . . . . .

179

Using
coursebooks
-

The coursebook issue

All over the world people use COURSEBOOKS to help them teach or learn foreign languages.
Coursebooks are often well p lanned. Language progression has been carefully

considered and there is adequate RECYCLING ( REPETITION OF ENCOUNTER '22) of

vocabulary and grammar.

Good coursebooks have a wealth of attractive-looking materia l , TOPICS and activities

to engage students and teachers and to support them as they get to grips with the
new l anguage.

l\1odern coursebooks are often accompanied by a range of SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL

(such as WORKBOOKS, ACTIVITY BOOKS and DVDs) and online provision (such as CYBER
HOMEWORK, which stores and grades homework onl ine).

Some people don't l i ke coursebooks. They say that no single coursebook is exactly
right for any particular class of students. They argue that most are based on (and have
too much) GRAMMAR, and that the language used in COURSEBOOK DIALOGUES is not
natural. Above all, they claim that over-reliance on a coursebook stops teachers and
learners being creative. vVe l ook at MATERIALS-FREE TEACHING in ,84.

As more education providers offer online and mobile resources, there is a move away

from coursebooks in some educational institutions and regions. However, for now,

paper-based educational materials are still widely used.

Thinking about the next coursebook

\Vhen teachers, directors of study and co-ordinators are clunking about choosing a new
coursebook, there are a number of things they need to consider.
It is important to make sure that the course materials are affordable for the

institution and the students - and that all the components that are needed (such as
audio, TEACHER'S GU I DE, etc.) are avail able.
We need to think carefull y about the layout and design of the materials we are going

to be using. Are the pages attractive? Is the style of illustration pleasing to the eye? Are the
pages too cluttered? Can tl1e students clearly see what is going on and in what order? Are

the RUBRI CS (instructions) written clearly and in a way that the students can w1derstand?

We need to decide whether the CONTENT of the book is appropriate for our students.

Are the topics interesting, stimulating and culturally appropriate for the age, gender
and social background of the students?
180

Using coursebooks

We need to evaluate the methodology of the course. Does it use a largely PPP
methodology -+44 (many course books do) or is there a variety of activities and
procedures within i t? Does the coursebook reflect the way(s) that we like to teach?

We need to be sure that the coursebook has the right balance of LANGUAGE SKILLS
(reading, writing, listening and speaking) for the goals we want our students to achieve.

We wi l l want to check the syllabus in the coursebook to see if we are happy with the
selection of grammar and VOCABULARY and the way that it is graded (the sequence of
language areas).

We will look at the coursebook to see what LEARNER STYLES it is designed for and

whether it offers any activities for DI FFERENTIATION -+42.

We wil l want to look at the supplementary materials that come with the coursebook

(workbook, AUDIO RECORDINGS, DVDs, etc.). Are they appropriate for what we want our
students to ach ieve?

A good coursebook has a helpful TEACHER'S GUIDE - either in paper form or as online notes.

Does the coursebook have a COMPANION WEBSITE -+87 or is there some other ONLINE
material that can be used with it? We discuss BLENDED LEARNING (using coursebooks

together with INFORMATION TECH NOLOGY ) in -+87.

How to choose a coursebook

It may help if we talk to colleagues (before we look at any books) and discuss what to
l ook for in a coursebook. We can come up with our own list of desirable
characteristics, based on the situation we are working in. Many of these may be the
same as those listed above, but we may also have our own special concerns. We can
then use our list to compare the different books we are considering.

V\There possible, we should PILOT coursebooks before we make a definite decision about
whether to use them. Piloting means using the coursebook with a trial class and comparing
the results and the experiences with older books and/or books we are thinking of using.

It is a good idea to show the students the coursebooks that we are thinking of
adopting. They may have strong opinions about many of the issues discussed above,
especially topics and layout.

Using coursebooks
Using a coursebook is a teacher skill. But if teachers follow the book word for word,

never varying the way they do it, students may n ot be ENGAGED -+80 and as a result they
may lose their MOTIVATION -+43 .

We need to engage our students with a coursebook. We can ask them what they think
about the exercises or TEXTS . We can encourage them to give their own opinions on

the topics in the book. We can use the coursebook as a springboard fo r discussion
about the topics in it.

We can OMIT COURSEBOOK MATERIAL completely -+84 or REPLACE it with material that we

prefer or which is more appropriate for our class. However, i f we do this too much,
the students may resent having to buy the books and bring them to lessons.

We can add to what is in the coursebook - by bringing in our own material, or by

finding information online, for example.

We can REWRITE parts of the book. For example, we may want to use our own (or the
students') questions with reading and listening material. We discuss simpl ifying
material for CUL lessons in -+106.

vVe can REPLACE or REORDER activi ties and lessons to suit our own needs.
181

Different kinds of dictionary

Using
dictionaries

Dictionaries are one of the most useful resources for language students, whether in book
form, ONLINE or, as is becoming more and more common, on handheld and MOBILE
DEVICES, such as SMARTPHONES and TABLET COMPUTERS.

B I LINGUAL DICTIONARIES have words in two languages. In the first section, language 1 is
translated into language 2 . In the second section, language 2 is translated into
l anguage 1 . BILI NGUAL LEARNERS' DICTIONARIES (BLDs) are designed especially for
language learners.

MONOLINGUAL DICTIONARIES (written in one language) are used by NATIVE SPEAKERS and
other competent speakers of the language.

MONOLINGUAL LEARNERS' DI CTIONARIES (MLDs) are written in the TARGET LANGUAGE.

They use a simplified language for their DEFI NITIONS and have information which is
especially useful for language learners.

PRODUCTION DICTIONARIES, such as a

can look for new words to use.

THESAURUS,

group words in topic areas so that we

What students can find in good learners' dictionaries

Monolingual and bilingual learners' dictionaries give a wealth of information which can
help learners understand and use words effectively. The numbers in the paragraphs
below refer to the numbers in the illustrations on page 1 8 3 .

MLDs list a series o f H EADWORDS - and the different meanings fo r them. ( 1 ) For
example, the VERB teach has more than eight different meanings.
Good MLDs give information about the FREQUENCY of a word. The top 3 ,000 words
are often in red in paper dictionaries, and sometimes information is given, such as
s l (the word is one of the top 1 ,000 words of spoken English) or w3 (the word is one
of the top 3 ,OOO in written English). (2) More than 84% of all language use employs
the most frequent 3 ,000 words in the language.
MLDs say what PART OF SPEECH , , a word is (NOUN , PHRASAL VERB, TRANSITIVE VERB, etc.).
(3) Sometimes, especially in paper dictionaries, this is abbreviated, e.g. n = noun,
adj adverb, phr v = phrasal verb.
=

182

MLDs give the PRONUNCIATION of words. In books this is usually done in PHONEMIC
SCRIPT '23. Online and mobile dictionaries have audio recordings of the words
being said. (4)

In good MLDs word definitions are written in simple language that students can
understand.

MLDs give examples of the word in the context of sentences and expressions. (5)

Good MLDs give the COLLOCATIONS '20 that the headword is part of and they list
typical phrases and IDIOMS '21 that the word occurs in. (6)

Good MLDs list words with similar meanings and explain the differences between
them. (7) They provide thesaurus entries - groups of words and expressions with
similar meanings.

MLDs give different spellings and pronunciations for varieties such as British English
and American English (8), and give extra information such as if a word is FORMAL or
INFORMAL ,33 or i f it is TABOO (it is a word that should not be used in 'polite society').

Good MLDs give

Good BLDs offer the same features as MLDs. The word from Language 1 is grouped
under different meanings in the L2 and clear examples are given in the L l .

SYNONYMS

and

ANTONYMS

for words. (9)

Using dictionaries

Using dictionaries with students

S tudents are unlikely to use MLDs or even good BLDs unless we tell them, time and
time again, how incredibly useful they are. But this will not be enough.

We need to train our students to understand dictionaries and what they contain,
whether they are in paper, online or mobile form. v\Then students first get their new
dictionaries, we will ask them to identify things such as what part of speech a word is,

when a word can be used (so they look for descriptions such as formal), how frequent
a word is, what words it collocates with, etc.

It is a good idea to give the students repeated short training experiences in the middle
of lessons, but not try to include everything all at once. If we include little two- or
three-minute training sessions over a number of lessons, our students will become
familiar with the dictionary they are using.

When the students read a text, we can get them to decide which new words they want
to know (after reaching a CONSENSUS first in pairs, then in groups, then in bigger
groups). We then tell them to look the words up in the dictionary.

We can start a lesson or week by giving the students a word WORKSHEET or quiz which

asks them to find words they are going to use during the lesson (or week) in their
dictionaries.

Students can find words and test each other by giving the definitions. The others have
to guess the words.

We look at researching collocations, etc. in

'46.

today. b) Amf attending a school or u niversity rather than

having a job: Are your boys still in school?
7 !Jii [CJ a number of people who are considered as a
group because of their similar style of work: the Impres
sionist school

teach past terue and past particple

i
taught

8 school of thought an opinion or way of thinking about

something that is shared by a group of people: There are

1 ti!ltUl!JIMHtrlifpH (intransitive and rransitivc) to give lessons in

a school, college, or university, or to help someone learn about

two main schools of thought on the subject.

something by giving them infonnation [<-+ leam]

teach at

"' Neil teaches at 1he Guildhall School ofMusic in London. ----'-.

leach (somebody) English/malhematlcslbistory elc

He taught geography ar tl local secondary school.

principal (also headteacher BrE)

the teacher who is in charge of a
school or college: The teacher sent

9 of/from the old school wLth old-fashioned values or

qualities: a family doctor of the old school
10 llll:I [CJ a large group of fish, WHALES, DOLPHINS etc
that are swimming together: [+of] a school of whales
ijl!Jj-\illlf GROUP

-------j

him to the principal's office.

someone who gives private

lessons to one student or a small
1: f.:<t:,t n !'.:}1. tutor

tutor

teach somebody (sometblng) about something

'>!

We were never taught anything about other religions. ------'-!

teach something to somebody

I'm teaching English to Italian students.

-------+i

teach scbooUcollege etc American English (=teach in a school etc)

2 {i!Ctl>.,.iM31Mii'lj(ti\j ftransitivc] to show someone how to do
something

a state school BrE, a public school Amf (=a school

that gets its money from the government)

teach somebody (how) to do sometblng

Myfalher taught me to swim.
tt different methods of teaching children how lo rt!ad

teach somebody something

Can you teach me one ofyour card tricks?

3

:il!!-4iiH*iM13=llllii.j1mtt4 [1.raositivc] to show or tell someone

how they should behave or what they should think
teach somebody to do something
'

When I uas young, we were taught to treat older people with

respect.

teach somebody sometblng

No one eYer taught him the difference between right and wrong .

teach somebody that

He taught me that the easy option isn't always the best one.
4

1:i.'tp:1M1if.iUU\j<JiIHW@H

[transitive} if an experience or

situation teaches you something, it helps you to understand something

about life
teach somebody to do something

Experience has tau>:ht me to avoid cer

eas of the city.
tain ar

I l

Universities want to encourage more applicants from

state schools.
a private school (also a public school Brf) (=a
school where students pay to study) He wos
educated at a private school.
sb's old school (=the school someone went to when
they were young) He went back to his old school to
give a talk to the children.
a local school (=a school near where someone lives)
They sent their kids to the local school.
a boarding school (=a school where children also
live and sleep) I a nursery school (=for children
under 5) I an infant school BrE (=for children aged 5
to 7) I a primary school BrE, an elementary school
AmE (=for children up to 11) I a secondary school
(olso a high school Brf) (=for children from 1 1 to 16
or 18) I a high school Amf (=a school for students
aged 14 to 18) J a comprehensive school Brf (=a
secondary school for all children) I a grammar
school BrE (=a secondary school for children who
have passed an exam when they are 11)
' school +

NOUN

school students (also school pupils Brf) Most school

students have musical interests of some kind.
a school friend She met some old school friends.

a school uniform He was still wearing his school

uniform.

the school holidays BrE I the school run BrE (=the

journey taking children to and from school each
--.---.

someone whose job is

to teach, especially in
a school:

t1 1

,i1

a primary school
teacher

02-UK <;" 0

17:22
47%

2 ""''1.!WM""

- Emmand coontab!ej (AmE) a large

[uncoun:ab!e
school where you can study after
HIGH SCHOOL and get a degree

1mivel's<
,.,.
J
1it}
...,
,,,.
(8
,,,
e
C3D Some people who want to go to

fn\
----'2;

college still can 1 get there.

in college

Fran iust finished her freshman vear

183

Bring

Rrough1

Broughl

Build

Built

Built

)3uy
Come

Cut
Fall

Supplementary
materials and
activities

1"1'0Jlf

...

Bough!
Came
Cut
Fell

fly

Flew

Go

Went

Have

Hae!

Why use supplementary materials and activities?

Many teachers like to bring SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS and ACTIVITIES into the classroom.

W hen we use COURSEBOOKS, we often find that we want to introduce some variety
because the coursebook may sometimes feel all a bit 'the same'.

Many of us ha':e our own favourite activities and lessons that we like using.

We often think that our students need extra PRACTICE with a particular language item
or LANGUAGE SKILL or SUB-SKILL.

We often take particularly ENGAGING activities (or supplementary material) into a

lesson because we think the students need a bit of extra stimulation or a reward, or to
add some variety to the course.

When we are working in a MIXED-ABILITY CLASS, we may want to give different materials
(or activities) to different groups of students. We discuss DIFFERENTIATION in -+42.

What supplementary materials can teachers use?

There is a wide range of materials that teachers can use in the classroom.

184

Many teachers encourage their students to read GRADED RADERS because they believe that
EXTENSIVE READING is good for language learning. We discuss extensive reading in -+54.

Many teachers take in supplementary material to practise language skills. This

provides exu-a practice for reading, writing, speaking or listening.

There is a wide selection of TEACHERS' RESOURCE BOOKS on the market. They contain
many different ideas for activities and lessons.

There are many WEBSITES that offer activities, language practice and LESSON PLANS.

S tudents often do activities from LANGUAGE PRACTICE BOOKS or EXAM PRACTICE BOOKS.

Many teachers like to design their own materials and activities for their students.
Sometimes these might be STORIES they tell in materials-free l essons -+84 or
DIALOGUES they invent. Sometimes they might be WORKSHEETS with EXERCISES or CARDS
or STRIPS OF PAPER -+86.

Some teachers like to copy/photocopy material from books and other sources. There
is nothing wrong with this provided that a) the material is not covered by copyright
and b) the students don't end up with a large collection of random pieces of paper.

Supplementary materials and activities

Deciding what materials and activities to take into class

Before we decide to use activities and supplementary materials, there are a nUIILb er of

questions we wrn want to ask.

lr it easy to prepare, explain and manage? The best activities and materials, from the

teacher's point of view, are those which don't take a lot of time to prepare and don t
cause problems in terms of classroom management.

lr the

time balance attractive? If an a ctivi ty takes a long ti m e

to set up in the classroom

but finishes very quickly once it starts, then the time balance is wrong. It should be

the other w ay round. If an activity lasts for a long time but the students don't
achieve or experience ve ry much, then, again, the time balance is wrong.

Will the smdents understand what to do and hrr11J to do it? If the material

or the activity

confuses the students because they d o n t understand how it works, then we may
'

decide no t to use it again.

What will the students achieve or experience? \iVe need

to k n ow what th e OUTCOME -+ 79

will be for the students. Wil l they learn something new? Will they consolidate their

know ledge of some piece of language? Will they gain an 1mderstanding o f how some
l angu a ge works? Will they increase their CONVERSATIONAL SKILLS or learn more about
READING SKILLS ? In other words, we need to decide what the students wil l get out of the

activity or the materials they use.

Is the activity appropriate for the students? We

need to make sure that what we bri ng into

the classroom is a pp r o pria te for the age, level, in terests and cultural background of

the students. This is not always easy, especi al l y since our students have different
-+40 and may not all fe el the same about content and

LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS

activities. However, we wi l l do out best to make sure that what we bring into class is

not too chil dish, too adult, too serious or too silly for o ur students - and that it is not
offensive to any of them .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.

Deciding on games
One way of deciding whether or not to use an activity is to make a list of what a good activity

should be l i ke - and then see if the activity rea l l y is l i ke that. We can d o this if and when we
are thinking of using a GAME i n the classroom .

We m ight, for exa m ple, decide that a good ga m e should have t e following
characteristics: it should a) be engagi ng, b) be fun, c) i nvolve all the students, d) have
clearly u nderstandable procedures and rules, e) be easy to organise, f) be com petitive
(although some people think that games should be non-competit ive), g) not go on for too
long and h) have a pedagogic (learning) purpose.
When we have decided on these characteristics, we can use them to evaluate any game
we want to use.

W he n we have used a game in class, we can use our characteristics as a checklist to see
how we l l it went.
I t is worth remembering that some students l i ke games more than others. Some students
are good at puzzles and competitions, but others think more slowly a nd don't enjoy these
activities as m u c h as their colleagues do. We should keep a record of who does and
doesn't enjoy games and decide how often/whether to use them with this information
i n mind.

.
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

185

Teaching
without
materials
1

Teaching unplugged
Some people think that learning is more successful when the teacher doesn't use any - or
at least not very many - materials. This is sometimes called TEACHING UNPLUGGED . There
are arguments bo?1 in favour of this and against it.

Why teaching without materials is a good idea

A lot of learning happens when people talk to (and participate with) each other,

rather than when they are studying with books. That's why we include PERSONALISATION
in much of our teaching -+39.

The students' own lives and interests may be just as interesting as the TOPICS and
that can be found in books.

CONTENT

All teachers have experienced MAGIC MOMENTS in lessons

-+79 when students suddenly

become ENGAGED in a topic (which is often about themselves and their lives) and start
to talk about it enthusiastically. When students are engaged like this, they often learn
better than when they are not.

Students learn new language best when they need it and are ready for it. It may be
better to let language EMERGE from the students' brains because they want or need it
rather than trying to teach something just because it is in the syllabus.

Why teaching without materials may not be a good idea

Some students are very good at CONVERSATION . Others are not so comfortable with
this style of learning.
Some learning is individual. We think things through in our own heads. When we
read a book, listen to a lecture or study we often do this by ourselves.
Some students' lives are interesting but not all! There may be, and often is, material
(from a COURSEBOOK or some other source) that is just as fascinating.

Although it is true that language emerges when it is needed, some language may not

emerge by accident like this. In such cases, it is sensible to teach l anguage that we
know that the students need.
186

Teaching without materials

What the teacher needs to do when teaching without materials

If teachers decide to teach without materials, and/or when magic moments happen
(when conversation suddenly takes off in a classroom), they need to be able to take
advantage of the language that the students are using, or trying to use, so that they
learn more.

We should always be ready for magic moments and be prepared to exploit what the
students want to talk about. This may mean departing from our plan -+ 79 but i t will
often b e worth it.

We should encourage our students' ATTEMPTS -+37 to use language by praising them
and giving them a chance to expand on what they are saying.

We should REFORMULATE or RE-CAST -+72 what students say to make it correct.

We should get the students to try to REPEAT what they have said - but correctly this
time. vVe can get otl1er students to use the same language effectively.

We should encourage our students to keep a record of tl1e new l an guage that has

emerged in tl1e lesson .

We should RECYCLE the language that has emerged in subsequent lessons so tl1at tl1e
students get a chance for RETRIEVAL AND USE -+ 22 to help them remember it.

We should

REVISE the language that has emerged.

Examples of materials-light teaching

We can start the lesson by telling the students about things we like and don't like and

I like Sundays because I can rest. I don 't like Mondays because I have to get up
especially early, etc. The students then have to talk about what tl1ey like or don't like

why, e.g.

in

the same way.

We can tell the students five things about ourselves. They have to guess which of

them is false. For example, we can use five different PHRASAL VERBS -+9 in sentences
such as I g;rew up in 1iVest London, I don 't get on well with my sistn; I've recently taken up

playing cricket,

etc. They then have to make their own 'Which sentence is false?'

sentences using the same phrasal verbs l!I!l!>.

We might ask a class of business students to do a

WEBQUEST -+87. For example, tl1ey

have to investigate the cost of living in different cities arow1d the world (we can
pretend that they are thinki n g of opening a new international office). When they
report their information back to the class, we can reformulate the language they use
and get all the students to practise it.

We can ask our students to tell STORIES about (or describe) a wide range of subjects,

such as the last concert I went to, rny journey to school, rny favourite place, a book I have read,
an injury I had, a robbery I witnessed (or suffered), etc. As the students tell their stories,

we help them to use the language they need. We get them to retell the story. As other

students tell tl1eir similar stories, they use some of tl1e same language.

We can tell our own stories. For example, we might talk about a time that we had a

discussion with a traffic warden who wanted to give us a parking ticket. The students
have to retell the story from tl1e point of view of the traffic warden or a passerby.
They can also create and act out the discussion itself.

Students can bring in tl1eir own photographs, pictures or objects and tell the class
about them. This 'show and tell' procedure is popular with and for YOUNG LEARNERS,

but can be used vntl1 any age group. We can also ask the students to talk about what
they would rescue from their house if it caught fire and why, or the one book they
would want to have with them if they went to the moon.

187

Teaching with technology

Classroom
technology 1

From that first time when a teacher gave the students a slate to write on, teaching has
involved the use of technology. In the modern world the variety of technological
possibilities - and the speed of technological change - is extraordinary.

Deciding what technology to use

People are always encouraging teachers to use new things - for example, computers,
online sites and MOBILE DEVICES . How should we respond to such offers?

Before we spend time and money, we need to ask ourselves if there are better
(sometimes older, more effective and cheaper) ways of achieving the same result.

We should never reject something just because it is new, however. Teaching, as much
as any other area of life, depends on i1movation. We should always be prepared to try
new things out for ourselves.

Before we decide to say 'yes' to the new thing, we want to be sure that there will be
training for using it, and that everyone who needs it has access to it. We also need to
be sure that there is technical support for when things go wrong.

Using boards and other 'showing' technology

Teachers need to show students words,
RECORDINGS and show VIDEOS .

PICTURES

and texts. They need to play AUDIO

The most useful and versatile piece of classroom technology is the BOARD -whether
this is a BLACKBOARD (used with chalk), a WHITEBOARD (used with marker pens) or an
I NTERACTIVE WHITEBOARD ( IWB ) - also called a SMARTBOARD .

Current versions of the interactive whiteboard (IWB) allow teachers and students to
do everything that is possible with a computer and a projector, but also much more.
This is because all the material (whether writing, audio or video) can be
controlled by tapping the board with the fingers, or with specially configured pens.

Teachers and students can use IWBs to drag things around the screen. They can
highlight phrases using a control which turns the pen or finger into a coloured
marker. They can use a 'curtain' effect to hide some of what is on the board (much as
we do with OHTs). Teachers can tap part of an AUDIOSCRIPT so that the students hear
just that audio extract and they can use similar controls to show video extracts.

.i\ilany teachers who use IWBs like to have an ordinary whiteboard in the classroom as
well since there is less likelihood of any technical malfunction, and they are quick and
easy to use.

Boards can be used for an enormous range of activities. We can write up new
and VOCABULARY . We can show grammatical construction or DEMONSTRATE an
activity by having everyone look to the front.
GRAMMAR

188

We can write up students' errors and draw attention to them so that the students can
think about how to CORRECT them - v\Te can stick things like pictures and poster
on the board.

On the board we can draw faces, stick men, vehicles like cars and buses, trees, houses
- anything that wil l help us contextualise the learning that .is taking place. It is not
necessary to be a good artist.

It is a good idea to organise the board so that the students can clearly understand what
they are being shown, rather than trying to make sense of a jumble of messy writing
and pictures.

Smdents can use the board, too. They can write sentences or fill in blanks. They can
complete WORD MAPS m?'!>. They can play games, such as noughts and crosses.

FLIPC HARTS are very useful for students when they want to make notes for the rest of
the class to see. If different groups are discussing something, they can summarise their
points on flipcharts (one for each group). The whole class can then move round the
room reading what each group has written.

We can tear off the pages of a fup chart and stick them up in different parts of the
classroom or keep them for fumre reference. Flipcharts are useful for activities like
DICTOGLOSS -+48, where a class try to recreate a story they have heard and one student
writes the story up on the fupchart.

The OVERHEAD PROJECTOR (OHP) is still used in some classrooms. It is useful for
showing writing and because we can write on OVERHEAD TRANSPARENCIES (OHTs) while
the smdents are watching. For example, if we ask a smdent to write something on an
OHT, we can show it to the whole class and then write on it (or have the students
write on it) to make changes. We can cover OHTs and then gradually reveal the
contents. This is good for PREDICTION 55 .

We can use a computer (or TABLET COMPUTER -+86) with a DATA PROJECTOR to show
anything that is on the computer, such as presentations using software like PowerPoint,
Keynote (for Apple computers) or Prezi. vVe can show video clips and fi l ms from CDs
or DVDs, or, if we are connected to the internet, we can access anything there and
project it onto the screen.

Students can use presentation software, too, when they do

ORAL PRESENTATIONS.

189

Classroom
technology 2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Using pictures, cards and strips of paper

PICTURES, CARDS

and

STRIPS OF PAPER

have a variety of uses:

vVe

can hold up (or project) l arge pictures for presenting and checking meaning, and
to demonstrate and show information (for example a street scene showing what
people are doing, how many cars are in the street, where the bank is, etc.).

We can show pictures for a short time and then cover them up and ask the students if
they can remember what they saw.

We can use picuu-es to help the students predict the content of an audio exu-act or a
reading TEXT -+55.

Many teachers use FLASHCARDS to show things - and as the cues in a CUE-RESPONSE DRILL
-+47. Flashcards (like the ones in the photograph on this page) are picuu-es which are
big enough so that all the students can see them, but small enough for teachers to
hold up in different sequences, changing them from hand to hand.

We can give the students a selection of picuires of objects, places, people, etc. They
have to choose one from each category and invent a sto1y that connects them.

We can give individual students different picuu-es. Each student has to write a story
about (or a 'biography' of) their object, without saying what it is. The rest of the class
then have to guess the object.

We can get the students to draw picuires in activities like DESCRIBE AND DRAW -+50 or
in team games where they have to try to draw vocabulary items (or film titles, etc.).
The other students have to guess what they are drawing.

190

Vle can use strips of paper to give su1dents roles in ROLEPLAYS -+53. We can cut up
material such as DIALOGUES, TEXTS or POEMS -+63 and ask cl1e students to put them in
the correct order ll:l'!m> and ll!'rL'l>.

Classroom technology 2

Cards (and/or strips of paper) are especially useful when the students h ave to find
other students whose cards MATCH theirs, perhaps because they have the other half of a
sentence or the answer to a question -+48.
We can give our students cards where one side has a picture and the other has the -word
(for the picture) written on it. They can use the cards for team guessing games etc.
We can use a range of pictures, cards and strips of paper for
ACTIVITIES -+50.

I NFORMATION-GAP

Using realia and other devices

We can use real objects ( REALIA) to contextualise and explain language and meaning.

can bring in a range of real objects (such as food items) to DEMONSTRATE meaning.
Students can do a range of EXPERIMENTS (such as the famous 'Will it float? ' activity for

We

YOUNG LEARNERS) .

We can bring i n clock faces, plastic fruit and telephones and any other objects and use
them like theatrical props for classroom activities.

We can put objects in a bag. Students feel (but can't see) the object. Can they guess
what it is?
can give different students different objects. They have to find similarities and
differences between them. They can write an autobiography for their object and the
other students have to guess what the object is.

\i\Te

Some teachers use a learning ball. When one student throws it to a classmate, the one
who catches it has to answer a question or ask the next one, etc.

We can use dice for a range of classroom games. For example, each number ( 1 -6)
represents a different topic. The students throw the dice and have to speak about the
topic for the number which appears -+51.

\Ve can use CUISENAIRE RODS (sticks- of different colours and lengths) to demonstrate word
order, stress and intonation - and for a range of other demonstrations of meaning.

Mobile learning
such as SMARTPHONES and
i n education - as in life.

MOBILE DEVICES,

TABLET COMPUTERS,

are becoming extremely useful

Some teachers get their students to use their mobile phone cameras to take pictures
which are difficult to interpret. The other students have to try to guess what they are.

We can have our students arrange to meet each other using TEXT MESSAGING only. Can
they all manage to agree on a time and place?

Some teachers have their students go to different rooms and phone each other to
complete tasks. However, we need to be sure that the students have enough credit on
their phones (and are prepared to use them).

Some teachers encourage students to use tablet computers because a) they are easier/
lighter to carry than laptops, b) they switch on and off more quickly than computers,
c) students can carry them around in lessons and share them easily in PAIRWORK tasks,
for example, and d) they can easily be passed from hand to hand.

Students can use mobile devices to learn v.rith APPS (applications). These are easier to use
than many INTERNET WEBSITES. Because the students only use one app at a time, they are
less likely to go to other internet sites such as Facebook, Orkut, etc. instead of working!

Many apps have interactivity. Students can communicate with each other. They can
make audio or video recordings and send them straight to internet sites.
191

Classroom
technology 3
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Software in the classroom

Modern software technology is extremely useful for certain learning and teaching
activities.

Researchin online (and on mobile devices)

We

can ask our students to research language in DICTIONARIES '82 and on

such as Wikipedia, 01iline newspapers, SONG LYRIC sites, etc.

WEBSITES

We can design WEBQUESTS in which we select a TOPIC for the students to research.
We can supply them with tasks, websites to look at and evaluation activities to assess
how well they have done.

Students can use CONCORDANCERS on LANGUAGE CORPUS sites. These give evidence of
how words are used and the COLLOCATIONS '20 that they appear in.

Making recordings
It is now easier than ever before for students and teachers to make recordings of all
kinds, using smartphones or other RECORDING DEVICES. It is. then relatively easy to learn
how to use film and audio editing software such as Audacity (audio) or iMovie and
TIVindows moviemaker (video) to cut and paste extracts.

Using their recording devices, the students can INTERVIEW members of the public, act
out their own plays, create mini films or make ORAL PRESENTATIONS. They can film their
neighbourhood and give a commentary. They can post the results on sites such as
You Tube or Vimeo, offer them as PODCASTS, or mail the results to friends, colleagues or
teachers (for HOMEWORK '76) or post them on a website.

Many programs (such as Zi11nnert'11Jins and Voki for children) allow students to make
animated cartoon videos using AVATARS or user-created cartoon characters.
-

Presenting online

192

Using programs like Jing and Camtasia, we can record our voices while the program
records (films) what is happening on our computer screen. In other words, we can
speak while we show a presentation using PowerPoint, Keynote, Prezi, etc.

Classroom technology 3

and LIVE STREAMING have become popular ways of letting people attend talks
and presentations even though they cannot physically travel to conferences and
seminars. Watchers of live streaming see the filmed talk as it happens. In webinars,
people can see the speaker talking to a webcam while he or she also shows PowerPoint
or Keynote slides. Participants can interact with each other by writing in CHATBOXES or
with microphones. They can use icons for things like applause and laughter.
WEBINARS

Using internet programs for learning and social interaction

The ONLINE world is now a great environment for people to share with each other across
geographical boundaries and time zones.

Some teachers use SOCIAL NETWORKING programs such as TWITTER, Google+ and Facebook
to get their students talking to each other, sending messages, writing group stories or
sharing photographs and descriptions, for example.

Teachers and students can share information, PICTURES and VIDEOS on sites such as
W"allwisher and Eduglogster. These sites are really useful because all the information
from the different students (wherever they are) is in one place.

We can encourage our students to write BLOGS where they talk about their lives. We
can get them to co-create WIKIS (like small versions of Wikipedia) where they share
information or create stories together. Biogs and wikis work best when we ensure that
the students interact with each other (though commenting and co-constructing); most
students lose interest if we leave them alone to do it themselves.

Using virtual learning environments and learning platforms

A lot of teaching and learning now takes place using a variety of VIRTUAL LEARNING
ENVIRONMENTS (VLEs) and ONLINE LEARNING PLATFORMS.

Course designers use software such as BLACKBOARD, MOODLE or Fronter to run lessons
and courses. Users often need a password to enter. Students and teachers can post
material in the form of texts, exercises and video and audio clips. Everyone in the
group (but only in the group) can access it. Discussions happen on DISCUSSION BOARDS,
and assignments can be submitted, commented on and graded online.

