FIRST DIVISION

[G.R. No. 174689. October 19, 2007.]

ROMMEL JACINTO DANTES SILVERIO, petitioner, vs. REPUBLIC
OF THE PHILIPPINES, respondent.
DECISION
CORONA, J :
p

When God created man, He made him in the likeness of God; He created
them male and female. (Genesis 5:1-2)
Amihan gazed upon the bamboo reed planted by Bathala and she heard
voices coming from inside the bamboo. "Oh North Wind! North Wind! Please
let us out!," the voices said. She pecked the reed once, then twice. All of a
sudden, the bamboo cracked and slit open. Out came two human beings;
one was a male and the other was a female. Amihan named the man
"Malakas" (Strong) and the woman "Maganda" (Beautiful). (The Legend of
Malakas and Maganda)

When is a man a man and when is a woman a woman? In particular, does the law
recognize the changes made by a physician using scalpel, drugs and counseling with
regard to a person's sex? May a person successfully petition for a change of name
and sex appearing in the birth certicate to reect the result of a sex reassignment
surgery?
On November 26, 2002, petitioner Rommel Jacinto Dantes Silverio led a petition
for the change of his rst name and sex in his birth certicate in the Regional Trial
Court of Manila, Branch 8. The petition, docketed as SP Case No. 02-105207,
impleaded the civil registrar of Manila as respondent.
Petitioner alleged in his petition that he was born in the City of Manila to the
spouses Melecio Petines Silverio and Anita Aquino Dantes on April 4, 1962. His
name was registered as "Rommel Jacinto Dantes Silverio" in his certicate of live
birth (birth certificate). His sex was registered as "male."
He further alleged that he is a male transsexual, that is, "anatomically male but
feels, thinks and acts as a female" and that he had always identied himself with
girls since childhood. 1 Feeling trapped in a man's body, he consulted several doctors
in the United States. He underwent psychological examination, hormone treatment
and breast augmentation. His attempts to transform himself to a "woman"
culminated on January 27, 2001 when he underwent sex reassignment surgery 2 in
Bangkok, Thailand. He was thereafter examined by Dr. Marcelino Reysio-Cruz, Jr., a
plastic and reconstruction surgeon in the Philippines, who issued a medical

certificate attesting that he (petitioner) had in fact undergone the procedure.

From then on, petitioner lived as a female and was in fact engaged to be married.
He then sought to have his name in his birth certicate changed from "Rommel
Jacinto" to "Mely," and his sex from "male" to "female."
An order setting the case for initial hearing was published in the People's Journal
Tonight, a newspaper of general circulation in Metro Manila, for three consecutive
weeks. 3 Copies of the order were sent to the Oce of the Solicitor General (OSG)
and the civil registrar of Manila.
On the scheduled initial hearing, jurisdictional requirements were established. No
opposition to the petition was made.
During trial, petitioner testied for himself. He also presented Dr. Reysio-Cruz, Jr.
and his American fianc, Richard P. Edel, as witnesses.
On June 4, 2003, the trial court rendered a decision
relevant portions read:

in favor of petitioner. Its

Petitioner led the present petition not to evade any law or judgment or any
infraction thereof or for any unlawful motive but solely for the purpose of
making his birth records compatible with his present sex.
The sole issue here is whether or not petitioner is entitled to the relief asked
for.
The [c]ourt rules in the affirmative.

SCEHaD

Firstly, the [c]ourt is of the opinion that granting the petition would be more
in consonance with the principles of justice and equity. With his sexual [reassignment], petitioner, who has always felt, thought and acted like a
woman, now possesses the physique of a female. Petitioner's misfortune to
be trapped in a man's body is not his own doing and should not be in any
way taken against him.
Likewise, the [c]ourt believes that no harm, injury [or] prejudice will be
caused to anybody or the community in granting the petition. On the
contrary, granting the petition would bring the much-awaited happiness on
the part of the petitioner and her [anc] and the realization of their dreams.
Finally, no evidence was presented to show any cause or ground to deny
the present petition despite due notice and publication thereof. Even the
State, through the [OSG] has not seen fit to interpose any [o]pposition.
WHEREFORE, judgment is hereby rendered GRANTING the petition and
ordering the Civil Registrar of Manila to change the entries appearing in the
Certicate of Birth of [p]etitioner, specically for petitioner's rst name from
"Rommel Jacinto" to MELY and petitioner's gender from "Male" to FEMALE.
5

