Prefabricated Systems

Principles of Construction

These titles have also been published in this series:

Maarten Meijs, Ulrich Knaack
Components and Connections Principles of Construction
ISBN 978-3-7643-8669-6
Ulrich Knaack, Tillmann Klein, Marcel Bilow, Thomas Auer
Faades Principles of Construction
ISBN 978-3-7643-7962-9

Ulrich Knaack
Sharon Chung-Klatte
Reinhard Hasselbach

Prefabricated Systems
Principles of Construction

Birkhuser
Basel

We would like to thank Delft University of Technology for the financial support of this publication.
We would also like to thank Ria Stein for her editorial guidance and her prolonged efforts;
our thanks are extended to Sabine Khnast for her competent support of our work.
Thanks are due to Pieter Moerland as well for his comments and to the research student
Christian Wedi for generating the drawings.

Layout and typesetting: MEDIEN PROFIS, Leipzig

Graphic design concept: Oliver Kleinschmidt, Berlin
Editor: Ria Stein, Berlin
Subject editor: Sabine Khnast, Berlin
Copyediting (chapters 1, 2, 3, 7): Raymond Peat, Alford, Aberdeenshire
Translation into English (chapters 4, 5, 6): Raymond Peat, Alford, Aberdeenshire
This book is also available in a German edition:
978-3-7643-8746-4

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Washington D.C., USA.
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conte nts

7 | 1 Introduction
7 |
8 |
10 |
11 |
12 |

Terminology
Building systems and prefabrication
Housing and industrial building
Objectives
Book organisation

13 | 2 History of Building Systems

13 | Early systems
13 | The Mongolian Yurt
14 | The tatami mat in Japan
15 | Industrial Revolution and Machine Age
15 | Mass production: from automobiles to architecture
17 |
17 |
17 |
18 |
24 |
28 |

Milestones in building systems

American Dream and housing boom
Progress in Europe
German developments
British developments
Case Study Houses

30 |
31 |
32 |
33 |
34 |
35 |
36 |

The pioneers of prefab

Jean Prouv
Richard Buckminster Fuller
Konrad Wachsmann
Fritz Haller
Alison and Peter Smithson
Paul Rudolph

37 | 3 Systems in Housing
38 |
38 |
40 |
42 |

Construction types
Light-frame construction
Slab construction
Post-and-beam construction

44 |
44 |
46 |
47 |
48 |

On-site building and prefabrication

On-site building
Prefabrication
Flat-pack
Modular building

50 |
50 |
53 |
54 |
57 |
59 |

Culture and the issue of design

USA
The Netherlands
Japan
Great Britain
Austria

61 | 4 Systems in Industrial Buildings

61 | Ultra-lightweight
62 | Tent systems
64 | Modular systems
65 | Container systems
68 | Flexible modular systems
70 | Steel skeleton construction
70 | Midi system
74 | Mixed concrete-steel skeleton construction
77 |
79 |
82 |
83 |

Concrete skeleton construction

Platform systems
Industrial buildings using precast concrete units
Market share for system-built buildings

85 | 5 Processes

98 | 6 The Components: Systems, Modules

and Elements
85 | The example of the automobile industry
86 | Lean Production

98 | Systems and subsystems

87 | System processes

100 | Classification by levels of construction

88 |
88 |
88 |
89 |

102 | Classification by construction trades

Design
Design systems
Construction systems
Computer-aided design systems

105 | Degree of prefabrication of the construction

111 | Connections

90 | Construction process
91 | On-site construction
92 | Prefabrication

115 | 7 Future of Building Systems

94 | Logistics

115 |
116 |
118 |
118 |
120 |
124 |

94 | Installation on site
96 | Lean production for modular construction
96 | Lean production for component construction

System building industry

Architect vs. system building
CAD and CAM
Digital Age
Sustainable building and intelligent design
Development potential of system building

97 | Advantages and problems of systemised

processes

Appendix
125 |
129 |
130 |
133 |

Selected Bibliography
Authors
Index
Illustration Credits

1 | Introduction
Building with prefabricated systems encompasses the production and use of preplanned components or modules as a solution to build with higher quality and more
efficiency. It is associated with dimensional grids, high technical standards, lower costs
and the repetition of components or objects. Today, almost every science and industry
is systemised, and the building industry is not an exception, but rather a late bloomer.
Building systems are used to simplify complex planning and constructional processes. Their special character lies in the fact that they are not related to any specific building task but can be applied as universal solutions. System building is often referred to
as prefabricated systems because of the industrial nature of construction production.
Many building systems consist of manufactured components and use industrial methods of assembly, even when constructed on site.

Terminology
The term system building must also be seen in the context of a time horizon. The first
systematisations applied to the smallest units: bricks, which had been in use since
7500 BCE. Todays system building is relevant to much larger and more complex components.
The increasing complexity of systematisation is demonstrated by the term module
(modulus, Latin for measure). Whereas in earlier times, module described standardised
measurements or dimensions, such as the Japanese tatami mat or Le Corbusiers modulor, the term today stands for standardised components of an overall system. And the
components can be further broken down into separate elements.
In the last century, visionary experiments in building systems enjoyed public attention, but the novelty of industrialisation wore off relatively quickly in architecture. The
mass production of standard components is thriving, and in some sectors, such as
housing, prefabrication of whole buildings is experiencing a slow restart.
A one-off product is still perceived as a handcrafted work of art, and the repetitive
industrialised house does not conjure up images of the beautiful home. Is it impossible
to create good architectural products and repeat them hundreds of times? Or is the
dream of high-quality, cost-effectively produced architecture purely an ideological position that does not work in todays world of individualists? Is the element of prefabrication reciprocal with the idea of non-permanence, or is there too much hesitance in acquiring a high-tech product that is larger than an automobile and lasts for longer than
ten years?
This leads to the question of good vs. bad architecture. Does serial production lower
product value? Artists Andy Warhol and Dan Flavin based some of their works on the
notion of repetition of identical everyday objects (1). The series of otherwise simple
Campbells soup cans or the marching rhythm of fluorescent light tubes is the essence
of the artists works. Can a repetitive built environment (2) be planned intelligently and
provide the essence of architecture we are looking for? In the search for individuality
and corporate identity, does mass customisation suffice in architecture?

I NTRODUCTION

Building systems and prefabrication

Taking a step back to the roots of the matter to inquire about the systematisation of
architecture (4), we recognise that many architects and builders rely heavily on systems
because the demands of the scope of the projects and the expected time of delivery
cannot be met with traditional methods. Building systems include the production of
building elements, whether on or off site; the subcategory prefabrication includes all
systemised off-site manufacturing of components and elements (3). Among the benefits of successfully using systems, including prefabrication, are quicker construction on
site, better ability to build to optimum cost and higher-quality end products due to
closer factory control as part of the manufacturing process.
From an architects point of view, the impact of prefabrication on architecture is
positive on the one hand, because the profession consistently involves more areas of
responsibility, and prefabrication allows a cumulative development of technical knowledge: connections, details and technical standards. On the other hand, it has a negative image because it instigates a fear that intelligent thinking and creative architecture,
as well as the architectural profession itself, are becoming obsolete. From the clients
point of view, building systems have a reputation ranging from low construction standards to high-end technology and are even ultimately considered fashionable.
System building is generally believed to be the opposite of on-site building because
the manufacturing takes place off site. It is not associated with anything organic: systemised building usually connotes boxy, orthogonal shapes and strict grids. The style of
prefabricated systems scoffs at the sort of architecture that conjures the homemade
aura, or the vernacular (of a place), since the industry and industrialised products aspire
to speak a modern language (of a time). However, these generalisations are only partly
correct.

Fluorescent light installation, Menil Collection,

Richmond Hall, Houston, Texas, Dan Flavin, 1996
The repetition of elements, like the colourful fluorescent light tubes
of this sculpture, constitutes a whole. A twin set bedecks the other
side of the hall.

Prefabricated houses in Middelburg, the Netherlands

The individual faade is not of high priority on this Dutch street.
The repetition of housing units unifies the street faade and
demonstrates that the order of the repetitive built environment
is a strong virtue.

I NTRODUCTION

On-site methods of construction, for example, stick-built houses, are often thought to
be the slower, hand-made methods. In some cases, stick-built methods, have indeed
become more systemised, methodically and architecturally, than prefab products on the
market today. Some on-site building construction methods may be low-tech, but other
on-site building procedures that parallel advanced high-efficiency production methods
of the factory far exceed the production output of standard building procedures. Cases
in point are Quadrant Homes of USA and Toyota Homes of Japan. Business management experts from the automobile industry who learned from each other overseas and
constantly oversaw self-improvement plans are responsible for these highly efficient
and successful building construction methods. Whereas Toyota Homes prefabricates
the house components in the factory, the American firm produces most of the homes on
site and both produce stick-built homes at top speed and with admirable quality.
Clearly, system building does not necessarily take place off site.

Islamic pattern, Alhambra, Granada

The geometry sets the order of the
coordinates of all the lines, which
interweave to form patterns. In the
same way, building systems set the
order of all subsystems and components to form a building.

Parco Homes, San Francisco, California

Many prefabricated homes offer a variety of sizes and materials to suit the individual
customers needs. The exploded axonometric shows a prefabricated kit of parts that
is assembled on site.

I NTRODUCTION

Housing and industrial building

This book discusses two areas of construction that could hardly be more different:
residential and industrial building. These areas were selected because they already
have a particularly high degree of prefabrication and comprise a large proportion of
total building activity.
Several factors shape the housing market: there are private clients, who favour individualisation but would still like to build cost-effectively and/or with a guarantee on
price. This segment covers, among other things, prefabricated housebuilding companies, which, for example, claim 14% of the market in Germany. On the other hand, real
estate companies design and develop whole new residential areas, where there is a
high demand for housing, such as in the Netherlands.
The industrial building category includes offices, commercial and industrial buildings, which have to fulfil a very wide range of different requirements. On the one hand
there is the inner-city office block, which has to meet the architectural and urban-planning requirements and accommodate complex building services. And on the other hand,
there are the factories and warehouses, which, because they are often erected on the
urban periphery, have to satisfy much reduced needs for architectural expression and
building services.
The architectural quality that can be achieved with preplanning and prefabrication
must therefore be considered with respect to the particular project. With prefabrication
can come loss of local typology, construction methods and materials. Other building
types, for example stadia, can profit from a high degree of prefabrication and, as the
contract sum is many times that of a single detached house, new designs can be developed exploring options for prefabrication and modularisation to form a project-specific
modular building system.

Soccer City Stadium, Johannesburg, Boogertman + Partners, 1987/2010

2,100 modules, each consisting of 16 panels in various colours and surface finishes, create a
shape reminiscent of the African calabash.

Soccer City Stadium, Johannesburg

Glass fibre-reinforced concrete faade modules
supplied by the German company Rieder were
used for the roof of the stadium, which was built
in 1987. Detailed view of installation.

10

I NTRODUCTION

Today, system-built products can even assume organic shapes (5, 6, 9). Moulding of
three-dimensional forms, calibrating movements and translating information for CNC
machines would not be possible without CAD systems. The Geodesic Dome (Richard
Buckminster Fuller, 1954), the undulating roof at Kansai airport (Renzo Piano, 1988
1994) and the International Terminal at Waterloo Station (7) in London (Nicolas Grimshaw, 19901994) were seminal projects. Greg Lynn studied the animation of forms
using computer-generated models with his Embryological House in 1999. In this case,
a complex organic 3D grid system was created with CAD systems.
Finally, vernacular architecture, a term which conjures images of classical or traditional architecture, can have different stylistic consequences in the context of systems.
If vernacular architecture is understood as the architecture intrinsic to a place and to its
function, it can certainly be modified to meet todays building standards of a house in
an industrialised, digitalised place for a changing nuclear family. The modified vernacular architecture, as demonstrated in Vorarlberg, in the western part of Austria, is a perfect example of this. Modern buildings are adapted to the needs of the modern family
and the requirement of energy efficiency, while still using local materials. The compact
and simple forms of the architecture are suitable for smaller families but blend into the
traditional context of a community previously characterised by agriculture (8).

Objectives
The objectives of this book are twofold: the main objective is to present to the young
practitioner the current status of prefabricated building by documenting the different
systems according to building typology and building components, thus systematically
weaving a picture of the world of prefabricated systems. The documentation is supplemented with photos and drawings setting a clear framework of creative processes. The
second objective is to discuss the following questions: do the architects aims of achiev-

International Terminal, Waterloo Station,

London, Nicholas Grimshaw & Partners,
1993
The 400 m long roof is made up of standardsized glass sheets, which overlap and use a
concertina joint to accommodate the double
curve of the roof section and the track path.

I ntroduction

11

ing individuality and artistic expression suffer from the modularising, codifying and repetition associated with prefabricated or preassembled building systems? Or does the architect gain flexibility in design as the building systems offer a high standard of quality?

Book organisation
Following this introduction, the chapter on the history of building systems highlights a few
exemplary moments in the long story of building systems. The included prefabricated
systems are not necessarily the most successful or ideologically the best examples of
system building. The failures and visions were as important as the commercial successes.
The chapters on housing and commercial or industrial buildings document examples
that delineate certain aspects, such as the different building construction methods. The
chapter on housing covers the basic construction types, the extent of prefabrication
and its implications on site and the issue of cultures, faades and their cross-referencing of styles. Commercial, or non-residential buildings, make up most of the built prefabricated architecture. The building type is broken down into three categories: temporary buildings, serial buildings and individual buildings. Modular concepts, flexibility, and
construction methods are addressed here.
The fifth chapter, on the procedure of manufacturing a building, covers aspects concerning the logistics of planning, production, transportation and the assembly of a building. The efficiency of the manufacturers, their productivity, adaptability to different needs
and standards are networked aspects of the building procedure. The aim is not to collect the latest tips on production or operation and materials of the market, but to dissect, display and analyse the matrix of methods and materials.
The chapter on components classifies the buildings tectonics systems, subsystems and takes into account the developers point of view; each layer is a clear building part allocated to a contractor, such as the loadbearing structure or building services.
The final chapter opens a perspective on the future of prefabricated architecture.
We, the authors, hope to deliver a straightforward and informative collection of facts
on building systems and at the same time offer insight into typically non-tectonic issues
that form the systems in the first place.

Houses in Vorarlberg, Austria

The modern form of industrialised architecture is a gradual
shift away from the vernacular.

Design exhibition Entry 06, Essen, Germany, 2006

Computer-generated organic forms bring a new dimension into
the field of prefabricated architecture.

12

I ntroduction

2 | History of Building Systems

tion of any building technology aims at producing more efficient

Early systems
The Mongolian yurt

and more cost-effective buildings than traditional methods. Sys-

For over 2,000 years, nomadic tribes have been travelling in the

tems of building and the subsequent variety of architectural Ge-

steppe regions of Mongolia with their families and homes in the

stalt took their cues from the cultures of peoples, the geogra-

cyclic search for pastures to resource food and trade crafts. The

phy and its natural resources, technological advances and,

yurts, the traditional homes of the Mongolians, are light, trans-

especially, the visions of architects and engineers. Thus, pin-

portable and easily built (1). Made of pliable wooden worm fenc-

pointing the beginnings of building systems is quite challenging.

es, woollen blankets, ropes made of yak- and horsehair and linen

Although developments in industrialisation, transportation and

sheets, the yurts, also called gers, are raised and dismantled

communication have internationalised the building industry to

within 60 minutes and can be transported by two or three cam-

some extent, significant differences remain between countries

els. The round form provides the maximum area for the given

and their attitudes toward building systems.

material, and the aerodynamic roof shape fends off the winds.

What is the essential target of building systems? The systemisa-

This chapter traces the history of building systems and its

The woollen blankets provide thermal insulation against temper-

path of advancements in different contexts. The mobility, flexibil-

atures that can reach 40C and the outer layer of linen pro-

ity, security and economy achieved by various building systems

vides protection against rain (2). The weight and size limitations

are crucial to present-day better living and working conditions.

of transportation by camel are clear practical criteria for the

At some moments in history, however, building systems offered

building system of yurts.

the quickest, barely adequate shelters as a matter of survival.

The examples shown in this chapter illustrate that the development of building systems did not only depend on the successes
some were expensive failures that were nevertheless important
in the pursuit of architectural qualities and aspirations.

Mongolian yurt
The Mongolian yurts are conveniently compact for transport on camels yet
provide secure shelter and display traditional values. The nomads recamp
two to four times a year, so the efficient use of the steppe region resources
is a necessity.

Silk painting The Birth of the Child,

Ming Dynasty, China, early 15th century
This painting from The Story of Lady Wen-Chi
depicts a Mongolian royal encampment in the
desert. Geometrically arranged linen sheet
panels extend the noble court space around
the yurt and separate it from the servants area.
In this example of nomadic architecture, the
structure, though temporary, is a place of high
stature.

H I STORY OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

13

The tatami mat in Japan

The Japanese tatami mat flooring element is the revised standard

3 shaku 1.5 sun

(95 cm)

tatami mat

module of common architectural measure that has been used in

6 shaku 3 sun
(190 cm)

Asia for over 1,000 years. The tatami mats, with measurements
of 6 shaku 3 sun (190cm) by 3 shaku 1.5 sun (95cm), are the
basis upon which the spacing and sizes of the columns, sliding
doors, verandas and eaves are still determined today. Slight variations in size apply to different regions in Japan, but this system
of building with elements as measurement modules has allowed
the development of a remarkably high standard of craftsmanship
and the standardisation of highly refined technical and functional
details.
It is important to note here that the term module in architecture refers to a standard unit of measure used to determine the size
of building components. The tatami is an example (35), as is the
shaku (30.3cm), the 1.25 m module in Germany or the 2 4 inch
(5.110.2cm) module in the USA. Many modules and variations exist, the most well-known ones being those developed by
architects Leonardo da Vinci and Le Corbusier. This is not to be
confused with the contemporary use of the term module referring to fully fitted-out boxes, sometimes interlocking, which are
produced as finished products for living or working in.

Japanese house
The organisation of a typical Japanese home uses the tatami mat
module.

Tatami house
This illustration from the 18th century shows
modular components set within a skeletal
construction. Sliding wall elements allow a
flexible open plan.

Tatami room
In Japan, room size is still measured in
tatamis. For example, a four and a half
tatami room is roughly 9 m2.

14

H I STORY OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

Industrial Revolution and Machine Age

The Industrial Revolution spanned from the late 18th century to

evolving era of architecture and design. In 1960, 180 years into

the 1840s and is responsible for a shift in technical, socioeco-

the Industrial Age, he wrote one of the most influential critical

nomic and cultural conditions that continues to reverberate in

books on architecture and design: Theory and Design in the

many aspects of our daily lives today, including our built sur-

First Machine Age. In it he coined the term First Machine Age,

roundings. It is the era in which machinery replaced manpower.

which covers the early 20th century, as the age defined by elec-

The textile and metallurgy industries soared and the steam en-

tricity and light, various domestic electrical appliances, the por-

gine was a milestone in the history of manufacturing. The Sec-

table typing machine and the automobile. Factory-made prod-

ond Industrial Revolution began around the 1850s and saw the

ucts gave way to a machine aesthetic that was driven by Walter

prowess of the new industrial giants Germany and the USA, who

Gropius as the leader of the progressive Bauhaus in 1923, and

profited from borrowing ideas from Great Britain and still had

exemplified by the practicality and functional reduction of design

capital to invest. Transportation in the USA expanded to vast,

and architecture.

new dimensions with faster and better shipbuilding, and the rail14 times since the first mass-produced steel tracks were laid.

