Fluid Mechanics-I Manual

Experiment No. 1

Object
To measure pressure and pressure head by using U-tube manometer
Objectives

To study of pressure measuring devices.

To study pressure and pressure head.

Theory

Pressure intensity (pressure)

It is force acting per unit area .Its unit is N/mm .This term is used for fluid. Pressure is
measured either by using manometer or gauges .
Pressure measuring devices
Manometer

Piezometer

Simple U-tube

Differential U-tube

Single Column

Inverted U-tube differential

Gauges

Bourdon tube pressure gauge

Diaphragm pressure gauge

Vaccume pressure gauge

U-tube Manometer :
It consists of glass tube bend in U shape, one end of which is connected to a point at which
pressure is to be measured and other end remains open to the atmosphere. U tube manometer
can measure both positive and negative pressure.
Apparatus
Simple U-tube manometer with mercury filled.

Procedure

For U-tube Manometer:

Start the fluid flow in pipe.

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Observe the manometer connected to pipe through which the liquid is flowing.

Note height in left and right limbs with help of scale.

Note the absolute difference.

Calculate head in meter of water, meter of liquid and in N/m

Repeat the procedure for different flow rate.

Figure/Explanatory Sketch

Fluid Mechanics-I Manual

Observation Table
Specific gravity of liquid flowing in pipe S1 =
Specific gravity of manometric liquid S2=..

For Simple U Tube Manomerte

Sr.

Type of manometer

No.

Manometric reading
h1

h2

Formula

Pressure

Sample Calculations
h = h2S2- h1S1= for positive pressure.
p = wh =..

h = h1S1+ h2S2.for Negative pressure.

p = wh =

Fluid Mechanics-I Manual

Result
Pressure head by U-tube manometer=..

Questions
1. What is pressure and pressure head?
2. What are the different devices used for measuring of pressure?
3. State requirements of liquid to be used as manometric liquid.
4. What is gauge pressure and absolute pressure?

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Assessment
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Assignment

A(3) B(4) C(3) Total (10)

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Experiment No. 2

Object
To measure discharge
Theory
Discharge is the quantity of fluid flowing for second through pipe or channel. Measurement of
discharge is the most common operation in any Hydraulics laboratory. Discharge or rate of flow
is the quantity of liquid flowing per unit time through the pipe or channel.
Theoretical Discharge, Q the = A. V
Q the = Theoretical discharge in cm3 / sec
A= Cross sectional area of pipe in which liquid in which liquid flows
V = Mean velocity of flow
Actual Discharge, Q act = V / T
Q act =Actual discharge in cm3 / sec
V= Volume of water collected in cm3
T = Time in sec required to collect given volume of water.
For ordinary work, a volumetric method of measurement is used while for accurate work,
measurement by weight is adopted.

Apparatus
Measuring tank, stop watch.
Procedure
( A ) Constant Time Method:
1. First the dimensions of the water tank are measured using steel scale.
2. Now outlet valve is closed and inlet valve is fully opened and water is allowed to
collect in the tank.
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3. For constant time T sec, volume of water V cm3 can be computed with the help of
head in the piezometer connected to the tank and area of the tank.
4. Stopwatch is started at initial level and after a constant time say 20 or 30 sec.
The stopwatch is stopped and final reading in piezometer is recorded.
5. Difference between initial and final reading will give us the head in the piezometer.
6. Volume per unit time will give discharge.
7. Repeat the procedure and calculate the average discharge.
( B ) Constant volume / Head Method:
1. In this method the head in piezometer i.e. volume of the water in tank is kept
constant and other parameters are changed.
2. For each reading discharge is changed and for constant volume what is the time
required is recorded with the help of the stopwatch.
3. Again volume of the water per unit time gives discharge of water.
4. Repeat the procedure and calculate the average discharge.
( C ) Volume Analysis Method:
1. In this method the discharge is kept constant.
2. Now the inlet valve is opened and keeping discharge constant stopwatch is started
at initial level in piezometer.
3. After some time the stopwatch is stopped and the final reading is recorded.
4. The procedure is repeated and for the constant discharge head in piezometer and
respective time is recorded.
5. Repeat the procedure and calculate the average discharge.
Figure/Explanatory Sketch

