ROBOTICS : A DVANCED C ONCEPTS

&
A NALYSIS
M ODULE 2 E LEMENTS OF ROBOTS : JOINTS ,
ACTUATORS & SENSORS

LINKS ,

Ashitava Ghosal1
1 Department

of Mechanical Engineering
&
Centre for Product Design and Manufacture
Indian Institute of Science
Bangalore 560 012, India
Email: [email protected]

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.
. .1 C ONTENTS
.
. .2 L ECTURE 1
Mathematical Preliminaries
Homogeneous Transformation
.
. .3 L ECTURE 2
Elements of a robot Joints
Elements of a robot Links
.
. .4 L ECTURE 3
Examples of D-H Parameters & Link Transformation
Matrices
.
. .5 L ECTURE 4
Elements of a robot Actuators & Transmission
.
. .6 L ECTURE 5
Elements of a robot Sensors
.
. .7 A DDITIONAL M ATERIAL
Problems, References, and Suggested Reading
.

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O UTLINE
.
. .1 C ONTENTS
.
. .2 L ECTURE 1
Mathematical Preliminaries
Homogeneous Transformation
..3 L ECTURE 2
.
Elements of a robot Joints
Elements of a robot Links
..4 L ECTURE 3
.
Examples of D-H Parameters & Link Transformation
Matrices
. L ECTURE 4
.
5
.
Elements of a robot Actuators & Transmission
..6 L ECTURE 5
.
Elements of a robot Sensors
..7 A DDITIONAL M ATERIAL
.
Problems, References, and Suggested Reading
.

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P OSITION OF A R IGID B ODY

Position of a point of interest
such as centre of
mass/gravity.
Right-handed coordinate
system specified by

A
Z
{A}

A
Y

OA

Rigid Body A
A
X

Figure 1: Position of point P

denoted by A p

Origin OA .
Set of 3 mutually
orthogonal axis
A, Y
A and Z
A
Unitvectors X
are along the index finger,
the middle finger and the
thumb of the right-hand,
respectively.
Label to keep track {A}.

Point A p with Cartesian coordinates (px , py , pz )T

A

A = (px , py , pz )T
A + pz Z
A + py Y
p = px X
.

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(1)
.

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O RIENTATION OF A R IGID B ODY

Position of one point on the rigid body not enough to
describe it in 3D space.
Orientation of a rigid body B with respect to {A}
A
Z

{A}
B
Z

{B}

Attach coordinate
system, {B}, to rigid
body B.

p
B
Y

A
Y

OA ,OB

Rigid Body B
A
X

Origin of {B}
coincident with origin of
{A} (see Figure 2).
Obtain description of
{B} with respect to
{A}.

B
X

Figure 2: Orientation of a rigid body

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O RIENTATION D IRECTION C OSINES

B, Y
B , and Z
B , attached to B, can be
Unit vectors X
described in {A}
A

XB
A
YB

A + r21 Y
A + r31 Z
A
= r11 X
A + r22 Y
A + r32 Z
A
= r12 X

A + r23 Y
A + r33 Z
A
= r13 X

ZB

(2)

rij , i, j = 1, 2, 3 are called direction cosines

B X
A
r11 =A X
Magnitude of unit vectors are 1 r11 is cosine of angle
B and X
A . All rij s are cosines of angles.
between A X

Define 3 3 rotation matrix A

B [R] with rij , i, j = 1, 2, 3 as
A
B.
B , and A Z
B , AY
its elements. Columns of B [R] are A X
A [R] completely describes all three coordinate axis of {B}
B
with respect to {A}.
A [R] gives orientation of rigid body B in {A}.
B
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O RIENTATION P ROPERTIES OF A
B [R]
The vector B p in rigid body B can be described in {A} by
A

B
p=A
B [R] p

(3)

The columns of the rotation matrix are unit vectors,

orthogonal to one another
AX
B A Z
B = 1, and
B =A Z
B A X
B =A Y
B A Y
AX
B A X
B = 0
B =A Z
B A Y
B =A Y
B A Z
The determinant of the rotation matrix is +11 .
TA
A
B [R] B [R] = [U], where [U] is a 3 3 identity matrix.

A
Inverse is same as transpose B
A [R] = B [R]

=A
B [R] .

, where = 1,
Three eigenvalues of A
B [R] are +1, e
and = cos1 ( r11 +r222+r33 1 ).
The eigenvector corresponding to +1 is
= (1/2 sin )[r32 r23 , r13 r31 , r21 r12 ]T , = {0, n },
k
where n is a natural number. For = {0, 2n }, there is no
rotation and = 2(n 1) needs to handled specially!
1 det(A [R]) = +1
B
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C )

is due to the use of a right-handed

.
.coordinate
.
.system.
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 )
O RIENTATION U SING (k,
fixed in {A} and {B}: A k
= A [R]B k
= 1B k.

Rotation axis k
B
First equality is transformation of a vector from {B} to
{A} and the second equality follows from equation (3) and
the definition of an eigenvector.
T
Elements of A
B [R] in terms of (kx , ky , kz ) and angle
r11 = kx 2 (1 cos ) + cos
r12 = kx ky (1 cos ) kz sin
r13 = kz kx (1 cos ) + ky sin
r21 = kx ky (1 cos ) + kz sin
r22 = ky 2 (1 cos ) + cos

(4)

r23 = ky kz (1 cos ) kx sin

r31 = kz kx (1 cos ) ky sin
r32 = ky kz (1 cos ) + kx sin
r33 = kz 2 (1 cos ) + cos
.

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O RIENTATION S IMPLE ROTATION

is parallel to X
A and hence to X
B
Rotation axis k

Rotation about X axis.

1
0
0
A

0 cos sin
B [R] = [R(X, )] =
0 sin cos

(5)

A
Z

{A}
B
Z

{B}
B

p
B
Y

OA , OB

Rotation about X
shown in Figure 3.

A
Y

A, X
B
X

Rigid Body B

by angle
Figure 3: Rotation about X
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S IMPLE ROTATIONS (C ONTD .)

and Z

Rotation about Y

cos
)] =
0
[R(Y,
sin

cos
)] = sin
[R(Z,
0

0 sin
1
0
0 cos

(6)

0
0
1

(7)

sin
cos
0

Rotation matrices in equations (5) through (7) called

simple rotations.

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S UCCESSIVE ROTATIONS
Two successive rotations:

....
..
...
1
2

Initially B is coincident with {A}.

First rotation relative to {A}. After first rotation
{A} {B1 }.
Second rotation relative to {B1 }. After second rotation
{B1 } {B}.

Resultant rotation:
A [R] = A [R] B1 [R] Note order
B
B1
B
of matrix multiplication.

A
Z
{A}
B
Z

{B}
B
Y
1

B
Z
1

B
Y
A
Y

OA ,OB1 ,OB

A
X

Rigid Body B
B1
X

B
X

Rigid Body B1

Figure 4: Successive rotation

A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C )

Resultant of n rotations
A [R] = A [R] B1 [R] ... Bn1 [R]
B
B1
B2
B
Matrix multiplication is non
commutative in general
A [R] B1 [R] = B1 [R] A [R]
B1
B1
B
B
Order of rotation is important!
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O RIENTATION T HREE A NGLES

Orientation described by 3 independent parameters
Three rotations completely describe orientation of a rigid
body.
Three successive rotations about axes fixed to moving body
Rotations about three distinct axes: 6 combinations
X-Y-Z, X-Z-Y, Y-Z-X, Y-X-Z, Z-X-Y & Z-Y-X
Rotations about two distinct axes: 6 combinations
X-Y-X, X-Z-X, Y-X-Y, Y-Z-Y, Z-X-Z, & Z-Y-Z

Rotations about axes fixed in space 12 possible

combinations for 3 and 2 distinct axes.
Minimal representation of orientation of rigid body Only
three parameters (angles) and no constraints.
Three angles also called Euler angles.
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XYZ E ULER ANGLES

1
0
0
A [R] = [R(X,
1 )] = 0 cos 1 sin 1
Rotation about X
B1
0 sin 1
cos 1

0 sin 2
cos 2
B
1
[R] = [R(Y,
2 )] =

0
1
0
Rotation about Y
B2
sin 2 0 cos 2
A, X
B1
X

{A}

B2
X

A, X
B1
X

{B1 }

{A}, {B1 }

{B}

B
X

{B2 }
1

{B2 }

A, X
B1
X
{A}, {B1 }

B2
X

B
Z
2

B
Z
1

B, Z
B
Z
2
B
Z
1

B1
Z
OA , OB

A
Z
A
Y

A
Y
B1
Y

OA , OB
2

A
Z

A
Z

OA , OB
A
Y
B
Y

B1 , Y
B2
Y

B
Y
1

Figure 5: XYZ Euler angles

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XYZ E ULER ANGLES (C ONTD .)

Rotation about Z

cos 3 sin 3 0
B2

sin 3 cos 3 0
B [R] = [R(Z, 3 )] =
0
0
1
B1
B2
A
=
Resultant rotation A
B [R] = B1 [R] B2 [R] B [R]

c2 c3
c2 s3
s2
s1 s2 c3 + s3 c1 s1 s2 s3 + c3 c1 s1 c2
c1 s2 c3 + s3 s1 c1 s2 s3 + c3 s1
c1 c2
Note: ci , si denote cos i and sin i , respectively.
A [R]
B
A [R]
B

gives orientation of {B} given XYZ angles.

will be different if order of rotations is different.

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XYZ E ULER ANGLES (C ONTD .)

Given A
B [R], find XYZ Euler angles.
Algorithm rij i for XYZ rotations
If r13 = 1, then

2 + r 2 ))
2 = atan2(r13 , (r11
12
1 = atan2(r23 / cos 2 , r33 / cos 2 )
3 = atan2(r12 / cos 2 , r11 / cos 2 )
Else
If r13 = 1, 1 = atan2(r21 , r22 ), 2 = /2, 3 = 0
If r31 = 1, 1 = atan2(r21 , r22 ), 2 = /2, 3 = 0
atan2(y , x): four-quadrant arc-tangent function (see
R
function atan2 in MATLAB
) 1 , 2 , 3 [ , ].
Two sets of values of 1 , 2 and 3 .