Mass production:
from automobiles to architecture

Food, drink, glass, soap, paper and textile industries profited

Henry Fords proclamation in 1908, I will build a car for the

from the improved availability of sodium carbonate and sulphuric

great multitude, has long since been realised. Fords dream of

acid. Longer working hours but also safer streets were possible

creating an automobile that the average American could afford

thanks to gas, and later, electric lighting. New modes of com-

was achieved by rationalising the production through the intro-

munication and entertainment such as the telephone, phono-

duction of the assembly line and investing in new techniques and

graph, radio and cinema had an enormous impact on the social

materials, resulting in higher efficiency and lower costs. And, the

and cultural manifestations as analysed by the historian of popu-

commodity of industrialised products, including buildings, was a

lar culture Marshall McLuhan in his book Understanding Media

solid platform for design.

way industry, continually in higher demand, doubled its output

(1964). The automobile industry redefined the concept of mobility and was essential to the development of materials and manufacturing procedures (6).
In the context of the Industrial Age, Reyner Banham, the inventor of modern architectural terms and a proponent of machine aesthetics, clarified the position and tendencies of an

Single family home and semi-detached house, Weienhofsiedlung

Stuttgart, Le Corbusier, 1927
The industrial production of the structure and components of the home,
along with its reduced form, was a move away from traditionalist thinking.
6

Volkswagen factory
The perfection of the assembly line and mass production in the automobile
industry was an invention of a system of manufacturing that was inspirational
to the building of the home.
H I STORY OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

15

The automobile was an object of fascination for Le Corbusier,

then been associated with one another and received with both

undoubtedly the most influential architect of the Modern Move-

positive and negative reverberations from the public.

ment. The Swiss architect, planner and visionary said in his man-

The Maison Citrohan is only one of many prototypes, ideas

ifest, Toward an Architecture (1922), that The house is a ma-

and plans that were new and exciting among architects, but the

chine for living in (Le Corbusier, Toward an Architecture, Los

idea of prefabricated homes did not take off immediately due to

Angeles, Getty Research Institute, 2007, p. 151). The Maison

the unsettling effect this change in the feeling of home had for

Citrohan, first designed in 1920, carries the name of the brand

the inhabitants. Modernity and mass production in architecture

Citron as a direct reference to the automobile. In other words,

continued to be met with opposition from conservatives who

the house is like an automobile, its design engineered and re-

valued identity, tradition, crafts and the professionalism of the

duced to suit its function.

architect traits that were thought to disappear with serial

Le Corbusier refers to the dream of the mass production of a

building. This negative association deterred the industrialisation

house type. He imagined that components of houses, like auto-

of architecture; this was still the case in 1960, at the time of

mobiles, should be built in factories, a visionary idea to pro-

Banhams writing. The Second Machine Age, a term coined by

nounce at that time but not illogical considering the power of

fellow architectural critic Martin Pawley, was at its peak: luxury

industrialisation (7). The two aspects the modern style of

products were mass-produced (8), meaning that such an abun-

Functionalism and mass production of buildings have since

dance and choice allowed the middle class to afford the luxuries
individually. A new awareness of machine aesthetics as a conscious stylisation of electric gadgets, automobiles, furniture and
architecture as apparent in Italian industrial design (9), and
Eamess chairs and homes grew, but the industrialisation of
architecture did not.

Braun Sixtant SM2 electric shaver, Gerd Alfred Mller and Hans Gugelot, 1961
This model, one of the many products that epitomised
German modern industrial design, became a global player
in electric shaving.
9

Valentine typewriter, Olivetti, Ettore Sottsass, 1969

The stylised typewriter replaced bulky cast-iron ones and was more
affordable because it was mass-produced.

16

H I STORY OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

Milestones in building systems

American Dream and housing boom
The USA experienced a housing boom in the 1920s and 1930s,
and fast-track, balloon-framed mail-order catalogue houses were
sold by the thousands. Wood was plentiful, and the building industry in the USA grew rapidly after saw-cut timber and massproduced nails came to existence (10). Until this point in time
balloon housing was traditionally made, but with mail-order catalogue houses, they were industrialised, standardised and systemised (11). The Ready Cut posts, the flooring, wood siding,
sheathing and interior fittings were included in the package. Kit
houses by companies like Aladdin Homes and Sears, Roebuck
and Co. boomed mainly in the Northeast and the Midwest, where
the railroads were newly laid. Interestingly, the houses borrowed styles and carried labels like the California Bungalow, The
Spanish Eclectic, The Victorian and the Cape Cod Cottage (13)
and were decisively traditional. They resembled the conventional
light-frame or brick alternatives, but were built in record time,
cheaper (Sears claimed prefabrication saved 40% in labour
costs) and were of a better quality (12). The system behind the

10

Ready Cut succeeded.

Besides the fast-track growth of wood housing, the USA was

Balloon frame
The 24 inch (5.110.2 cm) wood frame construction
was revolutionised by the invention of the steam engine,
which enabled the production of steel nails and the saw
cutting of wood.

experiencing a new system of building with another material:

cast iron. The malleability of iron faades easily took on the intricate forms of classical faades, so that traditional looking faades could quickly be applied. European countries had already
developed its use (14), but the inventor James Bogardus of New
York City was one of the first to mass-produce cast-iron beams,
columns and faades that replaced massive structures and materials like stone and brick. As in the housing sector, Bogarduss
cast-iron architecture spread across the USA and embraced the
styles originating from Europe.

Progress in Europe
In Europe, prefabricated architecture was developing its own
modern architectural language as we saw in the example of the
Maison Citrohan, but on the commercial level the idea of building
systems experienced a number of false starts. Modern European
architecture was given a major impetus through the work of Walter
Gropius and the founding of the Bauhaus, the most influential
school of art and architecture in the 20th century, in 1919. Closely tied with various sectors like household products, painting and
plastic arts, architects experimented with new architectural forms
for industrial production. Prefabrication in architecture was not
new: wooden military barracks, corrugated metal churches in the
colonies and factories built of factory-made cast iron were already familiar images.

11

Levittown, Pennsylvania, 1959

Fast-track, balloon-framed houses were planned and developed as a
complete suburban community.

H I STORY OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

17

German developments
The pilot project Berlin-Friedrichsfelde in 19241926 by Martin
Wagner, the head of the German Housing Provision (DEWOG),
was a pre-war experiment in concrete slab construction (15).
Housing shortages caused by the First World War had necessitated an alternative method of building that could replace the
slower bricklaying methods of the time. The modified System
Occident was adapted from the shuttering and erection techniques of the double-storey concrete slabs by the American
engineer Grosvenor Atterbury. The 114m slabs were only
25cm thick. The use of cranes to lift the large slabs proved difficult and uneconomical, and the pre-planned designs did not
accommodate the large inaccuracies that occurred during the
drying process.
Ernst May, the city planning advisor of Frankfurt, also looked
to Atterburys assembly methods and devised the Frankfurter

12

Modern Homes catalogue, 1920

The cover of the Sears, Roebuck and Co. catalogue featuring
homes that could be ordered and delivered within weeks.

14

Cast-iron roof structure from the 19th century

in a train station in Detmold, Germany
Cast iron was used in factories, railroads and other
building types where larger spans were required.
This became quickly popular in both Europe and the USA.

13

Modern Homes catalogue, 1934

This Sears, Roebuck and Co. catalogue kept an eye on
the styles originating from Europe.

18

H I STORY OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

Plattenbau (Frankfurt Slab System). The slabs were smaller, with

maximum dimensions of 30011020cm, handled with smaller rotating tower cranes and, most importantly, manufactured offsite in the factory. The construction time was significantly reduced compared to conventional building and until 1930, the
Frankfurter Plattenbau was the foremost construction technique in town with 1,000 houses accredited to this method.
However, the financial advantages were minimal and the houses
suffered technical problems such as cracks and chips in the concrete and high levels of humidity. Unfortunately, before these
problems could be resolved, other critical, psychological aspects like the sterile environment of the home through heavy
standardisation and reservations about the coldness of the still
unfamiliar concrete drew heavy criticism. This was worsened by
the aversion toward Functionalism (from, of all people, the rightwinged German Nationalists and the National Socialists) and the
loss of jobs caused by rationalised building methods that were
actually a response to the lack of skilled labour. The banks
stopped financing the projects, May left the city, and the city-

16

owned factories that had built them eventually closed down.

Assembly system of Frankfurter Plattenbau, Ernst May,

19261930
The Frankfurt Slab System by Ernst May in 19261930 used
smaller slabs than the System Occident, that were factory-made
and assembled with smaller and easily manoeuvrable cranes.

17
15

Concrete slab construction System Occident, Berlin-Friedrichsfelde, Martin Wagner, 19241926

System Occident was a large concrete slab construction modelled after
American prototypes. The slabs were prefabricated on site. Despite
technical problems, this method was an important precedent for future slab
systems.

Frankfurter Plattenbau, Ernst May, 19261930, under construction

A factory-manufactured house of this type was one of the few concrete
structures to be presented at the Weienhofsiedlung in Stuttgart in 1927.

H I STORY OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

19

The Frankfurter Kche was the first mass-produced kitchen

Eventually, standardised unit dimensions allowed parts to be

and a revolutionary experiment in the rationalisation of domestic

mixed and interchanged at will (19), functioning along the same

work, and is still of relevance to kitchen planning today. Built

principles with which the assembly line worked in the production

within the framework of Ernst Mays Frankfurt housing projects

of automobiles. Even today, the 60cm kitchen module offers the

(16, 17) by the Viennese architect Margarete Schtte-Lihotzky,

customer choice and the manufacturer the security of fitting in.

the kitchen design was based on analyses of the womans kitch-

The globalisation of the kitchen as a coordinated set of modules

en work (18). All elements were optimised to reduce redundant

is reminiscent of modularisation in the building industry with

movements and save space within the small kitchen size of

guidelines such as the Building Research Station Module Chart

1.873.44m. Kitchens for 15,000 flats were produced for the

of 1960 (34), issued by the BRS (later succeeded by the Build-

price of 238.50 German Reichsmark each from 19261930.

ing Research Establishment, BRE), at that time a British government establishment charged with research, consultancy and
testing for the construction sector.

19

A box full of small-scaled kitchen components, around 1962

Customers could experiment with this model kitchen by the Dutch firm
Bruynzeel. The kitchen components were held in place with magnets.
Bruynzeel mass-produced efficiently planned built-in kitchen units for
housing associations, architects and the government.

18

Frankfurt Kitchen, Margarete Schtte-Lihotzky, 1926

The mass-produced kitchens were rationalised to save time and
energy.

20

Dessau-Trten housing system, Germany, Walter Gropius, 19261928

This version with loadbearing walls and hollow-core slag-concrete blocks was
produced on site within an optimised process for production and assembly.

20

H I STORY OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

From 1926 to 1928 Walter Gropius built 316 houses for low-

and the technocratic appearance of the architecture. It seemed

income families in the Dessau-Trten suburban estate with his

that these experiments with concrete were praised only by fellow

honeycomb construction method (20). This was originally de-

architects.

veloped at the Bauhaus as a modular system of standardised

The exhibition Die Wohnung (21), initiated by the Deutsche

shuttering clustered in groups of four to twelve units and then

Werkbund in Stuttgart in 1927, was the climax of the modern

poured with concrete. This proved impractical, and he opted

era and featured the Weienhofsiedlung, a suburban estate. It

for a simpler version with loadbearing walls of inexpensive pre-

presented model houses for the modern urbanite, designed by

fabricated hollow-core slag-concrete blocks and ceilings of rein-

17 architects of the Modern Movement including Ludwig Mies

forced concrete beams. All materials were produced on site, but

van der Rohe (who designed the master plan), Walter Gropius,

production and assembly were optimally rationalised with the as-

Le Corbusier, Bruno Taut, Jacobus Johannes Pieter Oud and

sembly line, and sustainability and quality were controlled. Hous-

Peter Behrens. In addition to proposing a new way of living with

es of 5774m2 were being built at a rate of one per five and a

pure forms, optimal light and a minimum of clutter, the goal was

half hours for the building structure, including the on-site casting

to demonstrate the achievement of new materials and methods

of the blocks. Despite all these advancements, this project had

of construction, form-givers of the New Architecture. A number

to fail, following resurfacing resentment against the harsh forms

of the houses were constructed with variations of Ernst Mays

22

House No. 17, Weienhofsiedlung Stuttgart,

Walter Gropius, 1927
Gropiuss house was a steel-framed structure with prefabricated
light infill panels. Such new methods of construction suited the
new, pure way of living proposed at the housing show.

21

Poster for the exhibition of the Deutsche Werkbund,

Die Wohnung, Willi Baumeister, 1927
The posters for the exhibition clearly express the disapproval of clutter and
ornament in living spaces.

H I STORY OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

21

Slab building and social housing

concrete slab, but the majority of the houses were steel frames

The lessons learned before the war, especially with concrete,

with prefabricated lightweight panels (22, 23). Other materials,

were reapplied in the early 1960s with social housing pro-

such as the hollow-core slag (pumice-concrete blocks), zig-zag

grammes. Large concrete panel systems accounted for 60% of

wood panels (as made by Feifel near Stuttgart) and thermal

all housing in the German Democratic Republic in 1970, 50% of

slabs, were also used. As many parts were produced in the fac-

all housing in Finland in the 1980s and a remarkable 75% of all

tory, the 63 apartments in the 21 houses were constructed with-

housing in the Soviet Union by the 1990s (27, 28). Eventually,

in 21 weeks. Visitor attendance was high, but, as usual, the con-

the skeletal frame with concrete infill panels took form, and prac-

cept of change in ideology of art and architecture was met with

tically all buildings integrated at least prefabricated stairs, balco-

opposition from the public, even before the opening.

nies and building services.

The Plattenbau (literally slab building) was the response to
the post-war housing shortage and dominated the residential
landscape of the German Democratic Republic. Initiatives to improve ecological or design aspects were ignored. In Leipzig,
cost savings were achieved by using only 13 out of 39 possible
components, but this led inevitably to monotony. The negative
image of concrete has taken a turn since 1989, when Plattenbau projects were reinterpreted, demonstrating the advantages
of this building method. For one, building components could be
demounted and reused, but also built projects could be refurbished to suit other living and communal arrangements. In this
manner, the architect Stefan Forster transformed a 180 m long
large slab building into eight four-storey town villas by removing
a floor level and seven vertical segments (25). Today, the Plattenbau is the centre of much debate, focusing on critical topics
such as the overall organisation of housing developments and
the outward appearance.

23

Multi-family housing, Weienhofsiedlung Stuttgart,

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, 1927
The steel-framed structure of Mies van der Rohes apartment block
allowed freedom of the division of spaces inside.

24

Le Haut du Livre, Nancy, France, Bernard Zehrfuss, 1960

The housing block Le Haut du Livre was built with the Estiot
system, using prefabricated reinforced concrete.

22

H I STORY OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

The Corviale (26), the 1km long 1970s imitation of Le Corbus-

came subjected to vandalism and ghetto-like conditions. The

iers Unit dHabitation on the periphery of Rome for 8,000

housing block of Pruitt Igoe in the USA was dramatically demol-

residents, did not live up to its intention as a heroic architec-

ished in 1972 because of its social and structural deficiencies

tural monument nor as a housing solution. It was awesomely

and is seen today as a typical example of this building type

ambitious, but like other similar projects of this scale (24), be-

spinning out of control.

25

Leinefelde town villas, Germany, Stefan Forster

Architekten, 20012004
A GDR slab building from the 1970s was the point of
departure for a refurbishment project. The architect Stefan
Forster transformed the 180 m long building into eight
four-storey town villas by removing a floor level and seven
vertical segments.

26

La Corviale housing project, Rome, 19721974

The prefabricated concrete La Corviale housing block by
architects M. Fiorentino, F. Gorio, P. M. Lugli, G. Sterbini,
M. Valori and others is well known for its monumentality and
its failure as a social concept. Because the housing complex
is a cultural monument to the 1970s, there are new initiatives
to save the project.

H I STORY OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

23

27

Overview Russian large-panel prefab system

Storey-high large panels were the predominant method of
prefabrication in the Soviet Union, where the majority of homes
were prefabricated.

British developments
An early example of industrialised system building construction
was the Crystal Palace, designed by the gardener Joseph Paxton in 1851 for the Great Exhibition in London (2931). At a time
when buildings were made of stone and took many years to
erect, the Crystal Palace was designed, manufactured and assembled in eight months. This was only possible through the
manufacturing of a kit of parts in the factory and the ingenious
idea of using repetitive, self-supporting bays that could be erected independent from one another by unskilled workers. Columns
were composite structures that could be connected to extensions or various decorative features, all glass panels were of
standard dimensions and the supporting framework was dimensioned accordingly. The exhibition hall was a complete building
system of modules, components and connections. It also employed system integration encompassing drainage, operable
ventilation and natural light. Its significance lies not in its large
volume nor in the pioneering modular iron prefabricated structure, but in its reliance upon and extension of the rationalisation
process to the entire construction site, from factory to site.
Industrialised building was already flourishing before the First
World War in Great Britain whose industry was manufacturing,
packaging and shipping homes, churches, storage houses and
just about every necessary structure for colonies in Asia and

24

H I STORY OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

28

Elements of a Russian large-panel prefab system

System building requires a minimal number of elements used
to economise building costs, but should optimally differentiate
the outer forms and allow varying floor arrangements.

Africa. Even earlier, there was great demand from the Wild West
frontier leading up to California as construction companies during the gold rush in 18481855 could hardly meet the need for
quick dwellings. Portable cottages made of wood or iron were
sent in large numbers by ship. Corrugated iron, useful for its
lightness and durability, was also popular; however, in subtropical regions the material proved to be lacking in thermal mass.
Ingenious technical advances in the material qualities and production of the heavier, more substantial material cast iron as partial or total building systems were made, especially in England
and Scotland. The longer spans of the main structure allowed for
large non-obstructed spaces, useful in factories with large machines.

29

Crystal Palace, London, Joseph Paxton, 1851

Designed by the gardener Joseph Paxton for the London Great
Exhibition, it is a paradigm example of industrialised system building. All modules, components and connections were manufactured
in the factory.

30

Crystal Palace modules

All components down to the window mullions and sashes were
engineered to integrate natural ventilation, lighting and drainage.

materials

site work

skilled labor

three years

1 Alternative (pre-industrial) proposals for the Crystal Palace involved traditional materials and methods that would have required a building time of three years.
industrialised processes
skilled and unskilled labour
industrialised
processes
materials
skilled and unskilled
labour

factory
transport
site work
production
factory
site work
transport
production
factory
transport
site work
production

less than one year

2 J. Paxtons design was also an organisational concept. The flow of materials, production of systems and subsystems,
labour and assembly were organised as a planned sequence of events.

unskilled labour
industrialised
processes
materials

factory
production

transport

site work

unskilled labour

31

Crystal Palace systemisation

The highly sophisticated systemised rotation of
labourers on and off site was key to the efficient
production of the Crystal Palace. 500 m in length
and 150 m wide, this extraordinary space was
built by 2,000 men in six months.

3 In the typical work flow of prefabricated houses, all components can be assembled by unskilled workers.

H I STORY OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

25

Post-war prefabricated housing

After the First World War, Great Britain was one of the first

housing, this time with a focus on temporary housing. The Minis-

states to subsidise social housing programmes. Since there was

try of Works in Great Britain initiated many projects, the first of

a shortage of skilled labour and traditional building materials,

these being the prefabricated bungalow, the Portal House of

housing authorities looked to building systems as a way to build

1944, which was based on a lightweight steel frame. The exten-

homes quickly and effectively. These alternative building tech-

sive use of steel proved to be too costly so the Portal was never

niques were to replace labour-intensive bricklaying, which ac-

put into production, but became a precedent for many other ex-

counted for 31% of the cost, and carpentry, which accounted for

periments with different construction methods. These included

a further 26%. Many radical new systems (such as precast con-

the Arcon with steel-framed sections and asbestos sheets, the

crete frames or concrete blocks) were developed and built, but

Uni-Seco with timber framing and asbestos cement-clad panels

as in Germany, they were not as successful as anticipated, large-

and the Tarran with a light timber frame construction and rein-

ly due to the lack of planning and development resulting partially

forced concrete panels. Mass production alleviated the housing

from inconsistent government support. Technical problems such

shortage significantly: the Arcon group managed to produce a

as cracking, leaking and corrosion occurred and in both coun-

section in 12 minutes and produced 41,000 houses. Many of

tries the technical problems led to abandonment of the technol-

these ultimately outlived the predicted lifespan of 1015 years,

ogy. The tarnished image of prefabrication persisted longer than

and even changed location as was the initial intention. The alu-

the unresolved problems.

minium AIROH bungalow was a significant and curious land-

When the Second World War was over in 1945, the poor

mark in mass production (32, 33). Built in a decommissioned

existing housing conditions, coupled with the lack of housing

aircraft factory, the building components consisted of four fully

through war destruction, called for a new attempt with system

fitted sections of a house that were delivered by truck and bolted

32

AIROH aluminium bungalows

The bungalows were complete with plumbing and wiring for standard kitchens.

26

H I STORY OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

together on site. The sections included bathrooms, refrigerators

tionalised operation. It was based on a metal prefabricated frame-

and plumbing not unlike the less technically advanced temporary

work and an in-situ concrete system, making it a combination

houses for migrating dam builders, made by the Tennessee Valley

prefab and on-site method. The system boasted 11 house types

Authority in the 1930s in the USA.

and was very successful. It comprised 27 building systems, the

Small cladding units supported by independent structural

most popular of these being in-situ concrete systems, built

frames still proved uneconomic and soon, in 1948, the Ministry

100,000 houses up to 1955 and experienced similar output well

found that, of the new systems, the large concrete panel was the

into the 1970s. This accounted for a third of all local authority

cheapest. Still, since the Housing Act of 1944, the new methods

housing!

of construction were able to account for 157,000 temporary hous-

The most important achievement of government research was

es built from 1945 to 1948, of which one third were AIROHs,

the modular coordination in the 1960s (34), or the design of

but this number was significantly less than what had been ex-

building to a common dimensional framework. This was funda-

pected.

mental to networking modular systems for prefabrication of inter-

When the responsibility for support of system housing shifted

changeable parts and would not have been developed by com-

from the government to local authorities, it was the industrial cit-

mercial firms alone. One of these applied a flexible low-rise

ies that relied mostly on system building. Many of these were

system for housing to the steel frame system developed by

homes for higher densities, in particular, concrete high-rise build-

CLASP, a local authority schools consortium that was responsi-

ings, later called tower blocks, like the Plattenbau of mainland

ble for a major school building programme.