Fluid Mechanics-I Manual

Observation Table
Area of measuring tank ( A ) = ---------------------- cm2
Method I : Constant Time Method
Rise of

Volume of

Time to collect

Discharge

V lit of water

Q = V/T

Average discharge

T ( sec )

( cm3 / sec)

cm3 / sec

water
Water
Collected
H (cm)
V= A X h (cm3)
1.
2.
3.

Method II : Constant Volume / Head Method

Rise of

Volume of

Time to collect

Discharge

Average discharge

V lit of water

Q = V/T

cm3 / sec

T ( sec )

( cm3 / sec)

water Collected
Water
V= A X h (cm3 )
H (cm)
1.
2.
3.

Method III : Volumetric Analysis Method

Rise of

Volume of

Time to collect

Discharge

Average discharge

V lit of water

Q = V/T

cm3 / sec

T ( sec )

( cm3 / sec)

water
Water
Collected
H (cm)
V= A X h (cm3 )
1.
2.
3.
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Sample Calculations

Result
1. Average discharge by Constant Time Method is ---------------------- cm3/sec
2. Average discharge by Constant Volume / Head Method is ---------------------- cm3/sec
3. Average discharge by Volumetric Analysis Method is ---------------------- cm3/sec

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Questions
5. What is rate of flow?
6. What are the different methods used for measuring of discharge?
7. Convert value of discharge of 10cm3/sec in LPS, Cu.M/Sec, Cu.mm/Sec, Cu.cm/m in,
Cu.mm/min, Cu.m/min.

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Assessment
Individual / Team work / Demo /

A(3) B(4) C(3) Total (10)

Dated sign

Assignment
of teacher

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Fluid Mechanics-I Manual

Experiment No. 3

Object
To state and verify Bernoullis theorem.
Objectives

To verify Bernoullis theorem

To understand the concept of total head

Theory
Bernoullis theorem states that in an Ideal, Incompressible fluid when the flow is steady and
continuous the sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy (or datum) energy
is constant along a stream line.
Mathematically p/w + v/2g + z = constant.
p/w = pressure energy
v/2g = kinetic energy
z = datum (or elevation) energy
List of assumptions which are made while deriving Bernoullis equation :

.....
Apparatus
Bernoullis apparatus, meter scale, Inlet tank. Measuring tank., Stop watch.
Procedure

1. Measure the area of conduit at various gauge points.

2. Open the supply valve and adjust the flow so that the water level in the inlet tank remains
constant.

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3. Measure the height of water level(, above arbitrarily selected plane) in different piezometric
tubes.
4. Measure the discharge of conduit with help of measuring tank.
5. Plot the graph between the total head ( energy ) and distance of gauge point starting from
u/s
side of conduit.
Figure/Explanatory Sketch

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Observations and Observation Table

Width of duct b=
Volume of water collected (V) =
Time required for water collected (t)=
Discharge (Q) = V/t =

Sr.

Tube

No. No.

Distance

Datum

Pressure

Velocity

Velocity Piezometric

Total

from inlet

head

head

V= Q/A

head

head

tank (cm)

(cm)

head

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

Sample Calculations

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Result
Total energy at .
Value from Graph

Conclusion

....
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GRAPH 1

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GRAPH 2

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Questions
1. State the Bernoullis theorem.
2. What are the limitations of Bernoullis equation?
3. What do you mean by piezometric head?
4. Why the water levels in the various piezometric tubes are different?
5. How Bernoullis theorem is modified?

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Assessment
Individual / Team work / Demo /
Assignment

A(3) B(4) C(3) Total (10)

Dated sign
of teacher

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Fluid Mechanics-I Manual

Experiment No. 4

Object
To determine the coefficient of discharge for a given venturimeter.
Objectives
To understand the construction and function of various parts of venturimeter
To understand the working of venturimeter.
To study the coefficient of discharge.