2 = /2 1 , 2 not unique 1 3 can be found.

Singularities in Euler angle representation.
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ZYZ E ULER ANGLES

A, Z
B1
Z
{A}

B
Z
2

{B1 }

{A}, {B1 }

{B2 }
1

B2 , Z
B
Z

A, Z
B
Z
1

B
Y
1

A, Z
B
Z
1
{A}

{B}

B
Y

B1 , Y
B2
Y
2

B , Y
B
Y
1
2
OA , OB
A
X

A
Y

OA , OB

A
X
B1
X

B1
X

A
Y

A
Y

OA , OB
A
X

B
X
2

B1
X

B
X
B2
X

Figure 6: ZYZ Euler angles

A [R]
B

c1 s1 0
c2
0 s2
s1
c1
0 0
1 0
s2 0 c2
0
1
0
c1 c2 c3 s1 s3 c1 c2 s3 s1 c3
s1 c2 c3 + c1 s3 s1 c2 s3 + c1 c3
s2 c3
s2 s3

c3
s3
0

c1 s2
s1 s2
c2

0
0
1

s3
c3
0

(8)
.

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ZYZ E ULER ANGLES (C ONTD .)

Algorithm rij ZYZ Euler angles
If r33 = 1, then
2 + r 2 ), r )
2 = atan2( (r31
33
32
1 = atan2(r23 / sin 2 , r13 / sin 2 )
3 = atan2(r32 / sin 2 , r31 / sin 2 )
Else
If r33 = 1, then
1 = 2 = 0, 3 = atan2(r12 , r11 )
If r33 = 1, then
1 = 0, 2 = , 3 = atan2(r12 , r11 )
Two possible sets of ZYZ Euler angles (1 , 2 , 3 ) for a
given A
B [R].
r33 = 1 Singularity 1 3 can be found.
For unique 1 and 3 when r33 = 1 Choose 1 = 0.
.

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OTHER R EPRESENTATIONS
Euler parameters (see Kane et al., 1983, McCarthy, 1990):
= (kx , ky , kz )T and angle
4 parameters derived from k
sin /2
3 parameters = k
fourth parameter 4 = cos /2
One constraint 1 2 + 2 2 + 3 2 + 4 2 = 1

Quaternions (pp. 185 Arfken(1985), Wolfram website2 ): 4

parameters
Sum of a scalar q0 and a vector (q1 , q2 , q3 )T

Q = q0 + q1i + q2j + q3 k.
i, j, and k
are the unit vectors in 3 .
Product of two quaternion also a quaternion.
Inverse of quaternion exists.
q02 + q12 + q22 + q32 = 1 Unit quaternion represent
orientation of a rigid body in 3 .
2 See

Known Bugs in Module 0, slide #10 for viewing

.
. links.
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O RIENTATION OF A R IGID B ODY

S UMMARY
Orientation of a rigid body in 3 is specified by 3
independent parameters.
Various representation of orientation with their own
advantages and disadvantages
Rotation matrix A
B [R] 9 rij s + 6 constraints Too
many variables and constraints but ideal for analysis.
Axis (kx , ky , kz )T and angle 4 parameters + one
constraint kx2 + ky2 + kz2 = 1 Useful for insight and
extension to screws, twists and wrenches.
Euler angles: 3 parameters and zero constraints Minimal
representation but suffer from problem of singularities and
sequence must be known.
Euler parameters and quaternions: 4 parameters +1
constraint Similar but not exactly same as axis-angle
form, no singularities, used in motion planning.

Can convert from one representation to any other for

regular cases!
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C OMBINED
T RANSLATION
AND
O RIENTATION OF A R IGID B ODY
A
Z

Rigid Body B

{A}

B
Z
{B}

OB
A
A

{A} and {B}, OA and

OB not coincident

OB

B
Y

Orientation of {B} with

respect to {A} A
B [R]
Ap

B
=A OB + A
B [R] p

AO

A
Y

OA
A
X

B locates OB with
respect to OA .

B
X

Figure 7: General transformation

.

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O UTLINE
.
. .1 C ONTENTS
.
. .2 L ECTURE 1
Mathematical Preliminaries
Homogeneous Transformation
..3 L ECTURE 2
.
Elements of a robot Joints
Elements of a robot Links
..4 L ECTURE 3
.
Examples of D-H Parameters & Link Transformation
Matrices
. L ECTURE 4
.
5
.
Elements of a robot Actuators & Transmission
..6 L ECTURE 5
.
Elements of a robot Sensors
..7 A DDITIONAL M ATERIAL
.
Problems, References, and Suggested Reading
.

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4 4 T RANSFORMATION M ATRIX
B
Combined translation and orientation A P = A
B [T ] P

and B P are 4 1 homogeneous coordinates (see

Additional Material) constructed by concatenating a 1 to
A p and B p
A P = [A p | 1]T and B P = [B p | 1]T
AP

4 4 homogeneous transformation matrix A

B [T ] is formed as
(
)
A [R]
AO
B
A
B
(9)
B [T ] =
0
0
0
1
In computer graphics and computer vision Last row is
used for perspective and scaling and not [0 0 0 1].
Upper left 3 3 matrix is identity matrix Pure
translation.
Top right 3 1 vector is zero Pure rotation.
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4 4 T RANSFORMATION M ATRIX
P ROPERTIES
A [T ] is given by
Inverse of (
B
)
A [R]T
A [R]T A O

A [T ]1 =
B
B
B
B
0
0
0
1

Two successive transformations {A} {B1 } {B} gives

1
=A
[T ] B
B
B [T ].
)
(1
A [R]B1 [R]
A [R]B1 O + A O
B
B1
A [T ] =
B1
B1
B
B
0
0
0
1
n successive transformations
A [T ] = A [T ] B1 [T ] ... Bn1 [T ]
B
B1
B2
B
A [T ]
B

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P ROPERTIES OF A
B [T ] (C ONTD .)
, same as for
Four eigenvalues of A
B [T ] are +1, +1, e

A [R].
B

No other eigenvector!
Eigenvectors for +1 is k
A [T ] represents the general motion of a rigid body in 3D
B
space 6 parameters must be present.
General motion of rigid body as a twist Rotation about
a line and translation along the line.
Direction of the line: (kx , ky , kz )T 2 independent
parameters.
Rotation about the line: angle 1 independent
parameter.
Y k)
where
Location of the line in 3 : (k,
T

Y=

A
([U]A
B [R] ) OB
2(1cos )

and Y k.

4 independent parameters in k
A

Translation along the line by an amount ( OB k).

More details about twists, eigenvalues and eigenvectors

(see Sangamesh Deepak and Ghosal, 2006).
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S UMMARY
A rigid body B in 3D space has 6 DOF with respect to
another rigid body A: 3 for position & 3 for orientation.

Definition of a right-handed coordinate system {A} X,

Y, Z and origin OA .
Rigid body B conceptually identical to a coordinate system
{B}.
Position of rigid body Position of a point of interest on
rigid body with respect to coordinate system {A} 3
Cartesian coordinates: A p = (px , py , pz )T .
Orientation described in many ways: 1) by 3 3 rotation

matrix A
B [R], 2) ( , k) or angle-axis form, 3) 3 Euler
angles, 4) Euler parameters & quaternions.
Algorithms available to convert one representation to
another.
4 4 homogeneous transformation matrix, A
B [T ], represent
position and orientation in a compact manner.
Properties of A
.
.
.
.
B [T ] can be related to a. screw.
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O UTLINE
.
. .1 C ONTENTS
.
. .2 L ECTURE 1
Mathematical Preliminaries
Homogeneous Transformation
..3 L ECTURE 2
.
Elements of a robot Joints
Elements of a robot Links
..4 L ECTURE 3
.
Examples of D-H Parameters & Link Transformation
Matrices
. L ECTURE 4
.
5
.
Elements of a robot Actuators & Transmission
..6 L ECTURE 5
.
Elements of a robot Sensors
..7 A DDITIONAL M ATERIAL
.
Problems, References, and Suggested Reading
.

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J OINTS I NTRODUCTION
A joint connects two or more links.
A joint imposes constraints on the links it connects.
2 free rigid bodies have 6 + 6 degrees of freedom.
Hinge joint connecting two free rigid bodies 6 + 1
degrees of freedom.
Hinge joint imposes 5 constraints, i.e., hinge joint allows 1
relative (rotary) degree of freedom.

Degree of freedom of a joint in 3D space: 6 m where m is

the number of constraint imposed.
Serial manipulators All joints actuated
One-degree-of-freedom joints used.
Parallel and hybrid manipulators Some joints passive
Multi-degree-of-freedom joints can be used.
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T YPES OF J OINTS
DOF

Figure 8: Types of joints

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C ONSTRAINTS IMPOSED
ROTARY (R) JOINT

BY

Rigid bodies, {i 1} and

{i}, connected by a rotary
(R) joint (Figure 9).

{i} can rotate about k,

{i}

Rigid Body i 1

Oi
i

with respect to {i 1}, by

angle i
0 [R] = 0 [R] i1 [R(k,
i )]
i
i1
i
Three independent
equations in the matrix
equation above; i is
unknown 2 constraints
in the 3 equations.

{i 1}
i1

Oi1

Rigid Body i

Oi1

Oi

Li

Rotary Joint

{0}

Figure 9: A rotary joint

For a common point P on the rotation axis along line Li

0 p =0 O
0
i1 p =0 O + 0 [R]i p 3 constraints
i1 + i1 [R]
i
i
.
.
.
.
.
present.
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C ONSTRAINTS IMPOSED BY
ROTARY (R) JOINT IN A LOOP

k
{i}
i

Rigid Body i 1

Oi
i

{i 1}
i1

Rotary joint in a
loop 2 ends {L}
and {R}.