On August 18, 2003, the Republic of the Philippines (Republic), thru the OSG, led a
petition for certiorari in the Court of Appeals. 6 It alleged that there is no law
allowing the change of entries in the birth certificate by reason of sex alteration.
On February 23, 2006, the Court of Appeals 7 rendered a decision 8 in favor of the
Republic. It ruled that the trial court's decision lacked legal basis. There is no law
allowing the change of either name or sex in the certicate of birth on the ground of
sex reassignment through surgery. Thus, the Court of Appeals granted the
Republic's petition, set aside the decision of the trial court and ordered the dismissal
of SP Case No. 02-105207. Petitioner moved for reconsideration but it was denied. 9
Hence, this petition.
Petitioner essentially claims that the change of his name and sex in his birth
certicate is allowed under Articles 407 to 413 of the Civil Code, Rules 103 and 108
of the Rules of Court and RA 9048. 10
The petition lacks merit.

AEScHa

A PERSON'S FIRST NAME

CANNOT BE CHANGED ON THE
GROUND OF SEX REASSIGNMENT
Petitioner invoked his sex reassignment as the ground for his petition for change of
name and sex. As found by the trial court:
Petitioner led the present petition not to evade any law or judgment or any
infraction thereof or for any unlawful motive but solely for the purpose
of making his birth records compatible with his present sex.
(emphasis supplied)

Petitioner believes that after having acquired the physical features of a female, he
became entitled to the civil registry changes sought. We disagree.
The State has an interest in the names borne by individuals and entities for
purposes of identification. 11 A change of name is a privilege, not a right. 12 Petitions
for change of name are controlled by statutes. 13 In this connection, Article 376 of
the Civil Code provides:
ART. 376.
authority.

No person can change his name or surname without judicial

This Civil Code provision was amended by RA 9048 (Clerical Error Law). In
particular, Section 1 of RA 9048 provides:
SECTION 1.
Authority to Correct Clerical or Typographical Error and
Change of First Name or Nickname. No entry in a civil register shall be
changed or corrected without a judicial order, except for clerical or
typographical errors and change of rst name or nickname which can be
corrected or changed by the concerned city or municipal civil registrar or
consul general in accordance with the provisions of this Act and its

implementing rules and regulations.

RA 9048 now governs the change of rst name. 14 It vests the power and authority
to entertain petitions for change of rst name to the city or municipal civil registrar
or consul general concerned. Under the law, therefore, jurisdiction over applications
for change of rst name is now primarily lodged with the aforementioned
administrative ocers. The intent and eect of the law is to exclude the change of
rst name from the coverage of Rules 103 (Change of Name) and 108 (Cancellation
or Correction of Entries in the Civil Registry) of the Rules of Court, until and unless
an administrative petition for change of name is rst led and subsequently denied.
15 It likewise lays down the corresponding venue, 16 form 17 and procedure. In sum,
the remedy and the proceedings regulating change of rst name are primarily
administrative in nature, not judicial.
AcDaEH

RA 9048 likewise provides the grounds for which change of rst name may be
allowed:
SECTION 4.
Grounds for Change of First Name or Nickname. The
petition for change of rst name or nickname may be allowed in any of the
following cases:
(1)

The petitioner finds the first name or nickname to be ridiculous,

tainted with dishonor or extremely dicult to write or
pronounce;

(2)

The new rst name or nickname has been habitually and

continuously used by the petitioner and he has been publicly
known by that first name or nickname in the community; or

(3)

The change will avoid confusion.

Petitioner's basis in praying for the change of his rst name was his sex
reassignment. He intended to make his rst name compatible with the sex he
thought he transformed himself into through surgery. However, a change of name
does not alter one's legal capacity or civil status. 18 RA 9048 does not sanction a
change of rst name on the ground of sex reassignment. Rather than avoiding
confusion, changing petitioner's rst name for his declared purpose may only create
grave complications in the civil registry and the public interest.
Before a person can legally change his given name, he must present proper or
reasonable cause or any compelling reason justifying such change. 19 In addition, he
must show that he will be prejudiced by the use of his true and ocial name. 20 In
this case, he failed to show, or even allege, any prejudice that he might suer as a
result of using his true and official name.
In sum, the petition in the trial court in so far as it prayed for the change of
petitioner's rst name was not within that court's primary jurisdiction as the
petition should have been led with the local civil registrar concerned, assuming it
could be legally done. It was an improper remedy because the proper remedy was
administrative, that is, that provided under RA 9048. It was also led in the wrong

venue as the proper venue was in the Oce of the Civil Registrar of Manila where
his birth certicate is kept. More importantly, it had no merit since the use of his
true and ocial name does not prejudice him at all. For all these reasons, the Court
of Appeals correctly dismissed petitioner's petition in so far as the change of his rst
name was concerned.
EACTSH