Theory
Reynolds number Re is the ratio of inertia force to the viscous force where viscous force Is the
product of shear stress and area inertia force is the product of mass and acceleration.
Re = (Inertia force) / (Viscous force)
Re = ( pVD ) /
Where,
Re = Reynolds number
V = Velocity of fluid (m/s)
D = Diameter of Pipe (m)
= Co-efficient of Dynamic viscosity (Ns/m )

Apparatus
Venturimeter test rig consist of
1. Venturimeter fitted on pipe
2. Water pump of capacity one Hp fitted on reservoir tank.
3. U tube mercury manometer connected to pipe and throat.
4. Measuring tank and stop watch.
Procedure
1. Start the pump and allow water to flow through the system.
2. Adjust the discharge by operating delivery valve.
3. Collect water in a measuring tank (container) to measure the actual discharge i.e. the
4. Volume of the water collected in container for T seconds.
5. Use stopwatch to measure time T. Note the rise in water level in container.
6. The two taps from the venturimeter are connected to a mercury manometer. Due to
pressure difference between the pipe and throat, the mercury in manometer column
will deflect. Note the height of columns of mercury in the manometer (Pipe and throat)
7. Drain the water collected in the measuring tank after each observation.
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8. Vary the discharge through the venturimeter by changing the positions of deliverer valve
and repeat the steps 2 to 7.
Figure/Explanatory Sketch

Fig Experimental set up of Venturimeter

Observations and Observation Table

1) The diameter of inlet pipe d1= ....................m, Area a1 = ....................m

2) The diameter of throat d2 =....................m,

Area a2 = ....................m

3) Cross section area of measuring tank A = ................... m

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Sr.

Time

No. (t)
(Sec)

Pressure diff.

Pressure

Q actual =V/t

Q theoretical

Coefficient of

X in cm in

head h in

(m/sec)

(m/sec)

discharge

terms of water

terms of

Cd=Qact/Qthe

water
1
2
3
4
5
6

Sample Calculations

Q actual = Volume / time (m/sec)

Q theoretical =

Cd = Qactual / Q theoretical =

Result
Coefficient of discharge of venturimeter =
Conclusion

....
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GRAPH 1

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Questions
1. At what point venturimeter pressure is more and why? Give reasons.
2. Explain term Qactual, Qtherotical,Cd.
3. Why length of divergent cone is always greater than convergent cone of venturimenter?
4. Can venturimeter be used in its vertical position? State the situation where it will be
used.

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Assessment
Individual / Team work / Demo /
Assignment

A(3) B(4) C(3) Total (10)

Dated sign
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Fluid Mechanics-I Manual

Experiment No. 5

Object
To determine coefficient of discharge of Orificemeter connected in between pipe line.
Objectives
To understand the construction and function of various parts of venturimeter
To understand the working of venturimeter.
To study the coefficient of discharge.

Theory
An orifice meter is a simple device used for measurement of discharge through pipes. u se
of orifice meter is better principle is by reducing cross - sectional area between two section
at pipe & thus developing a pressure difference to enable determination of discharge
through pipe & coefficient of discharge was pre-determined.

An orifice meter consists of

a circular plate which has circular edged hole called orifice, which is concentric with pipe.
Generally orifice meter having diameter is 0.5 times pipe diameter. Two pressure tapping
provided at two sections.

Apparatus
Orificemeter test rig consist of
1. Orificemeter fitted connected in between pipe line.
2. Water pump of capacity one Hp fitted on reservoir tank.
3. U tube mercury manometer connected to pipe and throat.
4. Measuring tank and stop watch.

Procedure

Start the pump and allow water to flow through the system.

Adjust the discharge by operating delivery valve.

Collect water in a measuring tank (container) to measure the actual discharge i.e. the

Volume of the water collected in container for T seconds.