Oi1

Oi

Rigid Body i

Li
L

Rotary Joint
{R}

Oi1

{L}

Figure 10: A rotary joint in a loop

L [R]
i

L [R] i1 [R(k,
i )]
i1
i

Two constraints in
=
= LR [R]R
i [R]
since i is an unknown variable.
Three constraints in
L p =L O
L
i1 p =L D +R O + R [R]i p
i1 + i1 [R]
i
i
.

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C ONSTRAINTS IMPOSED
PRISMATIC (P) JOINT
Two rigid bodies,
{i 1} and {i},
connected by a
sliding/prismatic (P)
joint
Orientation of {i} is
same as {i 1} 3
independent constraints
in 0i [R] = 0i1 [R]
{i} can slide by di ,
along Li , with respect
to {i 1}

BY

k
{i}

Rigid Body i 1

Oi
di
i

{i 1}
i1

Rigid Body i

Oi1

0
0
0

Oi1

Li

Oi

Prismatic Joint

{0}

Figure 11: A prismatic joint

=0 Oi + 0 [R]i p
2 constraints in 0 Oi1 + 0i1 [R]i1 p + di k
i
since di is an unknown variable.
.

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C ONSTRAINTS IMPOSED
SPHERICAL (S) JOINT

BY

{i}
Rigid Body i 1

Spherical(S) or ball and

socket joint allows three
rotations.
S joint can be
represented as 3
intersecting rotary(R)
joints.

{i 1}

i1

Rigid Body i

0
0

Oi1

Oi

Spherical Joint

{0}

Figure 12: A spherical joint

3 constraints:

0p

=0

Oi1 + 0i1 [R]i1 p

.

A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C )

=0 Oi + 0i [R]i p
.

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C ONSTRAINTS IMPOSED
H OOKE (U) JOINT

BY

Common in many parallel manipulators.

Equivalent to two intersecting rotary (R) joints Two
degrees of freedom 4 constraints.
For a common point P at the intersection of two rotation
axes 0 p =0 Oi1 + 0i1 [R]i1 p =0 Oi + 0i [R]i p 3
constraints.
0 [R] = 0 [R] i1 [R(k , )][R(k , )] Only 1
1 1
2 2
i

i1

constraint present as 1i and 2i are unknown rotations

1 and k
2
about k

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C ONSTRAINTS IMPOSED BY A
SPHERICAL - SPHERICAL (SS) JOINT
PAIR

Rigid Body j
{j}
Sj

Rigid Body i

lij

Si

The SS pair appear

in many parallel
manipulators.
Distance between
two spherical joint is
constant.

Sj

{i}
i

Si

S-S Pair
R

Oi

Sj

Si

{L}

Figure 13: A SS pair in a loop

One constraint equation

(L Si (L D +R Sj )) (L Si (L D +R Sj )) = lij2 , lij is a
constant.
.
.
.
.
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O UTLINE
.
. .1 C ONTENTS
.
. .2 L ECTURE 1
Mathematical Preliminaries
Homogeneous Transformation
..3 L ECTURE 2
.
Elements of a robot Joints
Elements of a robot Links
..4 L ECTURE 3
.
Examples of D-H Parameters & Link Transformation
Matrices
. L ECTURE 4
.
5
.
Elements of a robot Actuators & Transmission
..6 L ECTURE 5
.
Elements of a robot Sensors
..7 A DDITIONAL M ATERIAL
.
Problems, References, and Suggested Reading
.

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L INKS I NTRODUCTION
A link A is a rigid body in 3D space Can be described
by a coordinate system {A}.
A rigid body in 3 has 6 degrees of freedom 3 rotation
+ 3 translation 6 parameters (see Lecture 1)
For links connected by rotary (R) and prismatic (P),
possible to use 4 parameters Denavit-Hartenberg
(D-H)parameters (see Denavit & Hartenberg, 1955).
4 parameters since lines related to rotary(R) and prismatic
(P) joint axis are used.
For multi-degree-of-freedom joints Use equivalent
number of one-degree-of-freedom joints.

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L INKS D ENAVIT-H ARTENBERG

(D-H) PARAMETERS
A word about conventions Several ways to derive D-H
parameters!
Convention used:

....
..
...
...
1
2

Coordinate system {i} is attached to the link i.

Origin of {i} lies on the joint axis i Link i is after joint
i.
after for serial manipulators Numbers increasing from
fixed {0} Link 1 {1} . . . Free end {n}.
after for parallel manipulators Not so straight-forward
due to one or more loops.

Convention same as in Craig (1986) or Ghosal(2006).

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A SSIGNMENT OF COORDINATE AXES

Three intermediate links {i 1}, {i} and {i + 1}.
i1 , Z
i and Z
i+1 .
Rotary joint axis Labeled Z
i+1
Z

X
i
Z

i1
Z
{i 1}

Link i
{i}

Oi

Link i + 1
Link i 1

Link i 2

di
Li+1

i1
0
Z

i1
X

{0}

Li
Li1

Oi1

ai1

0
Y
0
X

Figure 14: Intermediate links and D-H parameters

.

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D-H PARAMETERS A SSIGNMENT

OF COORDINATE AXIS (C ONTD .)
For coordinate system {i 1}
i 1 is along joint axis i 1.
Z
i 1 is chosen along the common perpendicular between
X
lines Li 1 and Li .
i 1 = Z
i 1 X
i 1 Right-handed coordinate system.
Y
The origin Oi 1 is the point of intersection of the mutual
perpendicular line and the line Li 1 .

i is along the joint axis i, X

i
For coordinate system {i}: Z
i and Z
i+1 ,
is along the common perpendicular between Z
and the origin of {i}, Oi , is the point of intersection of the
i and line along Z
i (see Figure 14).
line along X

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D-H PARAMETERS FOR LINK i

Twist angle i1 Twist angle for link i has subscript
i 1!

Angle between joints axis i 1 and i & measured about

i 1 using right-hand rule (see Figure 14).
X
Signed quantity between 0 and radians.

Link length ai1 Link length for link i is ai1 !

Distance between joints axis i 1 and i & measured along

i 1 (see Figure 14).
X
Always a positive quantity.

Link offset di
i from X
i 1 to X
i Can be < 0.
Measured along Z
Joint i rotary di constant.
Joint i prismatic di is joint variable (see Figure 14).

Rotation angle i

i 1 and X
i measured about Z
i using
Angle between X
right-hand rule Between 0 and radians.
Joint i is prismatic i is constant.
Joint i rotary i is joint variable (see Figure 14).
.

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D-H PARAMETERS S PECIAL CASES

Consecutive joints axis parallel common
perpendiculars
i 1 = 0, , ai 1 along any common perpendicular.
Joint i is rotary (R) di is taken as zero.
Joint i is prismatic (P) i is taken as zero.
Consecutive P joints parallel d s not independent!

Consecutive joints axis intersecting ai1 = 0 and X

normal to plane.
0 and thereby X
1 is arbitrary.
First link {1}: choice of Z
R joint Choose {0} and {1} coincident &
i 1 = ai 1 = 0, di = 0.
P joint Choose {0} and {1} parallel &
i 1 = ai 1 = i = 0.

n+1 not defined

Last link {n}: Z

R joint Origins of {n} and {n + 1} are chosen

n1 aligns with X
n.
coincident & dn = 0 and n = 0 when X

P joint Xn is chosen such that n = 0 & origin On is

n1 and Z
n when dn = 0.
chosen at the intersection of X
.

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L INK TRANSFORMATION MATRICES

Four D-H parameters describe link i with respect to link
i 1
Orientation of of {i} with respect to {i 1} is given by
i 1
i 1 )][R(Z,
i )]
[R] = [R(X,
i
Location of origin of {i} with respect to {i 1} is given by
i 1
i 1 + di i 1 Z
i
Oi = ai 1 i 1 X

i1 = (1, 0, 0)T . The vector i1 Z

i is the last
Recall i1 X
i1
T
3
column of i [R] and is (0, si 1 , ci 1 ) .
The 4 4 transformation matrix relating {i} with respect
to {i 1} is

ci
si
0
ai1
s c

i1
i i 1 ci ci 1 si 1 si 1 di (10)
i [T ] = s s
ci 1
ci 1 di
i i 1 ci si 1
0
0
0
1
3 The symbols s
i 1 , ci 1 denote sin(i1 ) and cos(i1 ),
respectively. Please see Notations in Module 0. .
.
.
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L INK TRANSFORMATION MATRICES

i1
i [T ] is a function only
i1 O locates a point on
i

one joint variable di or i .

the joint axis i at the beginning of

link i.
Position and orientation of link i determined by i1 and
ai1 . Note: subscript i 1 in the twist angle and length!
The mix of subscripts are a consequences of the D-H
convention used!
Link i with respect to {0} 0i [T ] = 01 [T ] 12 [T ] ...

i1
i [T ]

The positioin and orientation of any link can be obtained

with respect any other link by suitable use of 4 4 link
transformation matrices.

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S UMMARY
Two elements of robots Links and joints.
Joints allow relative motion between connected links
Joints impose constraints.
Serial robots mainly use one-degree-of-freedom rotary (R)
and prismatic (P) actuated joints.
Parallel and hybrid robots use passive
multi-degree-of-freedom joints and actuated
one-degree-of-freedom joints.

One degree-o-freedom R and P joints represented by lines

is along joint axis.
along joint axis Z
Formulation of constraints imposed by various kinds of
joints.
Link is a rigid body in 3D space Represented by 4
Denavit-Hartenberg (D-H) parameters.
Convention to derive D-H parameters and for special cases.
4 4 link transformation matrix in terms of D-H
parameters.
.

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O UTLINE
.
. .1 C ONTENTS
.
. .2 L ECTURE 1
Mathematical Preliminaries
Homogeneous Transformation
..3 L ECTURE 2
.
Elements of a robot Joints
Elements of a robot Links
..4 L ECTURE 3
.
Examples of D-H Parameters & Link Transformation
Matrices
. L ECTURE 4
.
5
.
Elements of a robot Actuators & Transmission
..6 L ECTURE 5
.
Elements of a robot Sensors
..7 A DDITIONAL M ATERIAL
.
Problems, References, and Suggested Reading
.