Europe. The Wimpey No-Fines system was developed by the

The British large-panel concrete systems (such as Bison)

George Wimpey company and received much praise for its ra-

were also developed to the modular system. These precast con-

33

AIROH aluminium bungalows installation process

The four sections were delivered by truck, positioned into place with a crane and bolted together.

H I STORY OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

27

34

Building Research Station Module Chart,

1960
This chart was established by the British BRS
with standard opening sizes developed to
facilitate mass production of building components. Modularised building components could
be mixed and matched, and the building industry
could focus on quality.

crete systems were mainly used for large housing projects of

most of the building systems with modern forms suffered nega-

eight to 20 floors in height and integrated internal and external

tive branding. There are, however, timeless documents from the

finishes, wiring and plumbing. The Larsen-Nielsen system from

past 60 years that embody the spirit of the time, express the new

Denmark was adapted and was built by the hundreds in the Lon-

materials and technology and continue to inspire the develop-

don area.

ment of architecture built with systems.

Although the centralised modular system was a success for

the production of many building types, system building declined

Case Study Houses

due to changes in government policies. Technical problems were

The Case Study Houses were brought to life by Los Angeles-

not to be overseen, and finally the 1967 economic crisis opened

based Arts & Architecture magazine and its publisher, John En-

views that system building was too expensive and inadequate.

tenza, between 1945 and 1966. The American public, like the

Special attention was drawn by the 1968 collapse of the just

British and German public, was showing little enthusiasm for new,

finished 22-storey Ronan Point, built with the Larsen Nielsen

industrialised forms in housing. Traditional appearances were

large-panel system. An explosion on the 18th floor caused a pro-

the norm, and this was frustrating for architects who were dis-

gressive collapse of the entire southeast corner, allowing specu-

covering exciting potential in mass-produced housing. In Califor-

lations that the building type was the cause. Though it was prov-

nia, where the boundary between inside and outside is climati-

en in 1970 that system building was indeed cheaper than

cally and culturally more open, a landscape of open architecture

traditional building for all house types and that the collapse was

had developed. Architects like Irving Gill, Richard Neutra, Frank

not at all related to the form of construction, system building was

Lloyd Wright and Rudolph Schindler were closing the genera-

not to receive any further sponsoring. Traditional building meth-

tion gap between traditional bungalow architecture and the An-

ods were to take over again.

geleno Modern. Hispanic influence can be seen in Gills work,

In the countries mentioned in this chapter, the more success-

the International Style background in the Viennese Neutra and

ful methods relied heavily on the traditional outward appearance

Schindler, and Japanese influence in Frank Lloyd Wright. John

applied to an inherently different concept of architecture while

Entenza shared this openness, but he also had a sharp vision.

28

H I STORY OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

The goal of the Case Study programme was to promote a good

structural mass while the faades are solid panels in various co-

environment. Altogether, 36 prototypes for mass production

lours alternating with standard-sized glass panels that allow the

were designed and built, but the generous layout made them

light to filter in. Although the house is basically a steel and glass

only affordable by the financial elite, the progressive upper class.

box, the furniture and exceptional handling of materials and form

As in Stuttgart, the architects studied new techniques and hon-

are what make it essentially a home. The discovery of combin-

est, clear forms. The steel-framed houses were the most pro-

ing open spaces with living comfort inspired architects in Great

vocative and gave the progressive impulse of the programme,

Britain, Japan and all over the world to work with new methods.

the most famous and rigorous of these being the CSH No. 8 by

The Case Study Houses were a major influence on the inter-

Charles and Ray Eames (35, 36). The exposed steel frame struc-

national modern architectural scene, specifically for the high-

ture offers large expanses of unobstructed space with little

tech architecture of the 1980s. Many lessons from the Case

35

Case Study House No. 8, Charles and

Ray Eames, Pacific Palisades, Los Angeles,
19451949
This steel and glass box embodies both new
technologies and the comfort of the modern
home. The faade expresses transparency,
lightness and colour.

36

Case Study House No. 8, construction system

The steel frame is covered by glass and coloured panels.

H I STORY OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

29

The pioneers of prefab

Study Houses point back to Le Corbusiers honest approach

The technological developments and newer manufacturing strat-

to new materials like steel, glass and concrete. Still new to the

egies in system building in the pre- and post-war years were not

world, was, for example, the idea that buildings made with steel

all in vain, even though they seemed to have enjoyed only inter-

or concrete columns no longer had loadbearing walls, and there-

mittent success. It seems a long and weary process with many

fore permitted relatively open spaces. But the key issue was the

learning stages on the way, but it is also one abundant with

industrialisation of building components, or at least the use of

thrills. As industrialisation played its hand in the building industry

standardised components in a clearly new attitude toward the

in USA, Germany, Great Britain, France and much of the indus-

architecture of prefabrication (37).

trialised world, several architects displayed monumental feats of

architectural prowess while risking commercial failure.

37

Case Study House No. 22, Pierre Koenig, Los Angeles, 19591960
This L-shaped steel structure is one of the most radically reduced Case Study Houses. All elements were standard
industrialised elements.

30

H I STORY OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

Jean Prouv
If system building is at its most true, selective definition the pre-

Based on a 1 m modular system, the Maison Tropicale was de-

fabrication of components to be delivered, assembled to a com-

signed as a prototype for inexpensive, readily assembled hous-

plete (or variable) form and disassembled for further use, then

ing to be transported to French colonies in Africa (3840). The

the Maison Tropicale by Jean Prouv is probably the first species

house typology resembles that of Japanese architecture, albeit

of true system building in the 20th century. This prototype, one

in metal and with round portholes, but is built to withstand hot

out of three ever built, was constructed in Prouvs atelier in

temperatures and high levels of humidity. The sheet aluminium

France, shipped by air cargo and then assembled in Brazzaville,

sliding doors, shaded terraces and originally raised floor level

Congo, in 1954. After some refurbishment, all three houses

modulated air and light qualities in the relatively uniform space.

moved some half a century later to the banks of the Seine, the

Although so few were built, this project remains an important

East River and the Thames.

document of prefab culture.

38
40

Maison Tropicale, Jean Prouv, 1954

A prefabricated house in the truest sense of the term, the project was first built in Congo.
This one was dismantled some 50 years later and reassembled in New York.

Maison Tropicale, Jean Prouv,

design 19491951
This house is made of components that
would fill up two shipping containers
today. All but the largest structural
elements are aluminium. The heaviest
piece weighed in at around 100kg and
could easily be handled by two men.

39

Maison Tropicale, Jean Prouv, at the Tate Modern,

London, presentation 2008
Its presentation in London demonstrates the houses
ability to be dismantled, transported and reassembled.

H I STORY OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

31

Richard Buckminster Fuller

Buckminster Fuller was a navy seaman and a restless inventor

Dymaxion Deployment Unit), built and flown to the Pacific and

with a fascination for geometry. At a time when most of America

Persian Gulf areas (42, 43). They were successful for the mili-

was purchasing prefabricated traditional homes, Fuller present-

tary, as the newer building method of adding from top to bottom

ed his first design of the futuristic looking Dymaxion House (1928).

cut crucial construction time. Compound curved panels im-

It was designed to be mass-produced: the body between two

proved the mast-hoisting process and withstood high winds,

hexagonal compression rings was suspended from a mast which

blasts and extreme weather conditions. Furthermore, the shad-

contained state-of-the-art electrical appliances (41). Aluminium,

owless corners were easier to camouflage. The natural chilling

still a relatively unfamiliar material in the building industry at that

machine effect, whereby the heated air was sucked out of pe-

time, was chosen for its lightness, high performance and durabil-

rimeter vents while cool air was pulled in from the top, was not

ity. The round form allowed for a maximum of space in proportion

to the material. The significant claim was that the house should
weigh less than 3 tonnes as little as a car, the icon of prefabrication. Unfortunately, with a fate similar to most other ambitious
prefab projects, the idea could not establish itself in the building
market and was never mass-produced due to the high price of
aluminium.
Over a decade later, in 1940, the US military had several hundred 6 m wide military versions of the house, called DDU (for

42

Dymaxion Deployment Unit, Buckminster Fuller

Hundreds of the military derivative of the Dymaxion House were constructed for
the war in 1940. They were built top-down and had a natural ventilating effect.

41

43

Dymaxion House, Richard Buckminster Fuller, 1928

This futuristic prototype was to have many derivatives to follow.

Diagram of Dymaxion Deployment Unit

The home version of the DDU was technically altered to achieve a natural
ventilating effect that supposedly functioned despite contradictory physical
principles.

32

H I STORY OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

Konrad Wachsmann
used in the military DDU, but the technology was to be employed

The collaboration of Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius af-

later in the Wichita House. It is interesting to note here the simi-

ter their emigration to the USA lead to a utopian vision of a pre-

larities between the DDU and the Mongolian yurt in terms of its

fabricated house that merged pure forms and intricate detail. In

exemplary building method and economy of form.

1942, the two presented a prototype for a modest but precisely

After the war came to an end in 1945, the Dymaxion would be

built home of framework and panel construction. The Packaged

technically advanced and meticulously modified to become the

House (4547) was approved, generously funded by the gov-

Dymaxion Dwelling Machine, also known as the Wichita House

ernment and well marketed, but the company sold no homes by

(44). Developed with a team of aircraft designers, engineers and

the end of the war in 1945. Luckily, Wachsmann, this time with-

craftsmen, the house was manufactured at Beech Aircraft fac-

out Gropius, had a second chance with a government-backed

tory in Wichita, Kansas. The 11m wide dynamically formed hous-

housing programme for veterans. Much more was invested in

es were capable of being packed small and erected quickly, and

were envisioned to be stackable and repeated to assume a
neighbourhood atmosphere. The quality and performance was
excellent. The interior fittings were of equal ingenuity: room-dividing storage-wall pods and the metal and plastic moulded Dymaxion bathroom allowed for ample and well-lit living spaces.
The complete house weighed just under 3 tonnes a normal
house weighed 150 tonnes and cost as much as a luxury automobile, just as predicted. After much marketing and public enthusiasm, the company received 3,500 orders. The architect,
however, possibly for egotistical reasons, was not yet ready with
revisions and claimed that the Dymaxion House needed seven
more years of development time. The production, and all the visionary impetus that guided it, came to an end.

44

45

Wichita House, Wichita, Kansas, Richard Buckminster Fuller, 1945

The home version of the Dymaxion Deployment Unit was larger, modified
with technically advanced interior fittings and still economically packed for
easy transport.

Connection detail of the Packaged House,

Konrad Wachsmann, 1942
The construction principle of the inwardly focused
connection elements allows a uniform outer surface.

H I STORY OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

33

Fritz Haller
new factory equipment and a change in management. Wachs-

The Swiss architect and furniture maker Fritz Hallers holistic ap-

mann, with experience in building with wood in Germany, rede-

proach to building systems is a significant contribution to archi-

signed and developed the system of panels and connections.

tecture. Haller masterminded the long-span Maxi (1963), the

Two years later, when production was ready, the government

Mini (1969) and Midi (1980) systems (48), the well-known furni-

withdrew its funds and the production stopped. All in all, of the

ture system USM Haller and several utopian designs. In the first

10,000 houses that the General Panel Corporation expected to

three systems, the building structure, building services and inte-

put out per year, 200 were produced and only a few were sold.

rior finishes were based on a geometric three-dimensional grid

and fully integrated. This universality offered a high degree of
variability, which in turn provided flexibility in the design of any
building. The three building systems offer different degrees of
complexity for different uses. The Midi building system, for example, the most complex of the three, comprises of a steel box
system for building multi-storey highly mechanised buildings
such as schools, laboratories and office buildings (49). The steel
columns and double open-web trusses are fitted out with the
Armilla installation model for all mechanical ducts, cable trays
and fasteners.

46

Construction principle of the Packaged House, Konrad Wachsmann, 1942

The system allows for a variety of layouts with the same detail principle.

47

Elevation of the Packaged House,

Konrad Wachsmann, 1942
Only a few of the industrialised houses were
sold, but the experience was a lesson on the
technological, economic and social aspects of
industrialised housing.

34

H I STORY OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

This highly sophisticated system never really took off. This has

rect approach to the new material plastic was consistent with

partly to do with the exclusivity of the total system that rejected

the ideology of their previous works: the architecture was to suit

interchangeability with other off-the-shelf products, leaving the po-

the situation. Only 50 years young at that time, plastics were

tential buyer with a dependence on the system. The widely success-

slowly introduced through industrial design products such as

ful USM Haller office furniture systems are still produced today.

the telephone, records, furniture, automobile interiors and predictably made their way into the building sector. It was not for

Alison and Peter Smithson

the first time that moulded organic forms were used in building.

Alison and Peter Smithson of London were mainly known for

Buckminster Fuller invented metal bathrooms for the Dymaxion

their involvement with the movement of Team X and New Brutal-

House, Paul Rudolph experimented with concrete. The House of

ism. With their House of the Future (50, 51), designed for the

the Future, complete with a private garden, was entirely formed

Ideal Home Exhibition in London in 19551956, an honest, di-

in plastic-impregnated fibrous plaster. The curved forms substantially reduced cleaning time, in keeping with the changing
role of the emancipated woman.

48

50

Midi system, Fritz Haller, 1980

The connection of a column and the double open-web roof trusses
with a prefabricated steel construction.

House of the Future, Alison and Peter Smithson,

19551956, view from above
The house was constructed of plastic-impregnated fibre
plasterboard.

51

49

Midi system in detail

View into the ceiling construction with the integrated mechanical
services.

House of the Future,

interior view
Built for the Ideal Home
Exhibition in London, this
house is prefabricated in
parts and exemplifies the
use of plastic as a lowmaintenance material.

H I STORY OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

35

Paul Rudolph
Paul Rudolph is the American counterpart to the New Brutalism

In 1968, Paul Rudolph designed the Oriental Masonic Gar-

of Alison and Peter Smithson. As an architectural movement

dens (52) for lower-income families in New Haven, Connecticut.

New Brutalism is defined not by stylistic terms, but is instead

Trailer-like boxes were trucked to the site and placed by cranes

remembered for its fair-faced concrete and monolithic forms.

into double-storey pinwheel layouts delineating garden spaces.

The aesthetics of this architecture lie in its rationality and order-

The prefab co-op is a systemised housing project on two levels:

ing system. The engine behind New Brutalism is the directness

Rudolph takes on a social stance by adjusting to peoples needs

that drives the form and the movement: let the building show

with groups of room-sized modular units clustered around a core

what it is about, express the mechanical systems and employ

for each home. The Oriental Masonic Gardens is also a spatial

materials that work functionally.

system, a pattern that contains sheltered spaces within the complex and has the ability to spread out. It is a democratisation of
modules and spaces with no hierarchy.
The Temple Street parking garage, also in New Haven, is not
made of precast concrete systems, but defines abstract formalism in building systems (53). The building was designed to span
a length of 265 m and to bridge a street, but this part was uncompleted. To break down the horizontality, the parapets are
spliced at every double column and a vertical reading is possible
from frontal angles. This is a system of rhythms used to group
and regroup parts of a whole, like in music, in order to overlay
scales of reading.

52

The Oriental Masonic Gardens, New Haven, Connecticut,

Paul Rudolph, 19681971
The buildings consist of clusters of modules within a double-storey
pinwheel layout.

53

Temple Street Parking Garage, New Haven, Connecticut,

Paul Rudolph, 1962
Typical of New Brutalism, the form is derived from the fluidity of the material.

36

H I STORY OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

3 | Systems in Housing
Building systems in housing represent a specific topic that merits a category of its own. Housing typology has undergone more
experiments than any other building type and has the greatest
variety of standards. After all, dwelling is a basic necessity and
the living units are generally smaller, more plentiful and of a more
temporary character than most other typologies. In short, every
culture needs housing in large quantities, quickly and at a reasonable price and this provides fertile ground for the development of systems. Thus, it is not surprising that many of the milestones in the history of building systems include examples of
housing.
The attitude towards system building, or more specifically,
prefabrication, has always been in a state of perpetual change.
The quality and solidity of a house were associated by many with
slow, more traditional building methods, which in turn substantiated its value. Le Corbusier stated in 1922 that building ones
house is a bit like making ones will (Le Corbusier, Toward an
Architecture, Los Angeles, Getty Research Institute, 2007, p. 262),
a misconception that has repeatedly stalled the development
of prefabrication of housing in countries such as Germany and
Great Britain. On the other hand, prefabrication and other forms
of system building use new materials, offering opportunities to
improve an older system. In the Netherlands and the USA, technical progress and development of system building in the last
half century have had positive resonance. In these countries,
ownership is common, homes are more or less exchangeable, and
they are a source of pride if they provide the space, the look,
security and a technically adequate environment. Apartments,
semi-detached houses, single-family houses and even student
halls of residence and hotels to some extent fulfil the requirements of the home and contribute to endless possible combinations. For the sake of simplicity this chapter focuses mainly, but
not exclusively, on the single-family home.
System building of the house can be categorised into the following basic construction types: light-frame construction, slab
construction, modular and combined construction (1). The way
building components are delivered influences the approach to
and the extent of construction. The two seemingly opposite methods are on-site and prefab (factory-built). Flat-pack and modules
are more complete types of packing and delivery.

System building in housing

The basic construction types are: light-frame construction, slab
construction, modular and combined construction.

Differences in culture explain the variety in aims, standards,

styles and the role of system building have on the product called
home. A look at the USA, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Austria
and Japan provides an insight.

SYSTE M S I N HOUS I NG

37

Construction types
Light-frame construction
Light-frame construction is based on lightweight, linear struc-

two storeys. The studs were lightweight and compact, making

tural members with a uniform cross section. The structural mem-

them easily transportable. Furthermore, the houses could be built

bers, or studs, form a frame of exterior walls. Diagonal bracing

without skilled labour. However, this system as a wooden struc-

members provided lateral stability in the past, but this arrange-

ture has disadvantages, such as the requirement for long timber

ment has been superseded by carefully nailed rigid panels such

members and the tendency of wood to shrink over a period of

as plywood sheathing, mineral fibreboard or engineered wood

time. Probably the greatest disadvantage of this technique is

panels for higher shear strength. Cladding is added to the exte-

that the path of fire along the length of the members had to be

rior to protect against weathering, and the voids between the

obstructed with fire stops. This method of construction was con-

studs are filled with soft insulation or rigid insulation boards at-

sequently banned by certain building codes in the USA in the

tached to the studs. Two major light-frame building techniques

late 1940s. This building system has been largely replaced by

used in the USA, Canada and the Scandinavian countries, where

platform framing, but today, since light-gauge steel construction

timber is plentiful, are the balloon frame and the platform frame

has replaced the wood in the balloon frame, the older system

(2), with the latter continuing to be the predominant method of

has made a comeback.

construction in these countries today. These methods became

The platform frame is similar to the balloon frame, with the

especially popular after the invention of the industrially manufac-

exception that the wall frames (stud bays) are floor-height and

tured steel nail in the 19th century, which considerably alleviated

the floor frames (joist bays) are built independently of one an-

the task of connecting wooden members.

other (35). The platform frame can generally take up to four

The older balloon frame technique, which was common in

levels of walls and floors. For the roof construction, trusses are

the USA until the late 1940s, uses continuous vertical timber

often preferred to wooden beams for their longer clear spans.

members, typically 24 inch (5.110.2cm) or 26 inch

Many standard configurations allow space for the installation of

(5.115.3cm) placed at 16 inch (40.6cm) centres. They ex-

wiring, piping and ductwork. Roof trusses are often factory-built

tend from the base sill up to the top plate and support the inter-

to reduce the requirement for site labour and to ensure dimen-

mediate floor joists and the roof rafters or trusses to a height of

sional stability and quality. Both light-frame structures, balloon

and platform frame, are usually supported by a concrete slab
foundation or foundation walls, which vary according to terrain
and ground conditions.

2
Balloon FrameBalloon
Frame

Platform Frame
Platform Frame

Balloon frame and platform frame

The diagrams of the light-frame construction types show parallel linear elements or studs. In the balloon frame,
studs reach from the base sill past the intermediate floors up to the top plate. In the platform frame, the studs are
connected from sole plates to top plates to form storey-high planar forms, or platforms.