Some educators invite students to SECOND LIFE where users create their own AVATAR
(a 3 D computer identity) and can then move around in a computer-generated 3 D
environment. I n the same ways that computer gaming provokes participation, so
Second Life participants can speak, type, move and interact. Because there are no
physical limitations (and 'environments' can be designed), the learning experience
can be extremely varied and interesting. Learners can take part in tasks and challenges
rather like gamers - a kind of virtual TASK- BASED LEARNING 36.

Blended learning

Many teachers organise BLENDED LEARNING in which the students get some of the input
from material such as a COURSEBOOK 81, and then expand on it with material and
websites on the internet. For example, if the students read a text about water
shortages around the world, they can go to the internet and see what they can find in
the way of extra information or video clips.

If their coursebook has a COMPAN ION WEBSITE, the students can go there and find a
range of extra texts, exercises, references and activities. As with VLEs, they can do
CYBER HOMEWORK, submitting HOMEWORK tasks 76 which the teacher can grade
online. The software will then allow the teachers to keep automatically generated
GRADE sheets and records of participation.
193

Assessment
and testing

Assessing students
Students are often assessed and tested to see how well they have done, how well they are
doing or how well they perform in standard (often national) exams.

Types of assessment
Assessment can be either FORMATIVE or SUMMATIVE . Formative assessment happens

when we test students so that we can help them to do better next time. We might say
that a lot of CORRECTION -+ 73 -75 is a kind of mini formative assessment. Summative
assessment happens when we want to see how well students have done - testing their
knowledge at the end of something (a semester or a year) or in some PUBLIC EXAM .
Teachers conduct I N FORMAL ASSESSMENT all the time. We are constantly evaluating our

students' progress and abilities so that we can decide what to do next in a lesson - or
when we are PLANNING future lessons -+ 79.
vVe give students more formal DIAGNOSTIC TESTS when we want to know how much

they know so that we can decide what to do next - l i ke a doctor diagnosing a patient's
symptoms. We can give diagnostic tests at any stage during a course to help us plan
future lessons.
A particular kind of diagnostic test is a PLACEMENT TEST . We give students placement

tests when tl1ey first arrive at a language-teaching institution so tlrnt we know what
level they should study at and which class they should be in.

vVe give PROGRESS TESTS to see how students are getti ng on. Progress tests often
happen at the end of a week, a month or when a unit of work (perhaps in a
coursebook) is finished.

We give students ACHIEVEMENT TESTS at the end of something, such as a semester or a

year. We want to know what they have learnt in ilie past few months - what tl1ey have
achieved.

194

Assessment and testing

. . .. ..... ... .. ... ...... ......... .. ...........

PROFICIENCY TESTS m easure a student's language ability at a particular point in time.

Most public exams are like this. We spend a lot of teaching time preparing students

for these tests.

PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT is based on work that the students have done during a course.

They keep examples of their work and this forms the basis of our assessment.

Portfolio assessment is one example of CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT - where we keep a

record of students' work, giving marks for each piece of homework or mini-test, and
we use this to decide a final grade. This is the exact opposite of a profici ency test.
Some teachers prefer continuous assessment because students can feel very
uncomfortable in proficiency tests and may not do as well as they should. For this
reason, a combination of both can be much fairer.

Designing and making tests

Although as teachers we sometimes feel that we don't have a lot of influence on the
design of public exams, we often find ourselves writing progress and achievement tests.

v\lhen we design tests ourselves, we have to decide on our ASSESSMENT CRITERIA.

\Ve need to know what it is we are testing. For example, a question such as

the hydrologic cycle in no more than 2 50 words might be

ASSESSMENT

Describe

an appropriate task for CUL

-+11 0, but if we only want to test the students' use of language, then it is

unfair to test SUBJECT-SPECIFIC KNOWLEDGE -+103 because some students may not know
(or may have forgotten) about water evaporation and rainfall .
Tests need to have VAL I DITY. This means that if we tell the students that we are going

to assess their writing, we shouldn't make it dependent on a lot of reading because

they were not expecting a reading test. \Nhen we make achi evement tests, we need to
test things that the students have been learning (grammar, vocabulary, etc.), and we
have to be sure that we use the same kinds of test i tems and tasks as the ones they
have been using in their lessons.

Before we start writing a test, we need to list exactly what it is we want to measure
and

how to

do it. For example, we can use SENTENCE REORDERING items if we want to

test SYNTAX (the order that words go in) -+1 or we can get the students to put pictures
in order to test comprehension of a stmy. However, putting pictures in order doesn't
test syntax, and sentence reordering doesn't test comprehension!

We have to decide on the balance of items i n a test. Do we want all the questions to

be ' di screte poi nt' items (that is only testing one thing - such as a verb tense - a t a
time) or should we include more INTEGRATIVE items, where students have to read and
write, for example, or use a variety of language items? \!Vhat balance do we want to
have between grammar and vocabulary or between the four skills?
We have to be extremely careful to write RUBRICS (instructions) that are easy for the

students/candidates to understand. If possible, eve1y question should have an example

so that the students have no doubt about what tl1ey are expected to do. For example:
Rewrite each sentence using the word given so tlrnt it has exactly the same meaning.

Example:
Mary went to bed late and as a resul t she overslept.

(because)

Yllo.v-y oVfrSlepf bec.o.use She weV\f fo bed lo.fe .

vVhen we write tests, it is a very good idea to give them to colleagues (or students

who are not going to do the tests later) to try out (PILOT) first. This will help us to
identify questions that don't work so tl1at we can make changes before we use the
test for real.

195

Types of test item

Test items
and how to
teach them

Test items and questions can be either direct or indirect. A D I RECT TEST ITEM asks the
candidate to perform the skill that is being tested (for example, make an ORAL
PRESENTATION) . An INDI RECT TEST ITEM, on the other hand, examines the candidate's
knowledge of individual items of language.

Direct test items

Direct test items come in many forms as the following examples show:
In

tests of speaking, students can be asked to do such things as give an oral presentation
53, do an INFORMATION-GAP ACTIVITY SO with one or more colleagues or take part
in an INTERVIEW.

In

tests of writing, students can be asked to do such things as write a letter or a report,
or compose a newspaper report or a BLOG entry.

In tests of reading, students can be asked to transfer information from a written TEXT to
some kind of VISUAL ORGANISER 105 (a pie chart, a graph, etc.) or match texts with
pictures and headlines.

In

tests of listening, students can be asked to transfer the information they hear to
some visual organiser (a pie chart, graph, etc.) or they can put pictures (or events) in
the right sequence, or choose between different written summaries of what they hear.

We discuss

GRADING

tests like this in 90.

Indirect test items

There are many different kinds of indirect test items.

For GAP FILLS, students have to write a word or words in

BLANKS.

For example:

Complete the following sentences with one word for each blank.

She had a quick shower, but she didn't

__

any time to put on her makeup.

In CLOZE texts, every sixth (or seventh, eight, etc.) word is a blank. The students have
to understand the whole text in order to fill i n the blanks. For example:
At school none of her (I)
seemed to have remembered that (2)
was her
birthday either and (3)
made her miserable, but a (4)
the children in her
second ( 5)
class were in a happy (6)
. It cheered her up and (7)
time
one of them . . .
__

__

__

__

__

__

__

In MULTIPLE-CHOICE

items, the students have to choose the correct (or perhaps the best)
from three or four alternatives. For example:
Choose the correct answer.

There were
people outside.
a any b a lot of c much d none
__

In TRUE/FALSE

items, the students have to say whether a statement about a reading text
is true or false. For example:

Circle the correct answer.

Brittany went to bed at nine o'clock i n the evening.

true I false

We can also add a third option, such as 'no information given in the text'.
196

Test items and how to teach tnem

For JUMBLED SENTENCES tasks -71 , the srudents h ave to put sentences in the correct
order to make a coherent text, and in SENTENCE-REORDERING tasks they h ave to put
words in order to make correct sentences. For example:
Put the words in order to make correct sentences.
call I finished I for I left I no I she I sleeping I the I there I time I was I "When

exercises ask students to rewrite sentences in a slightly

different form. For example:

SENTENCE TRANSFORMATION

Rewrite the sentence using the word given.

VVhen she got home, Brittany was still tired so she lay down to have a bit of rest.
(because)

PROOFREADING

exercises ask students to identify the mistakes in certain sentences.

For example:
Underline the mistake in the following sentence.
Luckily, she doesn't wearing much makeup.

Candidates can also be asked to do MATCHING tasks -748 and we can give them
-748 which test a range of competencies, such as listening, spelling,
grammar, collocations, etc.
D ICTATIONS

How to prepare students for tests

Students are often highly MOTIVATED -743 in exam classes because they have a clear goal
to aim for. We can use their enthusiasm to help them prepare for ACHIEVEMENT and
PROFICIENCY TESTS -788.

We will give the students experience with the indirect test i tems that they are likely to
meet. We will also give tl1em strategies for dealing with M U LTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS.
For example, they should find the most obvious DISTRACTORS (the choices tlrnt are
wrong), eliminate them and then focus on the possibilities that remain and try to work
out what is being tested.

We will discuss with our students general exam skills, such as how to prepare, how to
use PROCESS WRITING -757 techniques when writing and how to get exam timing right.

We will let the students do MOCK EXAMS in real time. In other words, we will let them
take a complete exam (not the real one, of course) so that they get used to timing, etc.

We have to be careful of exam WASHBACK (where teachers only teach the kind of things
that are in the test). Preparing students for an exam does not mean tl1at we have to
teach for the exam all the time. If we do this, we may damage the motivation that our
students bring to their lessons.

Students can do direct tasks which are similar to ones they will meet in the test, but
we can also get them involved in any other activities and materials that will help them
to improve tl1eir English.

We can get the students to

examiner).

ROLEPLAY

-753 oral interviews (one student plays the

Students can try to write their ovvn exam items and give tl1em to their classmates.
This will give them a good idea of what is involved.
Students can give each other sections of tests to do or they can work in
GROUPS -767 to discuss how to do them.

PAIRS

and

197

After the test

Writing and giving tests is the first part of a complex process. When we receive students'
papers, we have to mark and grade them.

Marking and
grading tests

The trouble with marking and how to deal with it

A good test has scorer

RELIABILITY

in other words, whoever grades the test, the student

should get the same result. But this is not easy to achieve.

It is easy to be SUBJECTIVE when we grade tests and exams, because that's what we do
in real life. Two people can go to a film and have totally different reactions to it.
Two people grading the same student's composition can also react differently.

It will be much better if tl1e marking is OBJECTIVE

that is, if a candidate gets the same

grade whoever is marking the test. When tl1is happens, we call tl1e test RELIABLE, and
we can be confident that (provided we have designed it well) the test gives a clear
picture of a candidate's real ability and achievement.

Many INDI RECT TEST ITEMS '89 can be objectively graded. For example, when
candidates answer well-designed MU LTI PLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS '89 only one answer is
correct. If the test is graded on a computer or by someone using an OVERLAY (which
can be put over a student's answer sheet and which only shows correct answers),
then we can have con fidence that the grading will be accurate.

If we want to include DI RECT TEST ITEMS '89, such as speaking tests and longer
p ieces of writing, we will have to find other non-mechanical ways of trying to achieve
the same kinds of scorer reliability. ASSESSMENT SCALES l ike the examples below and on
page

1 99 can help to achi eve this.

Whatever kind of marking we are using, the grading will always be more reliable if
more than one person is involved. For example, two scorers can check each otl1er's
grades, or two scorers can mark the same paper to see if the same work gets the
same grade.

Y\There marking is subjective, we can still make grading more reliable if we organise

scorer training so that everyone is clear about what an 'N. grade is, or what a 'fail'

looks like, for example.

Using assessment scales

Y\Then we have thought about our ASSESSMENT CRITERIA (exactly what skills and sub-skills
we want to assess), we can design an assessment scale (or scales).

Example 1: a basic five-level assessment scale for writing

1 Very difficult to understand, with poor spelling and many vocabulary and
2
3
4
5

grammar mistakes.

Quite a lot of grammar and vocabulary mistakes, but the meaning is mostly clear.
The meaning i s clear although there are some grammar and vocabulary mistakes.
The meaning is clear and there are few mistakes of grammar and vocabulary.
The meaning i s clear and the writing i s almost mistake-free.

YVe can make more complex assessment scales which allow us to assess a wider range of
abifaies in direct test items.

198

Marking and grading tests

Example 2: an assessment scale for giving oral presentations (with a total of 2 5 possible marks)

Content

Organisation

Interesting,

Enough

Quite interesting

Occasionally

Listeners will

informative, clear

i nteresting

at times

interesting, but

find it difficult to

information to

unlikely to

find anything

engage listeners

engage l isteners

mteresting here
Extremely

Excellent

Mostly clear and

Easy to follow,

Rather poorly

structure with

easy to follow

though a little

organised and

difficult to follow

chaotic

incoherent

because of

good introduction

extremely poor

and conclusion

organisation

Pronunciation

Grammar

Very poor

Almost faultless

Ve1y good

Clearly

Quite a few

with no problems

pronunciation

intelligible but

pronunciation

for the listener

with only

some problems

problems make

and very difficult

occasional

make listening a

this speaker

to understand

difficulties for
the listener

little difficult

pronunciation

difficult to
understand
Many and varied

Use of varied

Use of varied

Good gramm a r

Often good

grammar v.rith no

grammar with a
few errors

use with some

grammar use but

grammar

mistakes

quite a few

mistakes

mistakes

mistakes

Vocabulary

A wide use of

A wide use of

Good vocabulary

A lot of

So many

appropriate

vocabula1y with

use with some

vocabulary

vocabulary

vocabulary with

occasional

problems

problems make

no problems

problems

mistakes that it is

it difficult to

very difficult to

understand

understand

I nvolving the students

Students can be involved in marking and grading in a number of ways.

We often use a grading system that has been decided at some stage in the past whether by the school, the subject co-ordinator or by ourselves. However, we can also

A, B,
D grades or would they prefer a simple pass, fail , distinction marking system?
vVhen we encourage our students to write JOURNALS '59, we ask tl1em how much
ask the students what grading system tl1ey would like us to use. Would they like
C,

comment they would like from us. We can do the same with tests.

Students can mark their own tests if we give them dear criteria for doing so.
Students can use CAN-DO STATEMENTS '41 , such as I can write a simple email to a1Tange a
meeting or I can nzake a two-minute oral presentation about a scientific topic to assess their
own abilities. Can-do statements can be included at the end of a week or month's
work, for example, or at the end of a COURSEBOOK '81 unit so that the students

can

evaluate their own progress and ability levels.

We can ask our students to take part in PEER EVALUATION (peer assessment) so that they
grade each other's tests.

199

Section F: Teach i ng you ng lea r ners

T h e units i n this section discuss some of the characteristics o f young learners, before
going on to look at ways of teaching them and the activities we can use for this.
We use the term young learners to describe children up to about ten or eleven years old
and in this section we look at how children develop, and what this means for us as
(language) teachers.
We look at many activities for children - including songs, chants, games and stories and we discuss how these activities can be used to improve young learner listening,
speaking, reading and writing.
Finally we talk about a 'topics and themes' approach to lesson p lanning, before looking
at how we can assess young learners.

91 Describing young learners

92 In the language classroom

93 M ovement, games and special friends

94 Chants, rhymes and songs

95 Language teaching with young learners

96 Young learner listening

97 Young learner s peaking

98 Yo ung learner reading

99 Young learner writing

100 To pics and themes

101 Assessing young learners

201

Theories of learning and child development

Many theorists have influenced the way we think about CHILD DEVELOPMENT.

Jean Pia get ( 1 896-1 980) said that children move from egocentrism (thinking only of
themselves) to sociocentrism (themselves and others) and that this maturation process
involves four basic stages from the sensorimotor stage (when children experience
eve1ythi ng through touch, sound, smell , etc.) through to the FORMAL OPERATIONAL stage
when they can think in an abstract way and consider the practical and hypothetical
consequences of their actions. His strong belief was that children construct personal
meaning through action: playing, moving, making things, etc.

Lev Vygotsky ( 1 896- 1 93 4) suggested that children gradually develop understanding

of abstract meaning through play - that action is eventually replaced, through play, by
imagination. Through play, children learn social rules. Language becomes a tool for
organising their thoughts (through inner speech) and for interacting with the world
(external speech). Children learn best in the ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD)
-?38 when, with the help of someone more knowing than they are, they can
understand and do new things.

Abraham Maslow (1 908- 1970) suggested that there is a hierarchy of needs that
learners have. Feelings of safety, being loved, belonging and SELF-ESTEEM are essential
for learning to take place.

Jerome Bruner ( 1 9 1 5-) has said that we should realise that any learner (even at a
young age) is capable of learning almost anything, provided that the instruction is
organised properly. He developed the idea of instructional scaffolding as the way in
which we can best help children to learn. In some ways this is similar to Vygotsky's
idea of help and support to learners in the ZPD.

Describing young
learners

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.

Instructional scaffolding
When parents (or teachers) use instructional scaffo l d i ng

-?65, they:

m a ke the c h i l d ren interested in the task;

break a big task down into s m a l l e r steps;

keep the c h i l d ren focused and on task by remind ing them what the goal of the task is;

point out what the i m portant parts of the task or steps a re;

show the c h i l d re n other ways of doing the task.

.
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Based on these theories, w e can say that children need safety and support if learning is
to take place. They will (at first) learn best from doingthings through play and action
in a warm and ENGAGING environment where they feel safe. The job of teachers is to
identify what developmental stage individual children have reached so that they can
guide and help them to achieve appropriate learning objectives.

How young are young learners?

\Ve generally call students benveen the ages of two and eleven young learners. Some
people talk about children aged 0 to four as VERY YOUNG LEARNERS. But young learners are
not all the same.

202

There are many differences between a five-year-ol d child and an eleven-year-old chil
and between six year olds and nine year olds, for example. We need to understand
these differences if we want to know how to teach children at different ages.

Although it is possible to suggest that in general eight-year-old children have certain

characteristics which are different from those of ten year olds, this will always depend

Describing young learners

on the individual maturity of the child and what stage they, personally, have reached.
In other words, although we can make generalisations about children at certain ages,
it is important to remember that these will never be exact and may not be true for
individual children who are developing at different speeds and in different ways.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.

Children aged five to seven

If we consider c h i l d re n between the ages of five and seven we can say that in general, they:
are enthusiastic a bout learning (if it happens i n the right way);
learn best t h rough play a n d other enjoyable activities;
use everyt hing i n the physica l wo rld (what they see, do, hear and touch, etc.) for learning
a n d u nderstanding t h ings;
use language skills without analysing (or being able to analyse) why or how they use them;

l i ke to d o we l l a n d enjoy being PRAISED -?66;

have exciting i maginations;

can't, sometimes, t e l l the d ifference between fact and fiction;

have a short attention span and can't concentrate on t h e same t h i ng for a long t i me;
w i l l ta l k (and participate) a lot if they are engaged they can tell you what they are doing
and what they have done;
often don't understand t he a d u l t world - but they don't say ' I don't und erstand', they just
go along with it;
a re very good at i m itating people, so they pick up the teac her's INTONATION

-?27, etc.

can't decide what to learn by themselves (or how to d o it);

are self-centred and l i ke playing by themselves;
are comforta b l e with the idea that there are rules and routines for things .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.

Children aged ten and above

By the t i m e c h i l d re n reach the age of about ten, they are q u ite mature and they:
u nd e rstand basic concepts of the world around them; they are making sense of the a d u l t
wo rld around them;
can tell the d ifference between fact and fiction;
have (sometimes strong) views about what they l i ke and don't l i ke;
ask (a lot of) questions;
can work with the spoken word only (they don't always need the physical worl d to hel p);
can make some decisions about their own learning;
can u nderstand abstract concepts a n d symbols and can genera l ise;
have a strong sense of what is right and fa i r.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

203

Creating the right conditions for language learning

We can help our students to feel safe, happy and eager in a young learner language
classroom. This will make their learning more successful.

In the language
classroom
..,

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. .

. . .

. . . . . .

will organise activities so that each child has a chance of doing well . This will
involve DIFFERENTIATION (doing our best to teach individual students in ways that match
their LEARNING STYLES 40) so that every individual does work that can be praised.

\i\Te

We will emphasise meaning rather than focusing on the ACCURACY of the language that
the students are producing - although we will, of course, try to make sure that they do
things properly.

We will use routines (activities and procedures that happen often) i n lessons so that
the children feel secure and know what to expect when they happen again.

Where possible, we will speak in the TARGET LANGUAGE to give instructions, explain things
or organise PAIRWORK and GROUPWORK 67, for example. We need to take special care
to use ROUGHLY-TUNED language 68 so that our students can understand what we are
saying. We will accompany our words with gestures, facial expressions and visual
demonstrations to help them understand. We discuss GIVING INSTRUCTIONS in 69.

We can teach young learners some classroom phrases in English. This will help them
to become comfortable when using the language, and it will help to create an English
environment in the classroom .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. .

. .

. .

....

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Some examples of useful classroom English

I'm sorry.
I don't understand.
What do you want us to do, miss?
Good morning/afternoon.
Can I read a book/use the compute!/go to the toilet, please?
What's this in English, please?
Is it my tum? I Now it's your tum.
Pass the . . . / Can I have the . . . , please?
Can you help me with this, please?
What is your painting/story about?
I like your painting/story.
.
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

204

Teaching young children in a foreign laa nguage

In young learner classrooms it is also very helpful if the children and their teacher
can talk to each other using the children's HOME LANGUAGE

(u). However, some

people believe that teachers should only use the target l anguage in a foreign l anguage
classroom. We discuss this view in -+77.
We will use stories that the children enjoy (and which are useful for them) more than

once so that they get to know them and feel comfortable and ENGAGED with them each
time they appear. Many children enjoy hearing the same stories many times. We
discuss reading in -+54-56.

If we spend too much tim e CORRECTING mistakes -+73-74, rather than listening to
what the students want to say and encouraging them through praise and showing
interest, we may damage their emerging confidence and self-esteem.

The classroom as a learning environment

It is important to arrange young learner classrooms (if we can) in a way that contributes
to the l earning experience.

A young learner classroom should, where possible, be light and spacious. It should be
colourful and comfortable. The furniture should be child-sized and child-appropriate
(so that the children can reach shelves or are comfortable sitting, for example).

We can divide the classroom into designated areas so that there is, for example, a

reading corner, a computer corner, a play area, a 'wet area' (where there is a sink and
bowls for activities with water and other liquids), and clearly marked containers for
things like pens, paints, glue, plasticine, etc. This makes it much easier for the
students to move from one activity and area to another.
We can put pictures, charts and objects around the classroom. It is especially impor

tant to display the children's own work on wall charts and posters, etc. We can en
courage the children to bring things to the class so that they can 'show and tel l ' .
We must decide how w e want our students t o s i t -+67. If they are a l l i n straight lines,

they will all be facing forward when we want to explain something or act as a
CONTROLLER -+65, and the students can still do pairwork -+67 if the row in the front

turns back to the row behind it. But at other times, the view of everyone who is not in
the front row will be the back of another student's head!

One of the best arrangements is to have the students seated in groups of, say, four at
small tables. This helps them get used to working with others and makes groupwork
and pairwork much easier to organise. It also helps if we want to use differentiation by
giving different tasks to different groups.

If we want to have our students work in different pairs or groups, we can hand out

cards with pictures of animal families (ducks, cows, cats, etc.). The students then have
to find the other members of their group by making the noise of their animal.
We can vary the arrangement of tables (or where the students sit) depending on what

the students are doing. For example, if we are reading a story to younger learners

(5-7 year olds), we can have them sitting on the floor in a semi-circle around the

teacher's chair. If they are playing a team game, they may sit in lines on the floor and
send RUNNERS (individual group representatives) up to the front.
It is important to let the students move around during lessons. Physical movement

helps l earning, especially for KINAESTHETIC learners -+40. If the children have spent a
lot of time sitting down, then we should let them get up and move, at least for a
short period, to allow them to release some energy and get them in the mood for the
next activity.
We discuss issues of classroom management and DISCIPLINE in -+ 70 and -+ 71.

205

Movement

Movement,
games and
special friends

Young learners shoul d not be made to sit still all day. They need to move and to
move around.

We can ask our students to do movements with CHANTS, RHYMES and SONGS -+94.

When students are learning to tell the time, we can get them to be 'living clocks'.
They have to use their arms as the hands of a clock (this is not as easy as it sounds!).

We can ask pairs of students to mirror each other's movements and then say what
they are doing.

From time to time, we should let the children stand up and jump or wave their arms
or run around (if there is a place where they can do this).

If we want our students to work in pairs or groups, we can tel l them to stand up and
make a line along one wall of the classroom in order of birthdays, heights, etc. so that
we can group them tvvo by tvvo or four by four, for example. We discuss PAIRWORK and
GROUPWORK in general in -+67 .

Special friends
We can bring other 'characters' into the lesson. Children will enjoy engaging with them
and imitating them.

l\1any teachers like to use PUPPETS ( 1 ) when teaching yow1g learners. We can use
commercially-produced glove puppets or we can draw and cut out cardboard
characters. We can use sock puppets or even just use paper bags which we draw faces on.

The children can talk to the puppets and the puppets (the teacher) can answer. The

children can take turns to tal k to the puppet, be the puppet and talk like the puppet. (2)
206

We can describe the puppet's life or tell stories about what it has done.

We can give the students a number of characters who have special personalities, for
example nice Nick, horrible Harvey, clever Carol, happy Harriet, sad Sadie and silly
Sylvester (3). Every time the children meet these people, they are always horrible, sad
or clever, etc. so they know what to expect and they enjoy their different characters.
Children can also pretend to be the characters - and this gives them a chance to play
at bein g horrible, sad, happy, etc. It makes speaking i n the foreign language enjoyable
and n ot frightening.

It is important to consider the age of young learners when we use special friends.
Ten year olds may not want to engage with puppets. They will usually respond better
to more realistic characters or to the kind of AVATARS they can use with computer
programs such as Voki, for example ' 87 .

Games
When students play GAMES , they don't realise they are learning language. And i f the game
has built-in repetition, they will be practising words and phrases without even reali sing
it!

In the game Please, Mr Crocodile, one student is the crocodile and the other students
are tryi ng to cross the river. They say Please, l\!Ir!Mrs Crocodile may we cross the river?
The crocodile replies You may cross the river ifyou have a blue T-shirt/glasses, white
trainers, etc. Children with the right clothes can walk across safely. The rest then try
to cross and the crocodile tries to catch them. The crocodile can, of course, choose
any category, for example You can cross the river ifyou have a brother, etc.

We can give our students CARDS with PICTURES of objects. The teacher says a word.
Which child can pick up the right picture card first? This can be very n oi sy!

The learners use the word

teapot instead of VERBS in sentences. For example, they say

Yesterday I teapot to the skating rinle with myfamily and the other students have to guess
that teapot = went.

We can write the names of famous characters (real or fictional) that the students know.

They have to stick the names on their foreheads without looking at them (or someone
sticks them on their backs). They have to ask yes/no questions ' 3 (Anz I a boy? Am I in
a fairy st01y ?) until they find out who they are.

The children can play Snap with rwo identical sets of picture cards. The first child to
say the right word when they both put do"''ll the same card from their different packs
keeps the two cards. Who wins?

We can play chain memory games with students in a circle. The first student (Jack)
says I went to the market and I bought an apple. The next chi l d (Annie) says Jack went to
the market and he bought an apple. I went to the market and I bought an orange. The third
child has to remember what Jack and Annie bought and then add his or her own
purchase, and so on.

We can use dice. For example, each number represents a di fferent animal. If the dice
l a n ds on a six ( tiger, for example) the child has to say a correct sentence, such as
I havefozw legs or I have a tail.
=

We can use board games. The children throw a dice. \Vhen they land on a square they

have to say the word (if i t has a picture) or answer the question there.

We divide the BOARD into two columns, one for each team. The children line up i n
teams a n d take turns t o write a word for each letter of the alphabet. Which team can
write 2 6 words first?

Many speaking ' 5 1 - 53 , listening '6 0 -6 2 , writi n g' 5 7- 5 9 and reading ' 54- 5 6
activities for young l earners have game-like characteristics.
207

Chants and rhymes

Chants, rhymes
and songs

CHANTS and RHYMES with a clear rhythm help the students to get used to the stress and
sounds of the language. They are easy to learn and they are fun. Because we can use
them more than once, they help the students to memorise words and phrases.

Children can do ACTIONS while they chant rhymes such as :

Put your hands in the air.

ow scratch your nose.
Put your hands on your hips.
Now touch your toes.
Or they can do movements to accompany their rhymes:
I'm a cunning little fox (hands on headfor ears, looking around)
And I live in the wood. (hands wavingfor trees)
My favourite food is chicken. (flapping wings)
Wow ! It tastes so good. (rubbing their stomachs)

We can put rhythm behind almost any questions and answers such as:

What's your name? .i\!Iy name is Sam.

Where do you live? I live in a house.
Do you have a brother? Yes I have three.
We can use counting rhymes such as:

Five little elephants sitting in a boat.

But elephants are heavy and the boat won't float.

So onejumps out and .nvims to shore.

Now there aren't five elephants, there are only four.

(So one jumps out and swims to a tree: three)

(So onejumps out and runs to the zoo: two)
(So one jumps out to have some fun
Now there aren't .five elephants, there's only one.)
They can count on their fingers, or they can have picture cards of a boat and five elephants.
They take one away each time and put it in the right place (in a zoo, on the shore, etc.).

Songs and singing

Many young learners (like people of all ages) like SONGS. They appeal directly to our
emotions and, as a result, make tl1e words (lyrics) more memorable. Then young
learners sing together, it can reinforce a sense of belonging, and when they perform their
songs, they can feel a sense of pride and achievement.
Students can sing songs -+64 and do the actions to go witl1 tl1em. In the following two

songs (used by teachers all over the world) they have to do a range of movements.

m.
If you're happy and you know it, clap your hands.
If you're happy and you know it, clap your hands.
If you're happy and you know it, your face will surely show it.
If you're happy and you know it, clap your hands.

For tl1e second, third and fourth verses, we can replace clap your hands with stamp yourfeet,
shout hurray, turn around or any other action the teacher or the children want to use.
-

208

Chants, rhymes and songs

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .

This is the way we wash ourface, wash ourface, wash ourface,

This is the way we wash our face so early in the morning.

For the verses that follow, the teacher can substitute actions such as bntsh our teeth,
put on our clothes, brush our hair, etc.

Students can sing a round: a song where the same lines are started at different times
by different singers. Two popular ones are:
C

London's burning, London's burning

Fetch the engines, fetch the engines
Fire, fire! Fire, fire!
Pour on water! Pour on water!

m:D
Life is butter, life is butter
Melancholy flower, melancholy flower
.Life is but a melon, life is but a melon
Cauliflower, cauliflower

We can teach each child a word or phrase from a song (perhaps a pop song that they
like) or give it to them on a STRIP OF PAPER. Eve1y time they hear that word or phrase,
they have to stand up or hold the word up.

If the

song has a STORY, we can give the students pictures of the main characters
(or display them on the board/screen). The learners have to put the pictures i n order
and/or point to them when they come up in the song.

We can give the students the words of a song. The students sing along with an audio
recording. We fade out the audio and the children keep singing. When we increase
the volume of the audio again, are the children in the right place (or have they sung
too fast or too slowly)?

We can conduct students while they are singing. We can make them sing softly or
loudly, faster or slower. A student can then be a conductor.

We can build up a song using different groups of students to sing different lines.
For example, they can sing 'The lion sleeps tonight' in three parts. The first part has
the words:
In thejungle, the mightyjungle, the lion sleeps tonight

The bass line is:

A-wimoweh, A-wimoweh, A-winzoweh, A-wimoweh
and the middle line can be sung as We-ee-ee, etc.
We discuss music in detail in -+ 64 .
209

Teaching language to children

As children approach puberty (from about ten onwards), they start being able to analyse

Language
teaching with
young learners

abstract language concepts such as SYNTAX and GRAMMAR. T hey are reaching the FORMAL
OPERATIONAL stage of their development -+91. Before that, however, we need to think about

teaching language to children differently from the way we teach it to TEENAGERS and ADULTS.

Young learners absorb language through ACTION, GAMES, SONGS and RHYMES -+94,
STORIES and the senses. This is far more effective than trying to explain its rules or
construction.

We can, however, make young learners aware of some language features and differences.
For example, we can show them the word

horses (with the sin a different colour from

the rest of the word) and say Is that one horse or more than one horse? We can say things
like Is that a yesterday question or a today question? to make them aware of past and
present tenses.