NO LAW ALLOWS THE

CHANGE OF ENTRY IN THE
BIRTH CERTIFICATE AS TO
SEX ON THE GROUND OF SEX
REASSIGNMENT
The determination of a person's sex appearing in his birth certicate is a legal issue
and the court must look to the statutes. 21 In this connection, Article 412 of the Civil
Code provides:
ART. 412.
No entry in the civil register shall be changed or corrected
without a judicial order.

Together with Article 376 of the Civil Code, this provision was amended by RA 9048
in so far as clerical or typographical errors are involved. The correction or change of
such matters can now be made through administrative proceedings and without the
need for a judicial order. In eect, RA 9048 removed from the ambit of Rule 108 of
the Rules of Court the correction of such errors. 22 Rule 108 now applies only to
substantial changes and corrections in entries in the civil register. 23
Section 2 (c) of RA 9048 defines what a "clerical or typographical error" is:
SECTION 2.
Denition of Terms . As used in this Act, the following
terms shall mean:
xxx xxx xxx
(3)

"Clerical or typographical error" refers to a mistake committed

in the performance of clerical work in writing, copying,
transcribing or typing an entry in the civil register that is
harmless and innocuous, such as misspelled name or misspelled
place of birth or the like, which is visible to the eyes or obvious
to the understanding, and can be corrected or changed only by
reference to other existing record or records: Provided,
however, That no correction must involve the change of
nationality, age, status or sex of the petitioner. (emphasis
supplied)

Under RA 9048, a correction in the civil registry involving the change of sex is not a
mere clerical or typographical error. It is a substantial change for which the
applicable procedure is Rule 108 of the Rules of Court.
AIDcTE

The entries envisaged in Article 412 of the Civil Code and correctable under Rule

108 of the Rules of Court are those provided in Articles 407 and 408 of the Civil
Code: 24
ART. 407.
Acts, events and judicial decrees concerning the civil status of
persons shall be recorded in the civil register.
ART. 408.

The following shall be entered in the civil register:

(1)
Births; (2) marriages; (3) deaths; (4) legal separations; (5)
annulments of marriage; (6) judgments declaring marriages void from the
beginning; (7) legitimations; (8) adoptions; (9) acknowledgments of natural
children; (10) naturalization; (11) loss, or (12) recovery of citizenship; (13)
civil interdiction; (14) judicial determination of liation; (15) voluntary
emancipation of a minor; and (16) changes of name.

The acts, events or factual errors contemplated under Article 407 of the Civil Code
include even those that occur after birth. 25 However, no reasonable interpretation
of the provision can justify the conclusion that it covers the correction on the ground
of sex reassignment.
To correct simply means "to make or set aright; to remove the faults or error from
while to change means "to replace something with something else of the same kind
or with something that serves as a substitute." 26 The birth certicate of petitioner
contained no error. All entries therein, including those corresponding to his rst
name and sex, were all correct. No correction is necessary.
Article 407 of the Civil Code authorizes the entry in the civil registry of certain acts
(such as legitimations, acknowledgments of illegitimate children and
naturalization), events (such as births, marriages, naturalization and deaths) and
judicial decrees (such as legal separations, annulments of marriage, declarations of
nullity of marriages, adoptions, naturalization, loss or recovery of citizenship, civil
interdiction, judicial determination of liation and changes of name). These acts,
events and judicial decrees produce legal consequences that touch upon the legal
capacity, status and nationality of a person. Their effects are expressly sanctioned by
the laws. In contrast, sex reassignment is not among those acts or events
mentioned in Article 407. Neither is it recognized nor even mentioned by any law,
expressly or impliedly.
"Status" refers to the circumstances aecting the legal situation (that is, the sum
total of capacities and incapacities) of a person in view of his age, nationality and his
family membership. 27
DHaEAS

The status of a person in law includes all his personal qualities and relations,
more or less permanent in nature, not ordinarily terminable at his
own will, such as his being legitimate or illegitimate, or his being married or
not. The comprehensive term status . . . include such matters as the
beginning and end of legal personality, capacity to have rights in general,
family relations, and its various aspects, such as birth, legitimation, adoption,
emancipation, marriage, divorce, and sometimes even succession. 28
(emphasis supplied)

A person's sex is an essential factor in marriage and family relations. It is a part of a

person's legal capacity and civil status. In this connection, Article 413 of the Civil
Code provides:
ART. 413.
All other matters pertaining to the registration of civil status
shall be governed by special laws.