38

SYSTE M S I N HOUS I NG

Platform frame construction site: the skeletal structure

The structure is based on lightweight, uniform structural
members assembled to form storey-high platforms.

Platform frame construction site: the envelope

The enclosure of the space provides stiffness to the structure.

Platform frame construction site: the finished building

The construction system is widely used in the USA and
Scandinavian countries. Most of the assembly takes place on
site and requires only unskilled labour.
SYSTE M S I N HOUS I NG

39

Slab construction
Slab construction is based on planar structural members consisting of vertical loadbearing walls and horizontal slabs. As in a
house of cards, each loadbearing wall is a structural unit able to
1
1

support vertical loads from floor, wall and roof systems above.
The walls must also resist lateral loads from supported floor and
roof systems as well as wind loads, etc. Horizontal slabs must

support dead (permanent loads from building structure) and live

loads (moving and varying loads, such as occupants and furnish-

ings).
Flooring systems of slab construction generally consist of
precast concrete plank floor systems or in-situ reinforced concrete floor systems, depending on the required slab form and
degree of prefabrication (6). Precasting structural elements allows for greater quality control of the concrete form and its

2
2
b
2

structural integrity. If prestressed or post-tensioned, they have

greater structural efficiency and can achieve longer spans. In
comparison with other flooring systems, such as the conventional wood joist and plywood subfloor system, the floors in slab

3
3

d
4

4 of prefabrication in flooring is determined by time

The degree
and cost constraints
The larger prefabricated concrete slab (a) requires less on-site time
4
and has fewer connections, the prefabricated concrete plank floor (b)
is less cumbersome during transportation and erection but is still
structurally sound, while prefabricated concrete structural decking (c)
and prefabricated panels (d) offer the most flexibility in planning.

40

SYSTE M S I N HOUS I NG

Burger House, Detmold, Germany, raum 204, 2006

This house is built with large OSB boards, a product with fewer multifunctional attributes than the four-layered Magnum Board or the rigid
foam-cored SIPs.

construction buildings are completed in a single step, as the

Rigid foam insulation is glued to a continuous oriented strand

structure and the flooring surface are made of the same continu-

board (OSB) slab construction and sealed around the edges to

ous material.

make well-insulated, airtight panels that are light, easy to handle

Concrete is ideal for wall systems using slab construction.

and capable of supporting loads in the same way as a wooden

Other materials, such as metal (corrugated for bending strength)

frame or a brick wall. In effect, they are not so different from light-

and wood do not have the structural qualities or are not available

frame construction, because they employ the same materials but

in the sizes necessary to make slab construction possible with-

simply take them one step further in the construction process.

out the aid of other materials. Composite materials (7), such as

Like concrete, they lend themselves well to prefabrication and

structural insulating panels (SIP), utilise the structural and ther-

customisation, which is one reason for the growing popularity of

mal qualities of different materials sandwiched together (8).

this material, especially in the USA.

Prefab housing factory

A factory in Marienmnster, Germany, prepares SIPs for shipping. Around 150mm thick, these boards are light, thin and have insulating
and structural strengths required of structural walls.

SYSTE M S I N HOUS I NG

41

Post-and-beam construction
The post-and-beam construction is a combination of construc-

minium panels, stone cladding or wood, just to name a few. Mies

tion methods. A larger skeletal framework, usually made of steel,

van der Rohe used concrete blocks as infill in the Weienhof-

reinforced concrete or wood provides the overall structure, and

siedlung in Stuttgart and applied a uniform layer of stucco to

infill panels provide the enclosure (911). Structure and surface

cover the structure. The post-and-beam method is more cost-

can be considered independently of one another, allowing a

effective for larger projects, such as multi-family housing proj-

wide range of panel materials (12) to be used and the modules

ects, where there is greater repetition of structural elements. It is

to be varied: they can have different sizes and can be with or

therefore not used as frequently for single-family homes.

without openings, which may also vary in size.

Because the infill panels or materials do not have to carry any
loads other than their own, the architect can exercise full freedom of choice. The structural grid can be filled with materials
with a variety of colours and textures such as brick skins, alu-

System 01: House E. Kaufmann, Andelsbuch, Austria, Johannes Kaufmann and Oskar Leo Kaufmann, 1997
The system, an example of post-and-beam construction, consists of a laminated-wood skeletal frame and a variety of glazed or wooden
wall panels.

42

SYSTE M S I N HOUS I NG

10

System 01: House E. Kaufmann, Andelsbuch

A wall panel is lifted into place with a crane.

11

System 01: House E. Kaufmann, Andelsbuch

The finished house.

12

Modern Modular Housing, Penny Collins and

Huw Turner, design 2002
The design was conceptualised for the North American
market with timber- and metal-framed alternatives for the
post-and-beam structure.

SYSTE M S I N HOUS I NG

43

On-site building and prefabrication

On-site building
On-site building is the construction of a building and all its ele-

Simpson Strong-Tie, one of the leading US manufacturers of

ments at the location of the building. Wooden studs are cut and

metal connectors for wood construction, produces connectors

connected, concrete is shuttered and poured in place, and steel

that eliminate measuring and render carpentry knowledge irrele-

beams are welded by hand. It is perceived as a more inefficient

vant (13). Prefabricated steel strap ties, stud shoes, girder truss

way of producing a building when compared to prefabricated

ties and other wood construction connectors connect, reinforce

housing. However, the working methods in some countries have

angles, cover tolerances and eliminate previously necessary

become highly systemised. One can argue that on-site house

woodwork (notches and tongue-and-groove joints) that required

production in, say, the USA or the Netherlands, is not only a clear

highly skilled carpenters. Moreover, the template positioning of

example of system building, but it is also orchestrated and pre-

nails, positioned to achieve maximum hold without splitting,

fabricated as much as its factory-made counterparts (14).

saves construction time and reduces human errors.

The reduction of required carpentry skills and, consequently,

Most homes in North America are on-site light-frame houses,

the wages, has resulted in a consequent shortage of trained car-

while houses in the Netherlands are mainly prefabricated struc-

penters in countries such as the USA. The profit-oriented build-

tures. The fact is that both countries build their homes very sys-

ing sector rectified this problem by changing building methods

tematically, but use a combination of both methods to maximise

so that the work could be performed using cheap, unskilled labour.

efficiency. The difference lies in the materials: the majority of

Acute
Side
10dx1?"
Nails

0-45

13

Acute
Images of installation steps from Simpson
Side Strong-Tie catalogue
The products help eliminate measuring and cutting, save time and reduce the need for skilled labour.
10dx1?"
Nails

44

SYSTE M S I N HOUS I NG

0-45

homes in the USA are of wood, while most new homes in the

Netherlands (15). The structure of the houses is often of prefab

Netherlands are of concrete; as a result the construction meth-

concrete panels or large concrete blocks. General building prac-

ods differ. Homes in the USA are constructed predominantly

tice shows a tendency to complete the remainder of the con-

with the stick-building method, but most of the wood studs, floor

struction, such as exterior finishes, on site as it is relatively quick

joists, flooring panels, doors, windows, matching frames, stairs

and can be controlled individually. The more lenient (in terms of,

and roof trusses are precut and delivered to the building site.

for instance, fire protection, energy standards or structural re-

Much on-site work nevertheless has to be done, as the structure,

quirements) construction standards of both the USA and the

interior, adjustments and finishes are completed by hand.

Netherlands partly explain why construction is far faster and

Prefabricated concrete elements, not just in the housing sec-

cheaper in these countries than, for example, in Germany, where

tor, have become technically perfected and standardised, so

slower on-site methods prevail, even with the use of prefabri-

Degreethat
of prefab
on-sitethework
prefab has/ become
prevalent method of building in the

cated elements.

prefab - more factory made time - less on-site time

prefab

prefab

on-site
14

on site

Degree of prefabrication and on-site work

There are varying degrees of prefabrication and on-site work.
The relationship of prefab and on-site construction is
reciprocal, hence more time in the factory equals less time on
site and vice versa.

on-site - less factory time - more on-site time

15

House construction in Burgh-Haamstede,

the Netherlands
In the Netherlands, the use of a combination of
prefabricated and on-site buildings methods
alleviates the problems of managing the various
trades on site.

SYSTE M S I N HOUS I NG

45

Prefabrication
The advantages of prefabrication of building elements in a qual-

Practical application and mass customisation are key goals of

ity-controlled environment are substantial: the reduction of la-

standardisation, and standardisation is essential to the produc-

bour and construction time on the building site, the year-round

tion and choice of components. Components such as faade

optimum working conditions of the factory and the precision and

elements or windows and doors, and structural elements such

overall better quality of the components. The higher costs due to

as wooden beams and steel trusses are not only standardised in

transportation and limitations generally associated with prefabri-

order to make industrial mass production feasible, but are also

cation outweigh expensive site work, especially in urban areas.

coordinated to ease construction and to allow alternatives in

As prefabrication speeds up the production process significant-

design.

ly, it allows for earlier capital return, which is often meticulously

Sometimes the meanings and the application of systemisa-

calculated by large-scale property investors. Prefabrication is

tion, prefabrication and standardisation are ambiguous. All-en-

therefore a widely adopted practice in both the residential and

compassing prefabricated systems such as Kaufmanns System

non-residential sectors. Building family houses in suburban or

01 (16, 17) allow unique solutions that standard industrialised

rural areas usually does not involve the same space limitations

products cannot deliver. A prefabricated building quite often in-

as building on urban sites. However, prefabrication is attractive

cludes standard industrialised elements, but a custom-made

under certain conditions, for example where a high concentra-

house made of standard industrialised elements is not necessar-

tion of housing must be erected quickly. Another reason for pre-

ily a prefabricated system. A systemised building method, wheth-

fabrication in private housing construction can be attributed to

er it includes standard industrialised elements or not, ensures

the fixed-price policy of the house building companies, which is

central quality control.

a high priority for the client.

46

16

17

System 01, Johannes Kaufmann and Oskar Leo Kaufmann

The components of the system are built in the factory under ideal
conditions.

System 01, transport

The dimensions are limited by the width of the road, the vehicle
transporting the element and national road traffic regulations.

SYSTE M S I N HOUS I NG

Flat-pack
If people saw the house as a product that is delivered practically

Houses are marketed on the same platforms as the home fur-

as a do-it-yourself kit of parts, then perhaps the average age of

nishings. The simple and good quality principle of Muji and the

homeowners would decrease drastically. Those opting for the

do-it-yourself concept of IKEA both work well with the ready-

flat-pack system of housing receive the materials directly on site

designed (although not quite ready-made) principle of flat-pack

and save on labour costs by erecting the house themselves. A

home delivery. In Japan as well as in Sweden, home of the IKEA

future homeowner could alternatively hire an architect, get the

BoKlok House, prefabricated housing accounts for 90% of all

plans approved, and build the home from standard, industri-

housing, and the designs maintain the simplicity of traditional

alised parts himself, but with a flat-pack house, he can do away

homes.

with the planning part and simply get on with the work. A variety
of design solutions are available for different needs.
Flat-pack is the prefab answer for the young or those gifted
with handyman skills (18, 19). The name flat-pack refers to the
way in which the system components are delivered to the owner
as precut flat panels compactly stacked together. In this way,
the building components are built in the factory, efficiently
packed to save space, delivered and finally assembled on site.
Since 2004, the Japanese home and lifestyle company Muji
has been offering ready-designed houses; one of the three available types was designed by Kazuhiko Namba (20). The Muji

18

DIY House, San Francisco, California, Endres Ware, 2007

The flat-pack house can be built by amateurs with simple tools within two weeks.

19

DIY House, San Francisco

The house is designed to fit into typically long semi-urban plots and
accommodate customers with an average income and a modern lifestyle.

20

Muji + Infill house, Japan, Kazuhiko Namba, 2004

Displayed among other minimalist designed products at a Muji
store in Japan, the life-sized prefabricated demonstration
house is showcased alongside such products as furniture,
bath articles, office products and clothing.

SYSTE M S I N HOUS I NG

47

Modular building
Since the advent of modern prefabrication, modular building no

Compared to other types of prefabrication, this is the most cum-

longer refers only to the practice of building to a standard di-

bersome and technically challenging one due to the transport of

mensional module, but also to the prefabrication of a volumetric

enclosed usable space. Their weight is limited by the load ca-

building unit. Modules are three-dimensional independent units

pacity of trucks, trains or helicopters, and the size of the modules

or partially complete sections. They can be repeated by stacking

is limited by road widths and shipping container standards, while

or joining side by side in order to extend spaces. The module is

the maximum width not requiring special permission for road

the most complete form of prefabrication, usually about 95%

transport is 2.55 m. The modules are usually lifted into place by

fully fitted with the essential kitchen and bathroom facilities, stor-

cranes and bolted in position. During lifting, the modules are

age amenities and living spaces in the factory, and then sealed

subjected to structural forces, notably vertical bending and

for transportation. The greatest advantage of modular building is

shear, which are quite different to those they experience after

that the building is immediately ready for use after power and

installation. The need to strengthen the modules for lifting and

water facilities are connected.

the doubling of floor, roof and wall frames at the connection

points result in greater quantities of structural material.

21

Spacebox, Delft, the Netherlands, Mart de Jong/DeVijf, 2003

The stackable container-like student housing produced by Holland
Composite offers a delightful and uncomplicated solution to the
urgent need for student housing.

22

Loftcube, Berlin, Werner Aisslinger,

2007
The luxurious boxed room has a floor
space of up to 39m and can be used
as a vacation home or an additional
penthouse space in the city.

48

SYSTE M S I N HOUS I NG

Trailer homes, still popular in the USA since their uptake in the

In the extension of the Post Hotel in Bezau (23, 24), Austria, the

1930s, are basically modules on wheels. Such manufactured

advantages of building with modules clearly outweigh the disad-

homes are the answer to the industrialisation of the house as a

vantages. Firstly, extremely cold weather conditions and moun-

product. The equally futuristic notion of living in capsules be-

tainous terrain would have greatly hindered continuous assem-

came a reality in the 1970s with the Nakagin Capsules in Tokyo

bly. Secondly, on-site construction had to be kept to a minimum

(Kisho Kurokawa, 1972) and the Capsule Hotel (Kisho Kuroka-

because of the year-round opening times of this highly-ranked

wa, 1979) in Osaka. Both examples are in Japan, where the real

hotel for winter athletes and spa visitors. Thirdly, the high level of

estate prices are so high that tight living spaces are the norm.

craftsmanship of the interiors required specific machinery and

The most basic examples of modular building are shipping con-

precise control. In this case, the travelling distance was only

tainers, fitted out with the proper insulation and services and

2km and the independent floor and ceiling systems offered an

stacked upon each other or within a framework, as temporary

excellent sound barrier for the hotel guests.

forms of living such as students quarters (21) or asylum seekers accommodation. The level of comfort ranges from bare and
loud to luxurious and solitary, but the concept of living in a box,
at least temporarily, can have a certain aesthetic appeal (22).

23

Post Hotel extension, Bezau, Austria, Oskar Leo Kaufmann

and Albert Ruf, 1998
Building modules are the most complete form of prefabrication.
The modules are completely fitted out, lifted into place by a crane
and connected to power and water facilities.

24

Post Hotel extension,

Bezau
The system consists of a
framework, hotel modules and
a roof for protection.

SYSTE M S I N HOUS I NG

49

Culture and the issue of design

USA
The choice of architectural styles of housing in the USA is vast.

ered an unsystematic, inefficient system of building, on-site con-

The style mostly used for light-frame building is a modified ver-

struction has become a highly organised system, capable of

sion of the vernacular or traditional US house: porch, faade

churning out a traditional-looking house in less than a month.

with neo-classical ornaments and pitched roof. The highly effi-

The simple application of design to a stick-frame house al-

cient method of light-frame building is a systemised process and

lows US homeowners to get what they want space and techni-

hence part of system building, although the actual construction

cal comfort on the inside and the home look on the outside

work takes place on site. A house that is categorised as prefab-

for an affordable price. Houses are almost always presented as

ricated, on the other hand, is firmly linked to modern architecture,

variable products with a resale value in the real estate market.

i.e. minimalist design and usually a flat roof. This, too, is built

However varied the styles may be, the overwhelming tendency

using building system techniques as most people would define

toward the traditional building type is painstakingly uncreative.

them but mainly in the factory.

Styles are loosely tagged as, for example, Georgian, Spanish

Colonial, Mediterranean, Victorian and Greek Revival, and there

Stick-frame houses

is even the option to compromise with a melange of styles (26).

Remarkably, over 95% of new homeowners in the USA have

Quadrant Homes is one of the most profitable housing com-

never spoken to an architect, mostly because they own contrac-

panies in the USA and owes its success to its adaptation of Eiji

tor-made stick-frame homes, but also because the housing in-

Toyodas lean principles. Founded in Seattle in 1969, the com-

dustry does well without architects. Almost all wood and steel

pany sold over 1,000 houses in 2003 alone, producing over 250

elements, connections, faade components and components

million USD in revenue. Prior to 1996, Quadrant produced and

such as stairs, roofing systems and mechanical systems are

stored building elements (build-to-stock strategy); today the

standardised and industrially produced. Style features such as

company produces when the orders come in. The firm uses an

gables, columns, porticos and endless types of faade veneers

appealing marketing strategy, and homeowners are offered

are pasted on the main structure like masks. Previously consid-

choice, quality and the security of various structural, technical

The housing
The housing
Thebuilding
housing
building
industry
building
industry
systems
industry
systems
(adapted
systems
(adapted
from
(adapted
from
Prof.Prof.
from
Halman)
Prof.
Halman)
Halman)

a Japanese
b American
Japanese
Japanese
model
model
- model
- American
- American
and Dutch
and Dutch
and
model
Dutch
model
- model
- c Western
- Western
model
Western
model
- model
centralized
centralized
centralized
balanced
balanced
balanced
decentralized
decentralized
decentralized
25

26

The house-building industry in different countries

Whereas the centralised housing industry prevalent in Japan (a) is more
efficiently controlled, the balanced relationship of housing developers and
contractors in countries such as the Netherlands or the USA (b) offers more
options of quality. The decentralised relationship (c) prevalent in Germany
and Austria is diversified and supports the individual builder.

Windermere, Forsyth County, Georgia

700 homes sprouted in this finely groomed housing development,
which began on site in 2002. A patchwork of derivations of borrowed style
elements on one street, or even on one house, is not uncommon.

50

SYSTE M S I N HOUS I NG

and environmental warranties. Advanced software makes cus-

How do architects go about conceptualising, developing, mar-

tomising easy. Each house, built in the wood framing method on

keting and building the prefab house in the USA? The business

site, takes 54 days to build. The workload is scheduled in such a

of prefabricated architecture is challenging.

way that every construction stage is synchronised at six houses

Typically, an architect comes up with a design, finds a con-

per day. This example of system building is effectively an inverse

tractor to fund and build a prototype and then finds a developer

assembly line the different stages of the factory move from

to manufacture the product. Another strategy places the devel-

house to house.

oper as the central figure. The developer, more experienced with

real estate fluctuations and usually backed up with more capital,

Prefabricated housing

brings in the architect to design a house system and a builder

Eye-catching websites on prefabricated housing like www.fab-

to produce the system components, has a prototype built and

prefab.com and www.prefabs.com are spreading the trend in

organises the marketing strategy. A prefab home builder, Living

modern architecture, which was previously limited to the design-

Homes of Santa Monica, California, for example, works with this

conscious (28, 29). Insiders seek inspiration through trend-

strategy, featuring two or three architects and promising the nec-

setters like Dwell magazine. American designers like Michelle

essary expertise in building and management. Another company,

Kaufmann, Rocio Romero (27), Marmol Radziner and Associates

Parco Homes, is run by an architect with a team of experts from

are well-known names to prefab aficionados. The Internet provides the potential homeowner (prefab or not) with choices of
materials, arrangements and sizes, and when they have finished
shopping, they can ring up the total price, usually not including
foundations and public utilities. Fabprefab, a platform for both
on-the-market and potential prefab homes from all over the
world, proves that the interest in prefab exists on a global scale.

28

Abiquiu House, Abiquiu, New Mexico, Anderson Anderson

Architecture, 2009
The house was built with readily available prefabricated elements and
industrial products however, it is not strictly a prefab house but rather
a one-off design.
27

LV Series Home, Perryville, Missouri, Rocio Romero, 2000

The minimalistic LV Series Home is factory-built as a kit of parts. It is built
with steel posts and OSB panels, a simple, durable, green and cost-effective solution with scope for many design and technical options.

SYSTE M S I N HOUS I NG

51

the real estate, business management and engineering fields. In

Consistent with all strategies is that the architect cannot pro-

this way, the prefabricated house system is designed and devel-

duce the prefab product alone; the architect needs a business

oped while all the other aspects of the product including produc-

companion because the prefab house is a factory product and

tion and marketing are pursued, thus ensuring quality control.

requires much more than a good design in order to sell (30).