We vvill give explanations when the children ask for them (rather than when we want

to give them). We will try to find explanations which are appropriate for the stage the
child is at.

Some exam ples of language teaching sequences

It is impossible to list all the many ways of teaching language to young learners, but the
following examples give an idea of how children can learn and practise language.

We can build up a conversation with two PUPPETS (or with their SPECIAL FRIENDS -+93),
such as:
Croc:

"What shall we do this evening, Mr Ted?

Croc:

television.
television!
All right then, let's play a game.

Mr Ted:
Mr Ted:
Croc:

Let's watch

But I don't like

Yes, let's.

The children practise tl1e dialogue in CHORUS -+47. We can then give the puppets to a
pair of students and they have to try to perform the conversation. T hey can change
the words and phrases in italics in the dialogue.

We can MIME actions (representing language that we want our students to learn and/or

practise) and the students have to guess what we are doing. We can mime a story and
the students have to tell us what is happening. Students can then mime their own stories.

If vve want our students to hear (and produce) two of the different sounds of the 's'
plural, we can ask them whether the words are snake words (cats, cups, socks) or bee
words

(apples, bananas, dogs).

\Ve can tell our students about the class puppet or another character and they have to
say whether their Jives are the same or different. For example, we can say Mr Ted has a
brother. A student has to say Same! I have a brothn; too or Different! I don't have a

brother. I have two sisters.

vVe get the students to think of all the things that you can find in people's bedrooms.
vVe can draw or write up words (or show PICTURES) . We then ask them to think of six
things they have in their bedroom. They write them down or draw pictures of them

without the other students seeing. The class now asks each student

Do you have a

television in your room? Do you have a picture in your room?

vVe can get the students to be telepathic with words! One student thinks of a day of
the week (or a word from anotl1er category such as an animal, a sport or a hobby).

Can another student (or other students) receive that telepathic message and guess the

day of the week?

210

 \Ve can ask our students to write words showing where the STRESS is - the stressed
syllable must be larger than the unstressed syllables

( 1) .

\Vhen w e teach children who have started t o read, w e can use disappearing words or
DISAPPEARING DIALOGUES as a way to help them remember words and phrases.
e show
a dialogue on the board (or the screen). The students practise saying it. Then we take
words or phrases away, one at a time. Each time we do this, the students have to try to
say the original dialogue until, finally, they can say the whole dialogue from memory.

We can show the students 'spaghetti' or 'ball of string' pictures

(2). They have to

follow the lines from a person to a place so that they can say things like John li- es in

house, Justin lives in a fiat, Peter lives in a caravan,

etc. We can use pictures like this for

almost any language we want to practise.

Students can look for the words in a wordsnake showing, for example, the months of
the year (3), or do a wordsearch (4) puzzle. \Vl10 can find the most words?

We can play a version of the GAME ,93 Battleships. Each student has two charts, one
for themselves and one for their partner. They don't look at their partner's chart. In
the charts, the horizontal top line shows pictures representing

under the chair, on the

Pairs of students put different animals in

table, in the basket, on the chair, behind the sofa.

different places in their own charts (but they don't tell their partner)

(5).

For example

in Ns chart, Danny the dog is behind the sofa and Carrie the cat is under the chair,
etc. Student A asks 'ls Danny under the chair?' and if the answer is yes (because Danny
is under the chair in B's chart), Student A can put a cross on that square in their
second chart (the one about their partner). The first student to put crosses on all the
squares of their partner's chart is the winner.

CD nffEEN fifty

MARY

EM,LY

f1'

Musical Styles

PETER
ARA

Danny

JOHN

the dog
Carrie
the cat
Mickey

the mouse
Simon
the snake

x.
x
)(
211

YouQgJearner
listening
'

The importance of listening

If we want young learners to use the foreign language they are learning, they have to
listen to i t first. There are a number of activities we can use for this.

Listen and do
We can use RHYMES and CHANTS '94. The children have to do the actions in the
rhyme, as in the following example:
Sway from side to side like a tree in the breeze.
Smell the beautiful flowers - but be careful, don't sneeze.
Turn your face to the stm - but don't stay too long.
Now here comes the rain with its pitter patter song.

We can ask our students to do things with a range of instructions, such as Bring me
something green. Each group of students sends a RUNNER (a representative from the
group) to the front of the class with the appropriate object.

We can tell the chil dren things like Put the lion in the cage or Clare is in the sitting room.
The children have to move pictures or drag them on the I NTERACTIVE WHITEBOARD so
that the ani mal goes in the right place in a picture of a zoo or the girl is put in the
right room in a picture of a house.

'Ve can tell students to do things l ike Stand on one leg and count to ten or Go to the
window and open it. W i th TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE activities like this ,4, 45 the
students themselves can then give instructions to each other.

Students choose words that we give them (one wo_rd for each student). They stand up.
We read a TEXT with their words in it. en they hear their word they have to sit
down (we can do this with adults, too m'!m!>).

We can describe a picture. T he students have to draw the picture. This is similar to
DESCRIBE AND DRAW '50.
en we are teaching colours, we can tell the students to do things such as Colour the

clown '.r nose red, Make the clown right leg purple,
212

etc.

Listen for information

We can give the students a picture of a town. We tell them they have to discover
where we (or a PUPPET or a SPECIAL FRIEND) went yesterday. They hear things like:
I walked out of my house and turned right. I walked past the cinema. I crossed the street
and walked past the swimming pool. I turned left and walked past the baker's.

Then

I walked across the zebra crossing and it was right in front of me next to the . . . etc.

The students see PICTURES of four different children. We describe one. They have to
say which one we are describing. For example, we say:

I am quite tall. I have red hair and freckles. I have glasses and a stripy shirt. I am
wearing blue trousers. lho am I?
Or, for animals, we can say something like:
It has four legs, two ears, two eyes, sharp teeth and a long tail. It has spots and it
can run very fast. That is it?
and the students have to find the picture of a leopard.

We can describe a picture or tell a story (see below) and make a mistake such as
Cinderella's sisters were Vel'J' beautiful. The children have to find the mistake. We can
give them information and they have to say whether it is true orfalse.

Stories
Children love stories. Stories teach them about the world. They can be funny, serious,
happy, sad and uplifting. Children like it when stories are told and retold.

ffien we read to children (as all parents know), we need to be animated and dramatic.
We need to make the story come alive. ffien the wolf says All the better to

eat you

with! he should sound like a horrible wolf.

Then we want to tell stories (rather than read them) we need to think about what
order the events should be in and then practise the different stages of a sto1y. As with
reading, we need to tell stories dramatically and interestingly.

We can have a special story time, especially for younger learners (5-7). For example,
it is often a good idea to end the day with a READING CIRCLE to settle the children
(quieten them down and relax them). They can sit on the floor so that they listen and
relax. We can show them all the illustrations in the book or on the screen (if we are
using a data projector or an interactive whiteboard).

We can show the learners the cover of a book (and the pictures in it). The children
have to guess (or tell us) what the story is before we read it.

With older children, we can read longer stories or books one chapter each time so
that the children will look forward to the next week's instalment.

ffien we read to younger children, we can invite them to join in with the story.
We can say things like So

what did the princess do then? or get them to speak the

repeated lines with us.

We can tell a story and the students have to MIME the actions.
We can tell the students to close their eyes and try to imagine that they are in the
story we are telling them. ffien we finish, we can ask them what they saw, how
felt, what smells they smelt, etc.

they

We discuss listening in general in 60-62.

213

Young learner
speaking
. .........................................

Creating confident speakers

We want our students to become confident speakers in the foreign language. For some
y oung learners this can be hard, but there a number of ways we can help them to
overcome their difficulties.

Speaking activities
W hen we want our students to practise speaking, we can use a number of activities and
techniques.

The students sit in a circle. They pass or throw a soft ball around the circle. 'When a
child receives the ball, they have to say something in English.

The students can interview PUPPETS or their SPECIAL FRIENDS 93 and ask them
questions about what they like, what time they get up in the morning, where they are
going on holiday, etc. We can answer for the puppet at first, but later we can give the
puppet to one of the children and they can make up the answer.

W hen we ask our students to practise any language (for example I like/don't like
bananas or On Sunday I watched television) they can speak in the voice of one of the
special friends (such as sad Sadie or happy Harriet 93). The other students have to
guess who they are.

vVe can get our sn1dents to complete questionnaires. They write the names of other
students along the top of a chart and then the names of some foods on the left. They
have to ask the other students

Do you like chocolate? Do you like snails? etc. If young

learners are not writing yet, they can draw (or put) smiling/frowning faces to show
the correct answers.

We can have a collection of CARDS (or PICTURES on the board) of places such as a library.
a swimming pool, a sweet shop and a skating rink, and some objects such as a book, a
swimsuit, some money, some gloves, etc. One child chooses one of the places and the
others have to ask

vVhat do you have in your bag? \Vhen the child answers,

for example,

I have sonze money, the others ask Are you going to the sweet shop? The child who asks
the correct question chooses the next card.
214

Young learner speaking

..... ........... . .. ... .. ... . . . . . . . .. .. . . ....

Storytelling
v\Te need to help younger learners become good storytellers in English.

We can SCAFFOLD -+65, 91 STORIES with our students, gradually helping them to
include the elements that they need. For example, we can ask them things such as

Who is in the story? Where did they go? What happened next? etc.
We can get the students to tell stories to their puppet or mascot, saying things like

Tell Teddy what you did yesterday or Teddy wants to know what you saw when you went to
the zoo.
We can get younger students to retell the stories that they have been enjoying in a
READING CIRCLE (where the teacher reads a story to the students) -+96. We will point
out how the story begins and ends with typical phrases such as

once upon a time and

they all lived happily ever ater.

f
As young learners get older, we can get them to retell stories they have heard in class.
We can have different GROUPS -+67 hear or read different stories. They then have to
tell the stories to the other groups so that everyone has heard all the stories.

Older children can read or hear a st01y with several different characters. They then
have to retell the story from the point of view of one of the characters in the story.

Sometimes the simplest things can provoke good stories. For example, we can ask the
students to tell the story of a day in the life of pebble on the beach, a five-pound note
or a set of keys.

We can tell older students two stories about our lives (or the lives of a person/
celebrity the students know) and they have to decide which story is true and which
is false.

Using drama and playacting

Young learners are usually happy to become involved in PLAYACTING and DRAMA.

We can get our students to act out situations using language they have been learning.
For example, if they have been learning words to describe foods, we can set up a food
store, and they can go to the store to buy different items, saying things like

Have you

got any apples?

Students can ROLEPLAY -+53 a visit to a restaurant and order meals.
We can reconstruct a familiar story as a drama, and the children can help to create the
scenes. They can decide who says what. For example, if they have been reading (or
listening to) the story of Cinderella, they can decide what Cinderella's sisters say to
her when they are getting ready for the ball, e.g. Cinderella: I want to go to the ball, too.
Sisters: Well, you can't! You haven't got anything to wearf We can give different scenes to
different groups so that the final version of the whole 'play' has been written by
everybody in the class. vVe can help them with words and phrases from the original
stories. We will rehearse our play for a fe,.v minutes every day in the weeks before the
final performance.

If the students have been reading comic-strip stories (for example in their
COURSEBOOKS -+ 81), they can rehearse the scenes and act them out. We will spend
time helping the students to say their lines with correct pronunciation, using
appropriate stress and intonation so that their scenes are dramatic and enjoyable.

We can turn stories into the news. For example, the children can retell the episodes in
a story as if they were doing a news broadcast. We can set up a table as if it was in a

TV studio and have presenters 'read the news'.

We discuss more speaking activities in -+51-53.

215

Encouraging reading
\i\Then young learners first start reading, they need to be able to recognise word shapes
and sentences. But we also have to encourage them to love reading, and we can do this

YoungJearner
reading
.

by demonstrating our own enthusiasm for reading, especially during READING CIRCLE
sessions, for example, where the teacher reads to the students.

Learning sounds, learning words

In the first stages of reading, we want our students to recognise letters, whole words
and sentences.

\iVhen we read to our students using big books in a typical reading circle (where the
students sit in a circle and the teacher reads to them), they can point to the words as
we read them. If they have their own books (or if they are reading on screens), they
can follow the words with their finger or a cursor.

\iVe can show the students word shapes (1). They have to match them with the words.
The examples shown in the margin have to be matched with the words elephant and
dolphin from a list of animal names given to the students. This helps them to get used
to what words look like.

We can give the students word CARDS. They have to MATCH them with PICTURES.
We can give the students word and MORPHEME cards (for example, S cards for plurals). The
words can be in different colours for verbs, articles, etc. The students have to say what
the words are. For example,

It's a 'doing' word, It's a 'person' word,

etc. They can choose

words to make their own sentences. They can put cards in order to make sentences -+1.

\iVe can get our students to give us sentences about themselves such as I live with my mum

and dad or I have a cat called Timmy.

We write the sentence(s) on a piece of paper or card

and give it to the students so that they can read it to themselves. Then they have to read
their card back to us. Later they have to select one of their many cards and read it out.

\i\Then we build up a DIALOGUE with the class -+45, we can write it on the board.
We can then give the students phrases from the dialogue cut up and written on cards.
The students have to match the cards to put the phrases back together again. They
can look at the dialogue on the board to help them do this.

A few things that young learners can do with reading

\Ve can give the students a STORY, together with pictues which come from it. The
students have to put the pictures in order.

Students read a story. They then retell it.

We can give the students a story with pictures of the characters (but wi.thout names).
The students have to identify them.

We can give the students pictmes from a book or story they are going to read. The
students have to guess (and get prepared for) the story.

Vle can give young learners a story to read and ask them to draw picmres about it.

Reading aloud
In many classrooms, teachers ask students to read from books in front of the whole class,
smdent by student, line by line. This isn't usually ve1y successful. Students often find it
difficult to read well, and the other smdents get bored. However, reading aloud can be
fun, and it helps us to know how well our students are getting on with their reading.
216

Young learner reading

If we want our students to read aloud, we must give them time to think about how to
read the text. They can hear us reading the text first (or listen to an audio recording).
They can then practise reading it aloud in pairs or groups (or just mumbling to
themselves) before we ask them to read to us.

Students can read (on a one-to-one basis) to the teacher (or parent or classroom
assistant). This allows them to show us how well they are doing, and we can help them
with any words they are finding difficult: We will only ask students to read aloud in
front of the whole class if we are confident that they will not stumble over the words
and feel foolish.

Students can read sentences in CHORUS '47. This is good fun and focuses their
attention on the sentence in the book or on the board. We can point to words as they
read them.

We can ask our students to choose their favourite sentence in a story. They can
practise reading it by mumbling to themselves. When we ask them to read it aloud,
they have to say

It says here

. . . and then read their sentence aloud as dramatically as

possible '29, 69.

Let students read!

vVe should encourage our students to read for pleasure (we discuss EXTENSIVE READING
in general in '54). They can go to the reading corner in their classrooms '92 and
sit there reading while other student groups do different things.

We can make mini-books (short stories on cards with accompanying pictures) so that
the students can read complete stories quickly.

It is important that students should be allowed to choose the books that they want to
read, even if this means that they are reading the same books again and again.

We can include DEAR (drop everything and read) moments in lessons '54. This
encourages the students to become comfortable with reading books, tablet computers,
online sites, etc.

We can get our students to comment on what they have read. At the beginning,

(2),
in the story is

they can put smiley or frowny faces on a feedback sheet

complete sentences such as My favourite person

when

. . .

but later they can

. .

. and

The part I like best is

(3).

We discuss reading in general in '54-56.

The Snow Prince

Ivana

Sergei

Natalia

Sasha

Veronika

gggg
ggg
00
ggggg
g

Title:

The Mysterious Castle

Name:

Mehnan
My favourite person in the story is

Tin the Giant.

The part I like best is when

Tin kiUs the

nast. king

217

The value of writing

VVhen students start to write, they find another way to express themselves. Because the
WRITING PROCESS 57 is generally less spontaneous than, for example, speaking, students

Young 'arner
writing

have a chance to

thinle about language,

and this helps their linguistic development.

Some students find it far easier to express themselves in writing than in speaking.
VVhen students write things down, it helps to consolidate their knowledge of the
language they have been learning.

W hen students write in their books, on posters or on the computer, they get to see
what they have done, and we can celebrate the.ir work 66 by displaying it armmd
the classroom or online.

Copying activities
Students need to copy words so that they get used to writing. They should have a

COPYBOOK in which they can record new words and sentences that they have met.
Children need help in forming letters and putting letters into words. We can give
them special lined paper to help them to do this, and show them what strokes are
n ecessary to make different letters 57.

Students can practise writing letters in the air. They can write letters with a finger on
another child's back and the child has to guess which letter it is. They can make letters
from plasticine or draw them on large pieces of paper.

Students can have nm with words. For example, if they write big, they have to write a
really big word. The word small has to be smaller and the word
still. Students can do this with words which describe size
(triangular, circular, square, etc.).

tiny has to be smaller

(tall, short) and shapes

tirrj

sma l

We can get our students to tell us any food words that they k now. We then write them
on the BOARD 85 and draw a chart with columns for meat, fish, vegetable, fruit and

cereal. T he students copy the chart and then they write the words in the correct
columns, making sure they spell them correctly.

We can get tl1e students to copy down the words for parts of the body on sticky labels.
They then have to stick the labels on one of their friends or on a picture.

We can show the students words, sentences or very short paragraphs. They have to
look at them for a short period. We tl1en take the sentences away or cover tl1em up
and the students have to try to write them from memory.

vVe can get the class to help us write a text. We write up the sentences they suggest to
us. VVhen vve have finished, they have to copy the text into their copybook and we can
check it. vVe discuss writing together in more detail in 58 .

218

Young learner writing

. ....... .. . . . . .. . ....... . .. ... .

Dictation
We can DICTATE short sentences, especially if they are connected to topics or language
which the students are working on.

To begin with, the students put their pencils down. We then say a sentence and the
students have to listen. W hen we finish, they try to write the sentence from memory.
With very short paragraphs we can use the DICTOGLOSS technique '48 .

We hold up picture cards (with the word for the picture on the back). The students
write down the words for the pictures. Vle turn the cards over and they check whether
they have written the right word correctly.

We can hold up CARDS witl1 words (accompanied by pictures), such as emp ;y

t , big, hot,
etc. and tl1e students have to write tl1eir opposites

(full, small, cold,

etc.).

We can dictate half a sentence, such as The best book I have ever read is . . . and the
students have to complete it.

Students can do a RUNNING DICTATION '48 with a poem or other short text.

Portfolio writing (and other writing tasks)

vVhen teachers get young learners W1-ite POEMS, STORIES or descriptions (often with
pictures and drawings attached), they can keep them in a folder (or PORTFOLIO '59).
Later tl1ey can look a t this collection i n order t o EVALUATE the learner's progress over
time '88. The portfolios can be given to the parents at tl1e end of tl1e term or year.

We can give our learners clear models to follow. For example, we can show them a
text (wiili an attached photograph or drawing) such as ilie following Gloria is my best
friend. She's clever andfunny. She likes chocolate and hamburgers, and she lilees ballet and
TV. She lives in Cambridge, in England. She speaks English and Spanish. Now iliey have to
write about their best friend (including a photograph or a drawing), saying what their
friend is like, what they like, where they live and what languages they speak.

We can ask our students to write POETRY '63 using models we give tl1em.
We can give ilie students cartoon strips with the words in the speech bubbles missing.
They have to write words for the speech bubbles. They then compare their versions
with the original.
The students can watch a cartoon sequence without sound. They have to write the
dialogue and then check with ilie original.

Students bring in their favourite photographs (or post iliem on an ONLINE LEARNING
PLATFORM) . They write a paragraph explaining who or what is in the photograph.
We can display iliese photographs and paragraphs on ilie classroom walls.

We can ask our learners to keep a JOURNAL ,59 in which they write about such
things as what iliey have been doing and what iliey would like to do, or write an
imaginary entry from a space diary.

We discuss writing in general in '57-59.

219

Top,ics and
themes
.

Planning around a subject

Many teachers organise their teaching by
grouping language lessons around topics
and themes. In other words, instead of
PLANNING one lesson after another based
on language or activities alone, they base
a series of lessons around a SUBJECT.
We discuss lesson planning in general
in -+79.
Topic-based teaching is a form of 'soft' CUL (CONTENT AND LANGUAGE INTEGRATED LEARNING )

-+102 where language and topic are taught alongside each other.

Thinking about topics and themes

One of the best ways of planning a sequence of lessons for young learners is to organise
our classes around a TOPIC or a THEME.

When we use a topic or a theme to build our lessons, we can decide how long (five
lessons, ten lessons, 15 lessons) we want our topic or theme to carry on for.

We don't do the same thing lesson after lesson just because we have organised
everything around a theme.

When we organise lessons around a topic or theme, we still need to think about what
activities, language skills and language learning we want the students to practise. \!Ve
need to see how we can fit all these different elements into and around the topic or
theme we have chosen.

When we choose a topic, we need to think about how to make it personal for our
young learners. We will choose topic-related activities which are interesting and
relevant to their lives. However, we will also use our topic to introduce the children
to the wider world, including giving them some INTERCULTURAL UNDERSTANDING where
this is appropriate.

220

Topics and themes

Themes, topics and activities

Almost any topic can be used for a large variety of activities and lesson types. A lot will
depend on the age of the children, and what DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE they are at -+91.
For om example in this unit, we will take the theme of bananas as om organising topic
and show a range of CROSS-CURRICULAR activities based on this topic that could help om
students learn English.

We can get the students to research/look at different types of banana and

categorise them.

The students can learn about the life cycle of a baJ1ana. They can research the
growing and harvesting of bananas.

They can learn about where bananas are grown and make VISUAL ORGANISERS (such as
graphs or maps) -+105 showing which countries are the biggest producers.
They can complete a class survey, asking each other about which fruits they like
most, or how many bananas they eat in a week, a month, etc. They can transfer this
information to a visual organiser of some kind.

Students can hear or read about the daily life of a banana grower.
The students can enjoy learning and singing Day-a (The Banana Boat Song), a
traditional SONG about dockworkers loading the banana boats in Jamaica and waiting
for their work to be counted when daylight comes so that they can go home.

Students can think about other work songs which have call-and-response verses to
help people enjoy their work. We can introduce simple sea shanties, for example.

The students can learn about how bananas are weighed and sold. They can act out a
visit to the greengrocer's where they go to buy bananas and other fruits and vegetables.

Students can make banana puppets and use them to create conversations.
They can discuss different banana recipes. They can make a banana smoothie or other
simple ban311a-based dish.

They can read information about why bananas are good for you. They can discuss
healthy eating in general and make lists about healthy and unhealthy eating options.
They can design a healthy eating programme or leaflet.

Students can write an I like/I don 't like poem about bananas -+63.
We can summarise (some of) the different activities in a TOPIC WEB. We Call use the topic
web as the basis for planning a SEQUENCE OF LESSONS -+80.
Life cycle of bananas

Life of a banana grower

Where bananas are grown

Health benefits

Geography/cross-cultural

Cooking

Expressive arts

Recipes

Maths

Puppet dialogue

Class survey:
how many children eat bananas
and when

Favourite dishes

Where/ how
many bananas are
grown

221

Assesing
young learners

Why we test young learners

\Vhen we think about assessing (or testing) young learners, we have to decide what we
are testing for and how we want to do it. There are a number of reasons for testing
young learners.

Sometimes we test students because we want to see what they have achieved or how
proficient they are (e.g. what they know). \Ve call this kind of assessment

SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT.
Sometimes, however, we assess students because we want to see how wel l they are
doing, in order to help them do better. \Ve call this kind of assessment FORMATIVE
ASSESSMENT; we use the results of the assessment to show our students how to improve.
Some learners have to sit 'sudden death' tests at the end. of a semester or year. Some
students do very well in tests like this - it suits their learning style - but others don't
because this type of testing isn't right for them.

A lot of young learner assessment is based on CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, (including

PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT '88) where we are continually evaluating the students' work
and helping them to improve over the semester or year.

We discuss assessment and testing in more detail in '88-90. We talk about testing for
CUL in "'11 0.

Continuous assessment
Because children develop at different speeds and are constantly changing, we need to
gather information about tl1em as often as possible.

We can look at our students' work as evidence (imagining that we are detectives) .
\Ve can then see what the evidence tell s us so tlut we can take action to help our
students improve.
222

Assessing young learners

When we look at a student's work, we can make a list of the strengths it has and then
say what the student can do to improve and build on those strengths. For example, we

use the PRESENT SIMPLE -+6 tense (strength) and She needs help
to understand that we add an 's ' to the third person singular, or He knows how to tell a st01y
(strength) but He needs help to organise the events ofa st01y into a coherent order -+34.

might say She knows when to

We can make a LEARNER LANGUAGE PROFILE (LLP) for each student. The profile might
consist of a number of CAN-DO STATEMENTS -+41 such as, for example, (in reading)

He/she can read and understand all of the words in word list A or
understand simple instructions.

(for listening)

He/she can

Most teachers don't have time to fill in learner language profiles all the time, so it is
helpful to divide the class up into GROUPS -+67 and plan activities so that while
Group A is doing some colouring, Group B is in the reading corner and Group C is
watching a video, we can listen to Group D and fill in the LLP for the students in it.
In the next lesson we can switch the groups around.

Students assess themselves

We can encourage older children to assess themselves.

At the end of a SEQUENCE OF LESSONS (for example two weeks' work or a unit in a

no to statements such as I can give my

opinion about things with the expression 'I thin!? that ' or I can use more than two
adjectives (in the right order) to describe objects and people. If they say no, they can go back
coursebook), ;ve can ask them to say yes or

. . .

to the lessons they have studied and look again at that particular language point.

At the end of a sequence of l essons, students can do tasks simil ar to the ones they have
been doing. When they have done these tasks, they themselves say if they have been
successful or not. For example, they have to listen to three descriptions of objects and

(.I) a statement
I can understand descriptions of objects. The statement is written in English

write down what the objects are. If they can do this, they can tick
which says

and/or in their home language (L p . We might ask them do an exercise using the
GOING TO FUTURE -+5. If they are successful, they themselves can tick a statement (in
English or in their L l ) which says I can say what people are/are not planning to do.

Types of test items

W hen we design tests for young learners - or when young learners do PROFICIENCY TESTS

-+88

we will write test items which are similar to things which the students have been

doing in their lessons.

In listening tests for young learners who don't yet write well, we can ask the students
to point to the objects which we name or describe. vVe can also use pictures and
picture cards so that we can ask them to do things, such as Put the dog behind the sofa.

In speaking tests for older children (perhaps eight years old or more), we can ask them
to FIND THE DIFFERENCES -+SO between two similar pictures when talking to an examiner
- or two children can do the activity and an examiner can listen and grade their
speaking to each other. They can do a range of INFORMATION-GAP ACTIVITIES -+SO or tell
a story based on pictures that we give them.

In reading and writing tests for younger children who have just started to read, we can
ask them to put ticks and crosses (or yes or

no) to say if statements are true (for example

This is a crocodile) or unscramble letters (c-c-d-e-i-l-o-o-r) to make a word (crocodile).

In reading and writing tests for older children (perhaps eight years or more), we can
ask them to do FILL-IN tasks by choosing words from a box which have accompanying
illustrations. We can ask them if statements about a picture (for example, There are

three monkeys on top of the car) are

true or false. We can ask them to complete a

dialogue using lines we give them.

223

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1 OOO OOQ

Sect i o n G : Content a n d La ngu age

I ntegrated Lea r n i ng
Content and Language lnteg;rated Learning (CLIL) is the name given to a kind of teaching
(and l earning) where the students study a subject such as biology, maths or citizenship
and, at the same time, learn the language they need to understand and talk about the
subject in a second language.
In this section we look at many aspects of teaching CLIL. After an introductory unit
which explains what it is, we discuss the kind of language that CLIL lessons delivered in
English focus on, and we show how genre is extremely important for CLIL lessons.
We look at the many visual organisers (diagrammatic ways of showing information) that
CLIL learners need to be able to use, and we discuss the different kinds of material and
activities that CLIL teachers can exploit. We also look at what the teacher's roles are for
CLIL teaching.
Finally, we look at the issues that teachers need to consider when they plan CLIL lessons
- and how they can assess their students' knowledge (and language).

102 I nt rod u c i ng C L I L
103 T h e l a nguage o f C L I L
104 G e n re i n C L I L
105 U s i n g vi s u a l orga n i se rs
106 M a teria l s a n d res o u rces fo r C L I L
107 Tea c h i ng C L I L
108 C L I L activities
109 Pla n n i ng C L I L
110 Assess i ng C L I L

225

What is CUL?
CUL stands for CONTENT AND LANGUAGE INTEGRATED LEARNING. In other words, the students
study content (geography, physics, music, maths, etc.)

lntrodcing C L I L
. 1

through and with a second

language, and they study language through and with the content.

People who like and use CLIL say that students (especially at primary and secondary
levels) have more success as language learners when they are taught using CLIL.
They also do well in their knowledge of the content.

CLIL can be taught using a second language, an ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE (in other words
a third, fourth, fifth language, etc.) or a mixture of languages - for example, the
CLIL language together with the students' first language. This is sometimes called

TRANSLANGUAGE CUL.

CLIL can, of course, be delivered i n languages other than English ( LOTE) , but in this
section we will concentrate on CLIL using English.

Although both language and content are important in CLIL, we organise lessons on
the basis of content. However, CLIL is successful when the content and the language
are closely connected. For example, if the students are learning about the life-cycle of
a butterfly, they will focus on the language we use to describe a process, such as the

PRESENT SIMPLE 6; TIME ADVERBIALS 11 (first, after that, etc.) and the specific
vocabulary they need

(leaf, egg, larvae, caterpillar, pupa, chrysalis,

etc.).

Ca.er p Llla.r

The language in CLIL may not be the usual list of grammar items that we expect to
see in language learning COURSEBOOKS and materi als. Instead, we only teach what the
students need for the content of the lesson - and this may be PHRASES and words rather
than complete grammar patterns.

CLIL is different from general English teaching because students use language to
learn rather than learning language to use later.

CLIL focuses on four special areas: CONTENT (the subject itself), COMMUNICATION
(using language effectively), COGNITION (thinking skills - how we learn), and CULTURE
(understanding our own culture and its relationship to other cultures). We discuss

these 4cs for planning in 109.

CUL methodology
There i sn't a lot of difference between good general language teaching and the teaching
techniques which are necessary for successful CLIL lessons.

CLIL experts say that teachers should stress social interaction in the classroom:
between teacher and students, and between students and students .

226

Introducing CUL

In CLIL lessons, the students should COLLABORATE with each other, often working in
PAIRS and GROUPS 67 to solve problems, do research or report back on what they

have found out.

CLIL teachers try to support their students by SCAFFOLDING their learning - in other
words, getting the students to experi ence things in stages to help them understand.
\Ve discuss scaffolding in 65 and 91.

In CLIL lessons, the students are asked to use METACOGNITIVE SKILLS

in other words

to think about how they learn.

In CLIL lessons, the students are asked to think creatively.

We look at some CUL activities in 108.

How is CLIL offered around the world (and who teaches it)?
Many schools and education organisations say that they use CLIL. However, because
CLIL is used in many different contexts, they may be talking about very different
situations.

lVIany people talk about SOFT CUL and HARD CUL. Soft CLIL happens when some
language learning (but not all) is organised with strong SUBJECT content (such as
geography, environmental science, etc.). However, when teachers deliver whole areas
of the curriculum (science, history, etc.) in a second or additional language (and when
language and content are both taught at the same time), this is hard CLIL.

Some schools and teachers offer short (say, 15-hour) CLIL courses. Others have

CLIL courses running through a whole semester or year.

Some CLIL courses are taught by a subject teacher (a geography or physics teacher,

for example) who speaks Engl ish well enough to do this, or by an English teacher who
can manage the CLIL content.
In some situations, the students stdy the content first in their L l and then again with

a language teacher who can focus on the CLIL language.

In many situations, subject teachers and English teachers work together so that
language lessons back up the subject lesson l anguage.

How to make CLI L successful

CLIL is not a worldwide phenomenon yet. It is becoming more popular, but it is difficult
to say if it will be the way that everyone teaches English and content in a few years.
Perhaps some countries and teachers will say no to CLIL because (they believe) students
learn better in their own language, and there are not enough language and subject
teachers to make i t work - or enough money!