Use stopwatch to measure time T. Note the rise in water level in container.

The two taps from the orificemeter are connected to a mercury manometer. Due to
o

pressure difference between the pipe and throat, the mercury in manometer
column will deflect. Note the height of columns of mercury in the manometer.

Drain the water collected in the measuring tank after each observation.

Vary the discharge through the orificemete by changing the positions of deliverer valve
and repeat the steps 2 to 7.
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Figure/Explanatory Sketch

Observations and Observation Table

2) The diameter of inlet pipe d1= ....................m, Area a1 = ....................m

2) The diameter of orificemeter d2 =....................m,

Area a2 = ....................m

3) Cross section area of measuring tank A = ................... m

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Sr.

Time

No. (t)
(Sec)

Pressure diff.

Pressure

Q actual =V/t

Q theoretical

Coefficient of

X in cm in

head h in

(m/sec)

(m/sec)

discharge

terms of water

terms of

Cd=Qact/Qthe

water
1
2
3
4

Sample Calculations
Q actual = Volume / time (m/sec)
Q theoretical =

Cd = Qactual / Q theoretical =

Result
Coefficient of discharge of orificemeter =

Conclusion

....
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GRAPH 1

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Questions
1. Explain principle of orificemeter.
2. Explain coefficients of orificemeter.
3. Differentiate venturimeter and orificemeter.

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Assessment
Individual / Team work / Demo /
Assignment

A(3) B(4) C(3) Total (10)

Dated sign
of teacher

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Fluid Mechanics-I Manual

Experiment No. 6

Object
To identify the type of flow by using Reynolds Experiment
Objectives
1. To know the concept of Reynolds number.
2. To know and identify the types of flow laminar, turbulent and transition.

Theory
Reynolds number Re is the ratio of inertia force to the viscous force where viscous force Is the
product of shear stress and area inertia force is the product of mass and acceleration.
Re = (Inertia force) / (Viscous force)
Re = ( pVD ) /
Where,
Re = Reynolds number
V = Velocity of fluid (m/s)
D = Diameter of Pipe (m)
= Co-efficient of Dynamic viscosity (Ns/m )

Apparatus
1. Reynoldss apparatus which consists glass tube, water tank and a small dye container
at the
top of tank.
2. Potassium permanganate (dye).
3. Thermometer.
4. Measuring tank.
5. Stop watch.

Procedure

1. Measure diameter of pipe

2. Fill the tank with water by keeping outlet of glass tube partly opened
3. When the tank is full close the outlet valve of glass tube and inlet valve of the tank.
4. Allow the water in the tank to come to the state of rest and no disturbance.
5. Maintain constant level of water by opening both inlet valve of tank and outlet valve
6. of the glass tube partly so that velocity of flow is very small.
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7. Allow the dye from the dye ejector in to the flow.

8. Allow a certain volume of water to be collected in the measuring tank and
9. Simultaneously start the stop watch and hence compute the discharge.
10. Gradually increase the velocity of flow and measure the discharge.
11. Take six readings till the dye get differed in the flow of water.
12. Repeat the experiment with the decreasing rate of flow.
Figure/Explanatory Sketch

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Observations and Observation Table

1. Inner diameter of glass tube, D = ..
2. Cross sectional area of glass tube = A =.
3. Mass density of water = p=..
4. Dynamic viscosity of water at room temp = =
5. Volume of Measuring tank = ..
6. Name of dye used = .

Sr.

Volume

Time (t)

Discharge

Velocity

Re=

Type of

No.

(m)

(Sec)

(Q)

V = Q/A

pVD /

flow

( m /sec )

( m/s )

1
2
3
4
5
6

Sample Calculations
Re= ( p V D ) /

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Result
Sr. No.1 Re.. Type of flow is
Sr. No.2 Re.. Type of flow is
Sr. No.3 Re.. Type of flow is
Sr. No.4 Re.. Type of flow is
Sr. No.5 Re.. Type of flow is
Sr. No.6 Re.. Type of flow is
Conclusion

....
Questions

1. Define viscosity of fluid.

2. Give any two Practical Examples of laminar and Turbulent flow.
3. What is the application of Reynolds number other than type of flow ?
4. State the difference between laminar flow and Turbulent flow.