Strategies for marketing the prefabricated house

consultants

architect

marketing

builder

prototype

developer

29

PRODUCT

Strategies for marketing the prefabricated house

1

The linear strategy

consultants

consultants

architect

architect

builder

Johnson Creek weeHouse,

Honesdale, Pennsylvania,
Alchemy Architects, 2008
marketing
The weeHouse design is based on
fully fitted modules the size of a
shipping container. Since 2002,
some 20 houses of this type
with varying faade materials and
prototype
developer
module combinations have been
built.

The linear strategy

Strategies for marketing the prefabricated house

builder
consultants

developer

marketing
PRODUCT

consultants

prototype
architect

a1

builder

prototype
marketing

developer

PRODUCT

architect

builder

The linear
strategy
Linear
strategy
2

The centralized strategy with developer as central figure

developer

consultants

PRODUCT

prototype

consultants

builder
marketing

architect
prototype

architect /
developer

builder

b2

The centralized
strategy
developer
centralfigure
figure
Centralised
strategy
withwith
developer
asascentral
(Example: Living Homes)

PRODUCT
marketing
developer

PRODUCT
business plan
(development)

prototype

witharchitect
architect
developer
as central
3c Centralised
Centralized strategy
strategy with
andand
developer
as central
figure figure
marketing
(Example: Parco Homes)

52

The centralized strategy with developer as central figure

SYSTE M S I N HOUS I NG

consultants

30
builder

Strategies for marketing the prefabricated house

The marketing strategies for prefab houses with linear (a) and
centralised (b, c) options
architect of
/ development.
prototype

developer

PRODUCT
marketing

PRODUCT

The Netherlands
The Dutch have reclaimed thousands of hectares of land from

much higher density of high-rises of the rest of Europe. In com-

under the Zuider Zee since the 1930s and have maintained very

parison, 53% of Germans live in apartment buildings and most

progressive government policies for urban planning. The national

others live in single-family homes.

planning policies have ensured that not only housing, but also

Traditional styles are not as prevalent as in the USA. Dutch

economic activities, land and water conservation and infrastruc-

homeowners and tenants (about 35% of homes are social

ture are balanced. One of the most inspiring achievements is the

rental houses, mostly owned and managed by housing asso-

number of housing units subsidised and built by the government

ciations) have been much more open to experiments in archi-

since the Second World War about 80% of the present hous-

tecture (31). Up until the 1990s, most of the housing com-

ing stock of 7 million. This could not have been possible without

ponents were prefabricated on such a large scale that the

the consistent use and development of prefabricated, industri-

repetition of houses became monotonous. However, thanks to

alised building components.

government housing subsidies, architects and planners were

The population of 16 million is relatively small, but there is

able to develop systems of building, mostly of concrete, that

little usable land space, since 61% is used for agriculture and

substantially alleviated the on-site construction process, saved

19% is covered by water. The density of 483 inhabitants per

time and money and allowed for variations. A fresh wave of ar-

square kilometre is greater than that of Japan (323/km), which

chitectural experiments sprouted in settlements like Almere,

has similar compactly built areas. This illustrates the good sense

one of the new towns and growth centres created outside ex-

of the Bijlmermeer, or bundled concentration called for by

isting cities as so-called greenfield developments since the

Dutch law. Two thirds of the nations 7 million homes are attached

1960s to ease the densification of the old centres. Since its

houses, most of the rest are in low-rise apartment buildings and

beginnings in 1975, Almere grew from a handful to 180,000

very few are single-family homes. This differs greatly from the

inhabitants and can boast many clever ideas in architecture

single-family home dominated suburbs of America, and from the

(32).

32

31

Residential development Woonhof De Dolphijn, Middelburg,

the Netherlands, Fierloos Architecten, 2002
The tight juxtaposition of identical homes is typical of Dutch housing
developments.

Typical housing development in Almere,

the Netherlands
This generation-old town showcases many architectural experiments and unconventional solutions to
house its 180,000 inhabitants.

SYSTE M S I N HOUS I NG

53

Japan
Along with the Netherlands and Sweden, Japan is one of the
major hubs of prefabrication with 90% of all single-family homes
(1.25 million homes per year) coming from the factory (25). A
handful of large diversified firms, often rising out of other industries (like Mitsui, Sekisui Chemical and supermarket chains) have
included prefabricated housing in their programme and account
for almost all prefabricated homes built in Japan in the last decades (33). Home exhibitions in Japan display houses made
from precast concrete, structural steel, timber-frame as well as
light-gauge steel and wooden light-frame construction. Fully automated home factories like Daiwa use both robotics and manpower to prefabricate a complete house within an astonishing
five hours. Engineered construction details like continuous joints
and the general efficiency of material use can be attributed to
prefabrication, especially in situations where traditional architecture would have called for complex, difficult-to-construct wooden joints. Earthquake-proof Mitsui Isolation Systems go one step
farther by easing the stress of fixed joints through ball-bearing
motion-dampening systems at foundation level. Moreover, stateof-the-art entertainment facilities, sensitivity-controlled living environments as well as technology learned from the auto industry,
such as electricity-producing fuel cells and vibration dampers,
are being applied to the housing product. The prefab home
building company Sekisui, which erects 56,000 units a year, developed the Zero Emission House in 2008 as an environmentally
conscious solution.
Two main aspects characterise system-built housing in Japan:
the modularisation of building components based on traditional
Japanese architecture and technical engineering fostered by
years of production ideals. Traditional building used the tatami
mat and column spacing as dimensional modules to facilitate the
production and interchangeability of building components. Permanence was not important, but the material was. Spaces were
shifted through sliding doors, and the option of dismantling and
relocating a building was a device in case of war, or today, of
natural disaster. The steel-framed houses produced by Daiwa
House Group are still based on the tatami mat grid. Houses today do not need to be designed to be dismantled, but the company, always adapting to customers changing needs, is cur-

33

rently developing changeable frames and interiors in response to

Sorest Home Model, Toyota Homes

These modular homes are built on the assembly line in a housing plant and
assembled on site within 45 days. Like most housing companies in Japan,
Toyota homes range in size, style and price and offer other amenities, such
as a recharging system for eco-friendly hybrid cars.

54

SYSTE M S I N HOUS I NG

the countrys changing demographics. As in most westernised

countries, families have decreased in size.

Constant change is the underlying factor in the appearance of

on the spatial organisation of the sacred private interior, as the

the home. The house is a sign of stability in the society, yet with

traditional house court and modern living room reflect, and guar-

an average 25-year lifespan, it is as tenuous a product as the

anteed good building standards. The focus of architectural crit-

automobile or a laptop. Factory-made houses in Japan, like cars

ics is the emergence of the few architect-designed homes with a

and electronics, are controlled, mass-produced manufactured

utilitarian aesthetic for embracing bold forms and visually extend-

products and are more accepted than in North America and

ing spaces with light. The F.O.B. Houses, developed and mar-

much of Europe. Stylistically, the home exteriors adapt trendy

keted by a large household goods retail chain, the F.O.B. Co-op,

western elements, but with the exception of a few minimalistic

are a case in point. They offer individual, affordable designs with

architect-designed prefab homes, there is little innovation in the

contemporary exteriors by using consistent detailing and coop-

sea of indistinctive architecture. For most, the emphasis is rather

erating with the same few building companies (34, 35).

34

Um House, Ikoma, Nara Prefecture, Japan, F.O.B. Architecture, 2000

The F.O.B. Houses offer individual, affordable designs with contemporary exteriors.
The homes are not restricted to specific modules or materials and can be built of
concrete, wood or steel.

SYSTE M S I N HOUS I NG

55

's

First floor plan

Ground floor plan

35

Um House, Ikoma
The Um House is one of five prototypes of F.O.B. Houses developed on
principles of spatial continuity and
interior courtyards, both reminders of
the traditional Japanese house.

56

SYSTE M S I N HOUS I NG

Second floor plan

Great Britain
Martin Pawley stated in A Private Future 30 years ago that hous-

and pricey. The primary generator of resistance, ironically, lies in

ing was a product in a consumer society. The vast majority of

the nature of owner-occupation, in which the home is primarily an

people in Great Britain rented their houses under terms of ten-

investment, rather than a consumer good or a living environment.

ure, an oppressive condition in contrast to the privilege of own-

This means that people will pay more to ensure higher future

ership. The negative image of rental housing was directly associ-

value, so a house must have the right location, be durable (i.e. of

ated with post-war era prefabrication and lasted for decades as

brick or granite) and, very importantly, not look prefabricated. Ac-

much of the temporary housing became permanent. There was a

cordingly, the clients are resistant to new materials, technology

problematic duality from the beginning; the hype to own every-

and non-standard forms.

thing from gadgets to cars spoke for industrial production of all

The Egan Report Rethinking Construction (1998), one of the

things necessary, but when it came to housing, it had to be built

most influential initiatives aimed at improving the efficiency and

with traditional methods and be affordable at the same time. The

quality of the construction industry, instigated research into the

numbers have reversed since then: in 2009, 17.5 million, or

prefabrication of homes. The highly fragmented building indus-

roughly 80% of British dwellings were owner-occupied. But the

try, however, has failed to adopt a greater degree of prefabrica-

resistance to prefabrication still persists from both the consumer

tion and standardisation of processes and products. The rea-

as well as from the housebuilder.

sons for this include high capital cost, the difficulty to achieve

The reasons for consumer resistance to prefabricated build-

economies of scale, complex interfacing between systems, and

ing, also referred to as off-site MMC (modern methods of con-

the nature of the British planning system. Off-site methods

struction) are manifold: financing a prefabricated home is difficult

amongst larger private-sector developers are applied to a very

because lenders find new materials a risk. Obtaining permis-

limited extent, but are growing. The advantages are clear: com-

sions to build is known to be complicated, and land is scarce

pensation for shortages of skilled labour, time and cost certainty,

36

Oxley Woods housing site, Milton Keynes, Great Britain, Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners, 2008
A concept for low-cost prefabricated housing units with a modular palette of forms that can be adapted to todays changing
demographics. The Trespa cladding panels, made of thermosetting resins and wood fibres, are an example of the conscious
choice of materials with an integrated environmental management system (EcoHat).

SYSTE M S I N HOUS I NG

57

higher quality and minimised on-site duration. The products to-

sioned by central government after a competition for low-cost

day are of marginal quality, and this is worsened by the down-

prefabricated housing and has reached excellent energy rating

sized spaces governed by developers.

standards. The palette of forms is modular and simple, untypical

Entirely prefabricated homes make up a tiny fraction of the

in the neighbourhood, and continues a trend set by persevering

British home industry, but this market is growing. Among others,

architects of all generations. The variable modular cladding pan-

the Murray Grove urban renewal housing project with one of

els can be adapted to suit the various needs of the owners.

the first manufactured prefab modular homes in Great Britain by

Changing lifestyles and the increasing emphasis on sustainability,

Cartwright Pickard Architects (2000) of London and the afford-

coupled with good prices, make this innovative mass housing

able BoKlok House by IKEA (1997) of Sweden have caught the

prototype a success. These benefits are achieved through a care-

attention of potential homeowners in a climate of high demand for

fully engineered manufacturing process together with the clad-

housing. A particularly interesting project, the Oxley Woods hous-

ding design concept and efficient living and servicing zones. The

ing site in Milton Keynes by Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners

EcoHat, a rooftop service unit, reduces energy consumption by

shows a shift in the needs of the homeowner and subsequent

almost 40% by providing passive solar water heating, filtering

new wind in architectural style (36). This project was commis-

fresh air and recovering the heat from the circulating air (37).

37

EcoHat, Milton Keynes, Great Britain,

Rogers Stirk, Harbour + Partners, 2008
The EcoHat is a service unit on top of the roof
of the Oxley Woods houses. It reduces energy
consumption by almost 40% by providing
passive solar water heating, filtering fresh air
and recovering the heat from the circulating air.

58

SYSTE M S I N HOUS I NG

Austria
For the houses in Vorarlberg, a mountainous region in the west-

solid wood with pitched roofs, wooden shingles and clay roof

ern tip of Austria, a thin line lies between the vernacular and the

tiles. The newer houses of the area have the same sturdy struc-

modern (40). There exists not a competition of styles or building

tural qualities, but there are occasional flat roofs, metal cladding

types, but generations of gradual modifications of the traditional

and other new materials, subtle sculpting of form, larger win-

building type, which accommodate modern domestic needs with

dows and an open plan interior. The changes appear to be slight,

newer building methods. When one looks at the vernacular build-

but modernism is obvious.

ings of the area, one sees farm houses of compact form, built of

38

SU-SI House, Reuthe, Austria, Oskar Leo Kaufmann and

Johannes Kaufmann, 1998
A prefabricated modular home built as a prototype for more systems to
follow. The architect, the client and the builder are all in the same family.

39

Interior of SU-SI House, Reuthe

The modular home is a complete entity it is fitted
out with space-saving amenities with simple, clear
details.

SYSTE M S I N HOUS I NG

59

The accommodation of smaller families, integrated workspaces

exist thanks to problem-oriented thinking: in the mountainous

and energy-saving solutions has led to an optimisation of con-

terrain and cold weather, the prefabrication of building compo-

struction systems. The resulting architecture itself is most im-

nents in the factory is a logical way to build consistently and

pressive it is not a sudden modern architecture but one

well. And, there is perhaps the human aspect to it the archi-

that is rooted; the lines and connections are clean, details

tects and builders see architecture, simply and respectfully, as

are slick and for the most part, the gestalt is elegant and re-

a passion.

fined. As architect Johannes Kaufmann of Bregenz, puts it, the

The value of carpentry is also a tradition in the area carpen-

Bregenzers have had the same basic features for 300 years,

try is a highly regarded profession and the carpenters involve-

despite phases during the post-war period where concrete re-

ment in the production of good architecture is direct as they

placed wood as the predominant building material. His obser-

work closely with architects. Michael Kaufmann of Reuthe in

vation is that the boundaries between occupations such as

Vorarlberg, for one, is a third generation manager of a wood

carpenter, cabinetmaker, builder and architect are disappear-

manufacturing company that produces systems and custom-

ing. There is less hierarchy between the professions than in the

made wood products (38, 39). Together with other family mem-

USA or other parts of Europe. As in Switzerland, a wide-spread

bers in the industry, he has built system building components as

awareness of the building environment exists. In the Vorarlberg

flat-pack, modular and hybrid systems. The job requires years of

region roughly 50% of the houses are built by architects,

apprenticeship and schooled qualifications. In return, the system

something American, German, British and Japanese architects

of effective production with highly skilled craftsmen makes the

can only dream about. Affordability, design and superb quality

product more affordable.

40

House F., Bezau, Austria, Dietrich Untertrifaller Architekten, 2006

This contemporary architecture references both in form and choice of materials
the Bregenzerwaldhaus, the traditional farm house of the Bregenzerwald region.

60

SYSTE M S I N HOUS I NG

4 | Systems in Industrial Buildings

This chapter discusses complete building systems in terms of

Ultra-lightweight

their characteristics as modular systems, as well as buildings

and projects that can be generally placed under the headings
of prefabrication and standardisation. A complete system is a
building that is provided as a whole unit by a single manufacturer. Standardised building, on the other hand, is based on the use
of prefabricated components. This is an important criterion and
a feature that distinguishes standardised building from complete

Modular

systems.
Systems and standardised building for offices and industrial
buildings encompass a very wide field of use. The spectrum of all
the different construction types and building processes can be
best explained in terms of these uses. The construction types of
industrial buildings be they erected as system buildings or using standardised building components can be divided into the
categories ultra-lightweight, modular, steel skeleton, mixed concrete/steel skeleton and concrete skeleton buildings (1).

Steel skeleton

Ultra-lightweight
Ultra-lightweight buildings include lightweight glass and membrane structures such as tents, glass and plastic film (polythene)
greenhouses. This category also covers long-span roofs, for example over sports stadia and railway stations. Their low mass is
due to a lightweight outer skin and a minimal loadbearing structure, which normally restricts their height to a single storey. The
overwhelming majority of systems in this category are designed
to provide temporary buildings, for which a low weight, compact
dimensions when packed away for transport, and ease of erection and disassembly are important.

Concrete/
steel skeleton

Concrete skeleton

Industrial building construction types

Industrial building construction types can be divided into the
categories ultra-lightweight, modular, steel skeleton, concrete/
steel skeleton and concrete skeleton construction.

SYSTE M S I N I N DUSTR IAL B U I LDI NG S

61

Tent systems
Ridge tent

Tents are the oldest form of system building. Developed by nomadic populations as portable accommodation, they are still used
today for their transportability and ease of assembly and disassembly as temporary buildings, above all for storage facilities,
buildings for social events and commercial exhibitions, as well as
for emergency accommodation and relief shelters following disasters (2).

Ridge tents
The traditional ridge tent is the most popular tent type for commercial uses. The pneumatic roof structure is an interesting further development of this tent type. This form of construction has
Polygon tent

loadbearing advantages in addition to providing improved thermal insulation (3).

Dome tents
The technology of the transportable big tent for events, such as
circus big tops and mirror tents developed for example in the
Netherlands and Belgium, first emerged at the end of the 19th
century. With these event tents, it is important that the interior
Dome tent

remains as clear of intermediate supports as possible, so that

there is complete freedom in the choice of layout and visitors
have an unobstructed view of the space. Richard Buckminster
Fuller developed the geodesic dome, a very light, strong and
simple structure based on a modular dome system, in the 1950s
(7). Based on this idea, the young Berlin company Zendome developed a dome tent system for events (46). The Zendome system offers event tents up to 1000m2 in area.

Pagoda tent

62

Tent systems
The most popular form of tent is the ridge tent.
Other tent forms in popular use include polygon,
dome and pagoda tents.

Ridge tent with air cushion roof

The roof can be made of air cushions to improve
thermal insulation.

SYSTE M S I N I N DUSTR IAL B U I LDI NG S

Geodesic dome tent, Zendome: external view

The special feature of this tent system is its special dome
structure, which has particularly good structural
properties.

Geodesic dome tent: internal view

The dome shape is formed from a modular, geodesic
loadbearing structure made up of equilateral triangles.

Geodesic dome tent: loadbearing structure

Detail of the ultra-lightweight strut structure, which relies
on the space-grid action of its members.

SYSTE M S I N I N DUSTR IAL B U I LDI NG S

63

Modular systems
The special feature of this tent system is its dome, which con-

Modular buildings are steel lightweight building systems assem-

sists of a modular, geodesic loadbearing structure made up of

bled out of self-supporting modules. There are two categories:

equilateral triangles. Only two basic elements are required to

container and module systems. Container building systems are

construct the dome: a scaffold tube with node plates with bolt

based on the idea of the standard ISO transport containers used

holes at its ends, which can be bolted to others by means of

worldwide with great success in modular goods transport sys-

node discs to form a loadbearing structure of triangular panels.

tems. The construction, size and form of container building mod-

The scaffold tubes are powder-coated galvanised steel. A textile

ules are directly derived from the transport container industry.

membrane, a polyester fabric coated on both sides with PVC, is

Container buildings can be reused many times. In addition to

pulled over the loadbearing structure to create an external skin.

being sold outright, they are also leased temporarily to their us-

The construction of the tent dome is more complex and ex-

ers (8).

pensive than other comparable forms of tent types and less flex-

Modular building systems are built to similar dimensions and

ible in tent sizes. Its advantage over other tent systems lies in the

construction principles as container modules. Modular units are

structural engineering options offered by this type of structure.

therefore equally easy to transport but have a higher level of

The low self-weight allows large interiors, uninterrupted by inter-

design quality than container module systems. The greatest dif-

mediate supports, to be provided on a temporary basis. The load-

ference compared with container systems is the possibility of

bearing structure is very stiff in reaction to wind loads, and event

customisation of the individual modules. They are generally used

equipment or furnishings can be suspended from the internal

for more sophisticated purposes and for longer periods. Modular

steel grid construction.

buildings can be seen as an intermediate step towards customised permanent building systems. Modular buildings are not only
sold by the manufacturer, they can also be leased. In modular
building systems, complete building modules based on a selfsupporting steel frame are prefabricated and completely fitted
out in a factory. On site they are put together like building blocks,
in accordance with the layout plans, to form a complete building
(11). After the modules have been connected together on site to
form the basic building, the open joints between the modules
internally, in the faade and on the roof are sealed, and the individual ancillary components, such as stairwells or lifts, are installed on site.
Hospital extensions are one of the fields in which these systems are used with success. Advantages such as the speed and
relative ease of construction, and an uncluttered site compared
with the conventional on-site methods, are particularly important
here. Many companies all over the world offer modular systems.
The differences are generally in the companys ability to provide
various sizes and designs of modules.