Teachers who are using the CLIL language need to have a good enough level of that
language so that they can model the sentences and phrases that the students need.

vVhen language and subject teachers work together, they need time to prepare and
liaise with each other. We look at PLANNING CUL in 109.
vVhen teachers are using CLIL for the first time, they need proper training and

support. This is especially true if they have been non-CLIL language teachers _before.

ASSESSMENT and TESTING of CLIL have to support CLIL teaching. We look at general
assessment in 88-90 and at CLIL assessment in 110.

T he language
of C L I L

Types of language
Students need various different kinds of language to study a CLIL subject. Teachers need
to be able to i dentify what these l anguage types (and items) are when they are PLANNING
CLIL activities and lessons '109.

The language that students need for CLIL is sometimes more varied than the
language they would need for general English.
Many CLIL theorists make a difference between BICS (BASIC INTERPERSONAL
COMMUNICATION SKILLS) and CALP (COGNITIVE ACADEMIC LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY) . v\Thereas
BICS are the kind of l anguage and skills that are frequently taught in standard
l anguage learning classes, CALP relates to the kind of l anguage that students need to
study a curriculum subject, such as maths, science, geography, etc.
When students are learning in tl1e CLIL language, they ill need CONTENT-OBLIGATORY
LANGUAGE. This consists of words, structures and FUNCTIONS '30 which are essential
for the particular topi c tl1ey are studying. In general English language learning we
often decide to teach more frequent vocabulary items first, but in a CLIL lesson the
topic wil l help us to decide what words to teach (and what COLLOCATIONS '20 to
include) even i f they are not very frequent for other situations. For example, if
students are learning about elephants, they will need specific vocabulary, such as
African elephant, Asian elephant, poacher, ivory, trunk, tusk, etc.

CLIL students will also need CONTENT-COMPATIBLE LANGUAGE in other words, the
everyday kind of language which is useful both for the study of a specific topic and
also for general language use. When the students are learning about orchestral
instruments and procedures, for example, they will use verbs such as blow, hit, play,
start, stop, sit, etc., all of which are also used in everyday situations.
-

228

In TRANSLANGUAGE CLASSROOMS '102 teachers and students will sometimes use the
students Ll ,77 for some explanation and discussion before reverting to the CLIL
language for the main study.

Grammar and CUL

Students need t o b e able t o use appropriate grammar structures in t h e CLIL language and these will depend on the topic being studied and what they are expected to do and
say about .i t, as the following examples show:

Students can use the PRESENT CONTINUOUS -+6 to talk about something happening now
(or a changing situation), e.g. I am exposing the phosphorus to the air (chemistry) or The
water is getting warmer (physics).
The PRESENT SIMPLE -+6 can be used to talk about processes and general truths in
sentences such as A viola hasfour strings (music) and Orangutangs live in the tropical
rainforests ofSumatra and Borneo (geography).
We use PASSIVE constructions -+1 to talk about processes and events when we want to
stress the action and the result rather than the person who does it, e.g. Atahualpa was
executed by the Spanish conquistadores in 1 533 (history) or The cocoa beans are dried in the
sun (science).

PAST TENSES can be used to talk about historical events in sentences like Benito Juarez
lived from 1 806 until 1 872 (histmy) or to describe what happened in the classroom,

e.g. While Hiromi was preparing the experiment, Keiko was reporting on her actions (science).

MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS -+8 are used to express concepts such as certainty, possibility,

obligation, etc. i n sentences like Conditions below decks on the ship 'La Amistad' must have
been teirible (history) or The potatoes can be boiled or roasted (domestic science).

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES -+ 2 are used for expressing a general rule, prediction or

hypotheticality in sentences like Ifyou multiply four by seven, you get twemy-eight
(mathematics) or fArchduke Ferdinand had not been assassinated in Sarajevo in 1 9 1 4,
Europe might not have gone to war (history).

Students wil l often have to report -+10 what people say in their CLIL language i n
sentences such a s The conductor told us to play more quietly (music) o r He asked me to
calculate the time it would talu (scie_nce).

Language for a purpose

order to achieve the purpose for their communication in CLIL lessons students will
need to be able to use various LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS -+30, appropriate PUNCTUATION -+ 31
and other conventions for writing, as the following examples show:

In

Students may need to be able to give opinions if they are discussing a work of art or a
piece of music, using language such as I think . . . and In my opinion . . . .
They may need to describe processes, using language such as First, the wood is chipped

and then it is fed into steam-heated containers.

When primary students are discussing whether something will float in water, they
may need to agree and disagree using language such as I don 't ap;ree. I think it will sink
or l'es, I agree. I think Paula is right because . . . .

Students will need to use langu age items and written conventions if they want to
give examples, including such as and for example, and punctuation features such as
BRACKETS ( ) , SEMICOLONS ( ; ) , DASHES (-) , etc. -+31

Students will need to be able to define things using language such as kind/type of
(a sturgeon is a kind ofcoldfreshwater predator) and RELATIVE CLAUSES -+ 2 (capillaries are
small blood vessels which connect arterioles and venules).

Students may need to make generalisations (general statements) using language such
as tend (most people tend to eat their evening meal at around eight o 'clock), in the majority of
cases, in general, etc.
229

Language functions and tasks

Genr-e-i-n CLI L

Students will have to perform different LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS '30 and tasks in CLIL
lessons. The specific tasks will depend on the particular curricular subject they are
studying, as in the following examples.

If students are studying music, we will expect them to do things in the CLIL
language such as explain, demonstrate, identify and describe instruments, notes
and styles.
When students study science subjects, they will have to do things such as HYPOTHESISE
about what wil l happen, describe EXPERIMENTS and processes and write up records of
what they have found.

When students study history, they will have to do such things as write biographical
texts and draw TIMELINES.

Geography students may have to interpret map features, write descriptions and
use various graphics and VISUAL ORGANISERS '105 to explain facts, features
and events.

When students study mathematics, they will probably need to explain

mathematical concepts, describe how they solved problems and draw and label
geometric figures.

Genre and CUL

A GENRE 32 i s a particular type o f art, music, text, etc., whether spoken o r written.

The specific examples in a genre share some features; for example, most l etters start
with a greeting. It is important for all students (whether in CLIL lessons or GENERAL
ENGLISH 41 classes) to understand and to be able to use the features in various genres.

CLIL genres are things like encyclopaedia entries, letters, poems, reports, scientific
descriptions, oral presentations, newspaper articles, discursive essays, etc.
A text within a genre is written in a particular REGISTER '33. The language may

be FORMAL or it may be INFORMAL and it will have SUBJECT-SPECIFIC LANGUAGE.

For example, a biology text will h ave biological words and terms.

230

Texts in a genre (or oral presentations/discussions, etc.) have certain l ayouts.

For example, in formal letters there is a special place for the address of the letter
writer and the address of the person or organisation they are writing to. In oral
presentations (with visual support) there is a special place for the ti tle of the talk, etc.
Texts or presentations within a genre need to be COHERENT 34. In otl1er words,
information must be presented in a logical sequence. For example, when describing a
science experiment, we might organise our report by saying 1 ) what we wanted to
find out, 2) how we decided to try to find it out, 3 ) what we did, 4) what happened,
(5) what we found out and (6) what we are going to do next.
Various sections in a genre tend to be constructed in similar ways. For example,
newspaper headlines are often written in the PRESENT SIMPLE 6 and tl1ey omit
small words such as ARTICLES 13, PREPOSITIONS 1 and MODAL AUXILIARIES 8,
e.g. Police arrest man after high-speed chase.
Texts in certain genres are often accompanied by a variety of visual organisers 105.

Genre in CLIL

Helping students to u nderstand and produce genre features

We must give our students guidance if we want them to write or speak in a specific
genre. They should do GENRE ANALYSIS -+ 59 by looking at a text, studying i ts construction
and language features, and then using it as a model. For example, the students read the
following text and answer questions, such as:
What is the purpose of the text?
Where does it come from?
How is the subject/name of the entry presented?
How are the subject's dates given (and where)?
What information is given in the first paragraph?
What order are the events in the entry presented in?
What time adverbials are used?
How and why are brackets used in the second paragraph?

M ustafa Kemal AtatOrk

Mustafa Kemal Atati.irk (1 881 -1 938) was a Turkish army officer, revo l utionary
statesman and writer. He founded the Republic of Tu rkey and was the fi rst Turkish
president.
After the d efeat of the Ottoman Empire i n WWI, AtatUrk led the Turkish national
movement i n the Tu rkish War of I ndependence. H e set up a provisional government
i n Ankara, and then he d efeated the all ied forces (soldiers from the U n ited Kingdom ,
France, Russia, Belgi u m , Serbia, Greece, Japan and Roman ia) who had invaded
Tu rkey. His m i l itary campaigns gained Turkey independence. After Tu rkish
in dependence, AtatUrk started to introduce political, economic and cu ltu ral reforms.
H e wanted to make Tu rkey a modern and secular cou ntry. H e was president of
Tu rkey from 1 923 u ntil his death in 1 938.

l_

__

The students now research another historical leader so that they will be able to write

their own encyclopaedia entry.

\i\Tith the teacher's help, the students will use their genre analysis and their research

to produce a text which follows the same model as the one they have been studying.
\i\Te will guide them so that the subject's name is written in bold with the dates in
brackets immediately after it. They will stick to the m odel closely: they will describe
the subject briefly in the first paragraph before describing their life in chronological
order. We will expect them to use time adverbials such as after, then, fronz, until, etc.
and SUBJECT-SPECIFIC VOCABULARY such as government, revolution, independence,
president, etc.
At various stages during the procedure we will ask the students to look at more

examples of the genre and compare them to the first one they have seen.
We discuss genre for general English writing in -+59 .

231

Presenting information in a visual way

VVhen students read or hear information - and then have to present what they have
learnt - they will use a number of presentation devices and visual organisers.

Using_ isual
.
organisers

Why visual organisers matter

The information that students see, read, watch or listen to is often presented as text,
either in books or ONLINE, as material on BOARDS or INTERACTIVE WHITEBOARDS ,85,
with the use of video or AUDIO DEVICES, or via PRESENTATION SOFTWARE '87 such as

PowerPoint, Keynote and Prezi .

We often use VISUAL ORGANISERS (such as WORD MAPS ,22, TABLES, VENN DIAGRAMS or
PIE CHARTS) so that the information is clearer. This is especially useful for more
VISUAL LEARNERS '40 .

\i\Then students present their own work, they must be able to use visual
organisers, too.

Visual organisers are useful devices for teaching. For example, we can ask our students
to transfer information from a written text to a graph or table. They are also useful in
assessment. For example, we can give the students information in the form of a visual
organiser. They then have to transform it into written text.

Types of visual organiser

There are many types of visual organiser.

A BAR CHART ( 1) uses rectangles of different heights to show frequency or quantity.

A CYCLE

(2) shows a typical sequence of events.

A WORD MAP ' 22 shows how things and categories (types) of things relate to each
other mD .

A LINE GRAPH (3) shows how things are developing (or have developed).

A PIE CHART (4) shows relative proportions by means of the size of different 'slices' of
the same 'pie'.

STORYBOARDS 62 are drawings or plans of a sequence of events. We sometimes

include speech bubbles or thought bubbles.

VENN DIAGRAMS (5) show similarities and differences between different groups.
TREE DIAGRAMS show hierarchical relationships, such as (in a company) the relative
importance of the chief executive, managing director, directors of departments,
assistants to the director, etc. There is an example of a tree diagram showing

SUPERORDINATES and HYPONYMS in 18.

A QUADRANT (6) shows how things can be identified in two ways.

A T-CHART (7) divides things into two categories.

CARROLL DIAGRAMS (8) (named after Lewis Carroll the author of Alice in Wonderland)
are used for grouping things in a kind of yes/no way.

A TABLE can be used to put things i n different categories and summarise information.

CAUSE AND EFFECT diagrams (9) (PROCESS DIAGRAMS) show how certain effects happen
- what leads up to them.

FLOW DIAGRAMS ( 10) show processes and the order in which they happen.
A BINARY KEY ( 1 1 ) divides information into a series ofyes/no questions.
232

Eggs

10

I
I
l

'

Butterny

'

ao

r
. :;.!'.".J'f.Q:.&P"
"

7.5
7.0
6.5
6.0
55 5
4.5
4.0
3.5
l.O
25
>o
1.5
1.0
o.o

lifeCycle
a Butterfly

Caterpillar

of

9.0
.,

'--

)
Pupa or
Chiysalis

----_..::==:_-- ----

n
Ja Feb Mar Apr
May Jon

Jui

Aug

Sep

Oct

'"

Dec

LOUD

PICCOLO

VIOLA

----+ H I G H
LOW --------+--

Both A and B

0
ADVANAGES

DOUBLE BASS

DISADVANTAGES

NON-PRIME NUMBERS

PRIME NUMBERS

SOFT

1 , 4, 6, 8, 9,
1 0 ' 1 2, 1 4,
1 5, 1 6, 1 8, 20,
2 1 , 22, 24

2, 3, 5, 7, 1 1 ,
1 3, 1 7, 1 9, 23,
29, 3 1

PROCESS
STEP Z

@
YES

h it a machi11e?

NO

Doe it have
a11 e119i11e?
233

Materials
and resources
for C L I L

Differences between materials for CLI L and general English

There are many differences between materials written for GENERAL ENGLISH lessons, and
those which are designed especially for subject-specific purposes such as CLIL or
ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES (ESP).
General English materials are often organised on the basis of a grammatical syllabus:

Unit 1 the verb to be, Unit 2 = the present simple, Unit 3 = the present continuous,
etc. CLIL materials are often organised by subject or content area, such as
Environmental sciences 1: \Nater and where it comes from, Environmental sciences 2:
Water and what it is used for, Environmental Sciences 3 : How and why we use
water in the home, etc.
=

General English materials are often tightly graded so that the students only see the
l anguage which fits with tl1e GRAMMAR and VOCABULARY SYLLABUSES. Material for CLIL

and ESP lessons will often have a greater variety of language, however, because more
complicated i deas and processes need to be explained.
General Engl ish materials often deal with general themes, such as families, sport,

great inventions of history or living in cities. CLIL and ESP materials usually focus
on more specific topics, such as how city transport systems work, ili.e life cycle of tl1e
emperor penguin, n utrition, etc.

\i\Thereas CLIL teaches content and language, ESP l essons frequently focus on tl1e
langu age about tl1e content, which the students already know.

Adapting materials for CLIL

\Ve can get material for CLIL courses from a variety of sources, such a s the INTERNET,
or from COURSEBOOKS written for general English.
We can reorder or rewrite the RUBRICS (the instructions telling students what to do) so

tl1at they are easier to understand.

234

\i\Te can add our own CLIL-based tasks. For example, .i n a general English text about
different animals, we can ask questions such as What do all the animals have in conznzon?
or Can you sort the animals into groups, according to what they eat and where they five?

Materials and resources for CUL

\Ve can rewrite the texts we are using and provide helpful illustrations or VISUAL
ORGANISER bach1p '105 . We can remove unnecessary detail or paraphrase the text
(say the same thing in an easier way), using words that the students are likely to know.
Compare the first text (the original) with the simplified version below it:

Violinists can alter the sounding pitch of their strings in two ways. They can use
the tuning pegs on the pegbox to tighten or loosen the tension of the strings, or
they can press down on a string anywhere on the fingerboard. \Vhen a violinist
presses a string to the fingerboard, he or she is shortening its effective length,
which causes the string to vibrate more rapidly. Violinists can also rapidly change
the sounding pitch of a string by pressing a string against the fingerboard and
subtly pushing and pulling the string, which makes the sounding pitch oscillate
above and below the central pitch. This technique is called vibrato.
A violin player can make a string sound higher or lower in two ways. They can turn
the tuning pegs (1) so tlrnt tl1e string (2) is tenser (tighter) or less tense (looser).
\Vhen the player puts their finger on a string (and presses it down onto the
fingerboard (3)) they make the string shorter. This makes it vibrate (move) more
quickly and so the note is higher. \Vhen they take tl1eir finger away, the string is
longer and it vibrates more slowly and so the note is lower. If the player moves
their finger backwards and forwards very quickly the note goes up and down. This
gives a pleasant effect which is called vibrato.
Notice that CONTENT-OBLIGATORY LANGUAGE, such as tuning peg, suing, fingerboard, vibi'ato,
etc. are still there, but other terms (and some grammatical constructions) have been
simplified to make it easier for students. Also, the simplified text will be accompanied
by an i llustration with numbers identifying the different parts of the violin.

CLI L resources
We will bring a wide range of resources to the classroom - and we will expect our
students to use a wide range of resources themselves.
We can use a variety of book-based material. This can be from encyclopaedias,
DICTIONARIES, coursebooks (including general English coursebooks - though we will
have to adapt these), stories and content-specific books which discuss such thi ngs as
history, scientific processes or mathematical calculations.
We will use a variety of materials, such as paper, cardboard, pens, glue and scissors
(for example) when we want to make (or ask tl1e students to make) models, large
charts or displays of material. \Ve will bring in REALIA (real objects) to help the
students understand concepts and processes.
We will present information using text, i llustrations, visual organisers, AUDIO and
video and any other appropriate resources.
A CLIL classroom will often have a range of educational technology, such as BOARDS
of various kinds (including the INTERACTIVE WHITEBOARD or smartboards, etc.). Many
CLIL teachers use laptops and DATA PROJECTORS to show and explain a variety of

concepts and processes or to show films and video clips '85-87.

Successful CLIL teachers use a wide variety of media to explain concepts. For example,
we can show paper charts to explain the life cycle of the emperor penguin, project
photos of the penguins' habitat, give the students short texts to read, project viaeo
clips or use PowerPoint or other PRESENTATION SOFTWARE (such as Keynote and Prezz).
Students can access m aterials from the INTERNET or via APPS (APPLICATIONS) or on CD/
DVD, etc. They can do RESEARCH '46 using online or handheld dictionaries,

encyclopaedias, etc. They can downl oad a range of material onto their laptops or
TABLET COMPUTERS (if they have them).
235

Teaching C L I L

The teacher's responsibilities

CLIL classes should foster co-operation rather than competition in an atmosphere of
mutual respect. We can create a CODE OF CONDUCT 71 to ensure this.

When students are working on difficult content areas, our job is to reduce their
anxiety so that they have a good chance of success. We will encourage collaboration
through PAIRWORK and GROUPWORK 67.

vVe will SCAFFOLD student learning experiences by breaking learning tasks down into
small, achievable, logical steps 65, 91 .
We will monitor learning and give positive and encouraging support and FEEDBACK
72 during and after tasks.
We will activate the students' prior knowledge (SCHEMATA 61) and do our best to
ENGAGE their interest when we start a new lesson sequence 80.
We will sw11marise what the students have learnt, often in a PLENARY session at the end
of the lesson.

CLIL teachers use the students' L1 when it is necessary for the understanding of
content or for classroom management 77.
We will remember that students need thinking time (WAIT TIME) when they are
working on a complex task, so we will not expect instant answers!

How teachers can help students with language

One of the main teacher roles in the CLIL classroom is to help the students learn the
language that applies to the content they are learning .

We need to highlight and model SUBJECT-SPECIFIC VOCABULARY. For example, if our

physics lesson is about energy, we may want the students to know or be able to say

matter, mass, force and energy, and COLLOCATIONS 20

energy, electromagnetic energy, transfer energy, etc.

words like

such as

thermal

\!Ve need to highlight (and MODEL) SUBJECT-SPECIFIC SENTENCES, such as (for a lesson on

The strings ofa viola are tuned to A, D, G and C or (for a brass

change the notes by pressing different combinations ofvalves.

musical instruments)

instrument) We

We can model the language that the students need to know by saying it clearly and
isolating the elements that they need to concentrate on (e.g.

tuned . . . the strings ofa viola are tuned

236

. . .

etc.).

are tuned . . . listen . . . are

Teaching <CLIL

We can write sentences on the board which the students then have to complete.
For example, we might write the following on the board: The strings of the viola
to A, D, G and C and We change the notes by
different combinations of
__

__

We give the students the words

__

__

are, pressing, tuned and valves,

and with our support

they have to use them to do the task.

How teachers can help students with cognitive skills

We need to teach our students to use their THINKING SKILLS to help them understand the
content and to help them understand the process of learning.

We need to help the students to develop their CONCRETE THINKING SKILLS so that they

can classify and organise information with the help of visual organisers such as TABLES

WORD MAPS and VENN DIAGRAMS. Such LOWER-ORDER THINKING SKILLS (LOTS) can be
encouraged by asking YES/NO QUESTIONS -+ 3, such as Is a
and what questions, such as What do we call a cat'sfeet?

trzmzpet a brass instrument?

As children start to develop towards the OPERATIONAL STAGE -+91, we "vill help them
develop ABSTRACT THINKING SKILLS, such as reasoning and hypothesising. We can
encourage such H IGHER-ORDER THINKING SKILLS (HOTS) by asking why and how questions,
such as How do you know that the people in the picture don 't have much money? Why do

rivers run in one direction? and OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS -+3 with what, such
you think will happen if we expose this phosphorus to the open air?

as

What do

We can encourage our students to think carefully about their answers. We can prompt
them to think in more detail/depth with more how/why/what questions, such as What
is it that makesyou think that? Tflhy have you coloured your elephant green? etc.

\Ve should encourage the students to ask questions themselves. We can say things like

What questions would you like to ask the people in the picture? Or Think of the questions you
would like to ask for your class survey, etc.
We will encourage our students to analyse GENRES -+32 (whether they are reading a
text, listening to a song, watching a video or accessing information on a computer).
They can decide what kind of a text (or song, etc.) it is, and say who it has been
designed for and what makes it successful.

We can put individual students (or PAIRS) in the HOT SEAT -+51. They have to answer
all the questions that the other students ask them.

How CUL teachers encourage good learning

vVe need to get our students to think about how to learn so that they will learn
more effectively.

We can get the students to compare the work they are doing with work they have
done before. \Ve will get them to see how and why they have made improvements.

We can give the students different strategies for doing a task and ask them how
effective they are. For example, we can show them four different ways of taking notes.
T hey have to think about which one they prefer and why.

We can discuss the best way of remembering words and encourage the students to
keep VOCABULARY BOOKS in which they write down words and phrases that they need
to remember.

At the end of a lesson or unit of work, we can get the students to think about what was
difficult and what was easy - and why. \Ve can get them to think/take notes about how
they will use what they have learnt and how they will follow it up.

237

Balancing activities
CLIL teachers use many of the same activities that teachers of GENERAL ENGLISH use 741.
However, in CLIL lessons, we balance the 4CS 7109 in ways that give real CLIL

L activities

activities a special 'feel'.

Cats and dogs

We can talk about cats and dogs with YOUNG LEARNERS aged between five and eight.

T he students can do a class SURVEY about who has cats or dogs as pets. 1 hey can then
count the number of cats and the number of dogs and find out which are more popular.

We can i ntroduce the children to a cat and a dog (we can use photographs, drawings,
computer animations or PUPPETS 793) . They can decide on names for them and can
imagine their lives, and tell or write a daily diary for them.

We can find stories about dogs and cats to use in our READING CIRCLE 796.
We can make a VENN DIAGRAM 7105 about the similarities and differences between
cats and dogs. This will mean that we have to teach some CONTENT-OBLIGATORY
language 7103, such as

bark, purr, claws, whiskers, tail, paw,

etc.

The children can find out what cats and dogs like and need to eat and drink and the
amounts that are necessary for them, and they can compare that with humans.

T hey can talk about cat and dog 'families' and separate them into wolf and cat families.

Rivers
Slightly older children

(7- 1 2 ) can do work about how rivers are formed and how

tl1ey function.

We can ask tl1em to tell us about any rivers or streams they know or have visited.

Students can research the water cycle and label the stages of evaporation, convection,

condensation, wind shift and rainfall. While tl1ey do

this they will need to learn the

specialist vocabula1y for describing the process.

Students can learn about the basic principles of how rivers work - flowing downhill
- and how erosion (of river banks, etc.), transportation (how the rocks and materials
that are picked up by a flowing river are carried along by i ts energy) and deposition
(when the materials fall to the bottom because there is not enough e nergy to carry
them along) change the shape of rivers over time.

Students can do experiments to see what angle is needed for water to flow, what happens
when the water stops falling downwards (it meanders) and why flowing happens.

\Ve can ask them to find out about tl1e length, breadth and depth of some of the world's
largest rivers. They can make visual organisers, such as bar charts, to compare them.

Students can learn about some of the capital cities of the world that are built on and beside
big rivers. They can discuss the languages, cultures, religions and activities of those cities.

Students can learn about what humans use rivers for (transportation, irrigation,
hydroelectric power, fishing, pleasure, etc.).

Music, anyone?
\Ve can introduce our students to four different instruments and teach the difference
between blowing, bowing, plucking and hitting.

238

CLIL activities
\Ve can play students recordings of different instruments. They have to say whether they
are plucked, hit, bowed or hit. They can then do research in books or on the computer
so that they can label a world chart showing where the different instruments are played.

They can practise passive constructions, such as Violins are made ofwood. They are

played with a bow. They are used in classical music andfolk nzusic,

etc.

Students can make a WORD MAP -+ 22 to describe different categories of instrument.

For example, we can divide 'blown' instruments into woodwind and brass. We

can

divide woodwin d instruments into single reed and double reed instruments, etc.

We can play the students music from different countries. They h ave to say whether
the music is sad, happy, good to dance to, etc.

Students can learn to play percussion instruments. vVe can build up a class piece
where they learn about counting, rhythm, speed, etc.

We can use music as a stimulus for writing words and POEMS -+63.

Life on the edge

In the following example, for older children, we show how a photograph can be the
source for COGNITION and COMMUNICATION SKILLS and how these can be SCAFFOLDED -+65.
Students can learn to empathise, and learn about different cultures before relating what
they are learning to their own lives.

vVe show the students the photograph and we ask them some lower-order thinking skills
( LOTS) questions -+107, such as /iVhere is the boy? What does he have in his hands? What is
behind him? before moving on to higher-order thinking skills ( HOTS) questions -+107,
such as

Why is the boy there, do you think? What are your reasonsfor your answers? We can

ask them to speculate about how the boy feels and how they know this.

vVe can teach language such as I think the boy is . . . because he looks very . . .
We can ask the students if they would like to be i n the picture and to give reasons for
their answers.

We can introduce the concept of recycling and show how the people in the
p hotograph earn small amounts of money by rescuing rubbish that can be re-used.

We can estimate how much household rubbish a fami ly produces and discuss how
much of it can be/should be recycled, etc.

We can discuss how the life of the boy in the photograph could be/should be improved.
239

Planning C L I L

Planning CUL lessons

We discuss planning in general in -+79-80. However, there are some extra things that
we need to think about when planning CLIL lessons.

Outcomes and demands

As with all lesson planning, we need to consider the learning OUTCOMES -+79 of any

lesson we are going to teach. We want to know what our students will know or be able to
do better at the end of the lesson than they knew or were able to do at the beginning.

We should always be aware, however, that things don't always turn out as we plan
them to. Good CLIL teachers respond to events in a lesson as they happen and, as a
result, they may have to adapt their plan because of UN.FORESEEN PROBLEMS or MAGIC
MOMENTS (where we decide to follow our students' w1planned creativity) -+79.
When we plan CLIL lessons, we need to balance the demands of the 4Cs: CONTENT,
COMMUNICATION, COGNITION and CULTURE. For example, if the level of cognition (the amow1t
of thinking that the students have to do) is high, we may want to make sure that we don't
ask too much of them in terms of their communication skills - because we do not want
to make things too difficult for them. If our lesson has a lot of new content for the
students to absorb, then we try not to make them work too hard on the other three Cs.

Lesson shapes
We discuss METAPHORS for lesson planning (such as 'a lesson is like a book, a play a film',
etc.) in -+79. Although there is no one perfect shape/metaphor to fit all circumstances,
CLIL lessons probably have certain characteristics in common.
In a successful CLIL lesson, the students should be encouraged to think about the

content they are learning - and about learning in general.

240

Planning C:: t Hi

A CLIL lesson will ask the students to engage with things that they have learnt

previously as well as with the new content and language for the class.

CLIL lessons often start by activating the students' prior knowledge, often with a
WARMER or ICEBREAKER ,70.

We often end CLIL lessons with some kind of PLENARY feedback (where the students
are in a WHOLE-CLASS setting '67) in which we sum up what has been learnt and

studied. 'iiVe can ask the students to think about things such as what they have learnt,
what was easy and difficult, and what they still need or want to do or find out.

What goes into a CLIL lesson plan

Different teachers write di fferent kinds of plan, depending on factors such as their
students, their own personal style, how long they have been teaching, whether they are
being observed or whether their school expects detailed plans. However detailed (or not)
the actual plan is:
We need to decide what the CONTENT of our lesson is. Content means things such as

geometric shapes (mathematics), different kinds of musical instruments (music), a

historical event (history), the cultivation of maize (geography) or what objects are
magnetic (science).

We need to decide on our learning AIMS for the students - or the learning outcomes

that the lesson will end with. \i\lhat will the students have achieved when our lesson is
over? We may want to divide our learning outcomes into three sections: what the
students will know at the end of the lesson, what they will be able to do at the end of
the lesson, and what they will be aware of at the end of the lesson.

We need to be able to say how we will know if our aims have been met - in other
words, how we will ASSESS their effectiveness .
We will want to plan what VOCABULARY, GRAMMAR structures or LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS,
etc. the students will need to use in the lesson. We will think of what they know, what
we want them to recycle, and what language will be new. vVe will think of the
LANGUAGE EXPONENTS that the students will want to use.

We will want to be aware of the COGNITIVE SKILLS that the students are expected to

display. \i\That thinking processes are we expecting them to be able to cope with
during the lesson?

\i\Te have to decide what CULTURAL ELEMENTS we will include in the lesson. \i\Te might

refer to other cultures and worlds, or to the students' own world. \Ve might want to
deal with issues of CITIZENSHIP or CULTURAL IDENTITY, for example.

We need to think of what CLASSROOM RESOURCES our lesson needs. For example, we

might need paints, large sheets of paper and tape if our lesson is art-based. On the
other hand, we will need computers and internet access if the students are going to be
using a LEARNING PLATFORM.

We need to plan our lesson procedures and their TIMINGS (how long each lesson stage

will take). How will the lesson start? \i\That happens next? How will it end? etc.

We will want to say whether the students will be working as INDIVIDUALS or in PAIRS or
GROUPS '67.

We need to plan for DIFFERENTIATION '42. vVe should think of how we can et the

demands of students at different levels and with different learning styles.

\Vhen we plan, we will think of what the students already know and what they will do

after the lesson. \i\That links to other parts of the CURRICULUM can we build into our
lesson? \i\There can we send them to find out more about our topic?

\i\Te show examples of different LESSON PLANS in Appendix C on pages 2 5 0-2 56.
241

Types of assessment
As with all assessment, we can talk about SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT (where we find out
what students know or have learnt) and FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT (where we discover or

Assessing C L I L

diagnose how the students are getting on so that we can help them do even better in
the future) -+88.

What is special about assessing CLIL?

We discuss issues of assessment and TESTING in general in -+88-90, and we look at
assessing young learners in -+101 . However, CLIL is different in some respects.

W hen assessing CLIL learners we need to be clear about whether we are testing the
students' knowledge of the language or the content. For example, if we ask them to
l abel the bones in a skeleton, are we going to take marks off for spelling if they can
identify where the

ceruical vertebrae are but cannot

spell them correctly?

In CLIL evaluation, we may decide that if tl1e students can explain (or demonstrate an
understanding of) tl1e content adequately, then we will not assess the accuracy of their
language. On the other hand, we might decide that knowledge of content-obligatory
l anguage (or particular CONTENT-COMPATIBLE l anguage such as LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS

-+30, etc.) is crucial and, as a result, give priority to that.

We can use ASSESSMENT SCALES -+ 90 to make the goal of our assessment clear.
For example, if we are assessing an oral presentation in a CLIL class (rather tl1an a
general English class) we might have columns for content, organisation and language.
But we might ;i.lso assess the students in terms of the use of presentation software or
tl1e use of visuals and diagrams to back up the presentation.

The most important thing (especiall y with formative assessment) is that the students
should know exactly how and why they will be assessed. This will tell them what
the point of tl1e teaching and learning is, and help them to achieve their l earning
outcomes successfully.