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S ERIAL M ANIPULATORS
Steps to obtain D-H parameters for a n link serial
manipulator (see Lecture 2 for details)

....
...
..
....
..
...
1
2
3

4
5

Label joint axis from 1 (fixed) to n free end.

i to joint axis i, i = 1, 2, ..., n.
Assign Z
i 1
Obtain mutual perpendiculars between lines along Z

and Zi Xi 1 .
Origin Oi 1 on joint axis i 1.
Handle special cases a) consecutive joint axes parallel
and perpendicular, b) first and last link
Obtain 4 D-H parameters for link i, i 1 , ai 1 , di and i .

For each link i obtain

i1
i [T ]

using equation (10).

Obtain link transform for link i with respect to fixed

coordinate system {0}, 0i [T ], by matrix multiplication.
Obtain, if required, ij [T ] by appropriate matrix operations.
.

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P LANAR 3R
A SSIGNMENT

M ANIPULATOR
OF

COORDINATE

SYSTEMS
3, X
T ool
X

All 3 rotary joint axis

i parallel and pointing
Z
out.
0 is pointing
{0} Z
0 and Y
0
out, X
pointing to the right
and top, respectively.
Origin O0 is coincident
with O1 shown in
figure.

{T ool}
T ool
Y

2
X

Link 3
l3

O3
{3}

3
Y

0
Y
1
Y

Link 2
l2

2
Y

1
X

{2}

{0}
O2

{1}

Link 1

l1
1

0
X

O1

Figure 15: The planar 3R manipulator

.

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P LANAR 3R
A SSIGNMENT

M ANIPULATOR
OF

COORDINATE

SYSTEMS
1 are coincident with O0 and Z
0.
For {1} origin O1 and Z
1 and Y
1 are coincident with X
0 and Y
0 when 1 is zero.
X
1 is along the mutual perpendicular between Z
1 and Z
2.
X
2 is along the mutual perpendicular between Z
2 and Z
3.
X
3 is aligned to X
2 when 3 = 0.
For {3}, X
O2 is located at the intersection of the mutual
2 and Z
2.
perpendicular along X
O3 is chosen such that d3 is zero.
The origins and the axes of {1}, {2}, and {3} are shown in
Figure 15.
.

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P LANAR 3R M ANIPULATOR D-H

TABLE
From the assigned axes and origins, the D-H parameters are as
follows:
i i1 ai1 di i
1
0
0
0 1
2
0
l1
0 2
3
0
l2
0 3
l1 and l2 are the link lengths and i , i = 1, 2, 3 are rotary
joint variables (see Figure 15).
Length of the end-effector l3 does not appear in the table
Recall: D-H parameters are till the origin which is at the
beginning of a link!
For end-effector frame, {Tool }:
Axis of {Tool } parallel to {3} 3Tool [R] is identity matrix.
Origin of {Tool } at the mid-point of the parallel jaw
3.
gripper, at a distance of l3 from O3 along X
.

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P LANAR 3R M ANIPULATOR L INK

TRANSFORMS
Substitute elements of first row
of D-H table in
c1 s1 0 0

s1 c1 0 0

equation (10) to get 01 [T ] =

0
0 1 0
0
0 0 1
The second
row of the D-Htable gives
c2 s2 0 l1

c2 0 0
1 [T ] = s2

2
0
0 1 0
0
0 0 1
Finally,
third row of D-H table
gives
c3 s3 0 l2

c3 0 0
2 [T ] = s3

3
0
0 1 0
0
0 0 1
.

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P LANAR 3R M ANIPULATOR : L INK

TRANSFORMS (C ONTD .)

The

3
Tool [T ]

is obtained as

3
Tool [T ]

1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
4
and
get

0
0
1
2
To obtain
3 [T ] multiply 1 [T ] 2 [T ] 3 [T ]
c123 s123 0 l1 c1 + l2 c12

c123 0 l1 s1 + l2 s12
0 [T ] = s123

0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
To obtain Tool [T ], multiply 3 [T ] 3Tool [T ]

c123 s123 0 l1 c1 + l2 c12 + l3 c123

0
s123 c123 0 l1 s1 + l2 s12 + l3 s123
Tool [T ] = 0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1

l3
0

0
1

symbols s12 , c123 denote sin(1 + 2 ) and cos(1 + 2 + 3 ),

.
.
.
respectively. Please see Notations in Module 0. .
4 The

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PUMA 560 M ANIPULATOR

The PUMA 560 is a six-degree-of-freedom manipulator with all
rotary joints Figure 16 shows assigned coordinate systems.
2
Z
{2}

2
X
2
Y

1
Z
{1}

3
Z

1
Y

{3}

O3
1
X
a2

3
X

d4
4
X

3
Y
d3

{4}

3
X

O1 , O2

a3
O4

O3

3
Y

6
X

5
X
{5}

{6}

4
X

4
Y

4
Z

{3}

6
Z
{4}

4
Z

(a) The PUMA 560 manipulator

5
Y
O4 , O5 , O6

(b) PUMA 560 - forearm and wrist

Figure 16: The PUMA 560 manipulator

.

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PUMA 560 M ANIPULATOR D-H

PARAMETERS
The D-H parameters for the PUMA 560 manipulator (see
Figure 16) are
i

i1

ai1

di

1
2
3
4
5
6

0
/2
0
/2
/2
/2

0
0
a2
a3
0
0

0
0
d3
d4
0
0

1
2
3
4
5
6

Note: i , i = 1, 2, ..., 6 are the six joint variables.

.

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PUMA 560 M ANIPULATOR L INK

TRANSFORMS
Substituting elements of row #1
of D-H table and
using
c1 s1 0 0
s1 c1 0 0

equation (10), we get 01 [T ] =

0
0 1 0
0
0 0 1

c2 s2 0 0
0
0 1 0

From row # 2, we get 12 [T ] =

s2 c2 0 0
0
0 0 1

c3 s3 0 a2
s3 c3 0 0

From row # 3, we get 23 [T ] =

0
0 1 d3
0
0 0 1
.

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PUMA 560 M ANIPULATOR : L INK

TRANSFORMS (C ONTD .)

c4 s4 0

0
0 1
From row # 4 , we get 34 [T ] =
s4 c4 0
0
0 0

c5 s5 0

0
0 1
From row # 5 , we get 45 [T ] =
s 5 c5
0
0
0
0

c6 s6 0

0
0 1
From row # 6 , we get 56 [T ] =
s6 c6 0
0
0 0
.

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a3
d4

0
1

0
0

0
1

0
0

0
1
.

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PUMA 560 M ANIPULATOR : L INK

TRANSFORMS (C ONTD .)
{3} with respect to {0} is given by
= 01 [T ]12 [T ]23 [T ] =

c1 c23 c1 s23 s1 a2 c1 c2 d3 s1
s1 c23 s1 s23 c1 a2 s1 c2 + d3 c1

s23 c23

0
a2 s2
0
0
0
1
{6} with respect to {3} is given by
3 [T ] = 3 [T ]4 [T ]5 [T ] =
6
4
5
6

c4 c5 c6 s4 s6 c4 c5 s6 s4 c6 c4 s5

s5 c6
s5 s6
c5

s4 c5 c6 c4 s6 s4 c5 s6 c4 c6
s4 s5
0
0
0
Can obtain any required link transformation
D-H is table known!
0 [T ]
3

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a3
d4

0
1
matrix once
.

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SCARA M ANIPULATOR
SCARA Selective
Compliance Assembly
Robot Arm

Z 2
Z 1

2
{ 2}

{ 1}

Very popular for robotic

assembly

X 2
X 1
d3
{ 3}
O 0, O1

O2

Z 3

{ 4}

O3, O4

Capability of desired
compliance and rigidity
in selected directions.
Three rotary(R) joint
and one prismatic (P)
joint.
A 4 DOF manipulator.

Figure 17: A SCARA manipulator

.

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SCARA

M ANIPULATOR :

D-H

PARAMETERS
{0} and {1} have same origin & origins of {3} and {4}
chosen at the base of the parallel jaw gripper.
3 chosen pointing upward (see Figure 17).
Directions of Z
Note: Actual SCARA manipulator has ball-screw at the
third joint We assume P joint.
D-H Table for SCARA robot
i i1 ai1
1
0
0
2
0
a1
3
0
a2
4
0
0

A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C )

di
0
0
d3
0

i
1
2
0
4

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SCARA

M ANIPULATOR

L INK

TRANSFORMS
Using equation (10) and the D-H table, link transforms can be
obtainedas

c1 s1 0 0
c2 s2 0 a1

c1 0 0
0 [T ] = s1
, 1 [T ] = s2 c2 0 0
1
0
0
0 1 0 2
0 1 0
0
0 0 1
0
0 0 1

1 0 0 a2
c4 s4 0 0

0
2 [T ] = 0 1 0
, 3 [T ] = s4 c4 0 0
3
4
0 0 1 d3
0
0 1 0
0 0 0
1
0
0 0 1
The transformation matrix 04
[T ] is

c124 s124 0 a1 c1 + a2 c12

c124 0 a1 s1 + a2 s12
0 [T ] = 0 [T ]1 [T ]2 [T ] 3 [T ] = s124

4
1
2
3
4

0
0
1
d3
0
0
0
1
.

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PARALLEL M ANIPULATORS

Extend idea of D-H parameters to a closed-loop

mechanism/parallel manipulator.
Key idea Break a parallel manipulator into serial
manipulators.
Obtain D-H parameters for serial manipulators.
Several ways to break
Choose one that leads to simple serial manipulators

During analysis Combine serial manipulators using

constraints

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PARALLEL M ANIPULATORS : 4- BAR

M ECHANISM

Rotary joints 1 and

4 fixed to ground at
two places.

Link 2
l2

{L}

Break 4-bar
mechanism into two
serial manipulators.

L
Y
l1

Link 3

Link 1

l3

R
Y
{R}
1

L
X

l0
R
X

OR
OL

Break at joint 3
A 2R planar
manipulator + a 1R
manipulator

Figure 18: A planar four-bar mechanism

.