Diagram illustrating the loadbearing structure

of a geodesic dome
The geometry is formed from triangles.

64

SYSTE M S I N I N DUSTR IAL B U I LDI NG S

Container systems
Office and sanitary containers base their dimensions on those of

steel frame bolted together from cold-rolled steel profiles. The

the standard ISO container. Container systems are used as of-

walls consist of insulated lightweight panels. The frame and pan-

fice and sanitary containers in a wide range of fields, for example

els can be designed to fit into flat packs, e.g. Transpack contain-

site offices, nursery schools and other educational establish-

ers for transport (9). This approach, in which the corner columns

ments.

and the wall panels are all contained within the flat packs, cuts

Container systems closely follow the principles of lightweight

down shipping volumes considerably. The containers can be

construction (10). The design is derived from the construction of

moved and set up on site by a crane or fork-lift truck.

shipping containers and motor vehicles. The chassis is usually a

Container systems used as site facilities

The modular construction of container systems
is plain to see, for example, in the site facilities
for the new Elbphilharmonie concert hall in
Hamburg.

Transporting containers as flat packs

Containers can be folded down into a
space-saving flat pack to avoid having
to transport empty space.

SYSTE M S I N I N DUSTR IAL B U I LDI NG S

65

The size of a container is generally referred to as its nominal length

successive reuses. Storing them poses no problems, as each

in feet. The international container sizes are 20-foot (6.09

container has its own roof and outside walls, making a storage

2.442.60m) and 40-foot modules (12.192.442.60m).

warehouse unnecessary.

Many European companies container systems are also aligned

Container buildings are specialist building systems that de-

to this international system. Container modules can be brought

pend on transportability. This sets limits on their use. Disadvan-

together to form large building complexes. The maximum storey

tages of this consistently adopted design philosophy include the

height of container buildings is limited by structural engineering

fixed volume and dimensions of the modules, the almost manda-

considerations. Wind loads, which increase with every additional

tory use of lightweight materials and construction, and the low

storey, limit the scope of combination of container modules.

thermal storage capacity of the buildings. They are therefore

Greater numbers of storeys mean more walls to stiffen the struc-

hardly ever called upon to fulfil any role beyond their temporary

ture as a whole. Different systems allow container modules to be

tasks and become, for example, residential buildings or perma-

combined in different ways (12).

nent office buildings.

Containers can be found all over the world in use as tempo-

A tower of 17 recycled overseas containers, which had been

rary building systems. They perform very efficiently over the

customised specifically for this building, was designed to house

whole period of construction and use: the consistent adoption

the offices and showroom of Freitag lab AG (13). The standard

of the ISO container sizes means transport is very flexible, mak-

container is a standalone, structurally optimised system. So in a

ing use of existing equipment already designed to handle inter-

case like this, where the external skin was interrupted by stairs

national standard ISO containers all over the world. Container

and large faade openings, strengthening measures were nec-

modules can be manufactured in a factory before being dis-

essary inside the containers themselves. The containers are oth-

patched and set up with very little extra work. Because they can

erwise self-contained and are linked to one another only by the

be disassembled back to individual modules again without suf-

sort of frictional fittings used in shipbuilding. They can also be

fering damage and transported away, they are suitable for many

replaced in the future. Wind loads are transferred to the founda-

10

Design of a container module

Container systems closely follow the principles of
lightweight construction. The design is derived from
the construction of shipping containers and motor
vehicles.

11

Container complex
Container modules can be brought together to
form large building complexes.

66

SYSTE M S I N I N DUSTR IAL B U I LDI NG S

The containers can be added to one another in rows or set up singly.

Single-storey

This arrangement can produce rooms of any size.

Any number of two-storey container modules can be added to one another

in rows or set up singly. However, the stiffened external walls cannot be
removed (max. room size is therefore 3 1 containers). The stiffened walls
are shown by dashed lines, the internal space is open.
212

312

21

31

Two-storey

Multi-row container modules (number of longitudinal sides 2).

The system can be extended in the longitudinal direction from a minimum
size of 2 2 2 containers. This arrangement can produce rooms of
any size.

The system can be extended in any direction from a minimum size of

3 2 2. This arrangement can produce rooms of any size.

Any number of the three-storey container modules shown here can be

added to one another in rows or set up singly. However, the stiffened
Three-storey

external walls cannot be removed (max. room size is therefore 3 2

containers).
The stiffened walls are shown by dashed lines, the internal space is open.

313

323
31

12

max. 3 2

Various options for container modules and stacking arrangements

Various combinations of container modules in one- to three-storey complexes.

SYSTE M S I N I N DUSTR IAL B U I LDI NG S

67

Flexible modular systems

tions by exposed diagonal bracing. The costs of a 1.50m deep

A good example, which will be discussed below, is a system that

foundation, the additional structural measures and time-consum-

has proved very popular in the Netherlands (14). It has been

ing intensive supervision pushed this tower structure financially

available since 2000 as a semi-permanent or permanent building

into the cost zone of a conventional high-rise building.

system, mainly for offices and schools.

Design
The modules are built on a standard, self-supporting, basic steelframe structure (15). The steel frame is made up of a floor panel,
four corner supports and a roof panel (16). The floor panel consists of a cement screed subfloor cast on a trapezoidal profiled
steel sheet soffit, which is welded into a rectangular steel frame.
The roof panel is similarly constructed, but with a weather-resistant bitumen sheet waterproofing membrane and an internally
piped rainwater drainage system. Every module has a roof, even
though the module may end up hidden within the heart of the
building. The roof is necessary to provide weather protection
during temporary outdoor storage before the modules are transported to the site.

13

Tower for Freitag lab AG, Zurich, Spillmann Echsle Architekten, 2006
The tower of container modules serves as offices and showroom. Preused
containers were recycled for the tower structure.
14

Friesland Foods Building, Deventer, the Netherlands, 2007

Example of a flexible modular system.

68

SYSTE M S I N I N DUSTR IAL B U I LDI NG S

The customers choice of interior fittings and faades can be

added to the basic module. Lightweight construction must also
be used here, on the same principle as the basic structure. Gypsum plasterboard is used for the internal walls. The faades consist of aluminium window systems in a wall constructed from
lightweight building boards, mineral fibre insulation and aluminium sheet cladding. After the modules have been fitted together
on site, diagonal struts are installed on the faade or inside the
modules to stiffen the building (17). Components such as stairs
and lifts are installed conventionally on site to complete the
building (18). The module dimensions were chosen to allow

15

transport without special permission and to avoid travelling time

Design of modules
The modules are built on a standard basic structure, which
consists of a self-supporting steel frame construction.

or road width restrictions affecting the movement of lorries on

public roads. Unlike flat-pack systems, where the walls can be
transported in a compact package along with the roof panels,
the modules in this system can only be transported in the completed state. The modules, complete with fitted out interior, are
therefore low-weight/large-volume loads. The basic structure of
the brick-shaped modules, with their strictly defined dimensions
and design, considerably reduces the scope for architectural
creativity with respect to overall shape, faade type and interior
fit-out. However, within the limits imposed by the module and the
lightweight construction principle, there is still room for customisation. The innovation of this system lies in the manufacture of

16

the modules, where extensive prefabrication achieves highly

Construction of modules
The steel frame is made up of a floor panel, four corner
supports and a roof panel.

17

18

Design of modular buildings

After the modules have been fitted together on site, diagonal struts are
installed on the faade or inside the modules to stiffen the building.

Modular building
Components such as stairs and lifts are installed conventionally on site
to complete the building.

SYSTE M S I N I N DUSTR IAL B U I LDI NG S

69

Steel skeleton construction

efficient production. The degree of prefabrication in conjunction

Steel skeleton construction is used frequently in system build-

with ease of transport and rapid erection on site greatly shorten

ing. Steel is a good material for system building because it com-

the design and construction process and emit less pollutants,

bines high strength with low volume and weight, making it cost-

noise and dirt.

effective to transport. Steel components can be prefabricated

In Switzerland a modular system has been developed that

very precisely. The greatest disadvantage of steel construction

uses wood, a local natural material. Walls, floors and roofs are

in comparison with concrete is the extra work required to provide

fabricated on an assembly line using wood panel construction

adequate fire resistance and to manufacture the roof and wall

techniques, including the final wall surface. Window openings

surfaces. The standardisation of steel profiles and sections

can be created up to a module width of 12 m. In addition to

means every steel structure is a form of system building. Every

standard leasing solutions, wooden modular systems have been

element of a loadbearing steel structure is designed in detail,

developed from the standard modules for hospitals, schools and

then fabricated in the factory and assembled on site, like the

offices, often in cooperation with architects (19).

parts of a modular system. Determinant for the suitability of a

system is the extent of agreement of the modular grid with the
overall building system grid. The various building systems differ
greatly in this respect. The systems developed by Bro Haller
were modularised down to the smallest detail to ensure that the
buildings were as customisable in their configuration as possible, while other providers, such as Goldbeck, developed a more
cost-effective mixed system involving concrete slabs for its Gobaplan system, which limited modularisation to the structural frame
and the faade. The lower intensity of modularisation keeps the
system more flexible, but also moves it closer to conventional
building methods.

Midi system
The Midi system was developed in 1970 by the architect Fritz
Haller from Solothurn, Switzerland, in cooperation with Swiss
steel fabricators USM of Mnsingen. The system was based on
a steel skeleton and was intended for multi-storey buildings with
a high proportion of building technical services installations, such
as schools or administration offices (20), and was later extended
to form the design tool Armilla, a digital layout system for services infrastructure in buildings. The system is still being further

19

developed and adapted by the team today. The idea behind the

The adapto modular system by ERNE AG Holzbau, Laufenburg,

Switzerland, Kndig Bickel Architekten, 2000
Wooden modular systems have been developed from the standard modules
for hospitals, schools and offices, often in cooperation with architects.
This pavilion was completed as a kindergarten in 2000 and subsequently
adapted for use as a meeting and presentation room.

system is to create buildings capable of being modified quickly

and without destructive intervention to allow a change of use. All
system components are designed to be easily removed at a later
stage and reused on other sites, without being damaged or
causing damage. A Midi building can therefore be extended in
any direction or taken down, quickly and inexpensively (21). Midi
is an integrated building system composed of six basic parts:
loadbearing, floor, roof, internal wall, faade and installation systems.
These building components are developed as prototype models, which are used to finetune their modularity. Armilla is a general installation model for media supply and disposal systems

70

SYSTE M S I N I N DUSTR IAL B U I LDI NG S

20

SBB Training Centre, Lwenberg,

Murten, Switzerland, Haller Bauen und
Forschen, 1982
Skeleton frame of a Midi system building.

21

Structural frame and completed building,

SBB Training Centre, Lwenberg
All system components are designed to be able
to be removed again after installation and reused
at other locations.

22

Beam system with building services lines,

SBB Training Centre, Lwenberg
The geometric arrangement of the beams meets
the structural engineering requirements and
allows efficient passage for the technical services
lines in the plane of the beams.

SYSTE M S I N I N DUSTR IAL B U I LDI NG S

71

and their networks. It is a computer-assisted toolkit for the de-

reys. The truss soffits are concealed in offices and educational

sign and operation of reusable buildings with a high building

rooms with suspended panel ceilings or in corridors with an

services installation content.

open metal grillage ceiling. The services installations are freely

The steel building system has two basic components: circular

accessible for subsequent alterations or additions. The change-

steel columns as vertical support members and steel trussed

able arrangement is determined by the loadbearing system (23)

beams as the horizontal distribution members. The vertical col-

and the Armilla model services installations design tool. Other

umns were made continuous and laterally restrained in order to

systems, such as faades and internal fittings are specially coor-

avoid having to use disruptive stiffening elements. The trussed

dinated on a project-by-project basis.

beams are placed in pairs and are made up of a combination of

A square structural grid of 2.402.40m was selected to

Warren and Vierendeel type truss members. The geometric ar-

permit the building to be extended or reduced in any direction at

rangement of the beams meets the structural engineering re-

a later date. The fit-out grid of 1.201.20m is based on the

quirements and allows efficient passage for the technical serv-

structural grid (24). It is superimposed congruently on the struc-

ices lines in the plane of the beams (22). With a construction

tural grid. The selection of a fit-out grid based on a multiple of

depth of 100cm, the double trussed beam construction was se-

60cm is beneficial to compatibility with other fit-out systems,

lected because it allows pipes, cables and ducts to pass from

such as double floors, kitchen or sanitary systems, which are

the plane of the beams into the internal walls, even if the services

frequently installed on a 60cm grid. No storey height is stipu-

lines coincide with the building grid. To allow the loadbearing

lated.

system to be capable of being extended or reduced in size in any

In the context of building form, the Midi system is flexible to a

direction, the end and internal columns are identically dimen-

limited extent, as the square grid and the orthogonal structure

sioned, as are the end and internal beams. The screed is precast

are predetermined, and therefore the architecture is also based

on a trapezoidal profiled steel panel supported on the trusses

on an orthogonal design. This applies to the external and internal

and acts as the floor construction and the firestop between sto-

forms. Of course these rules contain much scope for variations.

23

24

Midi loadbearing system

The steel building system has two basic components: circular steel
columns as vertical support members and steel lattice beams as
horizontal distribution members.

Midi system
A square structural grid of 2.402.40m was selected to permit the
building to be extended or reduced in any direction at a later date.
The fit-out grid of 1.201.20m is based on the structural grid.

72

SYSTE M S I N I N DUSTR IAL B U I LDI NG S

The deep floor construction, through which the building services

widely adopted, these construction costs become less signifi-

lines are distributed, allows for a great deal of variation in their

cant when viewed in relation to those of operating a building and

layout, irrespective of where the vertical services shafts are lo-

the costs of altering it later for changes of use. Clients have only

cated. The faade, which is spatially and structurally indepen-

recently started to consider life cycle costs in their investment

dent of the loadbearing frame, can be relatively freely designed.

plans. The future opportunities for this building system are likely

The real distinguishing feature of this system however is the flex-

to arise from its approach of component recycling and reuse,

ibility for later alterations and conversions. The time required to

which scores well in life cycle analyses, and from its suitability

remove or install internal walls, ceilings and installations is often

for computer applications.

only a few hours, and the work can be carried out by in-house

The Midi system, together with the Armilla installation model,

personnel. Superfluous wall or ceiling elements can be placed

has been implemented four times on projects by Bro Haller

into storage for future use.

since 1970. Fritz Haller describes all the previous buildings as

The attention to detail and complexity of the system is remarkable. The idea of creating a building system capable of being

prototypes, in which the latest state of research was applied in

practice.

varied on all levels, from structural frame to building services,

One approach to the revitalisation of former industrial sites is

has been fully and consistently realised. The system reflects all

illustrated in the Kraanspoor project developed by Amsterdam

the experience Bro Haller has gained in the course of its re-

architects OTH

search activities and the completion of built system applications

crane track in a former shipyard on the north bank of the IJ river

since 1961. Because of its complexity, all the advantages and

in Amsterdam provided the basis for a new office building. The

options offered by the functionality of the system only reveal

structural grid of the office building uses a module of 23m,

themselves to the building designer after intensive involvement

which corresponds with the support layout of the crane track,

with its structure and methodology. Although the comparatively

and is subdivided into three bays of 7.67m and superimposed

high construction cost has meant that this system has not been

on the old 2708.70m runway. The main loadbearing structure

Ontwerpgroep Trude Hooykaas (25). An old

25

Kraanspoor Office Building,

Amsterdam, OTH Ontwerpgroep Trude Hooykaas, 2007
An old crane track in a former
shipyard on the north bank of the
IJ river in Amsterdam provided the
basis for an office building. The new
buildings structural grid is based
on the existing column spacing of
23m.

SYSTE M S I N I N DUSTR IAL B U I LDI NG S

73

Mixed concrete-steel skeleton construction

consists of HEB-300 and HEB-240 steel column sections weld-

Systems of this type cannot be reduced to generally applicable

ed to a Slimline deck system made up of IPE-270 I-sections and

sizes, as each company likes to develop its own standards. A

a concrete slab.

good example is the German office building system, Goldbeck,

The special feature of the Slimline floor system (26) is that the

which is interesting because of its commercial success. Based

building services distribution takes place within the floor con-

on a core structure of a mixed concrete-steel skeleton structure,

struction, which contributes to a slight reduction of the storey

the building is effectively predesigned with a high proportion of

height. Kraanspoors lightweight steel structure is enveloped

standard details, which are used in all buildings of the same

with a double-skin faade in the form of an internal room-high

type. The repetition of critical construction features in the load-

timber-glass faade and an external skin of sensor-controlled

bearing structure and faade makes it possible to optimise the

horizontal glass lamellae. The faade cavity can support foot traf-

construction process and design with certainty of outcome.

fic and serves as a room climate buffer. The building technical

Goldbeck provides further confidence that deadlines will be met

services system uses harbour water for concrete core activation

and budgets not exceeded by manufacturing the structural frame

and works with natural ventilation.

and faade, the most important of the prefabricated compo-

26

Slimline floor system

This floor system provides for the building services
distribution to take place within the floor construction.
(The photo shows the floor in the exhibition building for
Bosch Siemens Homeproducts in Hoofddorp, the
Netherlands; design: Mc Donough & Partners with KOW
Architekten.)

27

Industry Park, Gobaplan system, Design Department Goldbeck, Langenfeld near Dsseldorf,
Germany, 2006
Based on a core structure of a mixed concrete-steel
skeleton structure, the Gobaplan building is effectively
predesigned with a high proportion of standard details,
which are used in all buildings of the same type.

74

SYSTE M S I N I N DUSTR IAL B U I LDI NG S

nents, in the same factory. The Gobaplan system was developed

ed with precast reinforced concrete units. They form the fasten-

in 1982 and is suitable a wide range of commercial property ap-

ing points for the faade. The grid system for the beams is built

plications (27).
At the heart of the system is a structural steel skeleton made

on a multiple of the fit-out grid of 1.25m. It is therefore compatible with the fit-out system, which is based on the German brick-

from I-sections and precast concrete floor elements (28). The

work grid and its basic module of 12.5cm. Drywalling, for exam-

steel beams are placed in a grid of 2.505m or 2.507.50m.

ple, has a basic grid of 62.5cm. The loadbearing steel profiles

This arrangement results in easily transportable reinforced con-

are clad with plasterboard to provide them with the required fire

crete slabs with a maximum size of 2.507.50m. The faade

resistance. The ceiling is terminated with a suspended ceiling,

columns are positioned on a 2.50m grid, but larger openings of

which hides the building services distribution ducts and pipe-

up to 7.50m are possible. The window spandrels are construct-

work.

28

29

Gobaplan structural system

At the heart of the building system is a structural steel
skeleton made from I-sections and precast concrete floor
elements.

Gobaplan system
The system provides a ribbon window for the faade,
which interrupts the faade columns spaced at 2.50m
centres.

30

Goldbeck showroom with

1:1 building models
Various versions of 1:1 building
models are on show as
marketing aids.

SYSTE M S I N I N DUSTR IAL B U I LDI NG S

75

Gobaplan allows the architect a little flexibility and variability in

fications and alterations to be made cost-effectively. Building

the design of the building within the system. The external shape

services distribution behind the suspended ceiling retains the

of the building is based on the orthogonal 1.252.50m grid.

flexibility of office floor layouts. The sanitary cores depend on the

The system provides a ribbon window that interrupts faade col-

position of the utilities shafts. Building services innovations,

umns at 2.50m centres (29). Within this construction the archi-

such as concrete core activation, cannot be incorporated be-

tect is allowed options in his choice of materials and window

cause of the suspended ceilings.

arrangement (30). Other faade variants are possible, but they

The Lloyds Building in London is an icon of prefabrication

are built conventionally and are not part of the building system.

(31). Built between 19791986 by Richard Rogers, the offices

The structural design of the steel frame permits long spans,

are an example of a highly specific formulation of a modularised

which results in fewer intermediate columns and much more flex-

building. The complex consists of three main towers and three

ibility for the interior fit-out. Depending on the choice of internal

service towers around a central rectangular space. The outstand-

fit-out system, there are system solutions that permit later modi-

ing feature of this insurance building, in addition to its striking

31

Lloyds Building, London, Richard Rogers, 1986

The outstanding feature of this insurance building is the design of the vertical circulation elements and the services
supply and disposal systems on the external faade.