Supporting students in CLIL assessment

If we want our students to get the most out offornzative assessment, we can use a
variety of SUPPORT STRATEGIES.

\i\Te can simplify instructions, or re-phrase them, so that the students know exactly
what to do. We can read tl1e instructions aloud, using gestures to make them more
comprehensible.

vVe will give exampl es -+89 so that the students understand the task.
vVe can add visual support (picture, diagrams, drawings, etc.) to help the students
perform the assessment task. We can make some of our tests OPEN-BOOK EXAMS so tlrnt
they can consult notes, etc. ratl1er tl1an doing eve1ything from memory.

\Ve can sometimes allow tl1e students to work in PAIRS to help each other complete
assessment tasks.

We can help tl1e students to REVIEW and EDIT their work -+57 before keeping it in a
folder (or on a LEARNING PLATFORM -+76) for use in PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT -+88.
Support strategies like this are usual l y not appropriate for sztmmative assessment.

242

Some CLIL test types

CLIL test item types should have VALIDITY 88: they should reflect the kinds of tasks
that the students have done in their lessons. Although the number of possible test types
for CLIL is almost limitless, here are a few examples:
We can get tl1e students to transfer written information into VISUAL ORGANISERS 105

such as graphs, tables, etc.

\Ne can get tl1e students to label diagrams or name tl1e stages in a life cycle, for

example .

vVe can ask the students to do MATCHING 48 exercises which test their

m1derstanding (but not their production) of language.

We can ask the students to complete a summarising FILL IN about something that

they have read or seen. We can give them words to choose from when they fill in
the blanks.

We can show tl1e students pictures of animals and ask them to classify them according

to whether they are vertebrates or invertebrates. Yow1ger learners can do this by

putting pictures on a chart, or by telling us which kind an animal is.

We can keep a LEARNER LANGUAGE PROFILE (LLP) in which we record what individual

students can do in various content and learning areas, for example, . . . can explain

thing:r to his/her peers (COMMUNICATION SKILLS) , . . . can calculate percentagesfrom raw data
about food consumption (COGNITIVE SKILLS) or . . . can take notes in a way that is appropriate
for him/her (ATTITUDES TO LEARNING) .

Students assessing themselves and each other

We can give our students checklists which tl1ey can use to evaluate their own

performance, or the performance of others. For example (writing up a domestic

science procedure):

Tick the stages that you (or your colleague) completed.

I listed the ingredients that were needed and tl1e amounts that were needed.
I listed the equipment that was necessary to complete the task.
I explained what I did stage by stage.
I wrote a conclusion in which I said what the result was. I included what
went well and what the problems were (if any).
I said what improvements I would make in the future.
Young learners who don't yet write well can tick pictures which show what they have

been doing and put smiley/frowny faces on the picture to say whetl1er they have done
well or not.

Older children can use self-evaluation sheets in which they complete sentences/

prompts such as I am good at . . . , Today we learnt . . . , Ifound . . . easy!difficult, I am best at

. . . , I need to get better at . . . They can fill in charts which say tl1ings like Good at . . . ,
.

Not very good at . . . , Ttflhat I am going to do to get better . . . .

Students can complete their own CAN-DO STATEMENTS 41 in which they say yes, no or

not sure to statements such as I can describe the human digestive system or I can make
simple multiplication and division calculations.

243

Appendix A: Going further

As we said in Unit 78 (Teacher develop11tent), teachers can (re-)engage with their own

development in a number of ways:

Journals
If you want to keep up to date with what is happening (and what people are saying) in the
world of English language teaching, you may want to read one of the following journals:

English Teaching Professional. This magazine offers very readable short, practical articles
on all aspects of English language teaching. It has a special section on teaching young
learners. '1V'11Tl1J. etprofessional. co11t

Modern English Teacher. This magazine offers articles on many aspects of language

teaching and contains 'about language' and 'practical ideas' sections.

www. online11tet. com

ELTJournal. This journal contains a variety of mostly theoretical articles based on the
contributors' teaching experiences around tl1e world. eltj.o:>.fordjournals.org
TESOL Quarterly. This is a largely theoretical journal with a strong emphasis on
US-based teaching. www.tesol.org

All these journals have a reviews section which look at tl1e latest publications.

Going online
Teachers can learn and interact witl1 colleagues on many online sites:

Teachers can go to the ETK website (www.pearsonELTcom/ETK ) for activities, updates

and information. We also list some of the many individual teacher biogs and sites.
The ETK website also has news of webinars and other online meetings and
discussion groups.
Teachers can go to www.eltco11t11tztnity.com for discussions witl1 otl1er professionals
from around the world about any topic that interests them.

Many teachers use social networking sites such as Twitter, Facebook, Google+, etc. to stay

in touch with their PL

(personal learning network).

Face-to-face networking
The best (and most enjoyable) way of going further is to attend workshops, meetings,
seminars and conferences with other colleagues and teachers.
l\fany countries and regions have teachers' associations. When teachers join these,
they get newsletters, journals, etc. - and they can attend regional and national
conferences. There is a list of teachers' associations and conferences on the ETK website

(:1.1Jww.pearsonELTc01n/ETK ).

244

Going fur

her

Recommended reading
There are many, many books about teaching available from different publishers around
the world. T he following lists give a small taste (only) of what is available.

The How to series

The

How to Teach

. .

. series, published by Pearson EL1 offers clear practical guidance

with appropriate background theory:

How to Teach English by Jeremy Harmer

How to Teach English with Technology by Gavin Dudeney and Nicky Hockly
How to Teach for Exams by Sally Burgess and Katie Head
How to Teach Granmzar by Scott Thornbury
How to Teach Listening by JJ \iVilson
How to Teach Pronunciation by Gerard Kelly
How to Teach Speaking by Scott T hornbury
How to Teach Vocabulaty by Scott T hornbury
How to Teach Writing by Jeremy Harmer
General methodology
There are a number of books which provide guides to many aspects of language teaching
- including, for example, background theories of language learning, language system and
skill teaching, classroom management, assessment and testing, etc.

The Practice ofEnglish Language Teaching by Jeremy Hanner (Pearson ELT 2 007).
This book takes a comprehensive look at the field of English language teaching.

Learning Teaching by Jim Scrivener (Macmillan 2 0 1 0) . A good practical guide to success

in the classroom

An A-Z ofELT by

Scott T hornbury (Macmillan

2 006). A bit like an encyclopaedia, this

book lists many important English language teaching topics in alphabetical order.

The TKT Course Modules 1, 2 and 3

by Mary Spratt, Alan Pulverness and Melanie

\Villiams (Cambridge University Press

2 0 1 1 ) . T his is the official TKT handbook which

is entirely - and only - focused on the exam itself.

Dealing with Difficulties by Luke Prodromou and Lindsay Clandfield (DELTA

Publishing

2 007). Ideas for large classes, classes with discipline problems, mixed-ability

classes, etc.

Teaching Unplugged by Luke Meddings and Scott T hornbury (DELTA Publishing 2 0 1 0).
This book gives ideas about teaching without materials (coursebooks, etc.).

CUL

Teaching Other Subjects Through English by Sheelagh Deller and Christine Price
University Press

(Oxford

2 007). T his has a great range of activities for teaching core subjects

together with English.

Content and Language Integrated Learning by Do

Coyle, Philip Hood and D avid Marsh

(Cambridge University Press 2 0 1 0). T his book explains much of the thinking (and
practice) on which CLIL is based.

The TKT course: CLIL Module by Kay Bentley (Cambridge University Press 2 0 1 1).
T his i s p art o f the official T KT handbook which is entirely focused on the exam itself.

245

Young learners

The Primary English Teacher's Guide by Jean Brewster and Gail Ellis with Denis Girard
(Penguin 2002). This book has sound practical advice for most aspects of primary
teaching.
Teaching English in the Primary Classroom by Susan Halliwell (Pearson ELT 1 992).
Although published many years ago, thjs book has many practical examples, and insights
into how to manage young learner classrooms.
SOO Activitiesfor the Primary Classroom by Carol Read (Macmillan 2 007). As its name
suggests, this book contains a range of activities for primary school English, divided into
sections such as storytelling and drama, ICT, grammar, listening, etc.

Children Learning English by Jayne Moon (Macmjllan 2 005). This book looks at issues to
do with teaching young learners.
Teaching Languages to Young Learners by Lym1e Cameron (Cambridge University Press
2 00 1 ). A slightly more theoretical look at young learner teaclung.
Teaching English to Children by Wendy A Scott and Lisbeth H Ytreberg (Pearson ELT
1990). A book which is still widely read today.

Appendix B: Language for managing classrooms

These pages include some of the language which teachers often use to manage the
students in lessons. Where a name or other word is in italics, this means that other words
can be substituted. For example, in the question 'Does anyone know where Reza is? ' we
could substitute another name for Reza.

G reeting and starting

General greetings

Good morning everyone.

How are you all today?
Did you have a good weekend?
Taking the register/calling the roll

OK, I'm going to take the register/call the roll.

Please say 'present' or 'here' when I call your name.
Does anyone know where Reza is?
Remembering the last lesson

Who can remember what we were doing/did last week?

Let's go over it again.
Talking about today's lesson

This is the plan for today's lesson . . .

By the end of the lesson you will . . .
There are three things we can do in this lesson. Which one shall we start with?
Dealing with latecomers

You're late.
Can you explain why you are late?
That's the third time this week.
That's not a very good excuse.
Try to get here on time in future, OK?
OK, well never mind. You can sit next to Mario. A1ario, will you explain/tell Emilia
what we are doing?

Stages of the lesson

Finishing a lesson stage

Can I have your attention, please?

OK, I'd like you to stop what you are doing (and pay attention to me).
OK, could you finish off what you are doing now, please?
What we are going to do next is . . .
The next thing we are going to do i s . . .
Now we're going to do something different.

Deciding what to do next (with the students' help)

Let's do something different.

We can either do a dialogue or some more work on pronunciation; which would you prefer?
Hands up if you would like to read the text. Hands up if you would like to listen to a

conversation.
247

Homework
Setting homework

For homework I'd like you to . . .

B efore next lesson (that's on Thursday) I'd like you to . . .
I'd like you all to do some homework, please.
You need to hand it in by next vVednesday.
Collecting homework in

Have you done your homework?

Could I have your homework, please?

When will you be able to give me your homework?

Instructing students to do things

Books

Open your books.

Close your books.
Look at the text on page 3 6.
Who can give me the answer to question 3 ?
Have you forgotten your book? Can you share with Chen?
I'd like you to put away/close your books now. We're going to do something different.
Test instructions

You need a pen and some paper, but you can leave your books behind.
You have five minutes to finish what you are doing.
You have one minute more.

I'd like you all to stop writing.

Could you all pass your papers to the front, please?

Putting students into groups/re-arranging the classroom

Groups and teams

Could you all stand up (and come into the middle of the room)?
I'd like you to form two groups.

Gloria, will you join Group A, and Miguel, could you join Group B, please?
OK, let's have three teams. You people here, you are Team A. You (yes that includes
you Carmen) are Team B, and the rest of you are in Team C.
I'd like you to arrange the chairs in groups of five.
Could you all pick up your chairs before you move them, please?
Could you all go back to your seats, pl ease?
Can I have one person from Group A, one person from Group B, one person from
Group C? Come here, please.
I'd like you all to make a line in the order of your birthdays.
Organising pairs

OK, so you are going to/I'd like you to work .in pairs.
That's you and you, and you and you, and you and you . . .

Yunziko, could you come here, please and work with Keiko?
Can the people in row 1 uu-n back to face the people in row two? That's right. Now
the people in row 3 turn back to the people in row 4, and the people in row 5 turn
back to the people in row six, and so on.

248

Language for managing classro9ms

. . . . . . .... . . ,

Controlling the class

Stopping things

w:m you stop what you are doing and pay attention?

Could you please stop talking?

Please will you stop doing that?
Could you please be quiet?
Stop that right now.

Quietening students down

I'm going to wait until there is complete silence.

I'm going to count backwards from ten. V\lhen I have finished I want complete quiet.
Let's see how long it takes to be quiet.
Stop what you are doing and listen.

Suggesting consequences for actions

If you don't stop what you are doing, I am going to . . .

Listen carefully. If you do that again, you will have to see the head teacher I
I will have to talk to your parents.

Follow up
Could you come here, please?

Could you see me at the end of the lesson?

Could you stay here for a moment, please?

You and I need a talk, so I'd like you to stay back at the end of the lesson.

Asking students to help

Could you turn off/on the lights?

Could someone please/open the window/close the window?

\Vould someone (like to) clean the board?

Could you collect everyone's homework, please?
Could you pass the worksheets/books around, please?

Finishing and saying goodbye

Summing up

Before we finish, I'd just like to sum up what we have been doing.

\Vho can tell me ten new words that they learnt today?

\Vhat were the most important things you learnt today?

Putting things back/taking things away

Would you put all the books back in the cupboards, please?
Before you leave, could you make sure that you have all your belongings?
Before you leave, could you put all the tables and chairs back to where they were?
Make sure you take everything with you. Don't leave anything behind.

249

Appendix C: Lesson planning

Many thanks for their lesson plans to Magdalena Custodio Espinar - Spain (CLIL young learner lesson), Cecilia Lemos
- Brazil (Teenagers) and Kathy Simpson Davies - UK (Adults).

Checklist questions
\i\Then we start to plan lessons, there are a number of questions we need to ask ourselves: a kind of planning checklist.
The following list of questions is in no significant order.

Questions

Planning area

\i\Tho are my students? \i\That do they know? \i\That do they need?

How can I plan a lesson which is appropriate for the different individuals in

CLASSROOM DESCRIPTION
DIFFERENTIATION

the class?
\i\That should the whole lesson look/feel like?
\i\That is the best way to start the lesson?
\i\That is the most effective way of ending the lesson?

LESSON SHAPE
LESSON 'FEEL'

What topics/themes do I want to take into the classroom?

vVhat topics and themes would be most appropriate for my students (based on

CONTENT

their age, level, cultural backgronnd, etc.)?

How does the lesson I am going to teach fit in with the overall syllabus?
\i\That have we been doing in recent lessons - and how can that help me to

LESSON SEQUENCES

decide what to do next?

What links can I make between the various topics and themes in past and

TIMETABLE FIT

When the lesson (or stage of the lesson) is finished, what will my students

AIMS

h ave achieved if everything goes according to plan?

How will I know if the students have achieved the aims that I set for them?

OBJECTIVES
OUTCOMES

\i\That activities would be most appropriate for my students?

What materials, classroom technology, etc. (if any) do I need for the activities

ACTIVITIES
MATERIALS

future lessons and the topics and themes I am thinking of using in this one?

I am thinking of?

Exactly how can I make the activities work best? vVhat procedure will I use?
What is the best sequence for the activities I want to use?
\i\Tho is going to be talking to/working with whom in the activities I

PATTERNS OF INTERACTION
PROCEDURES
TIMINGS

have chosen?
VVhich is the best type of student grouping (pairwork, groupwork, individual,

etc.) for the activity?

How long do I expect the activity to last (it will probably be longer than I
think at first)?

250

Based on my experience (and who my students are), what are they likely to find

ANTICIPATED PROBLEMS

most difficult/complicated in the lesson I am planning?

How can I avoid the kinds of difficulties/problems that I am predicting?
\i\That will I do if these problems arise?

DIFFERENTIATION

\i\That extra activities/ideas can I take into the lesson in case we

rnn out of tl1ings

to do?
\i\That extra ideas/activities can I take into the lesson in case what I have
planned fails to engage the students?
\i\That alternative ways of using my plan can I think of?

ADDITIONAL POSSIBILITIES

VVhat will I achieve with the lesson I am planning?

\i\That new things might I try out/experiment with in the lesson I am planning?

PERSONAL All\1S

Lesson plan:

SOU N D ENG I N EERS

Teacher:

Magdalena Custodio Espinar

Subject:

Conocimiento del Media Natural, Social y Cultural

Level:

Second level of primary

Timing:

Three sessions of 45 minutes

Aims:

To introduce the concept of the unit and to show how to use Audacity (freeware)

(7-8 year olds)

CONTENT
Teaching objectives
.

To introduce the concept of sound.

To use

Learning outcomes
.

ICT (computer' and recording devices) as a

means of learning about sound: tone, pitch, and

loudness.
.

They will be able to change the pitch, tone and loudness

of their voices using Audacity.

To practise the structure of an interview.

They will play roles in an interview .

To model how to record the voice using Audacity

They will record their interviews and save them in MP3

They will listen to their interviews on a b iog .

software.
.

The pupils will understand what sound is and the

difference between pitch and tone.

To publish the interviews in a biog.

format on the computer.

COG NITION
Teaching objectives
.

To provide the pupils with opportunities for:

- relating the voice with a graph;
- comparing changes in sound waves;

Learning outcomes
.

The pupils will infer the concept of sound from practice .

T-hey will understand the new vocabulary and concepts .

They will extract the relevant information about the

They will apply technological routines and skills .

They will relate the use of A udacity with the content.

They will predict the type of wave a sound will have

- defining the concept of sound;

content.

- using freeware to apply knowledge for operating a

recording device (play, pause, stop, rewind,
fast forward);
- recognising the structure of an interview.

depending on the tone or pitch of the voice.

.

They will memorise an interview and roleplay it for

recording.

I!

CULTURE
Teaching objectives
.

To raise awareness about the importance of using

friendly language at the beginning and end of a formal
meeting.

To model intonation .

Learning outcomes
.

The pupils will learn to emphasise the intonatio o'

questions and exclamations in order to be po e

COMMUNI CATION
Language of learning

Key words a n d concepts: sound,

pitch, tone, loudness.

I CT words: record, save, play, stop,

G reetings:

- Thank you.
- You are welcome.

La nguage from m a n i pu lating the

wider when . . . and narrower when . .

freeware.

Language to ask and a nswer

. .

Language to give an order:

La nguage to ask for i nformation:

What can you tell me about . .
.

- It was a pleasure.

Language through peer i nteraction

d u ri ng the record i ngs.

Language t h rough memorising the

interview.

Say . . . , Repeat . . . , Play it again.

- Hello! How are you?

- Nice to meet you.

Language to compare: The wave is

questions What .

pause, rewind, fast forward.

Language through learning

Language for learning

Language t h rough activities and

q u estions d u ring the session.

Language to ask for attention

Look at this! Look!

- Goodbye

Language to show surprise:

Wowl That is fantastic/

Language to give an opinio n :

I think . .

Classroom l anguage.

Contribution to BASIC COMPETENCES

Learning strategies (basic competences)
colla borative learn i ng

making use of prior knowledge

following instructions

reflecting on learn i ng a n d self-assessment

record i ng new words

using ICT resources to research, obta i n, process a n d

critical t h i n k i ng observing a n d describing

critical t h i n k i ng comparing and contrasting

commun icate information

i nd ividual autonomous learn i ng

Activities:
1

The pupils play with Audacity and d iscover, d iscuss and exp lain facts about sound w h i l e using these technological resources.

The pupils work o n their booklets a bout sound (written activities for c l assifying, matching, drawing and word completion).

Pu p i l s are given an i nterview worksheet to memorise.

4 One group practises with Audacity while the other rehearses the i n terview; then they swap rou n d .
5 T h e 'journal ists' visit the l a boratory o f t h e 'scientists' to cond uct the i nterview a n d record it i n pairs.
6 We p u b l ish our interviews i n ou r b logl
7 We l i sten to the i nterviews from the biog to assess the results.

Resources:

Compute r with Audacity (freeware) a n d microphones

I nterview worksheets

Sound booklets

Evaluation:

Of language:

Of content:
- Teacher checks written activities.

- Peer la nguage modelling through feedback.

- Pupils answer ora l and written questions a bout sound.

- G ro u p l a nguage assessment and i ndividual

- Pupils record a n d save sounds using Audacity.

assessment through listening to the i nterviews from

the b i og.

252

- Teacher's o ra l l a nguage mode l l i ng on the spot.

- Group correction of written activities.

Lesson plam1ing

Lesson plan: DREAMS

Name:

Class:

Level:

Length:

Cecilia Lemos

Teen 3

Elementary

60 minutes

Class description
There are 1 8 students in this group, 5 boys and 13 girls, all between 13 and 15 years old. They have English classes twice
a week, for 1 hour and 15 minutes each time. Most of them have been studying English for about three years. It's an early
group and they usually come to class still sleepy, so an active warm up, where they have to move, is always a good start.

Main aim(s)
By the end of the lesson the students will be able to use will to make predictions, based on the dreams they read a.bout.

Subsidiary aim(s)

1 Review the use of the past progressive for describing an event in the past (in this case, a dream)
2 Introduce the topic (dreams) through the students' own writing

Personal aims
I will let the students work out for themselves that we use will for predictions - and see if this works better than giving
them the information myself. I want to see how I feel a.bout this.

Timetable fit
In the last three lessons, the students have reviewed the past tenses - simple and progressive - while talking a.bout
vacations and describing photos, saying what was happening when they were ta.ken. In the next lesson we a.re going to
study other uses of will (promises and offers).

Materials

1 Board and board markers

2 Big pieces of white pa.per with 'Dream' prompts on top
3 Sticky notes - enough to give ea.eh student a few

Anticipated problems

1 Some students may be left out dming the forming of the groups.
2 Some groups may get stuck and may not be very creative.
Possible solutions

1 Teacher collects those students and puts them together in a group.

2 Teacher goes around asking questions that may spark an idea.

PROCEDURES

Stage/stage aim

Description

Warm up I Have the

1 Tell the students they have to guess what we'll talk a.b out in

students discover
the theme of the
class (dreams)

Interaction

Timing

T - SS

5 mins

class today - it's a word.

2 Explain I will write on the board words related to the word

they're supposed to discover, one at a time, and each of them
has one chance at guessing it.

3 Have the students stand in a semi-circle in the middle of the

room. Tell them if they think they know the word they should
run and touch the board. Only after I say his/her name should
they say what they think the word is.

--

4 Write (pausing between words) the following words on the

board: bed, night, remember, nightmare, sleep . If the
students still can't guess the word, I'll draw it. When a
student guesses it, vvrite the word DREAMS, in large letters on
the board.

253

Interaction

Timing

T - SS

5 mins

SS - SS

20 mins

1 Ask the students if they have ever heard about people who say

T - SS

25 mins

they can predict the future based on other people's dreams.

Individual

Stage/stage aim

Description

Lead in I Get the

students talking

Ask the students if they usually remember what they dream

about, what they think dreams are, if they usually have good or

about dreams

crazy dreams.

Writing I Have the

1 Tell the students they will now create crazy dreams, writing
what happens in the dream, starting from a prompt. They will

students use the

have 15 minutes to do it.

past progressive to
create a dream

2 Stick the six big white sheets of paper around the class. Each
sheet of paper has the fast sentence of the dream written on
top (e.g. Last night I dreamt I wasflying over the city and

then I saw

. . .

I Last night I dreamt I was watching a Lady

Gaga concert and in the middle of the first song . . . )

3 Ask the students to form t1ios. Give each trio a marker pen to
w1ite on the paper with. Ask the student who guessed the word
during the warm up to stand up and get the sheet of paper/
prompt that ms/her trio has chosen. That student should
choose someone from one of the other trios to do the same,
and so on, until each group has a piece of paper with a prompt.

4 Remind them that it's a good idea to brainstorm and think

about the dream/what they are going to write before they start
writing.

5 Give them 15 minutes to write their dreams. After they have

finished, collect the papers and display them around the
classroom. Go around the classroom, checking the students'
work, helping when I]ecessary and suggesting corrections.

Reading
comprehension I
I-lave the students
read what other

2 Tell the students that they will be those fortune tellers today.
They will say what will happen to each of the dreamers. Write:
What will happen to them? on the board.

students have
written and predict
what will happen to
the person who had
each dream

3 Read one of the texts aloud to the whole class and ask them to
predict (saying out loud) what will happen to the dreamer.
Recast if necessary, to suggest the use of the structme He
will I She will.
4 Give each student a few sticky notes and tell them to go
around the class, reading the dreams and predicting the future.
Go around checking their work.

5 After 1 0- 1 5 minutes, ask them if anybody wants to share a

dream they read, together vvith what they predicted. Elicit the
use of the structure. Use the board.

Homework I Have

Tell the students that they have to write ten things they believe

the students

will happen in the next year. It can be about them or anything

continue using will

else (a sports team, a celebrity, etc.).

5 mins

for predictions

Additional possibilities

I can adapt tills activity and have them write mystery stories without including the ending - have others predicting
the encl of each story.

254

Get the students to record their dreams and have their classmates predict their future from these.

Ask the students to predict what will happen in their favowite TV drama.

Lesson planning

Lesson plan:
Name:
Class:
Level:
Time:

LIFE EXPERIENCES

Katy Simpson Davies

B1 General English
Lower-intermediate
1 20 minutes

Class description
A multilingual class of ten students from a variety of countries (Saudi Arabia, South Korea, Spain, Switzerland, Colombia).
A mix of ages from early 20s to late 40s. The students are studying i n the UK for different amounts of time, so some are new
to the school and some have been here for months. There is a spread of levels, from those who have just moved up from
pre-intermediate, to those who are nearly ready for upper-intermediate. Overall , this is an enthusiastic and chatty class, and
they love games! They are generally confident, but not always very accurate. The lesson is aimed at improving their accuracy.

Main aim(s)
1

By the end of the lesson, the students will feel more confident using the present perfect to ask questions and to talk about
their own life experiences . .

By the end of the first stage of the lesson, the students will be able to use phrases to talk about life experiences in the
past simple.

3 By the end of the second stage of the lesson, the students will have a better understanding of when they should use the
past simple and when they should use the present perfect, and why.

4 By the end of the fourth stage of the lesson, the students will be able to use the past simple and present perfect to talk
about their own experiences and the experiences of other people.

Subsidiary aim(s)
1 To revise collocations to do with life events (e .g. although the students know the word married, they often forget that the
verb is to get married).
2 To revise time phrases.

3 To practise pron unciation .

Personal aims
I will use the board to give the students a useful model. I will check that my writing is big enough and clear enough by going
to the back of the classroom to look at it, and I will use different colours to highlight words.

Timetable fit
In the last three lessons, the students have studied conditionals, so this is a new topic - although they will have covered the
past simple and present perfect previously at other levels. In the next lesson, we are going to talk about the present perfect
continuous for recent events (e. g . I've just . . . ), and eventually move on to the present perfect continuous.

Materials
1 Photos from my life. Vocabulary cards to describe the pictures and cards with the years on.
2 A handout with the pictures matched to the correct vocabulary.
3 Six true or false sentences about myself, using both present perfect and past simple.
4 Pictures of my country and/or local area.

5 Small squares of paper to draw on.

Anticipated problems

Possible solutions

The students might think that the present perfect is only

used with been because of the frequency of Have you
ever been to . . . ?

2 If some students don't come to the lesson, there will be an

odd number for the 'wheel ' .

3 Students might feel that it's too easy, as they have almost
certainly covered the present perfect and past simple
before.

I will make sure there are a variety of pictures for the mill
drill which require the use of different verbs (e. g . eaten,
tried, drunk, played, watched).

2 I will take part i n the 'wheel' if necessary.

For the higher-level students I will monitor pronunciation

carefully and encourage them to use contractions. I can
also ask them whether they really feel confident using
these forms, even though they've studied them before.
The chances are that they ' know' the present perfect, but
don't produce it very often . I ' ll try to keep the pace up, as
a lot of this is not totally new (the vocabulary will be familiar
to them, as well as the g rammar), I might have to push
them to keep them going, otherwise it could start to drag.

255

Procedures
Stage/stage aim
Lead-in:

Description
Tell the students there are pictures of me at different ages around

Interaction

Timing

T-SSS

5 mins

the room.
Demonstrate example

Write on the board the question Can you guess what year it was?
Hold up one picture as an exam ple, and write up the answer: Katy was
born in ___? Ask the students to guess the year. Check

T-SSS-T

pronunciation of years .
In pairs, the students go around the room, talking about the pictures.

Speaking to activate
vocabulary about life

Monitor for use of vocabulary - do they know collocations such as

events

get married?

Feedback to give the

correct answers

The students sit down. Hand out smaller versions of the same photos
to each pair. Hand out cards with years on them. The students match

SS-SS

8 mins

T-SSS

2 mins

T-SSS

2 mins

S-S

5 mins

T-SSS

3 mins

T-SSS

5 mins

the pictures to the years.

Feedback to find a winner

Check answers, and ask which pair guessed the most correct years.

Vocabulary focus:

Hand out cards with vocabulary written on them (e. g . to be born,

to graduate from university, to become a teacher). I n pairs they match

To give the students the

phrases they need to talk

When they have finished, give them a handout with the pictures matched
to the correct vocabulary, and tell them to check their answers.

vocabulary to the pictures and years.

about life experiences,

and focus on accuracy
To practise using the
vocabulary

Elicit an example (e.g. Katy was born in 1983). Tell the students to stand
up agai n . They go round the room looking at the pictures and say the
sentences. Monitor and heck that they are using the full phrase

More practice

The students sit down. Hand out six cards with three true/three false
sentences about me, with a mix or present perfect and past simple
(e. g . I 've visited South Korea - false I I've visited Thailand - true).

S, S, S

(e. g . graduated from university) .

SS, SS

5 mins

Feedback

Check the correct answers . Is there a winner?

T-SSS

2 mins

Focus on difference in

Write on the board one present perfect sentence and one past simple
sentence. Ask the students to discuss the difference in pairs. Monitor.
Get whole-class feedback. Highlight the d ifference in form on the board.

T-SSS
SS, SS

1 0 mins

meaning and form

between past simple
and present perfect:

Discuss difference
between present
perfect and past simple

Writing stage:

Write up useful expressions the students use to describe the difference

in mean ing. Draw timelines for I 've been to Thailand and I went to
Thailand in 2000. The students decide which timeline fits which sentence.

T-SSS

Write on the board the sentences I got married in 2008 and I 've been
married for th ree years. The students discuss differences in meaning and

SS, SS

form and draw their own timelines. Monitor and ask those with good
timelines to draw them on the board, and explain their timelines to the class.
The students write six sentences about themselves - three true and

S, S , S

5 mins

SS, SS, SS,

5 mins

th ree false - using a m ixture of past simple and present perfect.

Speaking stage:

They bring chairs and papers into the middle in a wheel (two concentric
circles). They tell their sentences to the person sitting opposite them who

SS. SS

guesses if they are true or false. They get a point for each correct guess. The
inner circle then moves round so the students work with different partners.
Feedback

Ask students who got the most points? What was the most surprising

T-SSS

2 mins

piece of information?

Additional possibiliites
Homework: hand out squares of paper (preferably coloured paper). Tell the students to draw a picture of one thing from their country.
Demonstrate an example on the board (e . g . stick figures playing football). Stress that it doesn't need to be a professional drawing.
Repeat the mill drill in class, but this time they use their own picture for the question , not the picture being shown to them. Then
they exchange pictures and ask the new question to another person .
Ask the students to bring in photos of themselves to talk about their life experiences in the next lesson.