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4- BAR

M ECHANISM

D-H

PARAMETERS

For 2R planar manipulator D-H parameter with respect

to {L}

i1 ai1
0
0
0
l1
For 1R planar manipulator D-H
to {R}
i i1 ai1
1
0
0
i
1
2

i
1
2
parameters with respect
di
0
0

i
1

di
0

The constant transform LR [T ] is known.

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PARALLEL M ANIPULATORS : T HREE

DOF E XAMPLE
p(x, y, z)

Moving Platform

S2

S3

l2

S1
l3

2
l1
Axis of R2
3

{Base}
O

Y
1

Base Platform

Top (moving) platform &

(fixed) bottom platform
are equilateral triangles.
Figure 19 shows the home
need not
position and Z
pass through top platform
centre always.
Three legs Each leg is
of R-P-S configuration.
Three P joints actuated.

Axis of R3

Axis of R1

Figure 19: A three DOF parallel

manipulator
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C )

Spatial 3- DOF parallel

manipulator.

First proposed by Lee and

Shah (1988) as a parallel
wrist.
.

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T HREE DOF
PARAMETERS

E XAMPLE :

D-H

D-H parameter for first leg with respect to {L1 }

i1 ai1 di i
0
0
0 1
/2
0
l1 0
D-H parameter for all R-P-S leg same except the reference
coordinate system.
{L1 }, {L2 }, and {L3 } are at the three rotary joints R1 , R2 ,
and R3 , respectively.
{Base} is located at the centre of the base platform &
Base [T ], i = 1, 2, 3, are constant and known.
Li
Note: The angle 1 shown in figure is same as /2 1 .
i
1
2

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T HREE

DOF

E XAMPLE :

L INK

TRANSFORMATION MATRICES

c1
s1
L1

1 [T ] = 0
0

s1
c1
0
0

0
0
1
0

0
0
,
0
1

1 [T ] = 0
2
0
0

0
0
1
0

0
l1

0
1

0
1
0
0

is an identity matrix {S1 } is located at the centre

of the spherical joint and parallel to {2}.
2 [T ]
S1

Base [T ]
S1

L1
1
2
= Base
L1 [T ]1 [T ]2 [T ]S1 [T ]

Location of spherical joint S1 with respect to {Base} from

= (b l1 cos 1 , 0, l1 sin 1 )T , b is the
from the origin of {Base} (see figure 19).

Base [T ] Base S
1
S1
distance of R1

Location of S2 and S3

Base S = ( b + 1 l cos , 3b 3l2 cos , l sin )T

2
2 2
2 2
2
2
2 2
2

Base S

= ( b2 + 12 l3 cos 3 ,

3b
2

3l3
2
.

A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C )

cos 3 , l3 sin 3 )T
.

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PARALLEL M ANIPULATORS :
DOF E XAMPLE

Moving platform
connected to fixed base
by three chains.

Z
2
d

d
b2

Each chain is R-R-R &

S joint at top.

l23

l22

l11

b1

l 21

l12
1

l13

p2
s

l33
b3

l 31

l32

3
X

Figure 20: A six DOF parallel (hybrid)

manipulator
A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C )

p1

S IX

p3

Model of a
three-fingered hand
(Salisbury, 1982)
gripping an object with
point contact and
no-slip.
Each finger modeled
with R-R-R joints and
point of contact
modeled as S joint.
.

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S IX

DOF

PARAMETERS

E XAMPLE :
AND

LINK

D-H
TRANS -

FORMS
D-H parameters for R-R-R chain.
i i1 ai1
1
0
0
2 /2
l11
3
0
l12

i
1
1
1
D-H parameter does not contain last link length l13 .
D-H parameters for three fingers with respect to
{Fi }, i = 1, 2, 3 identical.
Can obtain transformation matrix Fpii [T ] by matrix
multiplication.
di
0
0
0

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S IX

DOF

E XAMPLE :
TRANSFORMS (C ONTD .)

L INK

Positionvector of spherical joint i

cos i (li1 + li2 cos i + li3 cos(i + i ))

Fi p = sin (l + l cos + l cos( + ))
i i1
i2
i
i3
i
i
i
li2 sin i + li3 sin(i + i )
With respect to {Base}, the locations of {Fi }, i = 1, 2, 3,
are known and constant (see Figure (20))
Base b = (0, d , h)T Base b = (0, d , h)T Base b = (0, 0, 0)T
1
2
3
Orientation of {Fi }, i = 1, 2, 3, with respect to {Base} are
also known - {F1 } and {F2 } are parallel to {Base} and
(not shown in figure!).
{F3 } is rotated by about the Y
The transformation matrices Base
pi [T ] is
Base [T ]0 [T ]1 [T ]2 [T ]3 [T ] Last transformation includes
p1
1
2
3
F1
l13 .
.

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S IX

DOF

E XAMPLE :
TRANSFORMS (C ONTD .)

L INK

Extract the position vector Base p1 from the last column of

Base [T ] Base p =Base b +F1 p =
1
1
1
F1

cos 1 (l11 + l12 cos 1 + l13 cos(1 + 1 ))

d + sin 1 (l11 + l12 cos 1 + l13 cos(1 + 1 ))
h + l12 sin 1 + l13 sin(1 + 1 )
Similarly for

second leg
cos 2 (l21 + l22 cos 2 + l23 cos(2 + 2 ))
Base p = d + sin (l + l cos + l cos( + ))
2 21
22
2
23
2
2
2
h + l22 sin 2 + l23 sin(2 + 2 )
For third
leg

Base p
3

cos 3 (l31 + l32 cos 3 + l33 cos(3 + 3 ))

)] sin 3 (l31 + l32 cos 3 + l33 cos(3 + 3 ))
[R(Y,
l32 sin 3 + l33 sin(3 + 3 )
.

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S UMMARY

D-H parameters obtained for serial manipulators Planar

3R, PUMA 560, SCARA
To obtain D-H parameters for parallel manipulators
Break parallel manipulator into serial manipulators.
Obtain D-H parameters for each serial chain.
Examples of 4-bar mechanism, 3-degree-of-freedom and
6-degree-of-freedom parallel manipulators.

Can extract position vectors of point of interest &

orientation of links from link transforms.
Kinematic analysis, using the concepts presented here,
discussed in Module 3 and Module 4.

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O UTLINE
.
. .1 C ONTENTS
.
. .2 L ECTURE 1
Mathematical Preliminaries
Homogeneous Transformation
..3 L ECTURE 2
.
Elements of a robot Joints
Elements of a robot Links
..4 L ECTURE 3
.
Examples of D-H Parameters & Link Transformation
Matrices
. L ECTURE 4
.
5
.
Elements of a robot Actuators & Transmission
..6 L ECTURE 5
.
Elements of a robot Sensors
..7 A DDITIONAL M ATERIAL
.
Problems, References, and Suggested Reading
.

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ACTUATORS FOR ROBOTS

Actuators are required to move joints, provide power and

do work.
Serial robot actuators must be of low weight Actuators of
distal links need to be moved by actuators near the base.
Parallel robots Often actuators are at the base.
Actuators drive a joint through a transmission device
Three commonly used types of actuators:
Hydraulic
Pneumatic
Electric motors

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ACTUATORS FOR ROBOTS

Source: http://www.hocdelam.org/vn/category/ho-tro/robotandcontrol/

Figure 21: Examples of actuators used in robots

.

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ACTUATORS
H YDRAULIC

FOR

ROBOTS

Early industrial robots were driven by hydraulic actuators.

Pump supplies high-pressure fluid (typically oil) to a linear
cylinders, rotary vane actuator or a hydraulic motor at the
joint!
Large force capabilities.
Large power-weight ratio The pump, electric motor
driving the pump, accumulator etc. stationary and not
considered in the weight calculation!
Control is by means of on/off solenoid valves or
servo-valves controlled electronically.
The entire system consisting of Electric motor, pump,
accumulator, cylinders etc. is bulky and often expensive
Limited to big robots.
.

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ACTUATORS
P NEUMATIC

FOR

ROBOTS

Similar to hydraulic actuators but working fluid is air.

Similar to hydraulic actuators, air is supplied from a
compressor to cylinders and flow of air is controlled by
solenoid or servo controlled valves.
Less force and power capabilities.
Less expensive than hydraulic drives.
Chosen where electric drives are discouraged or for safety
or environmental reasons such as in pharmaceutical and
food packaging industries.
Closed-loop servo-controlled manipulators have been
developed for many applications.
.

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C OMPARISON OF P NEUMATIC
H YDRAULIC ACTUATORS

&

Air used in pneumatic actuators is clean and safe.

Oil in hydraulic actuator can be a health and fire hazard
especially if there is a leakage.
Pneumatic actuators are typically light-weight, portable
and faster.
Air is compressible (oil is incompressible) and hence
pneumatic actuators are harder to control.
Hydraulic actuators have the largest force/power density
compared to any actuator.
With compressors, accumulators and other components,
the space requirement is larger than electric actuators.
.

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ACTUATORS
FOR
E LECTRIC M OTORS

ROBOTS

Electric or electromagnetic actuators are widely used in

robots.
Readily available in wide variety of shape, sizes, power and
torque range.
Very easily mounted and/or connected with transmission
elements such as gears, belts and timing chains.
Amenable to modern day digital control.
Main types of electric actuators:
Stepper motors
Permanent magnet DC servo-motor
Brushless motors

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E LECTRIC ACTUATORS S TEPPER

M OTORS
Used in small robots with small payload and low speeds.
Stepper motors are of permanent magnet, hybrid or
variable reluctance type.
Actuated by a sequence of pulses For a single pulse,
rotor rotates by a known step such that poles on stator and
rotor are aligned.
Typical step size is 1.8 or 0.9 .
Speed and direction can be controlled by frequency of
pulses.
Can be used in open-loop as cumulative error and
maximum error is one step!
Micro-stepping possible with closed-loop feedback control.
.