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Assessment
Individual / Team work / Demo /
Assignment

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Fluid Mechanics-I Manual

Experiment No. 7

Object
To determine friction factor for given pipe.
Objectives
1. To know the Darcys friction factor.
2. To determine friction factor of different pipe materials.

Theory

Loss of Head due to friction:Loss of head due to friction is the difference of head between two distinct points (Upstream and
Downstream point)
Magnitude of head loss:The magnitude of head loss is directly proportional to square of velocity, length between two
points and inversely proportional to the diameter of pipe.
Hf = 4fLV/ 2gD
Where
f = Darcys friction factor.
L= length of pipe in m.
V= Velocity of liquid flowing through pipe in m/sec.
D= Diameter of the pipeline in m.
Head loss due to friction can also be calculated by formula
hf= f LQ2/3D5
Where Q= the discharge through pipe in m3/sec
L=length of pipe between tapping in m.
D= diameter of pipe in m.
f= Friction factor
Apparatus
Pipe friction test rig consists of:
1.Pipe of different materials such as Brass, GI and Aluminum.
2.Measuring tank, stop watch, Scale etc
3.Differential manometer.

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Procedure

1. Open valve V1 for first material pipe and Close valve on other pipes
2. From overhead tank allow water to flow through first material pipe for 2 3 minutes.
3. Open tapings of manometer on first material pipe.
4. Measure the rise in the level of water in the measuring tank for predetermine time interval to
calculate the discharge.
5. Measure the height of mercury column in left as well as right limb of U-tube differential
manometer The respective level of mercury in each limb is to be noted in the observation table
6. Repeat procedure for 3-4 different discharge conditions by operating valve V1 .
7. Repeat steps 2-6 for other pipe material by allowing flow of water through required pipeline
by opening valve of that material. Close the remaining valve.

Figure/Explanatory Sketch

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Observations and Observation Table

1. Material of pipe 2. Measuring tank dimensions -

Breadth B =. m
Length L= .m
3. Area of measuring tank A= L X B =..m2
4. Distance between tapings L=. m
5. Specific gravity of fluid in pipe S1=
6. Specific gravity of fluid in manometer S2=
7. Take S1 =1 for water, S2=13.6 for mercury.

Sr.

Pipe

Manometric

Hf

No

Material

reading

X[(S2/S
1)-1]

Time for

Q=

Darcys

height in

collecting

(LxBxH)/

friction

water in

water in

factor f

measurin

measurin

= Rise in

tank in m tank
H
1.

X1

X2

(T)

in sec

2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.

Sample Calculations

Actual loss of head due to friction hf is calculated as

hf=X[(S2/S1)-1] m of water

Actual discharge is calculated as

Q= (Area of tank x Rise in liquid level in m)/Time taken,
Q=(LxBxH)/T
Where B L and H are dimensions of measuring tank in m.

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Velocity of flow V=Q/A= Q/(d2/4)

Now hf= 4fLV2/2gD

Therefore Friction factor f=hf (2 gD/4LV2)

Head loss due to friction can also be calculated using hf=fLQ2/3 D5
Therefore friction factor f=hf(3D5/LQ2)

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Result
1.Darcys friction factor for material pipe =.
2. Darcys friction factor for material pipe =.
3. Darcys friction factor for material pipe =.
Conclusion

....

Questions
5. State Darcys equation for calculation of head loss due to friction.
6. State the effect of change in diameter and length of pipe on frictional losses.
7. Which are various parameters to be considered for reducing the frictional losses in
pipe?

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Assessment
Individual / Team work / Demo /
Assignment

A(3) B(4) C(3) Total (10)

Dated sign
of teacher

44