But there is no such special law in the Philippines governing sex reassignment and
its effects. This is fatal to petitioner's cause.
Moreover, Section 5 of Act 3753 (the Civil Register Law) provides:
SEC. 5.
Registration and certication of births . The declaration of the
physician or midwife in attendance at the birth or, in default thereof, the
declaration of either parent of the newborn child, shall be sucient for the
registration of a birth in the civil register. Such declaration shall be exempt
from documentary stamp tax and shall be sent to the local civil registrar not
later than thirty days after the birth, by the physician or midwife in
attendance at the birth or by either parent of the newborn child.
In such declaration, the person above mentioned shall certify to the
following facts: (a) date and hour of birth; (b) sex and nationality of infant;
(c) names, citizenship and religion of parents or, in case the father is not
known, of the mother alone; (d) civil status of parents; (e) place where the
infant was born; and (f) such other data as may be required in the
regulations to be issued.
AScHCD

xxx xxx xxx (emphasis supplied)

Under the Civil Register Law, a birth certicate is a historical record of the facts as
they existed at the time of birth. 29 Thus, the sex of a person is determined at birth,
visually done by the birth attendant (the physician or midwife) by examining the
genitals of the infant. Considering that there is no law legally recognizing sex
reassignment, the determination of a person's sex made at the time of his or her
birth, if not attended by error, 30 is immutable. 31
When words are not dened in a statute they are to be given their common and
ordinary meaning in the absence of a contrary legislative intent. The words "sex,"
"male" and "female" as used in the Civil Register Law and laws concerning the civil
registry (and even all other laws) should therefore be understood in their common
and ordinary usage, there being no legislative intent to the contrary. In this
connection, sex is dened as "the sum of peculiarities of structure and function that
distinguish a male from a female" 32 or "the distinction between male and female."
33 Female is "the sex that produces ova or bears young" 34 and male is "the sex that
has organs to produce spermatozoa for fertilizing ova." 35 Thus, the words "male"
and "female" in everyday understanding do not include persons who have
undergone sex reassignment. Furthermore, "words that are employed in a statute
which had at the time a well-known meaning are presumed to have been used in
that sense unless the context compels to the contrary." 36 Since the statutory
language of the Civil Register Law was enacted in the early 1900s and remains

unchanged, it cannot be argued that the term "sex" as used then is something
alterable through surgery or something that allows a post-operative male-to-female
transsexual to be included in the category "female."
DCTHaS

For these reasons, while petitioner may have succeeded in altering his body and
appearance through the intervention of modern surgery, no law authorizes the
change of entry as to sex in the civil registry for that reason. Thus, there is no legal
basis for his petition for the correction or change of the entries in his birth
certificate.
NEITHER MAY ENTRIES IN THE BIRTH
CERTIFICATE AS TO FIRST NAME OR
SEX BE CHANGED ON THE GROUND OF
EQUITY
The trial court opined that its grant of the petition was in consonance with the
principles of justice and equity. It believed that allowing the petition would cause no
harm, injury or prejudice to anyone. This is wrong.
The changes sought by petitioner will have serious and wide-ranging legal and
public policy consequences. First, even the trial court itself found that the petition
was but petitioner's rst step towards his eventual marriage to his male anc.
However, marriage, one of the most sacred social institutions, is a special contract of
permanent union between a man and a woman. 37 One of its essential requisites is
the legal capacity of the contracting parties who must be a male and a female. 38 To
grant the changes sought by petitioner will substantially recongure and greatly
alter the laws on marriage and family relations. It will allow the union of a man
with another man who has undergone sex reassignment (a male-to-female postoperative transsexual). Second, there are various laws which apply particularly to
women such as the provisions of the Labor Code on employment of women, 39
certain felonies under the Revised Penal Code 40 and the presumption of
survivorship in case of calamities under Rule 131 of the Rules of Court, 41 among
others. These laws underscore the public policy in relation to women which could be
substantially affected if petitioner's petition were to be granted.
It is true that Article 9 of the Civil Code mandates that "[n]o judge or court shall
decline to render judgment by reason of the silence, obscurity or insuciency of the
law." However, it is not a license for courts to engage in judicial legislation. The duty
of the courts is to apply or interpret the law, not to make or amend it.
In our system of government, it is for the legislature, should it choose to do so, to
determine what guidelines should govern the recognition of the eects of sex
reassignment. The need for legislative guidelines becomes particularly important in
this case where the claims asserted are statute-based.
To reiterate, the statutes dene who may le petitions for change of rst name and
for correction or change of entries in the civil registry, where they may be led,
what grounds may be invoked, what proof must be presented and what procedures