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S TEPPER M OTORS

Parts of a Stepper Motor

http://www.engineersgarage.com/articles/stepper-motors

http://www.societyofrobots.com/member_tutorials/node/28

Variable Reluctance (VR) Stepper Motors

Number of teeth in the inner rotor (permanent magnet) is different than the number of teeth in stator.
1) Electro-magnet 1 is activated Rotor rotates up such that nearest teeth line up.
2) Electro-magnet 1 is deactivated and 2 is turned on Rotor rotates such that nearest teeth line up
rotation is by a step (designed amount) of typically 1.8 or 0.9 degrees.
3) Electro-magnet 2 is deactivated and 3 is turned on Rotor rotates by another step.
4) Electro-magnet 3 is deactivated and 4 is turned on and cycle repeated.

Permanent Magnet (PM) Stepper Motors Similar to VR but rotor is radially magnetized.
Hybrid Stepper Motors Combines best features of VR and PM stepper motors.

Figure 22: Stepper motor components and working principle

.

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S TEPPER M OTORS
Typically stepper motors have two phases.
Four stepping modes
Wave drive Only one phase/winding is on/energized
Torque output is smaller.
Full step drive Both phases are on at the same time
Rated performance.
Half step drive Combine wave and full-step drive
Angular movement half of first two.
Micro-stepping Current is varying continuously
Smaller than 1.8 or 0.9 degree step size, lower torque.

Choice of a stepper motor based on:

Load, friction and inertia Higher load can cause slipping!
Torque-speed curve and quantities such as holding torque,
pull-in and pull-out curve.
Torque-speed characteristic determined by the drive
Bipolar chopper drives for best performance.
Maximum slew-rate: maximum operating frequency with
no load (related to maximum speed).
.

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E LECTRIC ACTUATORS DC/AC

S ERVO - MOTORS
Rotor is a permanent magnet and stator is a coil.
Permanent magnets with rare earth materials
(Samarium-Cobalt, Neodymium) can provide large
magnetic fields and hence high torques.
Commutation done using brushes or in brushless motor
using Hall-effect sensors and electronics.
Widely available in large range of shape, sizes, power and
torque range and low cost.
Easy to control with optical encoder/tacho-generators
mounted in-line with rotor.
Brushless AC and DC servo-motors have low friction, low
maintenance, low cost and are robust.
.

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DC S ERVO M OTORS

http://www.brushlessdcmotorparts.info http://www.rc-book.com/wiki
/brushless-electric-motor

Slotted-brushless DC Servo motors

http://www.motioncontroltips.com/

Small RC Servo motors

http://www.drivecontrol-details.info
/rc-servo-motor.html

Direct drive motor, Applimotion, Inc

http://news.thomasnet.com/
company_detail.html?cid=20082162

Brushless Hub motor for E-bike

http://visforvoltage.org/
system-voltage/49-60-volts

Figure 23: Examples of DC servo motors

See also Wikipedia entry on electric motors.

.
.
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M ODEL

OF

DC

PERMANENT

MAGNET MOTOR

Rotor is a
permanent magnet.

La

Ra

Stator Armature
coil with resistance
Ra and inductance
La .

ia
Va
Motor

Applied voltage Va ,
ia current in coil.

Rotation speed of
motor m
Figure 24: Model of a permanent magnet DC
servo-motor
Mechanical part.
Torque developed Tm = Kt ia Kt is constant.
Back-emf V = Kg m Kg is constant.
Motor dynamics can be modeled as first-order ODE
La ia + Ra ia + Kg m = Va
.
.
.
.
.
Mechatronic model Mechanical + Electrical/Electronics

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D RIVE FOR DC SERVO - MOTOR

PWM Circuit for One-direction Control speed by varying duty ratio

H Bridge: Four switches using MOSFETS and diodes

Input A and B and the diagonal transistors can be used to change direction.
Input A
Input B
Motor Function
Transistor TR1 & TR4
0
1
0
1

Transistor TR2 & TR4

0
0
1
1

Motor OFF
Forward direction
Reverse direction
Not Allowed

PWM and H-Bridge control both speed and direction of motor

Figure 25: PWM and H-bridge for DC servo motors

.

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T RANSMISSIONS USED IN ROBOTS

Purpose of transmission is to transfer power from source to
load.
The purpose of a transmission is also to transfer power at
appropriate speed.
Typical rated speed of a DC motor is between 1800 & 3600
rpm.
3000 rpm = 60 rps 360 radians/sec.
For a (typical) 1 m link Tip speed is 36 m/sec
Greater than speed of sound!
Need for large reduction in speed.

Transmissions can (if needed) also convert rotary to linear

motion and vice-versa.
Transmissions also transfer motion to different joints and
to different directions.
.

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T RANSMISSIONS USED IN ROBOTS

Transmissions in robots are decided based on motion, load
and power requirements, and by the placement of actuator
relative to the joint.
Transmissions for robots must be (a)stiff, (b) low weight,
(c) backlash free, and (d) efficient.
Direct drives with motor directly connected to joint. It has
advantages of low friction and low backlash but are
expensive.
Typical transmissions
Gear boxes of various kinds Spur, worm and worm wheel,
planetary etc..
Belts and chain drives.
Harmonic drive for large reduction.
Ball screws and rack-pinion drives To transform rotary to
linear motions.
Kinematic linkages 4-bar linkage.
.

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T RANSMISSIONS USED IN ROBOTS

Figure 26: Examples of transmissions used in robots

.

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O UTLINE
.
. .1 C ONTENTS
.
. .2 L ECTURE 1
Mathematical Preliminaries
Homogeneous Transformation
..3 L ECTURE 2
.
Elements of a robot Joints
Elements of a robot Links
..4 L ECTURE 3
.
Examples of D-H Parameters & Link Transformation
Matrices
. L ECTURE 4
.
5
.
Elements of a robot Actuators & Transmission
..6 L ECTURE 5
.
Elements of a robot Sensors
..7 A DDITIONAL M ATERIAL
.
Problems, References, and Suggested Reading
.

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I NTRODUCTION
A robot without sensors is like a human being without eyes,
ears, sense of touch, etc.
Sensor-less robots require costly/time consuming
programming.
Can perform only in playback mode.
No change in their environment, tooling and work piece
can be accounted for.

Sensors constitute the perceptual system of a robot,

designed:
To make inferences about the physical environment,
To navigate and localise itself,
To respond more flexibly to the events occurring in its
environment, and
To enable learning, thereby endowing robots with
intelligence.

Sensors allow less accurate modeling and control.

Sensors enable robots to perform complex and increased
variety of tasks reliably thereby reducing cost.
.

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I NTRODUCTION (C ONTD .)
Dynamical system
Changes with time Governed by differential equations.
For a given input there is a well defined output.
Linear dynamical system Modeled by linear ordinary
differential equations Can be analysed using Laplace
transforms and transfer function5 .

Control system is used to

Obtain desired response from dynamical system.
Stabilize an unstable dynamical system.
Improve performance.

Two kinds of system Open-loop and closed-loop or

feedback control systems.
Importance of sensors in modeling and control shown in
next few slides.
5 Other

methods such as frequency domain analysis

can
also
.
.
. be used.
.

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O PEN - LOOP C ONTROL S YSTEM

Figure 27: An open-loop control system

Time domain linear function f (t) converted to sdomain

using Laplace transforms:

F (s) = L {f (t)} = 0 f (t)e st dt

Time derivatives become polynomials in s.
Transfer function Ratio of output to input in sdomain.
Open-loop system No feedback: Input R(s) System
G (s) Output Y (s) (see Figure above)
(S)
(s)
For error G (s) in the modeling of the plant YY(s)
= GG(s)
x% error in G (s) results in x% error in Y (s)
.

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C LOSED - LOOP C ONTROL S YSTEM

Figure 28: A closed-loop control system

Y (s) =

D(s)G (s)
R(s); Chosen D(s)G (s) >> 1
1 + D(s)G (s)

For error G (s) in the modeling of the plant

Y (S) G (s)
1
=
Y (s)
G (s) 1 + D(s)G (s)

Since 1 + D(s)G (s) >>

in G (s) results in
( 1 x% error
)
1
much smaller error of 1+D(s)G (s) x% in Y (s).

With sensors and feedback, less complex and expensive

controllers and/or models of system can be used for more
robust performance.
.
.
.
.
.
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C LOSED - LOOP C ONTROL S YSTEM

Figure 29: Closed-loop control with sensors

Sensors must have low noise and be good for effectiveness.

Consider a noisy sensor (see Figure above).
Output of system
Y (s) =

D(s)G (s)
(R(s)N(s)); ChosenD(s)G (s) >> 1
1 + D(s)G (s)

Note that output is proportional to corrupted (R(s) N(s))

input, hence output error can never be reduced!
.

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S ENSORS IN ROBOTS
Sensor is a device to make a measurement of a physical
variable of interest and convert it into electrical signal.
Desirable features in sensors are
High accuracy.
High precision.
Linear response.
Large operating range.
Low response time.
Easy to calibrate.
Reliable and rugged.
Low cost
Ease of operation

Broad classification of sensors in robots

Internal state sensors.
External state sensors.
.

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S ENSORS IN ROBOTS I NTERNAL

Internal sensors measure variables for control
Joint position.
Joint velocity.
Joint torque/force.

Joint position sensors (angular or linear)

Incremental & absolute encoders Optical, magnetic or
capacitive.
Potentiometers.
Linear analog resistive or digital encoders.

Joint velocity sensors

DC tacho-generator & resolver.s
Optical encoders.

Force/torque sensors.
At joint actuators for control.
At wrist to measure components of force/moment being
applied on environment.
At end-effector to measure applied force on gripped object.
.

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S ENSORS IN ROBOTS E XTERNAL

Detection of environment variables for robot guidance,
object identification and material handling.
Two main types Contacting and non-contacting sensors.
Contacting sensors: Respond to a physical contact
Touch: switches, Photo-diode/LED combination.
Slip.
Tactile: resistive/capacitive arrays.

Non-contacting sensors: Detect variations in optical,

acoustic or electromagnetic radiations or change in
position/orientation.
Proximity: Inductive, Capacitive, Optical and Ultrasoni.c
Range: Capacitive and Magnetic, Camera, Sonar, Laser
range finder, Structured light.
Colour sensors.
Speed/Motion: Doppler radar/sound, Camera,
Accelerometer, Gyroscope.
Identification: Camera, RFID, Laser ranging, Ultrasound.
Localisation: Compass, Odometer, GPS.
.