256

Glossdex
The Glossdex contains the technical terms that occur in Essential Teacher Knowledge, with definitions and unit references.
The Glossdex gives the numbers of the units where the subjects appear. \Vhere subjects appear in
more than one unit, the most important unit for that subject is in bold.
Words in SMALL CAPITAL LETTERS appear as separate entries elsewhere in the Glossdex.
content, communication, cognition and culture -+1 02 , 1 0 8, 1 09

4Cs

A-L

see AUDIO-LINGUAL METHODOLOGY

a bbreviation

a word or phrase that is shortened, often to its initial letters (e.g. BTW for 'by the
way') -+ 31 , 3 2 , 3 3

a bstract thi nking skills

being able t o reason, hypothesise or think about things -+1 07

accurate, accuracy

without mistakes; the ability to say or write something correctly -+ 3 7, 49, 57, 73, 92

ach ievement

when we succeed at something -+43

ach ievement test

when we give a test to see i f the students have learnt what they have been studying
-+8 8 , 8 9

acknowledge, acknowledgement

when we show that we have heard what a student has said o r read what they have
written -+ 7 2

acq uisition - see LANGUAGE ACQUISITION -+ 3 5 , 36, 3 8 , 39, 60

action, do actions
action research

when we get YOUNG LEARNERS to move tl1eir arms or bodies -+ 94, 9 5

when teachers try something out and study tl1e results t o see if it was a good idea
-+78, 79

action verb

a VERB which describes an EVENT or action; sometime called a dynamic verb; opposite
of a STATIVE VERB -+4

activate - see also ESA

when students try to use any/al l of the language they know in communicative
speaking and other TASKS -+ 36, 39, 48, 80

active voice - see a lso PASSIVE VOICE

When we put the elements of a SENTENCE in the order. SUBJECT + VERB + OBJECT
(e.g. Shakespeare wrote Hamlet), we call the result an active sentence. -+1

activity

something we ask students to do to help tl1em with tl1eir language learning -+43,
69, 79, 80, 8 1 , 83, 8 5

activity book
additional language

a book of activities which teachers use together with their COURSEBOOK -+ 81

any new language (English, Turkish, Japenese, etc.) th at the students are l earning
-+1 02

additional possibilities

extra ideas that teachers put in tl1eir LESSON PLANS in case there is time left over in the
lesson -+79

adjective

Adjectives (like big, expensive, enjoyable,fair, etc.) describe and modify NOUNS. vVe can
create COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES by, for example, adding -er (bigger,fairer) or more
(more expensive, more enjoyable), and we can create SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES by, for
example, adding -est (biggest,fairest) or most (most expensive, most enjoyable). -+1 , 9, 1 1 ,
1 2 , 1 5, 1 6, 1 7, 1 9, 20, 2 6 , 3 5

adjective order

\\Then we use more than one adjective before a noun, we normally d o s o i n a specific
sequence. -+15, 1 7

adolescent

people ben:veen the stages of puberty and adulthood; see also TEENAGERS -+ 3 8

adult (learners)

students aged 18 and upwards; students aged 1 6- 1 8 are often referred t o a s young

adults -+1 4, 1 6, 3 5 , 38, 39, 9 5

advanced l evel

students who are above UPPER-INTERMEDIATE level; equivalent t o CEFR levels C l-2
-+41, 51
257

adverb

Adverbs (like politely, enthusiastically and quickly) describe VERBS. They are often, but
not always, formed by adding -ly to adjectives (like polite, enthusiastic, quick). ADVERBS
OF DEGREE say how much something is done, ADVERBS OF MANNER describe how
something is done, ADVERBS OF PLACE say where something is done, ADVERBS OF TIME say
when something is done and ADVERBS OF CERTAINTY say how sure it is that something
is done. See also FREQUENCY ADVERB. -+1 , 3, 6, 9, 1 1, 1 5, 20, 5 6, 82

adverb of certainty - see ADVERB

-+1 1

adverb of degree - see ADVERB

-+1 1

adverb of manner - see ADVERB

-+1 1, 6 4

adverb of p lace - see ADVERB

-+11, 34

adverb of time - see ADVERB

-+11, 1 02

adverbial ( p h rase)

when two or more words join together and act as if they were a single ADVERB -+1 ,

5, 1 1
affect, affective

concerned with feelings -+ 2 2 , 26, 4 3

affirmative sentence

a sentence that says that something i s , was, will be or might b e the case; the opposite
of a NEGATIVE SENTENCE -+3, 1 4

affix

a MORPHEME that we add to a word to modify its meaning; this can b e a PREFIX (such
as un- and dis-) which joins the beginning of a word (e.g. unimportant, disagree) or a

SUFFIX (such as -ness and -ment) which joins

amusement) -+1 5, 1 9

the end of the word (e.g.

happiness,

affricate

a CONSONANT sound which starts like a PLOSIVE and ends like a FRICATIVE, e.g. /tJ/ and
/d3/; see PALTO-ALVEOLAR FRICATIVE -+ 24

agency

when students have some responsibility for (and control over) their learning -+3 8,

39, 43
aim (of a lesson, stage)

what we hope the OUTCOME of the lesson (or LESSON STAGE) will be -+ 79, 1 09

alveolar fricative

the CONSONANT sounds Is/ and /z/ -+24

alveolar nasal

the CONSONANT sound /n/ -+ 24

a lveolar plosive

the CONSONANT sounds It/ and /d/ -+24

alveolar ridge

the flat surface behind the top teeth -+24

anaphoric reference

when we use PRONOUNS, etc. to refer to things we have previously mentioned; see
also CATAPHORIC REFERENCE, EXOPHORIC REFERENCE -+ 34

answer

the reply given to a question or a command -+ 3

anticipate problems

when the teacher tries to predict what might go wrong (in their LESSON PLAN) -+ 7 9

antonym

antonyms are words with opposite meanings (e.g.

also SYNONYM -+ 1 8, 8 2

apostrophe

hot and cold, big and small); see

the puncniation mark which indicates contraction o r possession, e.g.

I'm n o t sure,

John 's book -+31

258

appropriate language

language that is just right for a certain situation (not rude, too formal or informal,
etc.) -+3 3

a pproximant

the sounds /j/ and /w/

app, application

a program designed for use on SMARTPHONES and other MOBILE DEVICES -+8 6, 1 0 6

aptitude

a naniral abi lity for something -+40

article

English has a DEFINITE ARTICLE (the) and an IN DEFINITE ARTICLE (a/an). Some people refer
to a ZERO ARTICLE as well when no article is used. -+1 , 1 4, 37, 1 04

aspect

a verb form that shows whether an action is continuing, is completed or happens

again and again -+5, 6

CONSONANTS whi ch sound almost like vowels -+24

Glossdex

assess, assessment

when we make a judgement about a students' English ability; we can use a variety
of ways, e.g. CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT, INFORMAL ASSESSMENT,
etc. to do this; we can also assess the effectiveness of something we (or the students)
planned to achieve -+88, 1 09

assessing C U L

evaluating students of CLIL -+1 02

assessment criteria

exactly what we are trying to test -+88, 9 0

assessment scal e

a way o f grading something from, for example, 0 (= no good) to 5 (= excellent)

-+9 0, 1 1 0

assimilation

when we change a sound because of tl1e sound we are going to use next -+25, 2 8

attempt

a mistake students make when they try to say things that tl1ey don't yet know how to
say -+37, 8 4

attitude

the way teachers present themselves in front of the class -+43

attitude to learn i ng

how interested in (and responsible for) learning a student feels -+1 1 0

audience

the people who wilt read what we are writing or hear what we are saying -+34, 57

audio device

anything which allows us to record and play audio -+6 0, 1 0 5

audio feedback

when teachers record comments about a student's work on an AUDIO DEVICE -+ 75

audio recording

when we record our voices on an AUDIO DEVICE; see also RECORDED LISTENING -+ 74, 76,
81, 85

audio-lingual methodology

a methodology most popular in the l 950s-l 970s where students did a lot of
REPETITION and DRILLING -+ 3 6

audioscript

the words of an audio track written down exactly; see also TRANSCRIPT -+8 5

auxiliary verb

a 'helping verb', such a s be, have, do, etc. -+ 3, 4, 6, 8, 1 1 , 2 5

avatar

a character that you create to b e 'you' i n a computer game, etc. -+87, 93

back chain ing

when we ask students to do CHORAL REPETITION, repeating bits of a sentence, starting

at the end and working up to saying the whole clung -+47

base form (of a verb)

the form of a verb with no inflections, e.g. walk, sleep, leani -+4, 5, 6, 7, 1 6, 1 9

bar chart

a diagram using vertical bars to show different quantities -+1 0 5

beginner

a student who is starting to learn English and knows almost nothing; similar to CEFR
level A l ; REAL BEGINNERS know no English at all; FALSE BEGINNERS have picked up a little
bit of English -+7, 2 6 , 41 , 44, 49, 51

behaviourism

a tl1eory which suggests that people can be conditioned into behaving in a certain
way if there is the appropriate STIMULUS- RESPONSE-REIN FORCEMENT (if subjects respond
to a stimulus in a certain way, their behaviour is rewarded/reinforced so that i t
becomes a habit) -+ 3 6

BICS

basic interpersonal commmucation skills - a term used in CUL to describe the

everyday language that people use to talk to each other about their lives and what
they are doing; different from CALP -+1 0 3

bilabial

when w e us e both of our lips to make CONSONANT sounds such a s lb/, Im/ etc.
-+24

bilabial plosive

the CONSONANT sounds /p/ and /b/ -+24

bil ingual d ictionary

a DICTIONARY which shows the (meaning of the) same words in two different
languages -+8 2

bil ingual learners' d ictionary (BLD)

a BILINGUAL DICTIONARY written especially for language students -+82

binary key

a diagram which divides information into two parts -+1 05

b lackboard

a BOARD at the front of a classroom for teachers and students to write on -+ 8 5

259

Blackboard

a VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENT (VLE) OR LEARNING PLATFORM where people can study
online -+66, 76, 87

blank

the space where students have t o write a word o r phrase in a FILL-IN exercise or GAP

FILL test item -+ 62, 63, 8 9

blend

when we mix two words together to make a new one, e.g. smoke + fog = smog -+1 9

blended learni ng

when students use traditional learning aids, such as books, together with more
modern technology such as WEBSITES and APPS -+ 81 , 87

biog

short for weblog; a ki nd of dia1y on a n internet WEBSITE -+ 59, 66, 78, 87, 8 9

biog post

an individual text or ent1y written on a BLOG -+ 59, 76

board

Boards are usually placed at the front of the classroom so that teachers and students
can write or draw p ictures on them. They can be different colours (e.g. WHITEBOARDS,

BLACKBOARDS) and/or be connected to a computer (INTERACTIVE WH ITEBOARD) . -+1 6,

62, 85, 93, 9 9, 1 0 5, 1 0 6
bottom-up processing

when we try to understand a whole text, starting from finding the meaning of
individual WORDS and PHRASES -+5 4

brackets

punctuation marks used to separate out extra ideas in a sentence -+31, 1 03

brainstorm

when students try to come up with ideas ve1y quickly in DISCUSSION (often i n BUZZ

GROUPS) -+ 63
burnout

when teachers get depressed or overtired and lose interest in (or have no enthusiasm
for) teaching -+6, 78

business English

when sn1dents study English because they want to use it in the world of business

-+41
buzz group

a small group where students have quick discussions about things -+52, 5 5, 57, 59,

61 , 63
CALP

cognitive academic l anguage proficiency - a term used i n CUL to describe language

that students need i n order to hypothesise, give reasons and explain the topics they
are studying; different from BICS -+1 03

can-do statements

statements used in the CEFR to describe abi lity, e.g.

can understand shon written

messages -+41, 90, 1 01 , 1 1 0

capital letter - see a lso PUNCTUATION

the big letter that we use at the beginning of a SENTENCE or a PROPER NOUN -+1 , 1 2, 31

cards

small pieces of cardboard which we can write, draw or stick PICTURES on -+8 3, 8 6,

93, 97, 9 8 , 99
Carrol l diagram

a diagram which groups in formation in a 'yes-no' format -+1 05

cataphoric reference

when we use PRONOUNS, etc. to refer to things which we will mention later; see also
ANAPHORIC REFERENCE and EXOPHORIC REFERENCE -+ 34

cause and effect diagram

a d iagram whjch shows reasons why something happens -+1 0 5

CEFR

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages - a six-level description

of language ability that can be used for any language -+41, 5 4

centring diphthong

a DIPHTHONG which ends with the SCHWA sound -+ 24

chal lenge - see LEVEL OF CHALLENGE

chant

rhythmic speaking (like a SONG without music) -+47, 93, 94, 9 6

charades

a game where someone MIMES and acts out the title of a book, film o r play a n d the
others have to guess what it is -+6 4

260

chart

a diagram with (space for) a l o t o f different information -+49, 50, 5 5

chat box

a place onl i ne where people can write messages to each otl1er -+87

G lossdex

check meaning - see also

when we ask questions to see if the students have understood -+44, 69

CONCEPT CHECKING
checking instructions

when we try to discover if the students have understood our instructions -+ 6 9

child development

the different stages o f a chi l d's physical and intellectual growth -+ 91

choral repetition

when students all repeat the same word or phrase or sentence at the same time
-+42, 44, 47

chorus

a group of students who all speak at the same time -+ 9 5, 9 8

citizenship

understanding how w e belong and should behave i n the societies w e live i n -+ 1 0 9

class description

when we say who our students are and what they are like in a l esson plan -+ 7 9

class register

a list of students used to record attendance and absence; called a ROLL i n American
English -+ 65, 66, 7 0

classroom resource

anything that is in a classroom (including the teacher) which w e can use t o explain
meaning, give the students exposure to language, etc. -+ 6 8 , 1 0 9

clause

a phrase with a subject and a verb - but part o f a sentence, not the whole sentence
-+1 , 2, 1 6, 46

cliche

an IDIOM used so often that people get fed up with i t -+ 2 1

CUL

content and language integrated learning; the STUDY of a SUBJECT together with the
language that i s necessary to study that subject -+ 41 , 81, 1 0 0, 1 02-110

C U L assessment

when we test students o f CUL -+ 8 8

close vowel

the sounds /i:/, /r/ /u/ and /u:/ -+ 2 4

closed information-gap activity

when an INFORMATION-GAP ACTIVITY has 'correct' answers which the students have to
give -+ 5 0

closed question - see YES/NO QUESTION

closing di phthong

the sounds /er/, /ar/, l:JI I , /m/ a1d /au/ -+ 24

doze (test)

a test where texts have blanks which have been chosen at random, e.g. every sixth
word -+ 8 9

CLT

see COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING

co-hyponym - see a lso HYPONYM

eagle, kite, marsh hmTier, spanow hawk and kestrel are all co-hyponyms of the
larger meaning category birds ofprey: they are all at the same 'level' o f meaning
-+1 8

code of conduct

a description o f what is and is not allowed i n class -+ 70, 71 , 76, 1 07

cognition, cognitive ski!ls

our ability to use our brains to work things out - to think effectively -+1 02 , 1 0 8 ,
1 0 9, 1 1 0

cognitive engagement

when students get involved i n l earning something (and remember i t) because they
have to use their brains to think about i t -+ 2 2

coherence, coherent

when something i s comprehensible and ordered i n a logical sequence -+31 , 34, 57,
59, 69, 1 04

cohesion

when we use COHESIVE DEVICES to show how the parts of a text relate to each other
-+3 1 , 34, 5 9

cohesive device

any l anguage which we use t o show h o w the parts of a text relate t o each other
-+ 3 4

collaborate

work with someone else t o complete a TASK -+ 1 0 2

col laborative writing

when students work together to complete a writing TASK -+ 5 8

col lective noun - see also NOUN

a noun which describes a group o f things/people, e.g. a rmy -+1 2

261

collocate, col location

the way in which words co-occur (are often found next to each other), e.g. juvenile

crinze,fast asleep -+1 8, 20, 37, 46, 8 2 , 87, 1 0 3, 1 07

colloquial

language used in everyday CONVERSATION that is INFORMAL -+ 31

colon

a punctuation mark used at the beginning of a list or before a definition or

explanation -+ 31

comma

a punctuation mark used to separate clauses and indicate a breathing space between
i deas -+1 5, 31, 57

commenting

when we say what we think about a student's work (but don't grade it) -+ 7 2

Common European Framework o f Reference for Languages - see CEFR

communication skills
communicative activity

the things we do which help us to communicate well -+1 0 8, 1 1 0

an activity which makes students communicate with each other (usually by speaking)
-+2 2, 26, 48, 49, 7 7

communicative approach

an approach which says that communication in the classroom is the most

important thing - and which also says that we should l earn language for
communication -+ 3 6

communicative language
teaching (CLT)

teaching which encourages students to communicate rather than just PRACTISING

certain LANGUAGE ITEMS and which teaches language for communication (e.g.
LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS) -+ 36, 3 9

communicative speaking activity

an activity which makes students use speaking to communicate, rather than just
PRACTISING different language items -+51 , 67, 73, 74

companion website

a WEBSITE wch supports a COURSE or COURSEBOOK-+ 8 1 , 87

comparative adjective -

Examples: cleverer, more expensive, better -+ 1 5

see a lso ADJECTIVE

complement

a word or phrase that follows a verb and describes the subject of the verb -+ 1

compound noun

a NOUN which is constructed from two other nouns, e.g. summertime, orange juice
-+12, 1 9, 2 6

compound word

any word that i s formed from two other words (whatever part o f speech they are),
e.g. fair-haired, good looking, proper noun -+ 1 9

comprehensible input

language which students are exposed to and which they understand (comprehend)
even if it is above their own production level -+ 3 5 5 4, 60, 65, 68, 7 7
,

comprehensible i nput provider

a TEACHER ROLE involving giving students COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT -+ 6 5

computer

a n electronic machine which stores information and allows u s to access the internet
and/or write programs/play games, etc. -+ 57, 62, 63, 9 9

concept checking

trying t o find out if the students have understood a concept -+ 6 9

concept question

the questions which we use fo r CONCEPT CHECKING -+ 69

concessive cla use

a CLAUSE that is introduced with a phrase like although, however, in spite of, etc. -+ 2

concordance, concordancer

a software program which allows us to get information about words in a language

CORPUS -+87

concrete thinking skills

conditional clause

when students process and order information in diagrams, etc. -+1 07

a clause which states a condition, often starts with if and occurs in a CONDITIONAL
SENTENCE -+ 2

conditional sentence

a sentence which contains a conditional clause and its consequence; see also
FIRST CONDITIONAL, SECOND CONDITIONAL, THIRD CONDITIONAL and ZERO CONDITIONAL -+ 2,
46, 1 0 3

conj unction

262

a word used to joi n words, phrases, clauses o r sentences -+1, 2, 3 2

connotation

the idea or feeling that a word suggests: more than

consensus

when ,.......
....,. ....
...
.. !>- ...
....
.. .>o..cll::=::::!i

consonant

a sound that we make when we stop (or nearly stop) the flow of air through the
mouth; in the alphabet, letters like b, c, d,f, g, etc. different from VOWEL -+ 1 3, 23

contact clause

also known as a REDUCED RELATIVE CLAUSE; see RELATIVE CLAUSE -+ 2

contact hours

the number of hours a teacher is in the classroom -+ 78

content

the SUBJECT or TOPIC of something - what i t is about -+ 36, 57, 72, 74, 81, 84, 1 02,
1 0 6, 1 0 9

content word

a word which has CONTENT meaning, e.g. dog, tree, unlike function words such as the
and of, which do not have content meaning -+ 26

content and language i ntegrated learning - see CUL

content-compatible language

language that is useful for a specific topic, but which is also common in everyday
English -+ 1 0 3, 1 1 0

content-obl igatory language

language that we have to use when we are talking about a specific TOPIC -+ 1 0 3, 1 06,
108

context

events, situations, circumstances, etc. which help us to understand something that

happens in them -+ 5

continuous assessment

when we assess students all the time during a course, perhaps using PORTFOLIOS
-+88 , 1 01

continuous verbs

verbs which use the continuous ASPECT (PRESENT CONTINUOUS, PAST CONTINUOUS,
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS, etc.) -+ 6

contraction, contracted form

when we shorten sentences and phrases and elide words, e.g He's talking. They 're
laughing. -+ 3, 25, 31

contrastive stress

when we change the place of the STRESS in a PHRASE or SENTENCE so that the focus of
what we want to say changes as a result -+ 2 6

controlled practice

when students are involved in repetition and CUE-RESPONSE drills using specific (and
restricted) language -+ 44, 48, 72

controller

a TEACHER ROLE when we (usually) stand at the front of the class telling all the
students what to do -+65, 67, 92

conversation

talking to and with other people -+ 84

conversational skills

the things we do to make CONVERSATION a success -+ 8 3

copybook

a book where (usually) children copy new words that they have learnt in class
-+ 9 9

corpus, corpora

a large computerised collection of language examples taken from books, films,

newspapers, etc. -+ 46, 87

correct, correction

when we show students that they have made a mistake and help them to say o r write
something without that mistake -+1 5, 36, 37, 3 9, 42, 46, 57, 65, 66, 72, 73,
75, 85, 8 8, 92

correcting written work

when we show students that they have made a mistake in their writing and help
them to rewrite it without that mistake -+ 72, 75

correction symbols

marks which teachers use to show that a writte MISTAKE has been made-+ 72 75

count noun - see COUNTABLE NOUN

countable noun - see also

UNCOUNTABLE NOUN
course

a noun that we can count, e.g. one apple, two apples; different from an UNCOUNTABLE
NOUN -+12, 1 3, 1 4, 1 7, 73
a period of study (say, ten weeks) which usually follows a particular SYLLABUS
-+ 8 0
263

coursebook

a textbook that a teacher can use to base a COURSE on "41, 6 0, 62, 65, 81, 83, 84,
85, 87, 9 0, 97, 1 02 , 1 0 6

coursebook dialogue

a conversation between two people in a COURSEBOOK '60, 81

cross-curricular

when students study TOPICS from different subject areas together, e.g. English and
geography '1 0 0

cue

the sign w e give when w e want our students to say something '47

cue-response drill

when we give the students a PROMPT to encourage them to respond by saying the
SENTENCES or QUESTIONS which we want them to practise '44, 47, 86

Cuisenai re rods

small pieces of wood of different lengths and colours which people use for language
teaching ' 86

cultural elements

parts of a lesson which include references to (other) CULTURES '1 09

cultural identity

the idea we have of which social, geographical, linguistic, etc. group we belong
to"1 0 9

culture

beliefs, way o f li fe, arts, etc. that the members o f a group share ' 1 02, 1 0 9

curriculum

the overall plan fo r a subject o r for a school - more general than a SYLLABUS '41 ,
8 0, 1 0 9

cyber homework

h omework which students d o ONLINE '8 1 , 87

cycle

a (usually) circular diagram to show a sequence of events ' 10 5

dashes

punctuation marks used to separate out extra ideas in a sentence '31, 1 0 3

data projector

a machine that projects what i s o n our computer screens '63, 8 5 , 1 0 6

D EA R

'drop eve1ything and read' " 54, 69, 9 8

debate

When students have to argue different points o f view (after they have prepared
their arguments) '52, 56, 68, 76

deep-end strategy

another name for TEST-TEACH-TEST "45

defining relative clause - see RELATIVE CLAUSE

264

definite a rticle

the '1 , 1 3, 1 5

defin ition

the explanation o f what something means (particularly i n a DICTIONARY) '8 2

demonstrate, demonstration

when w e show the students what w e want them to d o (instead o f just telling them)
"68, 69, 85, 86

demonstrative pronoun

the pronouns this, that, these and those '1 2

demotivated, demotivation

when students lose their enthusiasm fo r learning ' 71, 7 5

dental fricative consonant

the soW1ds /8/ and /(j/ ' 24

describe and draw

an ACTIVITY where one student has to tell another student what picture to draw
'SO, 69, 86, 96

developmental errors

the mistakes that most language learners make for a time as a result of the language
they are learning ' 37

developmental stages (in children)

the different things that children can do and understand at different ages as they
grow ' 35, 38, 91, 1 0 0

d iagnostic test

a test w e give students i n order to see what we should teach them next, and/or what
level they should study at; see also PLACEMENT TEST '8 8

d i alogue

(usually) two people talking together '30, 45, 60, 62, 67, 74, 83, 86, 9 8

d ictate, d ictation

when t h e teacher (or a student) says something and the students have t o write it
down exactly, word for word; see also RUNNING DICTATION, SHOUTED DICTATION "48,
51, 8 9, 9 9

dictionary

a book (or electronic device) that contains a list of words and their meanings together with examples and information about their PRONUNCIATION, PART OF SPEECH
and the PHRASES they occur in, etc. MONOLINGUAL DICTIONARIES only use one language.
MONOLINGUAL LEARNERS' DICTIONARIES (MLD) are written especially for language
learners and teachers. BILINGUAL DICTIONARIES have the same words i n two languages.
,1 7, 21, 23, 26, 46, 6 5, 82, 87, 1 0 6

dictogloss

a DICTATION-like activity where students try to reproduce a TEXT that the teacher has
read to them '48, 8 5, 9 9

differentiation

giving different learning TASKS to different i ndividual students '3 6, 40, 42, 43,
7 9, 81 , 83, 92, 1 0 9

di phthong

a sound made b y mixing two VOWEL sounds '23, 24

direct (language)

when people say exactly what they mean ' 3 0

direct method

a traditional method which uses only the TARGET LANGUAGE ' 7 7

d irect object

(in grammar) the tl1ing o r person that something is done to '1

direct speech

when we report the actual words tl1at someone said '1 0

direct test item

when we ask a n exam candidate to perform the actual skill that we are testing them
for; different from INDIRECT TEST ITEM ,89, 9 0

disappearing dialogue

when teachers gradually erase parts of a DIALOGUE a n d the students have t o try to
remember what is missing '62, 9 5

discipline

when teachers have discipline problems, it i s because students are n o t behaving wel l
,3 8 , 3 9, 42, 66, 68, 71, 92

discourse community

people who share a knowledge of language and GENRE '32

discourse marker - see LINKERS

discovery (activities, learning)

when students do tl1eir own language i nvestigation '1 7, 43, 45, 46

discussion

when people talk about sometl1in g (usually to make a decision) ' 51 , 52

discussion board

a place where people can have discussions ONLINE '87

distractors

the wrong answers in a MULTIPLE-CHOICE i tem '8 9

draft

the first (trial) version of a written text ,57

drama

anotl1er word for PLAY; when students act out a PLAY EXTRACT or a situation '64, 97

drill, drilling

when students have to repeat restricted items of language '3 6, 44, 47, 72

DVD

digital video/versatile disc ' 62, 8 1 , 8 5 , 1 0 6

dynamic verb - see ACTION VERB

eclecticism

using a variety of techniques instead of just following one method '3 6

edit

to m ake changes to a written DRAFT s o that i t i s better '57, 1 1 0

editor

when teachers (or students) make changes and corrections to written work;
a TEACHER ROLE , 57, 6 5

elementary students/level

students who are between BEGINNER a n d INTERMEDIATE levels; elementa1y is similar to

lower i ntermediate - about A2 in tl1e CEFR '1 7, 41 , 44, 49

elements of a sentence

tl1e things we use (SUBJECT, VERB, OBJECT, ADVERBIAL) to make sentences ,1

el icit

when teachers tiy to get the students to give them tl1e words, phrases, sentences, etc.
that they want '44, 68, 69

elision

when we leave out a sound because of the sound that is next '25, 28, 32

ellipsis

when we leave out words on purpose but we know the meaning will still be
understood '31, 33, 34

265

email

messages sent by COMPUTER, etc. ' 57, 58, 59

emerge, emergent language

language which the students start to understand or use when they are ready to do so,
and which is part of their language development ' 84

emoticon

a little picture/diagram showing if people are happy or sad, sometimes called a smiley
'31

engage, engagement - see a lso ESA

when students are emotionally involved, interested and motivated "' 36, 39, 5 5 ,
6 4 , 65, 71, 80, 8 1 , 8 3 , 8 4, 91, 9 2 , 1 07

English for academic purposes ( EAP)

when students study the English they need in order to attend an English-speaking
university, college, etc.; EAP is one kind of ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES ' 41

Engl ish for specific purposes (ESP)

when students study English for medicine, for physics, for tourism, etc. '41, 1 0 6

error

a formal word to describe MISTAKES and SLIPS '37, 8 5

ESA

ENGAGE, STUDY and ACTIVATE

eva luate, eva luation

when we make a judgement about how good something is "' 72, 99

event

a single thing that happens '4

evidence gatherer

a TEACHER ROLE when teachers listen to students to see what they are doing correctly
and incorrectly ' 6 5

exam practice book

a book to help students PRACTISE the things they need to be successful in a future
exam ' 83

exclamation mark

a punctuation mark used to show surprise, humour, etc. "' 29, 31

exercise

something (usually written) that we ask students to do to PRACTISE their English,

often for HOMEWORK , 83

exophoric reference

when we use PRONOUNS, etc, to refer to things outside the text itself; see also
ANAPHORIC REFERENCE and CATAPHORIC REFERENCE "' 3 4

experiment

when we try something out to see what will happen ' 86, 1 04

exposure (to language)

when we hear or see language being used "' 3 5

extensive l istening

when students listen for pleasure and for meaning rather than for STUDY; different
from INTENSIVE LISTENING ' 60, 62

extensive reading

when students read for pleasure and for meaning, rather than for STUDY; different
from INTENSIVE READING '43, 54, 70, 8 3 , 9 8

extrinsic motivation

MOTIVATION that comes from something outside the act of learning itself (such as a
desire for a better job); see also INTRINSIC MOTIVATION ,43

facial expression

when we show what we are feeling in our faces; some teachers use this for

- three elements of a teaching sequence ' 8 0

CORRECTION "' 73
facil itator (of learning)

someone who helps other people to learn by creating the appropriate conditions
,65

fa l l i ng tone - see a lso INTONATION

when the PITCH of the voice goes down in a TONIC SYLLABLE '27, 2 9

fa l l - rise tone - see a lso INTONATION

when tlle PITCH of the voice falls and then rises in a TONIC SYLLABLE ' 27, 29

false beginner - see a lso BEGINNER

a student who knows a little bit of English (but not much) ' 41

feed back

tl1e way that teachers react when students have said or written sometl1ing '1 4, 52,
65, 72 , 74, 1 07

feedback provider

field

what we are talking about (TOPIC) and why (purpose) "' 33

fill in - see a lso GAP FILL

when students have to write WORDS and PHRASES in BLANKS (in sentences, texts, etc.)

TEACHER ROLE involving giving FEEDBACK to students ' 6 5

' 6 2 , 1 01 , 1 1 0

Glossdex

film clip - see also VIDEO CLIP

a (usually) short extract from a film -+ 53, 62, 64

final assessment

when students are tested at the end of a semester, year or course -+ 59

find the sim ilarities/differences

an INFORMATION-GAP activity where students compare pictures (but they cannot both
see both pictures) -+SO, 1 01

find someone who ...

a mingling activity to practise speaking - and which can be use to practise specific
language -+ 49, 68

first conditional

Example: Ifit rains, you will get wet. If they don 't leave soon they will be late. -+2 , 49

fixed lexical p hrase - see LEXICAL PHRASE

flashcard

a CARD which we can show to the class as a CUE, etc. -+ 86

flipchart

a board which has large pieces of paper on i t that can be used to write on and which
can be torn off to keep -+ 85

flow diagram

a diagram which shows the process or direction of something, or the relationships

between things -+ 1 0 5

fluency

the ability to speak i n reasonably long PHRASES, at a reasonable speed and without
pausing i n the middle of LEXICAL CHUNKS -+ 37, 73

follow-up question

a related question we can ask after someone has answered our first question -+ 7 2

fol low-up task

an additional task after students have completed a reading o r listening task -+ 42, 5 6

form, language form

the grammatical a n d PHONEMIC way that we express a language item -+ 36, 4 4

formal debate - see DEBATE

formal language

the language w e use in serious, important or official situations -+1 4, 30, 33, 8 2 , 1 04

formal operational stage

the stage at which children can start to think in abstract terms, accordi n g to Piaget
-+91 , 95

formative assessment

when we use assessment in order to help students (after the assessment) to improve
-+88, 1 01 , 1 1 0

fossilised, fossil isation

when a mistake becomes part of a student's language and won't go away -+ 37

frequency - see also LOW FREQUENCY

the frequency of a word or phrase refers to how often people use it -+18, 82

frequency adverb - see also ADVERB

an ADVERB that says how often something happens -+1 1 , 46

fricative

the sound of a CONSONANT caused by the friction of air benveen two parts of the
mouth -+ 24

ful l stop

the punctuation mark we put at the end of a sentence (called a PERIOD in American
English) -+ 29, 31, 5 7

full verb - see LEXICAL VERB

function - see LANGUAGE FUNCTION
functional syllabus

a SYLLABUS that is a list of LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS -+8 0

future

the time after now -+5, 45

future perfect

Examples I will have been here for three years; She will have been learning English for six
months. -+ 6

game

a competitive and enjoyable ACTIVITY to help language learning -+ 7, 49, 51 , 70, 8 3 ,

93, 95

g a p fi l l - see also FILL IN

an INDIRECT TEST ITEM or exercise where students have to fill blanks with words or
phrases -+ 8 9

general adjective - see also ADJECTIVE

an adjective that describes a general quality, e.g. big, old, etc. -+1 5

general Engl ish

English studied for n o special reason at schools, language institutes, etc. -+ 22, 41,
1 0 4, 1 0 6, 1 0 8
267

gen re

a particular type of writing or speaking (e.g. a letter, an advertisement, a lecture);

see also SUB-GENRE -+32, 5 5 , 59, 60, 1 04, 1 07

gen re analysis

when we study how and why a text in a certain genre has been written or spoken
-+ 59, 1 04

gerund

the

gesture

a movement of the arms and hands which expresses meaning -+ 3 0, 45, 47, 7 3

gist

the general (not detail ed) meaning o f something -+39, 5 4 , 5 5 , 6 0

-ing form used

l i ke a NOUN , e.g. Jogging can

he goodfor you.