shall be observed. If the legislature intends to confer on a person who has

undergone sex reassignment the privilege to change his name and sex to conform
with his reassigned sex, it has to enact legislation laying down the guidelines in turn
governing the conferment of that privilege.
It might be theoretically possible for this Court to write a protocol on when a person
may be recognized as having successfully changed his sex. However, this Court has
no authority to fashion a law on that matter, or on anything else. The Court cannot
enact a law where no law exists. It can only apply or interpret the written word of
its co-equal branch of government, Congress.
Petitioner pleads that "[t]he unfortunates are also entitled to a life of happiness,
contentment and [the] realization of their dreams." No argument about that. The
Court recognizes that there are people whose preferences and orientation do not t
neatly into the commonly recognized parameters of social convention and that, at
least for them, life is indeed an ordeal. However, the remedies petitioner seeks
involve questions of public policy to be addressed solely by the legislature, not by
the courts.
AaCTID

WHEREFORE, the petition is hereby DENIED.

Costs against petitioner.
SO ORDERED.

Puno, C.J., Sandoval-Gutierrez, Azcuna and Garcia, JJ., concur.

Footnotes
1.

Petitioner went for his elementary and high school, as well as his Bachelor of
Science in Statistics and Master of Arts, in the University of the Philippines. He took
up Population Studies Program, Master of Arts in Sociology and Doctor of
Philosophy in Sociology at the University of Hawaii, in Manoa, Hawaii, U.S.A. Rollo ,
p. 48.

2.

This consisted of "penectomy [surgical removal of penis] bilateral oschiectomy [or

orchiectomy which is the surgical excision of the testes] penile skin inversion
vaginoplasty [plastic surgery of the vagina] clitoral hood reconstruction and
augmentation mammoplasty [surgical enhancement of the size and shape of the
breasts]." Id.

3.

On January 23, 2003, January 30, 2003 and February 6, 2003.

4.

Penned by Judge Felixberto T. Olalia, Jr. Rollo, pp. 51-53.

5.

Id., pp. 52-53 (citations omitted).

6.

Docketed as CA-G.R. SP No. 78824.

7.

Special Sixth Division.

8.

Penned by Associate Justice Arcangelita M. Romilla-Lontok with Associate Justices

Marina L. Buzon and Aurora Santiago-Lagman concurring. Rollo, pp. 25-33.

9.

Resolution dated September 14, 2006, id., pp. 45-46.

10.

An Act Authorizing the City or Municipal Civil Registrar or the Consul General to
Correct a Clerical or Typographical Error in an Entry and/or Change of First Name
or Nickname in the Civil Register Without Need of a Judicial Order, Amending for
the Purpose Articles 376 and 412 of the Civil Code of the Philippines.

11.

Wang v. Cebu City Civil Registrar , G.R. No. 159966, 30 March 2005, 454 SCRA
155.

12.

Id.

13.

K v. Health Division, Department of Human Resources , 277 Or. 371, 560 P.2d
1070 (1977).

14.

Under Section 2 (6) of RA 9048, "rst name" refers to a name or nickname given
to a person which may consist of one or more names in addition to the middle
names and last names. Thus, the term "rst name" will be used here to refer both
to first name and nickname.

15.

The last paragraph of Section 7 of RA 9048 provides:

SECTION 7. Duties and Powers of the Civil Registrar General. . . .
Where the petition is denied by the city or municipal civil registrar or the consul
general, the petitioner may either appeal the decision to the civil registrar general
or file the appropriate petition with the proper court.

16.