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S ENSORS IN ROBOTS
How to compute resolution of a sensor?
Example: Optical encoder to measure joint rotation

Figure 30: Resolution and required accuracy

Optical encoders and resolvers Desired accuracy e

One must be able to measure a minimum angle e/L.
Number of bits/revolution required: Compute 2 /( Le ),
express as a binary number and round-off to the next
higher power of 2.
Example: L = 1m, e v 0.5mm = Le = 5x104 ,
2 /( Le ) v 10000 213 = 8192, 214 = 16384 14 bit
encoder needed.
.
.
.
.
.
If L(IIS
isC)small, 12 Rbits
are
usually
enough.
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O PTICAL E NCODER

Figure 31: Optical encoder

One of the most important and widely used internal sensor.

Consists of an etched encoding disk with photo-diodes and
LEDS. Disk made from
Glass, for high-resolution applications (11 to >16 bits).
Plastic (Mylar) or metal, for applications requiring more
rugged construction (resolution of 8 to 10 bits).

As disk rotates, light is alternately allowed to reach

photo-diode, resulting in digital output similar to a square
.
.
.
.
.
wave.
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O PTICAL E NCODER

Figure 32: Optical encoder outputs

Typically 3 signals available Channel A, B and I; A and B

are phase shifted by 90 degrees and I is called as the index
pulse obtained every full rotation of disk.
Signals read by a microprocessor/counter.
Output of counter includes rotation and direction.
Output can be absolute or relative joint rotation.
Can be used for estimating velocity.
.

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S ENSORS FOR J OINT ROTATION

Potentiometers Voltage resistance and resistance
rotation at joint
Not very accurate but very inexpensive.
More suitable for slow rotations.
Adds to joint friction.

Resolvers Rotary electrical transformer to measure joint

rotation
Analog output, need ADC for digital control.
Electromagnetic device Stator + Rotor (connected to
motor shaft).
Voltage (at stator) sin( ), = rotor angle.

Tachometers measures joint velocity

Similar to resolver.
Voltage (at stator) , = angular velocity of the rotor.
Analog output ADC required for digital control.
.

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F ORCE /T ORQUE S ENSOR

Employed for force/torque sensing Can be achieved by
joint and wrist sensing.
Force/Torque joint sensors
Direct sensing of force/torque in a compliant shaft
attached to motor by means of strain gages.
A model of the motor and the shaft required.
Introduced compliance at joint not desirable System
dynamics altered!
For DC motor Joint torque armature current.
Requires model of motor & accuracy not very good.

Force/torque wrist sensors

Mounted between end of robot arm and end-effector.
Can measure all six components of force/torque using
strain gages.
Extensively used in force control.
.

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F ORCE /T ORQUE S ENSOR (C ONTD .)

Performance specifications to ensure that the wrist motions

generated by the force/torque sensors do not affect the
position accuracy of the manipulator:
High stiffness to ensure quick dampening of the disturbing
forces which permits accurate readings during short time
intervals.
Compact design to ensure easy movement of the
manipulator.
Need to be placed close to end-effector/tool.
Linear relation between applied force/torque and strain
gauge readings.
Made from single block of metal No hysteresis.

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F ORCE /T ORQUE W RIST S ENSOR

F = [RF ]W

wherea
RF =

0
r12

0
r61

0
0
r32
0
r52
0

r13
0
0
0
0
r63

0
0
r34
r44
0
0

0
r25
0
0
0
r65

0
0
r36
0
r56
0

0
0

r38

r48

0
0

r17
0
0
0
0
r67

F = (Fx , Fy , Fz , Mx , My , Mz )T .
W = (w1 , w2 , w3 , w4 , w5 , w6 , w7 , w8 ).
wi are the 8 strain gauge readings.
Figure 33: Six axis
force/torque sensors at wrist

a The formula can be derived from statics,

please see Module 0, Lecture 5.

Rij are found during calibration process using least-square

techniques.
.

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E XTERNAL S ENSORS T OUCH

Allows a robot or manipulator to interact with its
environment to touch and feel, see and locate.
Two classes of external sensors Contact and non-contact

Simple LED-Photo-diode
pair used to detect
presence/absence of object
to be grasped
Micro-switch to detect
touch.

Figure 34: Touch sensor

.

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E XTERNAL S ENSORS S LIP

Figure 35: Slip sensor

Slip sensor to detect if grasped object is slipping.

Free moving dimpled ball Deflects a thin rod on the axis
of a conductive disk
Evenly spaced electrical contacts placed under disk
Object slips past the ball, moving rod and disk Electrical
signal from contact to detect slip.
Direction of slip determined from sequence of contacts.
.

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E XTERNAL S ENSORS TACTILE

Skin like membrane to

feel the shape of the
grasped object
Also used to measure
force/torque required to
grasp object
Change in
resistance/capacitance due
to local deformation from
applied force
Figure 36: Robot hand with tactile
array

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E XTERNAL
(C ONTD .)

S ENSORS

TACTILE
Send current in one set,
measure current in other
set
Magnitude of current
change in resistance due to
deformation
Magnitude of current
change in capacitance

Figure 37: Artificial Skin

Fluid filled membrane

Array of Hall-effect sensors
MEMS Silicon micro-machined with doped strain-gauge
.
.
.
.
.
flexure
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E XTERNAL S ENSORS P ROXIMITY

Detect presence of an object near a robot or manipulator

Works at very short ranges (<15-20 mm)
Frequently used in stationary and mobile robots to avoid
obstacles and for safety during operation
Four main types of proximity sensors
Inductive proximity sensors
Capacitive proximity sensor
Ultrasonic proximity sensor
Optical proximity sensors

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I NDUCTIVE P ROXIMITY S ENSOR

Figure 38: A magnetic proximity sensor

Electronic proximity sensor based on change of inductance.

Detects metallic objects without touching them.
Consists of a wound coil, located next to a permanent
magnet, packaged in a simple housing.
.

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I NDUCTIVE P ROXIMITY S ENSOR

M AGNETIC

Figure 39: Flux lines in a magnetic sensor

Ferromagnetic material enters or leaves the magnetic field

Flux lines of the permanent magnet change their
position.
Change in flux Induces a current pulse with amplitude
and shape proportional to rate of change in flux.
.

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I NDUCTIVE P ROXIMITY S ENSOR

M AGNETIC

Figure 40: Schematic of flux response in magnetic proximity sensor

Coils output voltage waveform For proximity sensing.

Useful where access is a challenge.
Applications Metal detectors, Traffic light changing,
Automated industrial processes.
Limited to ferromagnetic materials.
.

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I NDUCTIVE

H ALL
P ROXIMITY S ENSOR

E FFECT

Hall effect relates the voltage between two points in a

conducting or semiconducting material subjected to a
strong magnetic field across the material.
When a semi-conductor magnet device is brought in close
proximity of a ferromagnetic material
the
the
the
the

magnetic field at the sensor weakens due to bending of

field lines through the material,
Lorentz forces are reduced, and
voltage across the semiconductor is reduced.

The drop in the voltage is used to sense the proximity.

Applications: Ignition timings in IC engines, tachometers
and anti-lock braking systems, and brushless DC electric
motors.
.

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C APACITIVE P ROXIMITY S ENSORS

Change in
Capacitance

Figure 41: Capacitive sensor

Figure 42: Capacitive sensor response

Similar to inductive, but uses electrostatic field.

Can sense metallic as well as non-metallic materials.
Sensing element is a capacitor composed of a sensitive
electrode and a reference electrode.
.

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C APACITIVE P ROXIMITY S ENSORS

Objects entry in electrostatic field of electrodes changes

capacitance.
Oscillations start once capacitance exceeds a predefined
threshold.
Triggers output circuit to change between on and off.
When object moves away, oscillators amplitude decreases,
changing output back to original state.
Larger size and dielectric constant of target, means larger
capacitance and easier detection.
Useful in level detection through a barrier.

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U LTRASONIC P ROXIMITY S ENSORS

Electro-acoustic transducer to send and receive high
frequency sound waves.
Emitted sonic waves are reflected by an object back to the
transducer which switches to receiver mode.
Same transducer is used for both receiving and emitting
the signals Fast damping of acoustic energy is essential
to detect close proximity objects.
Achieved by using acoustic absorbers and by decoupling the
transducer from its housing.
Typically of low resolution.
Important specifications 1) Maximum operating distance,
2) Repeatability, 3) Sonic cone angle, 4) Impulse frequency,
and 5) Transmitter frequency.
Some well-known applications 1) Useful in difficult
environments, 2) Liquid level detection and 3) Car parking
sensors.
.
.
.
.
.
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O PTICAL P ROXIMITY S ENSORS

Also known as light beam sensors Solid state LED acting
as a transmitter by generating a light beam.
A solid-state photo-diode acts as a receiver.
Field of operation of the sensor Long pencil like volume,
formed due to intersection of cones of light from source
and detector.
Any reflective surface that intersects the volume gets
illuminated by the source and is seen by the receiver.
Generally a binary signal is generated when the received
light intensity exceeds a threshold value.
Applications: 1) Fluid level control, 2) Breakage and jam
detection, 3) Stack height control, box counting etc.

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R ANGE S ENSORS
Measure distance of objects at larger distances.
Uses electromagnetic or electrostatic or acoustic radiation
Looks for changes in the field or return signal.
Highly reliable with long functional life and no mechanical
parts.
Four main kinds of range sensing techniques in robots
Triangulation.
Structured lighting approach.
Time of flight range finders.
Vision .

Applications: 1) Navigation in mobile robots, 2) Obstacle

avoidance, 3) Locating parts, etc.

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R ANGE S ENSORS T RIANGULATION

A narrow beam of light
sweeps the plane defined
by the detector, the object
and the source,
illuminating the target.
Detector output is peak
when illuminated patch is
in front.
With B and known
Obtain D = B tan .
Figure 43: Triangulation

Changing B and , one

can get D for all visible
portions of object.