-+ 1 6

giving i nstructions - see IN STRUCTIONS

268

goa l

something that we want to achieve, something that we are ai ming for; see
SHORT-TERM GOAL, LONG-TERM GOAL -+ 43, 6 6 , 7 1

going to future

Example:

good learner

a student who studies well -+ 40

grade

the mark, such as A, B, 70% , 50% , etc., that teachers give when they mark student
TESTS and HOMEWORK -+ 70, 76, 8 7, 8 8 , 90

graded reader

books written at different levels to suit the level of different students; used for
EXTENSIVE READING -+54, 62, 8 3

grammar

the way i n which WORDS change their forms a n d combine to make SENTENCES - and
for which there are rules -+1 -1 7, 3 5 , 3 7, 79, 81, 95, 1 09

grammar book

a book with explanations about GRAMMAR -+46, 6 5

grammar syllabus

a sequence of grammar items i n the order that w e want students t o learn them
-+ 8 0, 1 0 6 .

grammar-translation

a teaching method where students study grammar and translate from English to
their HOME LANGUAGE and vice-versa -+ 3 6 , 7 7

group, groupwork

when >ve divide the class s o that about 3-7 students work together t o complete a
TASK -+2 2 , 26, 3 9, 42, 46, 53, 5 6 , 63, 6 6 , 67, 7 1 , 74, 7 9, 8 9, 92, 93, 97, 1 01 ,
1 02, 1 07, 1 09

haiku

a type of poem with 1 7 syllables which connects emotions and the natural world
-+ 3 2 , 63

half chorus

when we divide the class in half for CHORAL REPETITION with each half saying, for
example, alternate lines of a dialogue -+47

hard C U L

when everything that the students do is organised for CONTENT AND LANGUAGE
INTEGRATED I NSTRUCTION (CLIL) ; see also SOFT CLIL -+1 02

hard pa late

the place at the top (and i n the middle) of your mouth -+ 24

headword

a WORD that has its own meaning explained in a dictionary -+ 82

h igher-order thinking skills (HOTS)

the skills students need (e.g. in CLIL lessons) i n order to answer questions about why
and how something is happening and what they think about i t; different from LOTS
-+1 07, 1 0 8

home language

the language that people use at home; also called MOTHER TONGUE and
students' first language -+ 2 8 , 41, 77, 92

homework

tasks and exercises that teachers ask students to do at home -+ 42, 43, 54, 66, 75,
76, 78, 87

homework record

when teachers and students keep a l ist of what HOMEWORK the students h ave to do
and have done -+ 76

homonym

a word that has the same spelling (and the same sound) as another word, but has a
different meaning, e.g. dear (= expensive) and dear (= a greeting) -+1 8

hot seat, the

when the class focus their questions on one student -+ 51 , 1 07

I am going to see my friend tomorrow. -+ 5,

1 01

Ll

the

Glossdex

hyphen

a small l ine which joins two words, e.g good-looleing '1 2, 1 5, 31

hyponym

a word which is a specific type (pa rt) of a l arger (SUPERORDINATE) category, e .g. dog,
and hamster are hyponyms of the word pet ' 1 8

hypothesise

when we make an educated guess about something '1 04

hypothetical

something that is not real, but which might happen (or might have happened) ' 2

cat

icebreaker - see WARMER

idiom, id iomatic

an idiom is a phrase that h as a meaning which is different from the meaning of the
individual words i n it, e.g. full ofbeans = energetic, enthusiastic '4, 9, 1 8, 21, 8 2

i mperative

the BASE FORM o f the verb used for commands, e.g.

indefinite a rticle

a (or an) 'l , 1 3, 1 4

indirect object

the person or thing that is involved i n the result of a n action 'l

indirect speech

when we tell someone what someone else said but we don't use their exact words,
e.g. She said she was happy; also called REPORTED SPEECH ' 1 0

indirect test item

a test i tem which tests grammar, vocabulary, etc., b ut doesn't ask the students to use
the l anguage realistically; see DIRECT TEST ITEM ,89, 9 0

i ndividual repetition

when w e ask the students to repeat something one by one '47

i nd ividual work

when students work alone ' 6 0, 1 09

i nfinitive

the base form of the verb, used in verb constructions like I'm going to
1 0, 4 0

i nflection

t h e way WORDS change their forms using different MORPHEMES, AFFIXES, etc. '1 9

i nformal language

language used in relaxed or friendly situations '3 , 8, 1 8 , 3 0 , 3 1 , 33, 8 2

i nformal assessment

when w e test students casually o r informally ' 8 8

i nformation-gap activity

a n activity where two o r more students have different information about the same
topic; they have to share the information to 'close the gap' '1 7, 42, 48, 50, 5 5 ,
63, 68, 86, 89, 1 01

information technology

any technology that we use to get or give information ' 81

inner voice

the voice we hear (and use) silently in our own heads '51

input hypothesis, the

Stephen Krashen's theory of language ACQUISITION ' 35

inseparable phrasal verb

a phrasal verb where we can't put anything between the VERB and the PARTICLE ' 9

Be quiet! '4

travel '4,

5,

instructional scaffolding - see SCAFFOLDI NG

instructions

the commands we give to students, such as Work in pairs, or Open your books at
page 63; see also CHECKING INSTRUCTIONS ' 41 , 65, 68, 69, 92

instrumental motivation

MOTIVATION that comes from a desire to achieve something speci fic, such as learning
to do something because we think it will help us get a better job '43

integrative motivation

MOTIVATION to l earn a language because we l i ke or want to be part of a TARGET

LANGUAGE community ,43

i ntegrative test item

a test item which mixes different LANGUAGE SKILLS and different language items ' 8 8

i ntelligibil ity

when people can understand us (even if w e don't have 'perfect' pronunciation) ' 37

intensive listeni ng

when students listen to a RECORDED LISTENING or LIVE LISTENING mostly for language and
meaning study; different from EXTENSIVE LISTENING , 6 0

i ntensive readi ng

when students read a (usually) short text, mostly fo r l anguage a n d meaning study;
different from EXTENSIVE READING ,5 4

interaction

when two o r more people work together in class, usually by talking t o each other
about what they are doing ,79
269

interactive whiteboard (IWB)

a board which is connected to a COMPUTER so that we can play AUDIO, show VIDEO,
display pictures, etc. -+1 6, 6 0 , 6 2 , 8 5 , 9 6, 1 0 5 , 1 0 6

i ntercultural understanding

when we compare (and try to understand) what people i n our own culture do with
what people from other cultures do -+99

i nterference error

a mistake that learners make because they try to use their L l grammar and
vocabulary i n their L2 -+ 37

interlanguage

a language learner's own 'version' of the language they are learning (because they
have not mastered it yet) -+ 37

i ntermediate (level)

the stage between ELEMENTARY and ADVANCED levels, equivalent to CEFR l evels B l -2 ;
see also PRE-INTERMEDIATE, LOWER-INTERMEDIATE, UPPER-INTERMEDIATE -+1 7, 2 9, 41 , 44,
46, 5 6 , 59

internet

the system which allows computers and mobile devices to 'talk' to each other -+ 3 ,
1 6, 46, 53, 57, 8 6, 1 0 6

i nterview

when one or more peopl e ask someone questions, often to see if they can have a job
or because they want to know more about their life -+49, 51, 53, 5 6, 64, 87, 89

i ntonation

the changes i n pitch i n someone's voice when they speak -+3 , 1 1 , 26, 27, 2 9, 3 0 ,
3 1 , 37, 4 5 , 4 6 , 7 2 , 7 3

i ntranet

a computer network fo r a selected group o f people (i.e. n o t available t o everyone);

different from INTERNET -+59

i ntransitive verb - see a lso

a verb that doesn't have or take an object -+4, 6

TRANSITIVE VERB
intrinsic motivation

MOTIVATION yvhich comes from the act of learning itself - and a desire to complete a
learning task -+43

inverted commas

the punctuation marks we use to show direct speech; also called quotation marks
-+31, 57

irregular verb - see also REGULAR VERB

a verb which doesn't use the -ed ending for the PAST TENSE or past participle -+4, 6

isolate, isolation

to get students to focus on a detail of a language MODEL -+44

IWB - see INTERACTIVE WHITEBOARD

j igsaw l i steni ng

when students hear different (separate) bits of a listening TEXT and have to tell each
other about their extracts in order to understand the whole 'story' -+ 6 0

j igsaw reading

the same as JIGSAW LISTENING, but done with different bits o f a reading TEXT -+50, 55, 77

journal, writing jou rna l

a place, sometimes a notebook, where students (or teachers) can write about things
that they care about -+59, 90, 9 9

j u mbled sentences

when sentences are a l l mixed u p and students have to put them i n a COHERENT
sequence -+1 , 89

juncture

the join between two PHONEMES; the juncture between I scream and
slightly different and we can usually tell the difference -+ 2 5

kinaesthetic activity

an activity involving physical movement -+4

kinaesthetic learner

a student who learns best through movement and tactile sensation -+9 2

see a lso MOTHER TONGUE,

HOME LANGUAGE

the l anguage that children acquire at home; many children have more than one
-+8, 41 , 54, 77, 1 07

labio-dental fricative consonant

the sounds /f/ and /v/ -+24, 2 5

language acquisition

picking up a language without consciously learning i t -+35, 6 0

L1

ice cream is very

Ll

language corpus - see CORPUS

la nguage exponent

270

a PHRASE o r sentence that we ask students t o learn o r STUDY because it demonstrates

the construction of a piece of language -+ 30, 7 9, 1 0 9

Glossdex

language function

language which does something, such as agreeing, offering, requesting suggesting,

etc. -+30, 3 5, 3 7, 8 0 , 1 03 , 1 04, 1 09, 1 1 0

language laboratory

a room where a group o f students work with AUDIO DEVICES to (mostly) listen to and
repeat language; very popular from about 1 950- 1 990 -+6 0

language level

We talk about students who have reached the advanced level o r the intermediate
level. We can also use CEFR (COMMON EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK OF REFERENCE) descriptions
to say how good someone's l anguage is. -+35, 41

language practice book

a book with exercises to practise grammar and vocabulary, etc. -+8 3

language skill(s)

w e generally talk about the four language skills; reading, writing, listening and
speaking; we can also talk about SUB-SKILLS -+40, 7 9, 8 0, 8 1 , 8 3

large classes

classes with more than 3 0 students - sometimes as many as 1 50 or 2 00 -+41 , 4 2

lateral consonant

the sound Ill -+ 24

learner autonomy

when students make decisions about their own learning -+9, 40, 41 , 43, 67, 76

lea rner characteristics

the identities that individual learners have which make them behave in the way they
do -+40, 4 2 , 8 3

learner la nguage profile (LLP)

a description o f a student, saying how good they are at different areas of the
language -+1 01 , 1 1 0

learner training

teaching students to identify and use techniques which will help them to be better
learners -+3 9, 40, 42, 43

learner/learning styles

the way that different individuals like to learn and/or learn successfully -+4 0, 76,
81, 92

learning

picking up a language by consciously studying it; different from subconscious

ACQUISITION -+35, 3 6 , 3 9, 6 0

learn ing platform - see ONLINE LEARNING PLATFORM

lesson

a period of, for example, 45 minutes, an hour or 7 5 minutes i n which students study
a specific subject -+ 79, 1 00

lesson outcome - see OUTCOME

lesson plan - see PLANNING
lesson shape

how the beginning, middle and ends of lessons are put together by the teacher -+80

lesson stage - see STAGE (OF A LESSON)

level - see LANGUAGE LEVEL
level of challenge

how difficult a TASK will be for the students to accomplish -+43

lexical approach

the i dea that we should focus on VOCABULARY ( LEXICAL PH RASES, etc.) more than
GRAMMAR in our teaching -+45

lexical chunk - see LEXICAL PHRASE

-+9, 1 8 , 20, 30

lexical cohesion

the use of a 'string' of words to help people understand a text -+ 34

lexical field - see SEMANTIC FIELD

lexical phrase

a collection of words which are often found together and have a particular
meaning, e.g. break a leg (said to an actor = have a successful performance), see you
later; break a leg i s a fixed lexical phrase (we can't change any of the words); see you
later i s a semi-fixed lexical phrase (we can also say catch you later) -+1 8, 20, 2 1 , 3 0,
37, 4 5 , 8 0

lexical verb

a verb which has a main meaning (different from a n AUXILIARY verb) -+4, 8 , 1 1

line graph

a style o f chart that i s created b y connecting a series of data points together with a
line -+1 0 5

271

linkers

discourse markers which connect sentences and phrases '34, 8 0

linking sound

when we put a new sow1d between two vowels to make the change from the first to
the second easier, e.g. /j/ in /ai:jcem/ = I anz ' 2 5

l inking verb

a verb (be, get,feel, seenz, etc.) which l inks a SUBJECT with a COMPLEMENT '4

l istening for general u nderstanding

when we listen for general (not detailed) ideas ' 6 0

listening for specific information

when we listen because we only want to w1derstand certain details ' 2 6, 6 0

l iterary

concerned with literature o r wTitten i n a style corrunonly found in literature ' 3 3

l ive listening

when w e l isten t o someone who is there i n front o f u s (different from RECORDED

LISTENING) ,60, 61

l ive streaming

when an event is broadcast over the INTERNET as it is happening ' 87

l ong-term goal

what we want to achieve after a long time; opposite of SHORT-TERM GOAL ' 8 0

LOTE

languages other than English '1 02

low frequency

when a word is not used very often by speakers of the language ' 33

lower-intermediate

the stage that students reach after the ELEMENTARY level and before they are at the
UPPER-INTERMEDIATE level; equivalent to CEFR l evel B l '1 7, 3 6 , 41 , 49

lower-order thinking skills (LOTS)

the skills students need (e.g. in CUL lessons) in order to answer simple questions or
just classify information; different from HOTS '1 07, 1 0 8

lyrics - see SONG LYRICS

magic moment

when something good happens in a lesson (such a s a student story o r discussion)

which mea1s we have to adjust or change our LESSON PLAN ' 5 2 , 70, 79, 84, 1 0 9

main clause

a clause with a SUBJECT and a VERB that can exist on its own (without another clause)
'2

main stress - see a lso STRESS

the syllable which makes the loudest, strongest noise in a word or phrase ' 2 3 , 2 6

main verb - see LEXICAL VERB

mandatory participation

activities where all the students have to take part, like it o r not ' 67

match, matchi ng activities

activities where students work out which bits of something are connected to other
bits of the same thing '48, 70, 8 6 , 8 9, 9 8 , 1 1 0

materials-free teaching

when teachers d o not use books, recorded listening, etc. i n their lessons '8 1 , 84

metacognitive skills

ways of thinking which help us to become better at l earning '1 02

metaphor

when we describe something as if it were something else, e.g. his legs turned tojelly
(= he was nervous) '21, 65, 79, 80, 1 0 9

Ml - see MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

mid vowel

the vowels le!, la!, h i and /J:/ '24

mime

when people show meaning or tell a story silently, using only gesture, facial
expression and actions '44, 45, 6 2 , 64, 9 5 , 9 6

mine texts

when w e get students t o look a t texts and extract any language tl1at we/they think
might be useful to study '4 6 , 54, 5 6

minimal pair

two words where only one sonnd i s different, e.g hot and hat '2 8

mistake

when students say or write something which i s not correct; see also ATTEMPT,
DEVELOPMENTAL ERROR, INTERFERENCE ERROR, SLIP ' 37, 57, 6 2 , 7 5

mixed-ability class

a class with students at different language levels '42, 8 3

mixed conditional - see a lso

a conditional sentence which uses a variety of VERB TENSES '2

CONDITIONAL
M L D - see MONOLINGUAL LEARNERS' DICTIONARY

272

Glosaex

mobile device

any electronic device (such as a SMARTPHONE or TABLET COMPUTER) which can be

carried around easily -+ 5 7, 62, 76, 82, 8 5 , 86, 87

mobile phone

a phone that does not need cables a n d can be carried around wherever w e go -+ 76

mock exam

when students take an exam which is exactly like the real exam but is just done fo r
practice -+8 9

modal auxiliary verb

the auxiliary verbs can/could, 711ay, 7llight, will/would, shall/should, must which tell us
about the speaker's attitude, degree of certainty, etc. -+4, 5 , 8, 1 0, 5 6, 1 03, 1 04

mode

a word to describe the type/means of communication (EMAIL, letter, TWEET, etc.)

-+3 3
model

monitor

when teachers say o r write something clearly s o that students can repeat it, they
model it and we call it a language model; see also BACK CHAINING -+44, 47, 1 04, 1 07

(1) to watch and guide what our students are doing in GROUPWORK, PAIRWORK, etc.

-+ 6 5
(2) to try to evaluate what we ourselves are saying to see if it is correct -+ 3 5
speak only one language -+ 3 5 , 7 7

monolingual

able

monolingual dictionary

a DICTIONARY written only in one language -+82

monolingual learners'
dictionary ( MLD)

a dictionary for students written only in the TARGET LANGUAGE -+8 2

monologue

speech where only one person i s talking -+33, 60

Moodie

an ONLINE LEARNING PLATFORM -+66/ 7 6/ 87

morpheme

to

the smallest unit of grammatical meaning, e.g. the PAST TENSE -ed ending, the PLURAL
ending -+41 6, 1 91 2 81 441 9 8

-s

mother tongue - see HOME LANGUAGE, L1

motivation, motivate

a desire to do something; see also EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION, INTRINSIC MOTIVATION,

INSTRUMENTAL MOTIVATION, INTEGRATIVE MOTIVATION -+40, 43, 64, 6 61 74, 80, 8 1 , 8 9

multilingual

when people are multilingual they speak three or more languages -+ 7 7

multiple-choice (questions)

when students are asked to choose between answers marked a , b , c, d -+ 55 , 89, 9 0

multiple i ntelligences ( M l )

Howard Gardner's theory that everyone has a number of intelligences (linguistic,

musical, kinaestl1etic, etc.) and that the strength of each one is different in different
people -+40

multi-syllabus

a syllabus which includes GRAMMAR, VOCABULARY, language skills, LEARNER TRAINING,

etc. -+8 0

multi-word verb - see a lso

a verb which has more than one word, e.g. get up, run out of-+4, 9

PHRASAL VERB
mumble

when we encourage students to speak (try things out) in a low voice -+47, 63

music

sounds made by voices or instruments to give pleasure, excite, provoke, etc.

-+ 58 , 64

nasal cavity

the space i nside the nose -+ 24

nasal consonant

the sounds /ml, /n/ and /fJ/ -+ 24

native speaker

someone who speaks a language as their HOME LANGUAGE or Ll -+13, 2 5 , 82

native speaker teacher

someone who is teaching their MOTHER TONGUE -+13, 7 7

needs analysis

a n attempt to find out what students need their English for (using questionnaires,
i nterviews, etc.) -+41

negative sentence

a sentence which is saying 'no' about something; the opposite of an AFFIRMATIVE

SENTENCE -+3, 1 4

273

neuro-lingu istic progra m m ing

a model for management training which shows how people experience things
(and succeed) differently -+40

neutra l ( l i ps)

when our lips are not ROUNDED or STRETCHED

neutral language

language which is not especially FORMAL or INFORMAL

news broadcast

when people give the news on radio or television

-+ 24
-+30, 33

-+61 , 6 2

NLP - see NEURO-LINGUISTIC PROGRAMMING

nominate, nomi nation

when a teacher selects which student(s) should speak or do sometl1ing

-+47

non-count noun - see UNCOUNTABLE NOUN

non-defi ning relative clause - see RELATIVE CLAUSE
notice, noticing

when we notice new language, we start to recognise what i t looks like or sounds l ike

-+35
noughts and crosses
noun

a game where students se]ect d i fferent squares for question-answering; a l s o called

TIC-TAC-TOE -+ 2 3

a word (or group of words) that is the name of a person, place, thing, activity, quality
or idea; nouns can be used as the subject or object of a verb; see also COLLECTIVE NOUN,

COMPOUND NOUN, COUNTABLE NOUN, NOUN PHRASE, PLURAL NOUN -+1 , 1 2, 1 4, 1 5, 1 6, 1 7,

1 8 , 1 9 , 2 6, 6 2 , 8 2
noun phrase

a phrase i n which every part refers to a noun, e.g.

the enthusiastic young man carrying

an electric guitar -+1 , 17, 46

object

(in grammar) the thjng (or person) that something i s done to

object pronoun - see a lso PRONOUN

a PRONOUN such as

object q u estion

a question which asks about an OBJECT, e.g.

me, it, them which

is the OBJECT of a VERB

-+1, 9

-+ 1 2

What did Shakespeare write? see

also

SUBJECT QUESTION ..+ 3

objective (grading)

when we mark an exercise or a test and our own feel i ngs and judgements are not
involved; opposite of SUBJECTIVE

observation

-+8 9

when teachers are watched by tl1eir colleagues or by their director of studies, etc.

-+78
offer

when someone volunteers to do sometlllng for someone else, e.g.

Would you like a

coffee? Shall I open the window? -+14

omit coursebook material

to make a decision not to use part o f a COURSEBOOK

one-to-one classes

classes where the teacher is teaching only one student

on line

-+41

TEXTS, exercises, DICTIONARIES, ONLINE LEARNING PLATFORMS, etc. available on/through

tl1e INTERNET

online learning platform

-+81

-+5 9 , 78, 81, 8 2 , 87, 1 05

a place on the INTERNET where students can learn with readings, DISCUSSION BOARDS,
qwzzes, and so on; see also VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

open-book exam

when students can take books (such a s dictionaries) into a n exam to help them
answer the questions

open (ended) question

-+1 1 0

a question which can have many different answers, e.g.

The opposite of a CLOSED QUESTION

open information-gap activity

Why are you feeling sad?

-+3 , 1 07

an INFORMATION-GAP activity which is designed so that the students use

l anguage

274

-+5 9 , 76, 99, 1 0 9, 1 1 0

variety of

-+50
-+ 24

open vowel

the vowels /re/, lt.J, la:/ a n d /o/

operational stage

when children start to be able to understand and work witli abstract concepts

ora l presentation

when a student explains something i n a (probably short) speech

85, 87, 8 9 , 9 0

-+1 07

-+53, 65, 74, 76,

Glossdex

organiser

a TEACHER ROLE when we explain what students have to do and then act to make it
happen '65

outcome

what we hope the students will achieve/be able to do at the end of a TASK, LESSON or
LESSON STAGE

,3 9 , 7 9 , 80, 83, 1 0 9

over-genera lisation

when a learner thinks a rule is more important than it is and applies it to too many
things, e.g. geekr, s-heeps '3 7

overhead projector (O H P)

a machine for projecting images '63, 85

overhead transparency (OHT)

a transparent sheet that we can draw on (or photocopy onto), which can then be put
on an OVERHEAD PROJECTOR '85

overlay

a sheet of paper (or a transparency) that we can put over a TEST paper and which tells
us what the answers are ' 9 0

pair, pairwork

when two students work together '22, 2 6, 3 9 , 4 2 , 4 6, 56, 58, 67, 7 9 , 86, 8 9 ,

pa late-alveolar affricate

the CONSONANT sounds /tJ/ and /d3/ '24

pa lato-alveolar fricative

the CONSONANT sounds /.f/ and /3/ '2 4

paragraph construction

the way that people make paragraphs - often starting with a topic sentence to
introduce the paragraph '75

part o f speech

the grammatical category of a particular word, e.g. NOUN, VERB, SUBJECT, OBJECT, etc.

9 3, 1 02, 1 07, 1 0 9

,,, 8 2

participant

partici ple

( 1 ) people taking part in a CONVERSATION ' 3 3

(2) when teachers take part i n a n activity a s i f they themselves were students '5 2
a VERB form that ends i n -ing or -ed and can be used to make ADJECTIVES, e.g. boring,

bored '1 0, 1 5, 1 6
particip l e phrase

a phrase with a participle in it '1 6

passive voice - see also ACTIVE VOICE

VVhen we put the elements of a sentence in the order object + verb + (by) subject
(e.g. Hamlet was written by Shakespeare), we call it the passive voice. ,1 , 7, 32, 1 03

past

the time before now ,5

past (tense)

a VERB form (e.g. walked - PAST SIMPLE, was walleing - PAST CONTINUOUS, had walked PAST PERFECT) which we use to talk about a time in the past ,5, 28, 33, 3 4 , 4 6, 1 03

past continuous

Examples: I was eating. They were talking. ,6, 7, 80

past participle

the BASE FORM of a VERB with the addition of the -ed MORPHEME (e.g. walk - walked,

save - saved) ,6, 1 6, 3 7

past perfect

the AUXILIARY VERB had plus a PAST PARTICI PLE (e.g. he had studied, they had nm) '2 ,
6, 8 0

past simple

made by adding the -ed morpheme to the base fmm of the VERB (e.g. he walked,
they swanz, she won) , 6, 80

past tense ending

-ed for

peer

people who have equal status; classmates ,3 9

peer approval

when our peers like what we do or have done '37

peer eva l uation

when (one of) our peers says if our work has been good or not ' 9 0

peer observation

when two teachers who have equal status watch each other's lessons '2 0, 78

peer review

when one or more of our peers check our writing or speaking and make suggestions
for improvement '57

perfect (verbs)

verbs referring to a time in the past which is still important in the time that the
people are talking about '6

REGULAR VERBS '3 7

275

period

American English for the punctuation mark at the end of a sentence - called a FULL
STOP in British English '57

personal aims

what the teacher hopes to achieve or understand i n a lesson (and which they put in
their LESSON PLAN) '79

personal pronoun - see also PRONOUN

a PRONOUN such as I, you, he, she, it, us, they which refers to a person or people '1 2

personalisation

when students use l anguage to talk about themselves and things which interest
them '39, 44, 8 4

phoneme

an individual unique sound '2 3

phonemic a lphabet

an alphabet used to represent individual sounds; different from the written (A, B, C)
alphabet '2 3

phonemic chart

a diagram which shows all the PHONEMES, and which we can use for teaching ' 2 3

phonemic script

the PHONEMIC ALPHABET, e.g. photograph is /fautdgr<Efl in phonemic script ' 2 3 , 8 2

phonemic transcription

when we write down speech in PHONEMIC SCRIPT (instead of the written alphabet) '23

phrasal verb - see a lso

MULTI-WORD VERB

a MULTI-WORD VERB with METAPHORICAL/I DIOMATIC meaning; phrasal verbs can be

TRANSITIVE or I NTRANSITIVE ,4, 9, 1 0, 2 0, 2 1 , 70, 76, 82, 84

ph rase

more than a word, less than a SENTENCE '1 5, 1 6, 2 6 , 64, 74, 82, 1 02

picture

shapes, lines, colours, etc. to show what something or somebody looks like '45,
50, 51, 53, 55, 5 8 , 61, 69, 84, 85, 86, 87, 93, 9 5 , 9 6 , 97, 9 8

p i e chart

a chart which shows percentages, etc. in a circular shape - like slices in a pie '1 0 5

pilot

to try something out with one class before we use it with all our classes '8 1 , 8 8

pitch

the pitch of the voice describes whether it is a high or a low tone '2 6, 27

placement test

when we test students in order to decide what level they should study at; see also
DIAGNOSTIC TEST '8 8

planning

when we make decisions about what we are going to do in a lesson before the lesson
'43, 70, 79, 80, 84, 88, 1 0 0, 1 03

planning C U L

when we make decisions about what we are going to do in a CLIL lesson before the
lesson '1 0 2

planning stage

the stage in the WRITING PROCESS where we think about what we are going to write
'57

plateau effect

when students, often at about the INTERMEDIATE level, think that they are not making
any progress and so feel DEMOTIVATED '41

play

a piece of writing designed to be acted out in a theatre '6 4

play extract

a part of a play '6 4

p layacting

when we act things out for fun ,97

p lenary session

when everyone is listening/paying attention to the same thing, all together '1 07,
1 09

plosive

when the air from the lungs forces two parts of the mouth apart in a mini-explosion
we call the result a plosive consonant (e.g. !pi in problem or /d/ in dog) '24

plura l

more than one of something '1 2

podcast

a recorded listening which can be downloaded from the internet on a regular basis
'43, 60, 62, 87

276

poem

a style of writing which expresses feelings and emotions, often in a few short lines;
the ends of each line may rhyme '63, 76, 86, 99, 1 0 0, 1 0 8

poetry

a NOUN to describe poems iJ1 general '2 8, 59, 63, 9 9

Glossdex

poetry activity

an activity which uses poems -+ 2 6, 5 8

poetry frame

outlines of poems given to students; they complete tl1e different lines -+ 6 3

poetry reordering activity

when we give students different lines from a poem and they have to work out what
order they go in -+ 6 3 , 70

polite

respectful, not rude -+ 33

portfolio

a collection of a student's work -+ 5 9, 76, 99

portfolio assessment

when we give students a GRADE after looking at their PORTFOLIO -+88 , 1 01 , 1 1 0

possessive adjective

m:y, your, his, her, its, our and their are ADJECTIVES which modify NOUNS '1 2

possessive pronoun

mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs and whose are pronouns which occur in sentences
like It's mine, the cat's theirs -+12, 45

possible solutions

when, i n PLANNING, we think of how we might solve certain problems ' 79

poster presentation

when we make a poster witl1 our ideas and then stand in front of i t and explain it to
people -+ 53

PPP

a teaching procedure with three stages: PRESENTATION, PRACTICE and PRODUCTION -+ 3 6 ,

39, 41 , 44, 45, 80, 81

practice activities

activities which are designed to get smdents to PRACTISE (usually) specific items of
language ' 48, 51

practice/practise

when students get chances to repeat and use (usually) specific items of language;
also the second stage of the PPP procedure '4 8 - 5 0, 8 3

praise

telling someone that their actions, appearance, etc. are good '1 4, 42, 66, 72, 91, 92

pre-intermediate - see INTERMEDIATE

'41

predict, prediction

when students try to guess what they will see or hear before they see or hear it
'55, 61, 63, 85

prefix - see a lso AFFIX

a MORPHEME added to the beginning of a ROOT WORD, e.g.

possible - impossible) -+19, 2 6

happy - unhappy,

'l 9,

preposition

a word used before a NOUN, PRONOUN, etc. to show place, time, direction, etc.
1 5, 1 6, 1 7, 1 04

preposition of movement

a preposition which shows the direction of something/someone -+ 45

prepositional phrase

a phrase which starts with a PREPOSITION ,1 , 1 6, 5 6

present

now ' 5

present continuous

Examples:

present participle

made by adding the -ing MORPHEME to the BASE FORM of a VERB (e.g. walk - walking,
sail - sailing); see also GERUND -+4, 6, 1 6, 37

present perfect simple

Examples:

She hasfinished. They have just arrived. '6, 7, 35, 49

present perfect continuous

Examples:

She has been 57.vinnning. We have been worleing. ,6, 7

I mn eating. They are sleeping. , 5, 1 0 3

present progressive - see PRESENT CONTINUOUS

present simple

Examples: He works in a factory. We live in Buenos Aires. , 5, 6, 1 0, 28, 45, 1 01 , 1 02,

1 03, 1 04

presentation, presentation software

explaining concepts, often using software programs such as PowerPoint, Keynote,

Prezi, etc. to show images or play AUDIO or VIDEO to give examples of what we are
saying , 2 6, 53, 87, 1 0 5, 1 0 6

presentation, practice and production - see PPP

pre-teach vocabulary

when we teach/explain the meaning of vocabulary that students will find in a text
before they read it or listen to it ' 61