76

SYSTE M S I N I N DUSTR IAL B U I LDI NG S

Concrete skeleton construction

appearance, is the design of the vertical circulation elements

The advantages of concrete compared with steel structures are

and the services supply and disposal systems on the external

their superior behaviour in fire, better sound insulation and the

faade. This permits maximum flexibility in the division of the floor

fact that the surfaces of the structural members can also be the

areas and eases the task of maintenance of the short-lived com-

buildings finished surfaces. Disadvantages of concrete systems

ponents of the building services systems.

in office construction up to now have been the wide supports

Over the next few years, Rogers focused the approach of

and deep beams of the loadbearing structure, which interfere

his office consistently around prefabrication and was able to

with internal finishings and the efficient layout of building serv-

enormously increase the efficiency of his practice by develop-

ices, as well as the lower strength of concrete compared with

ing a continuously growing in-house details catalogue. Not sur-

steel. Over the years, systems have been developed, such as the

prisingly in 2004, with an annual turnover per employed archi-

CD20 Building System (32, 33), that are free of wide supports

tect of 248,936, he was ranked third in the list of British

and deep ceiling beams. The use of prestressed concrete ex-

architects.

pands the structural possibilities of these systems, so that they

32

Building carcass for an office complex with

CD20 Building System
A concrete skeleton system producing a flat,
uninterrupted ceiling, which consists of columns
and prestressed concrete floor slabs without
downstand beams.

33

Carcass for an industrial building using

the DW Systembau structural system
The concrete skeleton system consists of
a combination of columns and floor beams.
The roof and the walls are terminated with
concrete slabs or other envelope materials
(mostly sandwich constructions).

SYSTE M S I N I N DUSTR IAL B U I LDI NG S

77

are capable of competing with steel building systems in the

main structure. The building focuses on the tectonics of

above respects.

the prefabricated components; the impression the build-

The building for the municipal energy and water company in

ing creates is one of confidence in a system-built build-

Buchs, Switzerland, was designed by Ballmoos Krucker Architek-

ing. The topographical integration of the building and the

ten and is completely prefabricated apart from the stairwell

architecture of the faade and canopies communicates

cores, which were constructed with in-situ concrete (34). The

the subtle differences and the characteristic expression,

loadbearing faade columns are manufactured as composite el-

while emplacing the difference between system building

ements, and the cantilever canopies are built directly into the

and architect-planned prefabrication.

34

Office building for the municipal energy and water company,

Buchs, Switzerland, Ballmoos
Krucker Architekten, 2004
The topographical integration of
the building and its architectural
grace can be attributed to architectplanned prefabrication.

78

SYSTE M S I N I N DUSTR IAL B U I LDI NG S

Platform systems
The Individual Building Platform is an integrated platform system

minimal influence would be exercised on the architecture. The

for office buildings (35) based on a concrete skeleton. The sys-

platform consists of four subsystems: building structure system

tem was developed in 2007 by the Faculty of Architecture of

(36), faade system (37), services system (38) and internal fit-

TU Delft in cooperation with German and Dutch companies. It

out system (39).

is designed to be capable of later adaption for other uses. The

An overall system is being developed based on the platform

system is based on the platform strategy, a method of manufac-

system for individual applications. In addition to the platform com-

ture borrowed from the automobile industry, in which individual

ponents, project-specific components are being developed for

variants are built on the same serially produced platform. The

integration into the platform construction and design processes.

components of a platform were selected to ensure that with the

This will allow just-in-time installation to be used throughout the

greatest possible number of specified system components, a

site.

35

3D simulation of the overall system of the Individual Building Platform, TU Delft, the Netherlands, 2007
This system for office buildings is based on the platform strategy, a method of manufacture borrowed from the automobile industry,
in which individual variants are built on the same serially produced platform.

SYSTE M S I N I N DUSTR IAL B U I LDI NG S

79

36

37

Individual Building Platform: building structure system

The building structure system consists of precast prestressed
concrete slabs and reinforced concrete columns, which are
connected to one another with a form of steel coupling with
no projections below the structural ceiling soffit.

Individual Building Platform: faade system

The faade system was conceived as an element faade to allow
the highest possible quality faade to be erected as quickly as
possible.

38

39

Individual Building Platform: building services system

Building services components are mainly located in the faade,
and the faade interfaces to permit great flexibility inside the
building.

Individual Building Platform: internal fit-out system

The internal fit-out is completed with modular components to
ensure an efficient predefined construction process inside the
building.

80

SYSTE M S I N I N DUSTR IAL B U I LDI NG S

The building structure system consists of precast prestressed

The platforms building structure system can create trapezoidal

concrete slabs and reinforced concrete columns, which are con-

and circular buildings as well as orthogonal ones. Therefore

nected to one another with a form of steel coupling with no pro-

the platform can cater to most commonly encountered building

jections below the structural ceiling soffit. A void is created on

shapes. One-off parts of the building can be coordinated with

top of the structural floor slab, which is part of a double-floor

the platform in the system. The cost-effective use of the systems

system. This void is available for the building technical services.

is only possible with buildings in which the platform forms a con-

The floor slabs can be part of a concrete core activation system.

siderable part. Flexibility of the internal fit-out is restricted in the

The faade is a modular services faade. It consists internally of

case of faades with a relatively high proportion of columns and

aluminium window elements, building services elements and

stiffening walls. The decentralised building technical services in

spandrel elements. Externally, it consists of double window or

the faade (41) and the double-floor construction open the way

cladding elements in any selected material.

to flexible services planning. The system is currently still in the

The fit-out systems for the internal finishings are chosen to coor-

prototype phase and has not yet been used commercially.

dinate with the overall system. The building services installations

are defined in the design as individually modified modules. The
services are distributed in the double-floor void and the building
technical services faade module. The fit-out raster is flexible between the limits of 1.20 and 1.40m. The size of the structural
grid (40) can be varied between 3.60 and 4.20m. There are no
specified storey heights.

41

Individual Building Platform overall system

The faade is a modular component faade.

40

Individual Building Platform structural system

The size of the structural grid can be varied between 3.60 and
4.20 m. There are no specified storey heights.

SYSTE M S I N I N DUSTR IAL B U I LDI NG S

81

Industrial buildings using precast concrete units

Industrial buildings cannot be considered as system buildings to

following components: columns, beams, floors/ceilings, walls and

the same extent as the office building systems discussed earlier

faades (4244). The purchaser is offered various versions of

in this chapter. An industrial building is created for a particular

these components. All components can be varied in size and

production process and designed to meet its specific needs. In

combined to suit specific needs.

the same way as high-rise buildings, the designs have so many

A single-storey industrial building with metal faade elements

repeating components that they can be viewed as customised

as the external walls is taken as an example (45). The rectangu-

system buildings with a high proportion of prefabrication. The

lar columns, which carry the horizontal forces acting on the

designers can rely on system solutions to coordinate the various

faade, are bolted on to site-prepared foundations. The principal

components, a job that is made much easier by the simple plan

roof members are inclined I-section beams placed directly on the

layout of industrial buildings. A system module consists of the

columns. Depending on spans, something like 69m steel profiled roofing panels (46) or 912m double T-slabs could be
used for the roof panels.

V
V-purlin

- Pfette

Downstand
Rechteck
rectangular beam

Unterzug

Downstand
Hut
Unterzug
flanged
beam

Downstand
L-beam
L - Unterzug

42

Concrete skeleton: columns

A system module consists of the following components: columns, beams, floors/ceilings, walls and
faades.

T-beam
T

- Binder

I-beam

I - Binder

43

Concrete skeleton: beams

The purchaser is offered various versions of these components.

82

SYSTE M S I N I N DUSTR IAL B U I LDI NG S

Market share for system-built buildings

The proportion of purely system-built buildings up to now used

In the traditional building sector as well, there is worthwhile de-

for commercial purposes in Europe in relation to the total built is

velopment potential in systems for permanent, complex and indi-

rather small. In North America and Japan for example, prefabri-

vidual buildings, as can be seen in the rising success of a few

cated building construction is traditionally far more popular, but

specific companies. This sector has been largely ignored for

prefabrication must not be confused with system building, which

years by major international construction companies. With very

is not very frequently used in these countries either. Only in the

few exceptions, most system buildings have been designed by

field of special buildings, such as temporary buildings or those

medium-sized companies with relatively small budgets for re-

simply built to fulfil a particular purpose, has the use of system

search and development. Future-oriented systems, aspects of

buildings been accepted as the standard solution.

sustainability, cross-platform construction methods are currently

M
M 120
120
M
M 150
150

M 180
180
M

Massivdecken
Solid floors

T-T
Platte
Double
T-slab

A
/
A 150
150/
A
A 180
180

A 200
200/
A
/
A
A 220
220
C
C 200
200
A 260
260
A
A 400
400

Hohldecken
Hollow
core floors

C
C 150
150

V
V 320
320//
V
V 400
400

44

Concrete skeleton: floor/ceiling slabs

All components can be varied in size and combined to suit specific needs.

SYSTE M S I N I N DUSTR IAL B U I LDI NG S

83

being developed in cooperation with universities of applied sci-

building. One of its objectives is to develop construction proc-

ence. The Dutch Slimbouwen foundation was set up at the TU

esses that will prolong the life cycle of a building. Adaptability

Eindhoven for this purpose by Jos Lichtenberg. This foundation

and flexibility of the loadbearing structure is also addressed in

links contractors, consulting engineers, architects and universi-

the context of a long-term investment in which the needs of the

ties of applied science with the aim of promoting longer-term

future users are anticipated and planned for.

developments in the field of industrial, flexible and sustainable

45

Structural members for a single-storey industrial building

This industrial building is an example of a concrete skeleton
structure with a steel panel faade.

46

Single-storey industrial building system

Steel profiled sheets or precast concrete units can be used as the roof
panels, depending on the spans.

84

SYSTE M S I N I N DUSTR IAL B U I LDI NG S

5 | Processes
The process used to create a building is crucial for its later qual-

sive and time-consuming process by skilled craftsmen. On the

ity and manufacturing costs. A sign of a good production pro-

new assembly line, the workers did not go to the workpiece, in-

cess is that it implements the customers objectives efficiently

stead the workpiece moved on the assembly line to the worker,

from preliminary planning to the finished building, the produc-

who then had only a few simple steps in the overall process to

tion process can be divided into four phases: The planning and

complete time after time with the arrival of each vehicle (4). Us-

design, the production or prefabrication in the factory, the logis-

ing this method, Ford was able to more than halve the produc-

tics of delivery to the construction site and the installation on

tion time of his Model T from an initial 12.5 hours to 6. In 1909,

site (1).

the year following his introduction of assembly line production

For production to be successful, process management (2)

for the Model T, Ford manufactured 10,000 vehicles at a price of

must achieve the required objectives in the following areas: cost

950 dollars each. The profits were invested in the continuous

management (low product costs, cost reliability for cost plan-

improvement of his production techniques, which resulted in fur-

ning), time management (short design and construction phases,

ther efficiency gains and price reductions. Over the 19 years of

adherence to the planned time frame), quality management (ad-

production, he was able to cut the price to 280 dollars. By the

herence to quality standards). These objectives must be moni-

time production stopped in 1927, Ford had sold 15 million of

tored and controlled throughout all phases.

these cars in the USA alone. This production and sales record
was only overtaken in 1972 by the VW Beetle.

The example of the automobile industry

Attempts were made during the 1920s with the manufactur-

The automobile industry is renowned for innovation within its

ing methods of the construction industry of modern architecture

manufacturing processes. Henry Ford, the founder of the Ford

in Germany to transfer the success of Ford the car for the

Motor Company in Detroit, revolutionised automobile manufac-

masses to living space. The primary goal, that of providing af-

ture with his introduction of the assembly line (3). Before then

fordable homes for everyone, was not achieved even in Frankfurt

automobiles were hand-made, one-off items built in a cost-inten-

am Main, where 15,000 residential units were built between

Costs
me
Ti

Planning
Prefabrication
Planning

Logistics
Prefabrication

Installation
Logistics

ua

Installation

lit y

The four phases of the production process

Production or prefabrication in the factory follows planning and design;
delivery to the construction site requires special logistics, and then
installation takes place on site.

Cost and time management

The management of costs and time and the achievement of the
required quality are the objectives for all process phases.

PROCESSES

85

Lean production
1926 and 1930 under the leadership of Ernst May. At this time,

In the 1950s, Eiji Toyoda and Taichi Ohno started to further de-

land prices were rising so rapidly, even during the planning

velop Henry Fords production methods into the more flexible

phase, that the objective of creating a low-cost house for the

Toyota production system, also known as lean production. Eiji

masses was never achieved and the social ideas of modern

Toyoda had visited factories in the USA and discovered con-

architecture were never implemented. Many later attempts to

siderable potential for improvement in mass production. Adopt-

mass-produce houses were unsuccessful for a variety of rea-

ing a different approach to mass production than at Ford, Toyota

sons.

sought to make the whole production process efficient and

Assembly line production Ford Model T

With the introduction of assembly line production, the Ford Motor Company in Detroit
revolutionised the automobile industry and
transformed a manual, handcrafted production
process into an industrial one.

Bringing together of chassis and bodywork

on the Ford Model T
The components are preassembled on different
floors and brought together to form the finished
motor car.

86

PROCESSES

System processes
flexible (5) while reducing the cycle time for each component. In

Systems can be used to simplify complex design and construc-

essence, lean production avoids stock-keeping and transport.

tion processes. Their particular characteristic is that they are not

The production sequences are designed to be flexible and are

permanently tied to one specific construction activity, but can be

based on a smooth work flow that can be adjusted to suit cus-

used as universal solutions. Systems may be classified as primary

tomer demand. To integrate deliveries from other companies into

and secondary systems. Primary systems include all the compo-

the assembly process, lean production prefers to have suppliers

nents of a building and are normally oriented towards one usage

based as near as possible to the assembly plant. The workers

type. Secondary systems are developed from single, closed

participate directly and assume responsibilities in the quality

processes, which are extracted from an overall building process

management system. This process not only offers higher pro-

and used as model solutions. As they are developed for a host of

ductivity and quality, it is considerably more flexible than mass

different applications, these model solutions can be viewed as

production techniques in handling product diversity. Lean pro-

optimised. The model solution process is continuously repeated

duction allows different models to be manufactured on one

and therefore is continuously redesigned and improved as a re-

assembly line. That todays stock exchanges regard Toyota as

sult of the experience gained in all its applications (6).

one of the most successful global car-making companies owes

much to its logical implementation of this method of production.
Lean productions greater flexibility is also more suitable for
the construction industry. It is successfully used by several sys-

System
System

tem manufacturers, including Daiwa House Group from Japan

Data output
Daten-Output
Daten-Feedback
Data feedback

System
use
Anwendung

Data output
Daten-Output
Daten-Feedback
Data feedback

System
System
use
Anwendung

Data output
Daten-Output
Daten-Feedback
Data feedback

System
System
use

System

Data
analysis
Datenanalyse

and De Meeuw from the Netherlands.

However, the transfer of the technology from the automobile

Revise
berarbeitung
System
system

to the construction industry has its limits. An automobile is a

mass product consisting of precisely engineered individual parts

System
System

that are produced in large numbers and with very little variation.
This does not apply to prefabricated buildings, where production

Data
analysis
Datenanalyse

numbers are much lower and components are too many and too

Revise
berarbeitung
System
system

varied to allow for customisation for the individual client.

System
System

Anwendung

Data
analysis
Datenanalyse
berarbeitung
Revise
System
system

Best
quality
lowest
costKosten
shortest
possible throughput
times
Beste
Qualitt
niedrigste
krzestmgliche
Durchlaufzeiten
highest
high
workplace
morale
grtesafety
Sicherheit
hohe
Arbeitsmoral
Verkrzung der
Produktionszeit
die Eliminierung
werthaltiger elements
Elemente
Shortening
of production
timedurch
through
eliminationnicht
of non-viable
Just-In-time
Just-in-Time

Menschen
Teamwork
People
andund
teamwork

die
Teile
in
Therichtigen
right parts
in the
rightrichtigen
quantities
at the
der
Menge
rightrichtigen
time Zeit
zur

- -Common
goals
Selektion
Gemeinsame
-- Selection
-- Decision
making - Cross-working
Ziele
Entscheidungsusing
thenach
findung
- Crossworking
Ringi
system
dem Ringi-System

-- Taktzeit
Cycle time
-- Kontinuierlicher
Continuous flowFluss

kontinuierliche
Verbesserung
Continuous improvement

- Pull-System
- Pull system
- Kurze Umrstzeiten
- Short re-equipping
- Integrierte Logistik
times

- Integrated logistics

Eliminierung
Elimination
nicht
werthaltiger
Elemente
of non-viable
elements
-- genchi
Genchigenbutsu
genbutsu - Bewusstsein
- Awareness
-- 5-W-Methode
frofVerschwen5W method
waste
(fnfmaliges Fragen
dung
(Five questions for
- Problem
nach
dem
Warum
zur
Problemlsung
finding out about why
solving
Ursachenbestimmung)
something happens)

Production
levelling (heijunka)
Produktionsnivellierung
(heijunka)
Robust
Stabileand
und standardised
standardisierte processes
Prozesse
Visuelles
Management
Visual management
Philosophieofder
Philosophy
theToyota-Methode
Toyota method

etc.

Jidoka
Jidoka

Prozessimmanente
Process-immanent
Qualitt
in jeder
quality in
every
Arbeitssituation macht
working situation
Probleme deutlich

makes problems
-obvious
Automatischer
Produk tionsstopp
-- Andon
Automatic
production stop
- Teilung zwischen
- Mensch
Self-controlled
u. Maschine
defect recognition
- Selbstgesteuerte
- Fehlererkennung
Quality control in
every working
- Qualittskontrolle an
situation
jeder Arbeitsstation
-- 5-W-Methode
5W method

Data flow in system applications

Continuous feedback from the departments is the
basis for the analysis and redesign of the process.

Model of the Toyota production system

Lean production with the central idea of continuous improvement, which must embrace the complete manufacturing
process and all the participants.

PROCESSES

87

Design

Design systems

Design is a process in which the form of the building, its con-

Design systems are the latest development in system building.

struction method and sequence are determined and defined.

As with construction systems, the idea is to transfer knowledge

Cost, time and quality objectives are determined and their sus-

from industrial manufacturing into the building industry. They are

tainability improved. Decisions made at this stage can only be

developed by construction companies and universities of ap-

corrected in subsequent phases to a limited extent. Cost man-

plied science. For about twenty years now, architects have been

agement is an example of the influence that design has on the

designing almost all their buildings on computer-aided design

whole of the building process. The ability to influence costs re-

(CAD) systems. These systems allow design data in the form of

duces considerably after the design phase (7).

CAD drawings to be used directly for the computer-controlled

Cost estimates and completion times can be precisely met

prefabrication of components in computer-aided manufacturing

only if the design team adequately considers the sequences of

(CAM) processes. Closed CAD/CAM processes are frequently

events and operations of the later production processes. Design

used in industry, but their application in construction processes

has effects on the entire building process, from the initial con-

has been much less common until recent times. Architects

cept to the details on site. As the design and construction proc-

methods of working are often still as remote from prefabrication

esses are very closely interrelated and the initial design stages

processes as they were before the introduction of CAD. Design

largely set the course for all subsequent actions, all the design

systems allow closed CAD/CAM processes to be introduced

participants, including if possible the contractors, should be

into building projects.

brought together early in the life of the project to form an integrated design team.

Design systems determine the construction process in a series of established iterative design steps. Construction processes, as defined in these systems, are individual construction
processes that are not tied to particular companies, construction
methods or products. Using these systems, architectural designs can be translated into project-specific construction systems. These systems have the advantage that they can cater for

Degree of ability to influence cost

100
95

Basic
evaluation

Preliminary
design

Planning

every architectural variant. Their disadvantage is that very little

Tender and award

influence can be exerted on the costs, works programming or

Alterations (standard, layout)

quality management of the eventual contractors during the subsequent construction phase, as the design systems have not

Design

been finetuned to specific companies.

75

Construction systems
Construction systems stand in contrast to design systems; one
example is the modular building system (8), which was develExecution
design

35

oped from constructional and logistical principles. With these

systems, design is determined by the constructional and logisti-

Tender and award,

building structure
and services

25

cal requirements of production processes. The greatest difficulty

Construction, residual project planning,

residual contract awards

is to produce individual architecture despite the design being

10

based on a modular system and a standardised construction

process. If a system is based on elements with fixed module siz1/4

1/2

3/4

Project
duration

Degree of ability to influence cost in relation to project duration

es, it can only approximate the requirements of a specific design.

The individual design is adjusted to suit the modular dimensions,
which often involves significant changes. The advantage of these

systems lies in the repetitious construction process, which gen-

Ability to influence costs related to construction phase

All cost, time and quality objectives are determined during design.
The ability to influence costs reduces considerably after the design phase.

erally falls under the sphere of influence of a contractor. It allows

costs, works programme and quality to be centrally controlled
and accurate estimates of these parameters to be made at the
design stage.