Very little computation required.

Very slow as one point is done at a time.
.

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R ANGE S ENSORS S TRUCTURED

L IGHTING
A sheet of light
generated through a
cylindrical lens or narrow
slit is projected on a target.
Intersection of the sheet
with target yields a light
stripe.
A camera offset slightly
from the projector, views
and analyze the shape of
the line.
Figure 44: Structured lighting

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R ANGE S ENSORS S TRUCTURED

L IGHTING
Distortion of the line is related to distance and can be
calculated.
Horizontal displacement (in image) proportional to depth
gradient.
Integration gives absolute range.
Calibration is required.
Advantages:
Fast, very little computation is required.
Can scan multiple points or entire view at once.

Structured lighting should be permitted.

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R ANGE S ENSORS T IME - OF - FLIGHT

Utilizes pulsed lasers and ultrasonics to measure time taken
by the pulse to coaxially return from a surface.
If D is the targets distance, c is the speed of radiation,
and t is elapsed time taken for the pulse to return
D=

ct
2

Light or electromagnetic radiation more useful for large

(kilometers) distances.
Light not very suitable in robotic applications as c is large.
To measure range with 0.25 inch accuracy, one needs to
measure very small time intervals v 50 ps.

Suitable for acoustic (ultrasonic) radiation, since c v 330

m/s.
Can only detect distance of one point in its view Scan
required for object.
.

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R ANGE S ENSORS T IME - OF - FLIGHT

Phase shift and continuous laser light for measuring distance
Laser beam of
wavelength split
Two beams travel to
detector through two
different paths.
Phase delay between
two beams is measured.
Distance traveled by
first beam L.

Figure 45: Range measurement using phase

shift

Total distance traveled

by the second beam
D = L + 2D

, is the
D = L + 360
phase shift.
.

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R ANGE S ENSORS T IME - OF - FLIGHT

For = 360 , two waveforms are aligned and D = L and
D = L + n Waveforms cannot be differentiated on
phase shift alone.
Restrict < 360 and 2D <
D=

( )
360 2

typically small Impractical for robot application

Modulate laser light with a waveform of much higher
wavelength.
Example: modulating frequency=10 MHz = cf = 30m
and D up to 15m can be measured.
Advantages of continuous light technique
Yields intensity as well range information,
Requires very little computation,
Lasers do not suffer from specular reflection, and
Expensive, not so robust and require higher power.
.

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R ANGE S ENSORS U LTRASONIC

Similar to the pulsed laser technique.
An ultrasonic chirp is transmitted over a short time period.
From the time difference between the transmitted and
reflected wave, D can be obtained.
Generally used for navigation and obstacle avoidance in
robots.
Much cheaper than laser range finder.
Shorter range as waves disperse.
Wavelength of ultrasonic radiation much larger Not
reflected very well from small objects and corners.
Ultrasonic waves not reflected very well from plastics and
some other materials.
.

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V ISION S ENSORS
Most powerful and complex form of sensing, analogous to
human eyes.
Comprising of one or more video cameras with integrated
signal processing and imaging electronics.
Includes interfaces for programming and data output, and a
variety of measurement and inspection functions.
Also referred to as machine or computer vision.
Computations required are very large compared to any
other form of sensing.
Computer vision can be sub-divided into six main areas: 1)
Sensing, 2) Pre-processing, 3) Segmentation, 4)
Description, 5) Recognition and 6) Interpretation.

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V ISION S ENSORS
Three levels of processing.
Low level vision
Primitive in nature, requires no intelligence on the part of
the vision functions.
Sensing and pre-processing can be considered as low level
vision functions.

Medium level vision

Processes that extract, characterize and label components
in an image resulting from a low level vision.
Segmentation, description and recognition of the individual
objects refer to the medium level function.

High level vision: Processes that attempt to emulate

cognition.
.

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V ISION S ENSORS
Smaller number of robotic applications Primarily due to
computational complexity and low speed.
Vision system can
Determine distances of objects.
Determine geometrical shape and size of objects.
Determine optical (color, brightness) properties of objects
in an environment.
Can be used for navigation (map making), obstacle
avoidance, Cartesian position and velocity feedback,
locating parts, and many other uses.
Can learn about environment.
Acquire knowledge and intelligence.

Vision systems extensively used in autonomous navigation

in mobile robots (Mars rovers).
Use of vision systems increasing rapidly as technology
improves!
.

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N EW D EVELOPEMENTS IN S ENSOR
T ECHNOLOGY MEMS S ENSORS
Consist of very small electrical, electronics and mechanical
components integrated on a single chip.
Provide an interface to sense, process and/or control the
surrounding environment.
Generally silicon based, allowing integration with
microelectronics.
Sensing mechanisms employed are a) Capacitive, b)
Piezoelectric, c) Piezoresistive, d) Ferroelectric, e)
Electromagnetic and f) Optical.
Capacitive sensing most successful due to a) No
requirement of exotic materials, b) Low power consumption
and c) Stability over temperature ranges.
.

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MEMS S ENSORS (C ONTD .)

Polysilicon springs suspend
MEMS structure above the
substrate Proof mass is
free to move in X and Y
direction.
Radial fingers fixed to
proof mass are positioned
between plates fixed to the
substrate.
Figure 46: A typical MEMS capacitive
sensor

Each finger and pair of

fixed plates make up a
differential capacitor.

In-plane acceleration causes the proof mass to move

relative to the plates changing the capacitance.
Change in capacitance converted to a voltage signal.
Can sense dynamic and static acceleration.
.
.
.
.
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MEMS S ENSORS (C ONTD .)

Applications of MEMS Sensors:

Automotive electronics and crash systems.
High resolution seismic sensing.
Medical equipments.
Hard disk drives.
Computer peripherals.
Wireless devices.
Smart portable devices such as phones, PDAs etc.

MEMS sensors are finding their way into mobile robots.

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MOEMS S ENSORS

MOEMS stands for Micro-opto-electromechanical systems.

Silica based MEMS sensors, though very effective, cannot
be used in high temperature and pressure conditions, due
to the limiting mechanical and electrical properties of silica.
For harsh environmental conditions, MEMS sensors are
built out of robust materials such as (Si, SiC) and are
integrated with optical signal detection technique forming
MOEMS.
MOEMS sensors are highly resistant to electromagnetic
interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI).
Eliminate the need for on-board electronics.

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S MART S ENSORS

Figure 47: Components of a smart sensor

Smart Sensor A single device combining data collection

and information output.
As per IEEE 1451.2, a smart sensor is:
a transducer that provides functions beyond those
necessary for generating a correct representation of a
sensed or control quantity.
Integration of transducer + applications + networking.
Evolving concept Often sensors not complying with IEEE
definition are also called smart sensors!.
.
.
.
.
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S MART S ENSORS (C ONTD .)

Three primary kinds of smart sensors:
Transmitter plus micro-controller capable of a certain
amount of internal signal processing, such as linearisation,
conversion to engineering units, diagnostics etc.
A sensor that can communicate over a digital
communications network, either wired or wireless.
A smart plug-and-play transducer electronic data sheet
(TEDS) sensor with applications in aerospace and defense,
transportation and research labs.

Smart sensors are capable of a) self identification and

diagnosis, b) Time and location awareness for time and
position stamping, c) Conform to standard data
communications and control protocols for interoperability.
Other features of smart sensors a)remote diagnostics, b)
improved reliability, and c) better signal to noise ratio.
.

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I NTELLIGENT S ENSORS

For advanced robotic devices, large amount of sensory

information slows down the controller.
Intelligent sensors take some load off the controller by
Taking some predefined action based on the input received.
Efficiently and precisely measuring the parameters,
enhancing or interrupting them.

Intelligent sensors: An adaptation of smart sensors with

embedded algorithms for detection of noise,
instrumentation anomalies and sensor anomalies.
Enabling technology for ISHM (Integrated Systems Health
Management) used in spaceships by NASA.

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S ENSOR - BASED ROBOTICS ASMIO

ASIMO: Advanced Step in Innovative
MObility.
A humanoid robot developed by
HONDA car company of Japan.
Sensors for vision, speed, balance,
force, angle, and foot area.
34 degrees of freedom controlled by
servo motors.

Figure 48: ASIMO

climbing stairs

Capable of advanced movement

Walking and running.
Maintaining posture and balance.
Climbing stairs & avoiding obstacle.

Intelligence
Charting a shortest route.
Recognizing moving objects.
Distinguish sounds and recognize
faces and gestures.

Figure 49: ASIMO

playing soccer
.

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S ENSORS IN ROBOTS S UMMARY

Sensors enhance performance of robots/manipulators, and
make them more flexible. for different application.
Two main types of sensors
Internal sensors for measuring variables such as joint
rotation, velocity, force, and torque.
External sensors for measuring variables such as proximity,
touch, range, and geometry.

Large varieties of sensors exist for large variety of

measurement tasks.
More than one sensor is typically used in a robot.
Vision system is the most powerful and complex sensor.
New and modern sensor technologies are becoming mature
and are finding their way into robots.
.

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O UTLINE
.
. .1 C ONTENTS
.
. .2 L ECTURE 1
Mathematical Preliminaries
Homogeneous Transformation
..3 L ECTURE 2
.
Elements of a robot Joints
Elements of a robot Links
..4 L ECTURE 3
.
Examples of D-H Parameters & Link Transformation
Matrices
. L ECTURE 4
.
5
.
Elements of a robot Actuators & Transmission
..6 L ECTURE 5
.
Elements of a robot Sensors
..7 A DDITIONAL M ATERIAL
.
Problems, References, and Suggested Reading
.

A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C )

ROBOTICS : A DVANCED C ONCEPTS & A NALYSIS

NPTEL, 2010

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A DDITIONAL MATERIAL

Exercise Problems
References & Suggested Reading
Homogeneous coordinates, lines & screws

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A SHITAVA G HOSAL (IIS C )

ROBOTICS : A DVANCED C ONCEPTS & A NALYSIS

NPTEL, 2010

138 / 138