SECTION 3. Who May File the Petition and Where . Any person having direct
and personal interest in the correction of a clerical or typographical error in an
entry and/or change of rst name or nickname in the civil register may le, in
person, a veried petition with the local civil registry oce of the city or
municipality where the record being sought to be corrected or changed is kept.
In case the petitioner has already migrated to another place in the country and it
would not be practical for such party, in terms of transportation expenses, time
and eort to appear in person before the local civil registrar keeping the
documents to be corrected or changed, the petition may be led, in person, with
the local civil registrar of the place where the interested party is presently residing
or domiciled. The two (2) local civil registrars concerned will then communicate to
facilitate the processing of the petition.
Citizens of the Philippines who are presently residing or domiciled in foreign
countries may file their petition, in person, with the nearest Philippine Consulates.
The petitions led with the city or municipal civil registrar or the consul general shall
be processed in accordance with this Act and its implementing rules and
regulations.

All petitions for the clerical or typographical errors and/or change of rst names or
nicknames may be availed of only once.
17.

SECTION 5. Form and Contents of the Petition. The petition shall be in the form
of an adavit, subscribed and sworn to before any person authorized by the law
to administer oaths. The adavit shall set forth facts necessary to establish the
merits of the petition and shall show armatively that the petitioner is competent
to testify to the matters stated. The petitioner shall state the particular erroneous
entry or entries, which are sought to be corrected and/or the change sought to be
made.
The petition shall be supported with the following documents:
(1)
A certied true machine copy of the certicate or of the page of the
registry book containing the entry or entries sought to be corrected or changed;
(2)
At least two (2) public or private documents showing the correct entry
or entries upon which the correction or change shall be based; and
(3)
Other documents which the petitioner or the city or municipal civil
registrar or the consul general may consider relevant and necessary for the
approval of the petition.
In case of change of rst name or nickname, the petition shall likewise be supported
with the documents mentioned in the immediately preceding paragraph. In
addition, the petition shall be published at least once a week for two (2)
consecutive weeks in a newspaper of general circulation. Furthermore, the
petitioner shall submit a certication from the appropriate law enforcement
agencies that he has no pending case or no criminal record.

18.

Republic v. Court of Appeals , G.R. No. 97906, 21 May 1992, 209 SCRA 189.

19.

Supra note 11.

20.

Id.

21.

In re Ladrach, 32 Ohio Misc.2d 6, 513 N.E.2d 828 (1987).

22.

Lee v. Court of Appeals , 419 Phil. 392 (2001).

23.

Id.

24.

Co v. Civil Register of Manila, G.R. No. 138496, 23 February 2004, 423 SCRA 420.

25.

Id.

26.

Id.

27.

Beduya v. Republic of the Philippines , 120 Phil. 114 (1964).

28.

Salonga, JOVITO, PRIVATE INTERNATIONAL LAW, 1995 Edition, Rex Bookstore,

p. 238.

29.

This, of course, should be taken in conjunction with Articles 407 and 412 of the
Civil Code which authorizes the recording of acts, events and judicial decrees or
the correction or change of errors including those that occur after birth.
Nonetheless, in such cases, the entries in the certicates of birth are not be
corrected or changed. The decision of the court granting the petition shall be
annotated in the certicates of birth and shall form part of the civil register in the
Office of the Local Civil Registrar. (Co v. Civil Register of Manila, supra note 24)

30.

The error pertains to one where the birth attendant writes "male" or "female" but
the genitals of the child are that of the opposite sex.

31.

Moreover, petitioner's female anatomy is all man-made. The body that he inhabits
is a male body in all aspects other than what the physicians have supplied.

32.

Black's Law Dictionary, 8th edition (2004), p.1406.

33.

Words and Phrases, volume 39, Permanent Edition, p. 106.

34.

In re Application for Marriage License for Nash, 2003-Ohio-7221 (No. 2002-T0149, slip op., Not Reported in N.E.2d, 2003 WL 23097095 (Ohio App. 11 Dist.,
December 31, 2003), citing Webster's II New College Dictionary (1999).

35.

Id.

36.

Standard Oil Co. v. United States , 221 U.S. 1 (1911), 31 S.Ct. 502, 55 L.Ed. 619.

37.

Article 1, Family Code.

38.

Article 2 (1), Id.

39.

These are Articles 130 to 138 of the Labor Code which include nightwork
prohibition, facilities for women, prohibition on discrimination and stipulation
against marriage, among others.

40.

These include Article 333 on adultery, Articles 337 to 339 on qualied seduction,
simple seduction and acts of lasciviousness with the consent of the offended party
and Articles 342 and 343 on forcible and consented abduction, among others.

41.

Section 3 (jj) (4).