277

procedu re

a description (in lesson planning) of what we do and i n what order 7 79

process writing

an approach to teaching Titing which focuses on the WRITING PROCESS as much as on

the final product 7 72, 8 9

production

the third stage of the PPP cycle, when students try to make their own sentences using
new l anguage 73 9

production dictionary

a dictionary, like a THESAURUS, which helps u s choose which words to use 7 8 2

proficiency test

a test (often a PUBLIC EXAM) to see i f students have reached a certain LEVEL 7 8 8,
8 9, 1 01

progress test

when we give students a test during a term or semester to see whether they have
learnt what they have been studying in the last week or month, etc. 7 8 8

p ro m pt card

a card which ha s words or pictures to suggest what students should do o r say 7 5 2

p ro m pter

a TEACHER ROLE i nvolving suggesting what a student should do or say 7 52 , 6 5

pronou n

a word that is used in place of a noun or noun phrase; see also OBJECT PRONOUN,
SUBJECT PRONOUN, REFLEXIVE PRONOUN 71 , 1 2, 1 4

pronunciation

the way that people make and use the sounds of a language 7 23-29, 37, 62,
79, 82

proofreading
proper noun
proverb

(1) a test item where students have to find the mistake(s) i n a sentence/paragraph

(2) when we look at what we have written to see if it is correct 7 8 9

a noun which is usually the name o f a person o r place (or is one o f a kind) and starts
with a capital letter, e.g. Mmy, London 71 2
a saying or ID!OM which people use to give advice, e.g. a stitch in time saves nine or

where there 's a will, there 's a way 7 21

public exam

an exam which is open to anyone, whatever institution they are at 7 8 8

punctuation

the marks that we use i n writing (FULL STOPS, COMMAS, etc.) 71 , 31, 57, 1 03

puppet

a model of an animal or person that you move with your hands 7 93, 95, 9 6,
97, 1 08

purpose clause

a clause which says 'why' 7 2

pyramid discussion

when student start a DISCUSSION in PAIRS, for example, but then those pairs join to
form GROUPS of four and then of eight 7 5 2

q uadrant

a diagram in four parts which shows the relationships between things 71 05

quantifier

a word or phrase which describes how much or many of something 71 , 1 3, 14, 1 7

q uestion

when we say (or write) something because we want some information or a n answer
7 3, 1 4

q uestion mark

the punctuation mark we use i n writing to show that something i s a question 71 ,

2 9, 31

question tag

a phrase with (usually) an AUXILIARY VERB, used at the end of a sentence to make it a
question or exclamation, e.g. You 're English aren 't you? lou shouldn 't have done that,

should you? 73, 2 7, 46

q uestion word

a word which introduces a question, e.g. how, what, when, etc. 7 27

q uiz

a game with questions which contestants have to answer if they want to win 749

q uotation marks

another term for INVERTED COMMAS 7 57

rapport

when teachers have a good professional relationship with their students 743, 66,
77, 79

reading a loud

278

when students are asked to read SENTENCES from a TEXT so that everyone i n the class
can hear 7 29, 3 9, 9 8

Glossdex

reading circle

when a teacher reads to YOUNG LEARNERS and they sit in a circle to l isten ' 7 0, 96,
97, 9 8, 1 0 8

reading for gist

when we read to get the general (not detailed) ideas; see also SKIMMING , 54

reading for specific i nformation

when we read to w1derstand only the particular details which interest us ' 54

reading ski lls

what we do and use to make us effective readers ' 8 3

real begi nner - see a lso BEGINNER

someone who know no English at all ' 41

realia

real objects that we take into our classes '86, 1 0 6

reason clause

a CLAUSE which explains 'why' ' 2

re-cast - see REFORMULATE

recorded audio/ listen ing

any listening text which is played through a machine '60, 61

record i ng device

any machine that we can use to record people's voices; see also AUDIO DEVICE ' 87

recycle, recycling

when we get students to experience and use language again that they have studied
previously ' 3 9, 81 , 8 4

reduced relative clause

also known as a CONTACT CLAUSE; see RELATIVE CLAUSE ' 2

reflective teacher

a teacher who experiments and thinks about what they do in lessons and how
effective it is ' 43, 7 8

reflexive pronoun - see also PRONOUN

myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves '1 2

reformulate

when a student says something which has a mistake, and we say it again correctly,
but don't ask the student to repeat it; also called RE-CASTING '72, 73, 74, 84

register

(1) the TONE (level of formality) and TOPIC vocabulary that we use in written and
spoken texts ' 3 0, 31, 3 3, 1 0 4
(2) see CLASS REGISTER

regular verb - see also IRREGULAR VERB

a verb which takes the -ed past tense ending '4, 6

relative clause

a clause which describes a nou11 and is introduced by a RELATIVE PRONOUN . DEFINING

RELATIVE CLAUSES tell us which tl1ing (NOUN ) is being talked about. NON-DEFINING
RELATIVE CLAUSES give us more information about the thing (noun). CONTACT CLAUSES

(REDUCED RELATIVE CLAUSES) are defining relative clauses which do not need a relative
prononn. , 2, 1 2, 1 6, 1 0 3
relative pronoun
reliab le, reliabil ity

prononns l ike who, whom, whose, where, which and that used in RELATIVE CLAUSES ' 2,
1 2, 17
a test is reliable when a student's paper gets the same grade from whoever has
MARKED/GRADED it , 9 0

reorder (activities)

to change the order of the activities in a coursebook ' 81

repeat - see REPETITION

repetition

when students say the same thing again (and again) '47, 8 4

repetition of encounter

when students 'meet' the same language a number of times; see also RECYCLE, REVISE
'22, 81

rep lace (activities)

to use our own ACTIVITIES instead of tl1e ones in the COURSEBOOK ' 81

reported speech

a term teachers use to describe INDIRECT SPEECH '10, 1 03

reporting verb

verbs like promise, agree, deny, etc. which we use in INDIRECT SPEECH '1 0

request

when someone asks someone fo r something, e.g. Could I have a coffee, please? '1 4

research

looking for information; trying to discover new things ' 2 1 , 45, 4 6

resource

a TEACHER ROLE when students can ask us for language information, advice, etc. ' 65

279

respond

when the teacher makes helpful comments about a student's work (often the i r
written work and done during the WRITING PROCESS to help them t o write better);
different from CORRECTING WRITTEN WORK -+ 57, 72, 75

retrieval and use

when students have to try to find (in the i r brains) the language they have learnt and
then use it -+22, 51 , 73, 84

review

when students look again at what they have written to see if it needs EDITING -+ 1 1 0

revise, revision

when students look at (and use again) language which they have studied previously

-+ 39, 8 4
rewrite (coursebook material )

when w e write our own version of part of a coursebook -+ 8 1

rhyme

short poems where the lines end with words that have the same sound, e.g. pet, get;
we can also say that pet rhymes with get -+ 93, 94, 9 6

rising tone - see also INTONATION

when the PITCH o f the voice goes u p o n the TONIC SYLLABLE -+27, 2 9

role-card

a card which has a role written o n it fo r a student to play -+52, 53

roleplay - see a lso SIMULATION

when we get students to imagine they are i n particular situations and we give them
di fferent ROLES to play -+ 51 , 53, 56, 8 0, 86, 89, 97

role(s) of the teacher

the different roles (ways of behaving) that teachers use in a lesson; see
COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT PROVIDER, CONTROLLER, EDITOR, EVIDENCE GATHERER, FEEDBACK
PROVIDER, ORGAN ISER, PROMPTER, RESOURCE, TUTOR -+ 36, 52, 65, 6 6

role

when w e ask students t o pretend t o b e someone else - or pretend t o fe e l something

they may not themselves actually feel -+ 52

root word

the basic form of a WORD before it has had any AFFIXES, for example, added to i t -+1 9

roughly-tuned input

simplified language that we use a utomatical ly to students (in the L2) or to children
(in the L l ) without consciously thinking about which items o f language we can use
-+ 6 8 9 2
,

rou nded ( lips)

when w e make o u r lips into a n ' o ' for certain vowel sow1ds -+ 24

rubric

the (usually) written instructions for an exercise or a test i tem -+81, 88, 1 06

runner

a member of a GROUP who comes to the front of the class to fin d out some
information or collect something -+ 92 , 9 6

running dictation

when students are i n GROUPS and they have to send RUNNERS to the front to read
something and then go back to their groups and DICTATE it -+48, 58, 63, 70, 9 9

scaffold, scaffoldi ng

when teachers explain tasks in small logical stages a n d then help the students until
they can do the task by themselves -+ 3 6, 65, 69, 74, 9 1 , 97, 1 02, 1 07

scanning

when we quickly read or listen for specific information -+54, 60

scene

an event i n (an extract of) a film, play, etc. -+ 64

schemata

the knowledge about a TOPIC which we have in our heads and which we use when we
read or listen to a text about that topi c -+ 6 1 , 1 07

schwa

the vowel sound /d/ which is used in unstressed syllables, e.g. /'ti:tfd/ -+ 25, 2 6

Second Life

a virtual reality software program where people can interact a s AVATARS (not their
real selves) -+ 87

secondary stress

the second most stressed SYLLABLE in a word or phrase; less prominent than MAIN
STRESS -+ 2 6

self-esteem

feeling good about ourselves -+ 3 9, 7 1 , 91

semantic field

words i n a semantic field are related t o each other a n d are used t o talk about the
same general TOPIC -+ 3 4

semicolon

a punctuation mark used t o separate clauses when the pause required i s longer than
that suggested by a comma -+31, 1 03

G lossdex

semi-fixed lexical phrase - see LEXICAL PHRASE

semi-modal a uxiliary verb

ought to, need to, used to '8

sentence

a sequence of words with (at least) a subject and a verb, and which expresses an idea
,,, 1 0, 74

sentence frame

part of a sentence which can be added to/completed in a number of ways, e.g. I don 't
(we can ask students to complete i t with their own words) '2 0

believe that

. . .

sentence reordering

when student have to put words i n correct sequences to make sentences ,1 , 8 8 , 8 9

sentence stem

the beginning o f a SENTENCE which students can use to make more sentences o f their
own '49, 51

sentence transformation

when we ask students to make a new SENTENCE using a word or words we give them
so that the new sentence means exactly the same as the old one '8 9

separable phrasal verb

a PHRASAL VERB where we can put something between the VERB a n d the PARTICLE , 9

sequence of lessons

lessons which follow each other, and which we plan to have connections with each
other , 79, 1 0 0, 1 01

shadow speaking

when students speak along with recorded audio material ' 63

short-term goal

something we want to achieve, but very quickly; opposite of LONG-TERM GOAL '8 0

shouted d ictation

when students all shout different sentences (at the same ti me) for different partners
sitting at a distance to write down '48, 58, 61

silent way, the

a method developed by Caleb Gattegno i n which the teacher says as little as possible
and the students rely on each other '3 6

simile

when we compare something to something else, e.g. a voice like thunder ' 2 1

simple

the simple ASPECT is used fo r actions which are complete; different from the
CONTINUOUS aspect , 6

simu lation - see also ROLEPLAY

when we ask students to imagi ne that they are in different real-life situations sometimes playing a role ' 51 , 5 3

since and for

ADVERBS often used with the PRESENT Perfect t o say when something started o r how
long it has been going on for ,49

singular

one of sometl1ing ' 1 2

site - see WEBSITE

situation

what i s happening a t a particular time; sometimes used to i ntroduce new language

,45, 61

ski l l - see LANGUAGE SKILL

'4 0

skimm ing

when w e look quickly through a text for GIST rather than reading it for detail , 54

slip

a MISTAKE made because a student is not concentrating - and which they can easily
correct themselves ' 37

smartboard - see INTERACTIVE WHITEBOARD

smartphone
social networking

a mobile phone which can access the INTERNET, make VIDEOS and AUDIO recordings
and use APPS '1 6, 82, 8 6
when people interact and talk t o each other, especially using programs such a s

Facebook and TWITTER ' 87

sociogram

a diagram which shows the relationships within a group of people ' 67

soft C U L

when people teach some (parts of) lessons, but not all, usi ng CUL; see also HARD CUL
,1 0 2

soft palate

the soft skin a t the back o f the top o f the mouth; also called the velum ' 24

281

solowork

when students work alone ' 67

song

music with words that people sing ' 6 4 , 70, 9 3 , 94, 1 0 0

song lyrics

the (lines of) words of a song ' 2 8 , 64, 87

speaking-like (writing)

writing that looks a bit like speaking, e.g. Hey Dude! U OK? '31 , 32

specia l friend

puppets, cartoon characters, etc. that YOUNG LEARNERS can interact with ' 9 3 , 95,
96, 97

specific adjective - see also ADJECTIVE

an ADJECTIVE which describes exactly what type of thing (NOUN ) is being described
,1 5

speech

when we talk (usually in a FORMAL way) to a group of people about a specific topic
, 76

spelling

tl1e way we put letters togetl1er to make words ' 75, 76

spidergram

another word for a WORDMAP , 59

spine poem

the title of a book is written vertically (as it would be on the spine); each line of the
poem then starts witl1 one word from that title ' 63

stage of a lesson

one of the different parts of a lesson ' 42, 68, 79, 80

state

how people feel, what something seems like, how things are, etc. '4, 5

state of mind

how we feel at any certain time; we usually use SIMPLE verb forms to describe this
4, 27

stative verb

a verb that doesn't describe an action or an EVENT, but instead something that j ust
'is'; stative verbs are not usually CONTINUOUS; opposite of DYNAMIC VERB ' 6

sti m u lus-response-reinforcement

the stages which are used to condition people so that they always behave in the same
way; see also BEHAVIOURISM "' 3 6

story

when we describe true or imaginary events to entertain people ' 39, 45, 53, 83,
94, 95, 96, 9 9 8, 9 9

story circle

an activity where smdents (in a circle) all participate one after another to complete
written stories 42, 58

story reconstruction

when different smdents are given different parts of a story, often shown in picmres,
and they have to work out what the story is by talking to each other '53, 55, 6 7

storyboard

picmres which are used like notes to describe the scenes that people are going to
film 62, 1 0 5

stream ing

when smdents are put in groups according to their ability '42

stress

tl1e force or loudness that we put on a syllable or word; see also MAIN STRESS,
SECONDARY STRESS '1 1 , 1 4, 26, 27, 29, 3 1 , 35, 37, 6 4, 95

stretched ( l ips)

when we pull our lips apart to make sounds like Ii:/ ' 24

strip of paper

a long thin piece of paper ' 6 3, 83, 86, 94

student talking time (STT)

the amount of time that students (not teachers) talk in a lesson ' 67, 68

study (see a lso ESA)

to focus on the construction of language ' 3 5 , 36, 39, 80

sub-skill

Example: reading is a skill, READING FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES is a sub-skill , 40, 55, 8 3

sub-genre - see a lso GENRE

a business letter is a sub-genre of the GENRE letter ' 32

subject

( 1 ) the person or thing that performs the action of a verb (or is described by the
verb), and which comes before the verb '1 , 3, 1 0
(2) the thing (topic, etc.) that you are talking about, reading about or smdying '41 ,
8 0, 1 0 0, 1 02

subject pronou n - see a lso PRONOUN

282

a PRONOUN such as I we, you that is the SUBJECT of a VERB '1 2

subject question

a question about a SUBJECT, e.g. Who wrote Hamlet? see also OBJECT QUESTION 3, 49

subject-specific knowledge

(in CUL) things students need to know for a speci fic TOPIC -? 8 8

subject-specific language

(in CUL) language students need to know fo r a specific TOPIC -? 1 04

subject-specific sentences

(in CUL) sentences which describe a particular TOPIC -? 1 07

subject-specific vocabulary

(in CUL) vocabulary that is connected to a specific TOPIC 1 04, 1 07

subjective (gradi ng)

when people use their own judgement to mark a TEST; opposite of OBJECTIVE -? 9 0

su bordinate clause

a clause which depends o n a MAIN CLAUSE -? 2

su bstitute teacher

a teacher who takes a lesson when the regular teacher cannot do it 1 0

su bstitution dia logue

a dialogue where students can change certain items to make new (but similar)
dialogues -? 3 0

suffix - see a lso AFFIX

a MORPHEME added t o the end of a ROOT WORD, e.g. happy - happiness, possible -

possibilit)'; see also PREFIX -?19, 26

summative assessment

superlative adjective - see also

ACHIEVEMENT TESTS, PROFICIENCY TESTS, etc. which measure students ' abilities at the
end of a course or period of study; different from FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT -?88,
1 01 , 1 1 0
Examples: cleverest, most expensive, best -?15, 49

ADJECTIVE
superord inate

a word with a number of HYPONYMS, e.g vehicle (with hyponyms car, truck, bus, etc.)
-?1 8

supplementary material

any books or exercises that teachers use which are not their COURSEBOOK -? 81 , 83

support strategies

things that teachers can do to help students in informal evaluation -?1 1 0

survey

a type of enquiry to find out how many people d o something -?1 0 8

syllable - see a lso TONIC SYLLABLE

(part of) a word which has only one vowel sound -?26, 27, 2 9

syl labus

a list o f items to b e taught i n a. certain sequence; see also GRAMMAR SYLLABUS,

VOCABULARY SYLLABUS -? 3 6, 79, 80, 1 0 6

synonym

a word which means the same as another word -?18, 82

syntax

the grammar 'rules' which say what order words should be i n -? 8 8 , 95

T-diagram

a chart that shows two aspects of a topic, such as advantages and disadvantages, for
and against -? 1 0 5

table

a type of diagram which lists information i n rows and columns -?1 0 5, 1 07

tablet computer

a flat MOBILE DEVICE, like a computer but smaller -?1 6, 76, 82, 85, 86, 1 0 6, 1 09

taboo

not allowed; words we mustn't use because they are rude -? 82

tag question - see QUESTION TAG

taking the register - see CLASS REGISTER
target language

the language that students are learning or want to learn -?3 6, 7 7, 82, 92

task

an activity for students which has an OUTCOME - a 'finish' -?36, 39, 45

task-based learning (TBL)

when teachers ask students to use language to do TASKS rather than just learning
GRAMMAR, VOCABULARY, etc. -?36, 45, 87

task syl labus

a list of tasks i n the order we wan t the students to do them -? 8 0

teacher development

how teachers continue t o learn a n d grow during their years as teachers -? 2 6, 3 4,

78, 7 9

teacher talking time (TTT)

the amount of time that a teacher (not the students) speaks in a lesson -?6 8

teacher role - see ROLE OF THE TEACHER

283

teacher's guide

a book which explains how teachers can use their COURSEBOOK -7 8 1

teachers' resource books

books which are full of ACTIVITIES for teachers to use -7 8 3

teaching aid

anything (such a s REALIA, the BOARD, CUISENAIRE RODS, etc.) which helps u s to teach
-77 9

teaching unplugged

a name given t o a style o f teaching which does not use a lot o f materials (e.g.
COURSEBOOKS) , technology, etc. -7 84

teenagers

chil dren aged 1 3- 1 9 (though people usually mean 1 3 - 1 7 when they talk about
teenagers in general); see also ADOLESCENT -7 3 5 , 38, 391 95

tense, verb tense

the form of a VERB which shows what time is being talked about -7 41 51 6

tentative

uncertain or hesitant

test, testing

when we find out how much students know; see also ASSESSMENT, ACHIEVEMENT TEST,
DIAGNOSTIC TEST, PLACEMENT TEST, PROFICIENCY TEST -7 29, 551 88-9 01 70, 1 0 21 1 1 0

-7 301 33

test item - see DIRECT TEST ITEM, INDIRECT TEST ITEM

test-teach-test

when we ask students to do something to see if they can, and then we teach it if they
can't -745

text

any piece of writing or speaking which is a collection of phrases or sentences -7 9,

1 6, 2 2 , 2 9( 34, 42, 45, 46, 50, 5 5 , 5 6, 8 1 , 8 6 { 8 9{ 9 6

text and d i scourse

how written and spoken texts are formed -7 8 0

text message, text

a type o f message which we can send on a mobile phone/cellphone; t o send a

message by mobile phone -7 3 3, 5 8 , 8 6

theme

( 1 ) the main TOPIC or idea i n a text -7 7 91

801 1 0 0

(2) topics/ideas which we use for PLANNING -71 0 0

284

thesaurus

a type o f PRODUCTION DICTIONARY which gives many different words fo r the same
meanings -7 8 2

thin king skills

the things we do to h elp us thi n k effectively; see also COGNITIVE SKILLS

third conditiona l

Example:

tic-tac-toe

another name for NOUGHTS AND CROSSES -7 2 3

time adverbial

a phrase which acts like an adverb and describes time (when), e.g.
34, 1 0 2

time clause

a clause which refers to time, e.g.

timelines

diagrams to explain verb tenses and when things happened or will happen -71 04

ti metable fit

(when we plan lessons) how the .l esson follows on from previous l essons and fits into
the SYLLABUS -7 7 9

t i ming

(when w e p l a n lessons) how l o n g we think an activity w i l l l a s t -779, 1 0 9

tone

the level o f FORMALITY ' COLLOQUIALISM, etc. i n a TEXT - and which shows what REGISTER
we are using -7 3 3

tonic syl lable

the SYLLABLE i n a spoken PHRASE o r utterance where the PITCH o f the voice changes
-7 2 7

top-down processing

when we start by reading fo r GIST -trying to understand the general meaning o f a

TEXT before looking at details of language -754

topic

a subject that people talk or write about -73 3, 61 , 6 2 , 7 9, 8 0, 8 1 , 84, 87, 1 0 0

topic web

a diagram (like a SPIDERGRAM ) which shows how topics are related to each other; we
can use this for PLANNING -71 0 0

topics and themes

a way o f organising a syllabus through CONTENT -7 80

-7 l 07

IfI had wolmz up earlier I wouldn 't have arrived late. -72, 4 6 , 5 6 , 6 9
all night -7

in two weeks, when we were young -72, 3

Glossdex

total physical response (TPR)

a methodology where students learn by performing actions -+4, 45, 9 6

track

a n individual part of a n AUDIO or VIDEO recording -+6 0

transcript

the written version o f what people say in a n AUDIO o r VIDEO CLIP -+62

transfer information

to take information from a TEXT and put it in a DIAGRAM or some other form -+5 5

transitive i nseparable p h rasal verb

when the object of a PHRASAL VERB ha s to come after the particle, e.g. look after
(someone), look into (something), run into (someone) -+9

transitive verb - see also

a verb that takes an OBJECT -+4, 82

INTRANSITIVE VERB
translanguage C U L

when a CLIL topic is taught in two (or more) languages -+1 02

translanguage classroom

a classroom where more than one language is being used, for example in CLIL
lessons -+1 03

translation (activities)

activities which ask students to translate from L l to L2 (and or vice versa) -+39, 77

transm ission teaching

when the teacher stands at the front and 'transmits' (= gives) the students
information -+65

tree d iagram

a diagram showing how things are connected in a hierarchy -+1 0 5

true/fa lse q u estion

when students are asked (in a TEST or EXERCISE) to say whether something is true or
false -+ 89

turn, turn-taking

when people start and stop speaking in conversations -+27, 52

tutor

a TEACHER ROLE i nvolving giving advice to (usually) individual students -+65

tweet

a message on TWITTER -+ 32, 57

Twitter

a social nenvorking site where people can leave messages for eve1yone to read -+32,
33, 5 8 , 78, 87

two-particle transitive phrasal verb

Examples: He gets along with his brother. She puts up with his bad tenzper. -+9

uncou ntable noun

a NOUN than cannot be plural, e.. g .furniture; see also COUNTABLE NOUN -+12, 1 3, 1 4, 1 7

unforeseen problems

when something negative happens i n a lesson that the teacher had not anticipated
-+70, 79, 1 0 9

unintel ligble - see INTELLIGIBILITY

unstressed

when we don't emphasise sounds by making them louder, longer, etc. -+2 6

unstressed syllable

any SYLLABLE i n a word o r phrase apart from the stressed syllable(s) -+2 5

u pper-i ntermediate - see also

INTERMEDIATE

the level reached when students have (usually) done about 2 5 0 hours English study;
equivalent to CEFR level B2 -+ 2 9, 41 , 42, 46 59, 75

utterance

a PHRASE (or phrases) which make a spoken SENTENCE, QUESTION or EXCLAMATION -+ 26

VAKOG

an acronym used in NEURO-LINGUISTIC PROGRAMMING to describe different stimuli

(visual , auditory, kinaesthetic, olfactory, gustatory) -+40

validity, test va lidity

TESTS which are designed (only) to test what they are supposed to test -+8 8, 1 1 0

variety

i ncluding a lot of different types o f activity, etc. i n a LESSON -+8 0

variety of English

the English spoken in a particular country, region, etc. -+2 6

velar nasal

the CONSONANT sound lfJI -+ 24

velar plosive

the CONSONANT sounds /g/ and /k/ -+24, 25

velu m - see SOFT PALATE

venn diagram

a diagram with overlapping circles to show differences and similarities between two
or more things -+1 0 5, 1 07, 1 0 8

285

verb

a word or group of words that describes an ACTION, an EVENT or a STATE -+1 , 4, 1 0,

1 8, 20, 26, 62, 9 3

very young learners

learners aged from two to around four o r five -+91

video

originally a film recording on tape; now also used to describe digital filmed
recordings -+60, 62, 6 4, 66, 74, 85, 87, 1 0 6

video clip - see a lso FILM CLIP

a (usually) short VIDEO RECORDING -+6 2

video feedback

when teachers make a VIDEO RECORDING of their comments about a student's work -+ 75

video recording

when things are filmed using a film/video camera -+ 76, 78

visual learner

a student who gets most benefit from seeing things -+1 0 5

visual organiser

a way o f showing information with diagrams -+8 9, 1 0 0, 1 04, 105, 1 0 6, 1 1 0

VLE (virtual learning environment)

any ONLINE site which students use to learn and interact; see also ONLINE LEARNING
PLATFORM -+ 3, 87

vocabulary

the WORDS that we know or use -+1 8-22, 35, 79, 80, 81, 1 0 9

vocabulary book

a book where students write down new VOCABULARY -+ 1 07

vocabulary syllabus

a SYLLABUS which says what VOCABULARY should be learnt when -+1 0 6

vocal cords

the two strips of membrane (like muscle) in our throats behind the larynx -+ 24

vocal folds - see VOCAL CORDS

286

voiced consonant

a CONSONANT sound made with the VOCAL CORDS closed (so they vibrate as the air
comes from the lungs) -+24

voiceless consonant

a CONSONANTsound made with the VOCAL CORDS open (so there is no vocal
vibration) -+ 24

vowel

vowel sounds are made when there is no obstruction in the mouth for the flow of
air from the lw1gs; in the alphabet, the letters a, e, i, o, u; di fferent from CONSONANT
-+1 3, 1 5, 1 7, 2 8

wait time

when teachers give students time to think before they speak -+1 07

warmer

an activity at the beginning of a lesson to get the students in a good mood; also
called an ICEBREAKER -+70, 1 09

washback

when the form of an exam influences the way that teachers teach (because they want
their students to pass the exam) -+ 89

web 2.0

when the INTERNET changed so that people could interact with each other (and with
the CONTENT) ONLINE -+59

webinar

an ONLINE seminar; people can watch and take part even when they are physical ly in
di fferent places -+ 78, 87

webquest

a type of project where students look for information on different WEBSITES -+

8 4, 87

website

a p lace on the INTERNET where people place information, pictures, etc. -+53, 76, 83,
86, 87

wh-q uestion

a question which starts with a word like what, who, where, why, when, how, etc. -+
3, 56

whiteboard - see also BOARD

a classroom board that is wh ite and can be written on with marker pens; see also
INTERACTIVE WHITEBOARD -+8 5

whole-class teaching

when w e teach all the students i n a class at the same time -+67

wiki

a computer program whjch allows everyone to add to and change the content (like
Wikipedia) -+58, 5 9, 87

Glossdex

will future

when we use the MODAL AUXILIARY VERB will to talk about the future, e.g. I will see you
tomorrow -+45

word

a single group of letters and sounds which, together, mean something -+1 9

word fa mily

all the different realisations ( AFFIXES, etc.) of the BASE FORM of a word -+1 9

word map - see also SPIDERGRAM

a diagram showing how words are related to each other --+ 21 , 22, 59, 85, 1 05,
1 07, 1 08

word order

the correct sequence of words in a PHRASE/SENTENCE --+ 1 0

Wordle

a software program that produces a pictorial representation of the words i n a text

-+6 3

workbook

a book which usually accompanies a COURSEBOOK, full of practice EXERCISES --+ 76, 81

worksheet

a piece of paper (or document) wi.th practice EXERCISES -+42, 54, 62, 76, 82, 8 3

writing process

how people plan, review and edit their writing -+57, 59, 75, 9 9

writing-like

when people speak as if they were writing, e.g. a FORMAL lecture -+3 1

yes/no question

a question that needs a 'yes' or 'no' answer, e.g.

3, 49, 1 07

you ng learners

usually students from about four years old to adolescence -+1 4, 38, 9 1 -1 01,1 0 8

zero article

when we do not use articles, e.g war is

zero conditional

a 'timeless' conditional clause, e .g.

zone of proximal development (ZPD)

when learners (especially children) are ready for the next learning stage - a concept
suggested by Lev Vygotsky ( 1 896- 1 9 3 4) -+3 8 , 9 1

Have you read 'War and Peace? ' --+

terrible, life is beautiful -+1 3

if/when it rains, people get wet -+2, 46

287

Pearson Education Limited

Edinburgh Gate
Harlow
Essex CM20 2JE
England
and Associated Companies throughout the world.

Author's acknowledgements
I want to thank all those who have helped with :,3ential Teacher
Knowledge.
People who read and commented on this book at various stages
include Ricardo Fajardo Cortes, Nick Dawson, Jill Fortune,

Pearson Education Limited 2 0 1 2

Nam Joon Kang, Cecilia Lemos, Carol Lethaby, Deniz Ozdeniz

and Damian Williams. It is difficult to thank them enough for
their insights and wisdom.

The right of Jeremy Harmer to b e identified a s author of this \!Vork

ha been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1 98 8 .

Three teachers - Tom McDonnell, Emily Scrimshaw and Conor

Short - let us film them teaching. They were fantastic to work with
and did eve1ything (and more) that we asked of them.

All rights reserved; no part of this publication m a y be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted i n any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise without the prior written permission of the Publishers

Final ly, thanks to the many teachers whose voices are on the DVD
and the website, and those who provided lesson plans. They
demonstrate the wonderful and inspiring variety of ideas and
techniques that make teaching such an exciting profession to be in.

First published 2 0 1 2

Jeremy Harmer

www.pearsonELT.com/ETK

ISBN: 978- 1 -4082-6804-9

Set in Janson Text
Printed in Chim
CTPSC/0 1

Acknowledgements
The publisher would like to thank the following for their kind
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(Key: b-bottom; c-centre; I-left; r-right; t-top)
AJamy Images: Associated Sports Photography 83 br, Thomas
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All otl1er images Pearson Education

Every effort has been made to trace the copyright holders and we
apologise in advance for any unintentional omissions. \Ve would
be pleased to insert the appropriate acknowledgement in any
subsequent edition of this publication.

Teacher
Knowledge
CORE CONC EPTS I N E N G L I S H L A N G UA G E T EAC H I N G

The book
A u n i q u e methodology book, Essential Teacher Knowledge is the key
fou ndation- leve l guide for teachers of general E ng l i s h, young lea rners a n d C L I L .
U n its on essent i a l theory, p ractical teac h i ng advice a n d c lassroom ideas a re
presented a cross two pages, in f u l l col o u r. Written in access i b l e E nglish, Essential
Teacher Knowledge is ideal prepa rat i o n for TKT a n d other entry-level tea c h e r
q u a l ifications, or as a h a n d book f o r any ELT teacher.

The DVD
Two h o u rs of video footage incl u des:
- Demonstrations of key teaching tec h n i q ues, such a s giving i nstructions a n d
correction, s o n e w teac h e rs c a n see t h e t heory p u t into practice
- G loba l Teachers' Voi ces - teachers from a ro u n d the world s h a r i ng o p i n i o n s
a n d i d e a s a bout key issues f o r the g l o b a l E n g l i s h t e a c h i n g com m u n ity

. . . and o n the Web

P I N -coded access to extra o n l i n e material:
- A u d i o to accompany the Pro n u n ciation u n its (23-29)
Down l o a d a b l e activities ( Revise, Research, Reflect) to acco m p a n y every u n it
- More Teachers' Voices videos
- Other resources for tea chers, i nc l u d i ng a n up-to-date b i b l iogra phy

Jeremy Harmer has taught English in Mexico and the UK, and has
trained teachers around the world. He is the series editor of the
H ow to Tea c h . . . series, and the author of the highly acclaimed
The Practice of English Language Teach ing and How to Teach E n gl i sh .

ISBN 978-1 -4082-6804-9

www.pearson ELT.com/ETK

www.teacherdevelopmentinteractivetdi.com

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