88

PROCESSES

Individueller Entwurf

Computer-aided design systems

Digitales Bauen was established in 1998 with the objective of
transferring the experience and knowledge of many years of research at the Institute for Industrial Building Production (IFIB) at
the University of Karlsruhe into construction practice. The institutes principal areas of research in the 1980s and 90s were the
building component systems of Fritz Haller, and in the context of
this book, the Midi building component system and the Armilla
installation model. Concepts for the comprehensive and consist-

aModularisierung Raummodule

ent computer-aided design, construction and operation of these

buildings evolved from a number of research projects. A new
design methodology developed in which individual architectural
designs were systematically defined, disassembled into modules, which were then recombined in an integrative process and
finished in detail. The basic principle from which Digitales Bauen
derives its methodology is that every building contains some degree of repetition and therefore can be defined using a module
specific to that building. The house is not a serially produced

b Modularisierung Baukasten

product, but its individual components take a serial form within

the overall system of a building.
The design process follows the examples of CAD/CAM processes found in other industries. A building is defined in terms of
recurrently applied project standards, which are translated in the
design in ways that allow them to be manufactured from data on
CAD drawings and specifications in prefabrication works as
parts of a specified modular component. This means that specific component parts defined by the architectural requirements
are developed for every design. Controlling this process requires

Individuelle Modularisierung
c

a suitable project organisation and communications structure to

integrate all specialist disciplines, such as building services and
structural engineering, and in the ideal case, the contractors
who will eventually produce the building, into the design process
at the earliest possible stage. The entire process chain, from
planning and design, through prefabrication, logistics and assembly right up to facility management, is digitally controlled from
a dataset over the whole project timeline. This means that all the
construction and operating data of the building are accessible at
any time during the process through integrated computer and
database systems.

d
8

Operational principles of design and construction systems

The selection of a design or construction system is crucial to the
exact implementation of the individual design and defines the
degree of adjustment to the design necessary to fit in with the
system.
a Individual requirements (design)
b Coarse grid of a modular building system (construction system)
c Finer grid of a modular component system (construction system)
d Individually adjusted modules in a design system

PROCESSES

89

Construction process
A similar strategy was followed in the design process for the

Normally the assembly work on site is linked with the construc-

Mercedes Benz Museum (9). A parametric CAD model was de-

tion process. Little attention is paid to secondary construction

veloped in an early stage of the design. The geometry was not

processes, such as prefabrication and logistics, because most

described in terms of fixed values, but was dependent on further

buildings are designed to be assembled and built on site. This is

parameters, such as building services, structural engineering

the case even though prefabricated semi-finished products, such

and building regulatory requirements. Mutual dependencies cause

as windows or precast filigran concrete floor panels, are also

the effects of alterations of one parameter to be transferred to

used on these sites. The three production phases of prefabrica-

other project requirements and the adjacent areas to be reas-

tion, logistics and assembly are therefore present on all sites.

sessed. The design process required a cooperative working en-

The proportion of the on-site construction and system building

vironment involving architects, engineers, mathematicians and

processes taken up by the separate phases is different in each

computer scientists, in which problems could be solved using

case.

innovative and technically complex techniques. All project participants were able to work on the model at the same time, without
having to spend time and waste bandwidth in transferring information over communications interfaces. The results could then
be sent directly to the fabrication shops manufacturing the structural frame and faade members.

Mercedes Benz Museum, Stuttgart, UN Studio, 2006

The building resulted from an integrative and interlinked design process.

90

PROCESSES

On-site construction
On-site construction predominates building production today.

prefabricated alternatives, in spite of its inefficient process

This means that, a very large proportion of production takes

structure. However, on-site construction also has crucial disad-

place on the construction site. Raw materials, semi-finished and

vantages. In many respects, the construction site is unsuitable

prefabricated products are delivered to site, placed into tempo-

as a place of production (10). It is spatially constricted. The dif-

rary store and further processed by craftsmen. The construction

ferent trades have to divide the unfinished space into working

processes for on-site methods of building are less specialised,

areas, with the risk that they will hinder one another in the

and the investment in production is particularly low for the inter-

cramped surroundings. At best they will be able to set up their

nal finishing works. The sizes of the companies involved in

tools, power and media supplies on a temporary basis. Storage

projects using these conventional building methods range from

is difficult, depending on the location of the site, and weather

small firms to international concerns. Companies of many differ-

protection may be inadequate during certain phases of con-

ent sizes compete for the contracts as well. The intense pres-

struction (11). The consequence is that on-site construction

sure of competition leads in many cases to the on-site construc-

methods contain many hidden imponderables with respect to

tion method appearing to be cheaper to the client than the

costs, the required labour hours and product quality.

10

The construction site as a place of production

and storage
With the on-site construction method, the site is both
a storage and production facility, which brings with it
various disadvantages.

11

Skilled work on site

Raw materials, semi-finished and prefabricated
products are delivered to site, placed into temporary
store and further processed by skilled craftsmen.

PROCESSES

91

Prefabrication
Many systems are developed with the aim of disaggregating the

Prefabrication allows individual processes to be planned to take

construction process as much as possible and shifting activities

place spatially separate from one another and unhindered in

off the site and into the factory (12). For part of a building to be

specialist factories (13). In the factories there are no unfavoura-

prefabricated, the design must be capable of being broken down

ble weather conditions. Floor space can be laid out optimally for

into fabricated units suitable for factory production. These units,

the production flow and use made of special equipment, such as

also known as components or modules, must be defined in terms

assembly lines or automated systems. A further advantage of

of their weight, size and surface resilience so that they can be

prefabrication in the factory is that the constant conditions allow

easily transported and handled during installation on site (14).

each production step to be monitored more closely and meet

higher-quality criteria. The investment costs for factory buildings
and machinery are a disadvantage and must be taken into account in the prefabricated option.

12

Prefabrication of precast concrete units

Many systems are developed with the aim of disaggregating the construction process as much as possible
and shifting activities off the site and into the factory.

92

PROCESSES

13

Prefabrication of windows
For part of a building to be prefabricated, the design must be capable of being broken down into fabricated units suitable
for factory production.

14

Prefabrication of steel girders

The prefabricated units, also known as components or modules, must be defined in terms of their weight, size and
surface resilience so that they can be easily transported and handled during installation on site.

PROCESSES

93

Logistics

Installation on site

Logistics are important for construction to proceed smoothly

The basis of an efficient installation process is the precise plan-

and efficiently. The required components or modules must be de-

ning of the work flow during installation. Every step and compo-

livered exactly on time to avoid unnecessary standing time dur-

nent must be considered in advance. The site must be laid out to

ing installation or storage (15). Especially on system building

allow unloading and handling of large parts or components with

sites, logistics have to be precisely coordinated with the rapid

various options for loading and transport.

pace of the assembly of the components. The higher the degree

In an ideal construction process with a high degree of prefab-

of prefabrication, the greater the influence of logistics on the

rication, the work on site is reduced to the quick, just-in-time in-

construction programme. Logistics is the tool for saving time

stallation of finished components (16), which is carried out, in

and costs on site. The shorter construction time and lesser need

ideal circumstances, so simply that it can be performed by very

for temporary storage space of system building processes give

little specialist labour (17). The complicated installation proc-

rise to considerable cost reductions for sites where site plant

esses should be completed in the prefabrication stage. The risks

and facilities account for a high proportion of the total construc-

presented by the changing outdoor conditions for on-site con-

tion costs and on inner city sites in particular.

struction can be minimised by the shorter installation times.

There are, of course, parts of the construction process that cannot normally be carried out by prefabrication. They are the first
and last stages on site, which include the preparation of the site,
foundations and the final interior finishings.

15

Delivery of precast concrete units

Logistics are important for construction to proceed smoothly. The components or modules must be delivered
precisely on time to avoid unnecessary standing time or storage.

94

PROCESSES

Quadrant Homes On-site system

A system does not necessarily have to involve a high degree of

the sequence of works for every house to match activities in the

prefabrication. In some systems it may only be necessary to

factory. This work flow is organised in the same way on every site

standardise and optimise the construction process on site. US-

and depends on an ever-increasing number of identically de-

American housing company Quadrant Homes organises the on-

signed houses being built at the same time. The trades move like

site construction of detached houses in a way similar to prefab-

an inverse production line by following the production steps

rication in the factory. The smooth work flow is achieved through

from house to house.

erecting a large number of houses simultaneously and arranging

16

Assembly of the structural frame

For a construction process with a high proportion
of prefabrication, the work on site shrinks to
the rapidly executed, just-in-time installation of
finished components.

17

Installation of internal walls

In an ideal construction process, the installation
is so simple that it can be performed cost-effectively by unskilled labour.

PROCESSES

95

Lean production for modular construction

Lean production for component construction

The modular building system of De Meeuw, which is used in

Another builder of detached houses, the Daiwa House Group,

particular for offices, schools and hospitals (18), is an example

works in accordance with lean production. Design takes place in

of production process with a high proportion of prefabrication in

a central design office from where the information is sent to the

accordance with the principles of lean production. The basic

factory for prefabrication. In this system, instead of modules, the

idea is to prefabricate modules of the maximum allowable size

factory prefabricates components such as frames, roof trusses,

for transport by road. The transport of larger modules requires

faade panels, roof panels, ceiling and floor units. Here as well,

special permission, which would entail extra cost and have to

the subcontractors are brought into the factory to assemble the

take place at night. Up to 24 modules per day can be produced.

prefabricated parts of the loadbearing structure or aluminium

The fabrication cycle is not fixed but adjusted to suit the require-

windows and make them ready for further stages of the overall

ments of the site. In accordance with the principles of lean pro-

building process. The installation of the various components

duction, the same production line could be used to fabricate dif-

takes place in parallel in the factory. The fabrication process is

ferent modular systems, for example MAX 21, Kombi 21 and

designed to allow prefabrication of individual variants, so that the

Flexicom, all at the same time. Building services are installed by

proportion of standard buildings can be as low as 30%. The fac-

an external contractor in the same fabrication shop and integrat-

tory prefabricates a complete house in only five hours. The pre-

ed into overall finishings installation. The modules are taken from

fabricated components are delivered to site and installed there

the factorys storage area and delivered just-in-time to the site,

by specially trained partner companies; internal fittings and do-

where they are installed in the building. The building is then fin-

mestic building services are installed by tradesmen to complete

ished by skilled tradesmen on site.

the house. Construction on site takes about three months.

96

PROCESSES

Advantages and problems

of systemised processes
The objective of every system development is the optimisation of

and, in some countries, a shortage of skilled labour increases the

the construction process. The area of systemisation depends on

need in the future for an optimised construction process that will

the initial circumstances and requirements. Systems are most

be more cost-efficient than conventional construction process-

successful when short design and construction times are re-

es. The most important objective in the development of a system

quired. Most systems have been developed to satisfy these re-

building process will be the ability to adapt the system to indi-

quirements. A feature of many systems is the production of a

vidual architectural designs. That this has not been adequately

more dependable and consistent quality of building compared

implemented in most construction systems in the past has been

with conventional construction methods. It continues to be diffi-

the main reason why system building has gained so little accept-

cult to produce a building using an optimised process more

ance to date. This potential is only available from computer-aid-

cheaply than using tradesmen and conventional construction

ed design systems that are not limited to predetermined forms of

methods. The prospect of continuously rising construction costs

construction and components.

18

The modular building system of De Meeuw is an example of a production

process based on lean production principles
Prefabrication and installation take place in this order:
a Welding of the base plates; b Erection of the structural frame; c Fitting out with
internal walls and faade; d Finished module; e Delivery; f Installation on site

PROCESSES

97

6 | The Components: Systems, Modules

and Elements
Systems and subsystems
This chapter discusses the division of building systems into

A system is a structure of individual elements that form a whole.

levels of the construction or into individual components such as

In the field of building this means that the individual components

roof, faade, etc. or alternatively viewed according to work

create the whole (1) for example a house is put together from

packages of the trades involved in the construction. Following

bricks (2). The development into more complex buildings, for ex-

on from this, the chapter discusses the degree of prefabrication

ample a skeleton structure with faade modules as an envelope

of the construction and finally types of connections. These dif-

and an interior formed with partition walls and technical services

ferent ways of considering the construction are necessary to

components, leads to a further division of the system into primary

explain the different terms and building methods used.

and secondary systems, and into modules and elements (3).

Natural stone masonry

Simple system of elements: natural stone masonry,
constructed without mortar, is a complete system
consisting of only one type of element.

Sagrada Familia, Barcelona, Antoni Gaud, 18821926

The masonry is arranged to follow the flow of force, which results in the simplicity of the
system composed of one type of element being retained even though the complexity of
the geometry increases.

Conservatorium van Amsterdam,

de Architekten Cie., 2008
A whole system consisting of several
secondary systems (envelope, roof, etc.)
with individual modules (faade) in turn
consisting of individual elements
(windows, etc.).

98

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In a way similar to the procedure for dissection into different

of the systems can be created from modules, which are made

levels and associated elements, a system can also be represent-

out of assembled elements or the elements themselves.

ed as a geometric structure: the development of a construction

Alternatively the starting point can be the modules, which

system begins with the connecting nodes in space, i.e. the link-

then become the assembled individual parts of a system (5).

ing of several levels (4). In a second step, the individual elements

Here as well, the modules consist of individual elements. The

of the construction are assembled and form the structural pri-

result is a complex construction system from which a well-sys-

mary system. To define the space, these elements are overlaid

tematised and prefabricated structure can be created because it

with the secondary system of filling elements. The individual parts

is based on complete modules or subsystems (6, 7).

b
b

Developing the construction from the components

Definition of the system by
the connection of modules.
The geometry defines the
surfaces (a) in the space, the
modules (b) create the space,
the elements (c) create the
modules. The modules are
connected at the joint.

c
4

Developing the construction from the nodes

The geometry of the three planes defines a node
in space (a), the primary system (b) forms the
loadbearing structure, and the secondary system (c)
acts as an envelope, in some cases with a loadbearing function.

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99

Classification by levels of construction

Buildings can be subdivided into different construction levels:
The system, consisting of primary and secondary systems,
describes the house as a whole, which in turn is made of modules such as walls, floors, etc. The modules consist of elements.
The primary system usually represents the structural frame of
a house, while the secondary system is the building envelope
(8, 9).
Modules are: faade modules, windows, doors, stairs, roof
systems, etc.
Elements are: bricks, window panes, window frames, roof
beams, etc.

Post-and-beam construction in a faade

Detailed view of a faade construction made up of
elements (e.g. post and double-glazing units).
The assembly of the secondary system (faade) takes
place completely on site.

Primary system
Primary system, consisting of loadbearing walls, which in
turn consist of secondary systems.

Element faade in construction

Modular faade system in which the individual modules
are prefabricated and installed on site with the aim of
saving time.

Secondary system
Secondary system, consisting of faades, walls,
ceilings, roofs and floors.

100

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This subdivision is hierarchical. Several elements can, for exam-

reys. The same applies to further subsystems, such as partition

ple, form a module and the assembled modules, the system.

walls, stairs or sanitary units, in as far as these are prefabricated

Systems, whether at the level of the primary system or the

as modules. The external walls, where they are loadbearing, can

secondary system, consist of modules. Distinguishing the mod-

be a combination of loadbearing structure and building enve-

ules of a building is simple, as long as the separation of functions

lope. If these functions are separate, the parts can also be de-

is reflected in separate modules: a roof functions as weather

scribed as modules: the loadbearing structure on the one hand

protection, floor slabs carry the floor loads and separate the sto-

and the faade on the other (1012).

Modules are assembled from elements. Creating modules,
such as a floor structure, involves assembling individual elements, such as floor beams, boards, insulation, ceiling soffit and

10

Whole building
The complete building,
consisting of modules
and elements, in its
assembled form.

flooring. The same applies to roof structures, which are made

out of structural members, insulation, roofing membrane and roof
covering.

11

The building can be divided into systems

Separate functions, such as the loadbearing
structure or the building envelope, are
assigned to the structural primary system and
the faade secondary system.

12

The building can be divided

into elements
The individual elements
combine to form the module.

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101

Classification by construction trades

In addition to the division of a building according to levels of con-

building carcass with its comparatively large tolerances and the

struction (system, module, element), buildings can also be sub-

rather coarse, still imprecise method of building, here the work

divided according to work packages, i.e. logically amalgamated

packages of finishings and building services are considered with

performance areas of the various trades. While the subdivision

necessary higher levels of precision.

according to construction levels relates only to the unfinished

This results in the following classifications:

Loadbearing structure: the loadbearing parts of the building

Envelope: the enveloping layer of the building, faade or in

the case of a loadbearing faade, the outer skin of the wall

Finishings: components of the finishings permanently con-

Building services: technical equipment of the building, such

nected to the building (not mobile furniture)

as heating, ventilation, sanitary fittings, etc.
Normally the construction of a building begins with the loadbearing structure, which has the function of distributing the loads
13

Loadbearing
structure
Diagram of the
loadbearing modules
and elements of the
building.

102

and to which the other parts are physically connected (1315).

Structures are differentiated between those which are purely
loadbearing and those which also fulfil a space-defining role.

14

15

Loadbearing structure: skeleton construction

Example of a skeleton construction of reinforced concrete
with internal reinforced concrete columns and ceiling
slabs.

Loadbearing structure: external walls of reinforced

concrete
Example of a loadbearing external wall of reinforced
concrete. The insulation and weather protection are not
yet installed.

TH E COM PON E NTS: SYSTE M S, MODU LE S AN D E LE M E NTS

The function of the envelope relates equally to the interior and

modules consisting of several preassembled elements can be

the external protection of the building: the interior usually needs

brought to site and then simply installed in position. Transport

an inner surface that satisfies the requirements of the building

logistics may allow the use of mega-units, the result of highly in-

use in terms of function and form. The external skin must repel

dustrialised faade production, which are several building grid

moisture and temperature (16, 17). If the loadbearing structure

widths wide or may even form the complete building wall.

also performs a space-defining function, the tasks of the envelope are either ensured solely by the selected material or by the
presence of further layers.
The potential for the use of prefabrication is high in the construction of the faade. Preassembled elements can be installed,
for example, in a post-and beam-faade with regular dimensions
and identical or variable filling elements. Alternatively storey-high

16

Envelope
Diagram of the modules and elements that surround
the building and perform all the functions of the
building envelope.

17

Example of an envelope
The loadbearing structure is clad with a modular
faade, which fulfils all the functions of the envelope
and is installed storey by storey.

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103

Finishing elements include lightweight partition walls that do not

A high proportion of components in the field of building services

perform a loadbearing function, finishing components (fixed fur-

are prefabricated: elements intended to be installed directly in

niture, etc.) and stairs that do not stiffen the whole system (18).

the building are almost always prefabricated to factory-made

Prefabricated sanitary units can also be considered as finishing

quality (20, 21). This also applies to simplified connection tech-

elements.

niques in which the use of couplers means that only the lengths

Finishing works may involve a medium to high degree of prefabrication: lightweight partition walls for example, made from

of plain duct between the connections need to be measured and

cut on site.

gypsum plasterboard stud walls consisting of prefabricated and

easy-to-install elements (19). However, it must be noted that disassembly is only possible when some degree of destruction is
involved. System partition walls on the other hand are fully prefabricated modules and therefore can be reused.

19
18

Finishings
Diagram of the finishing
modules and elements.

Example of building finishing

Finishing elements in existing buildings: suspended ceilings with inspection
hatches, double floors and connections ready for a system partition wall
consisting of flexible modules.

20

Building services
Diagram of integrated building
services elements in the
building.

104

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21

Example of building services

Installation space: suspended ceiling with ventilation ducts, sprinkler pipes
and electrical cabling.

Degree of prefabrication of the construction

As already described above, the system, modules and elements

then elements will be used instead of whole components; if on

can be differentiated from one another, or the building can be

the other hand there is the option of moving whole modules or

divided in accordance with the work packages based on the

secondary systems by road or even a complete primary system,

trades involved in its construction. For both approaches the de-

for example by ship or barge, then the idea of assembling ele-

gree of prefabrication varies according to the industrial stand-

ments into subsystems in the factory becomes more appealing.

ard, technological situation and the desired degree of flexibility.

Examples of the various stages of prefabrication of elements,

The mega-unit faade is a complete contrast to a faade

modules and systems are discussed below: concrete compo-

made from bricks, with their small dimensions and their require-

nents can be precast in formwork (23). The building only takes

ment for large amounts of skilled work on site: these faades

form on the site, but the components are manufactured in the

perform all the functions of the envelope, including sealing, insu-

factory. This gives flexibility of production albeit with the conse-

lation and climatisation, and arrive on site as prefabricated mod-

quent amount of work on site.

ules consisting of multiple elements, requiring only to be lifted

On the other hand, masonry represents a first step towards

and fixed in their final positions (22). As a completely prefabri-

prefabrication as the blocks or bricks have already been fabri-

cated faade, it is installed as a module of a secondary system

cated when they arrive on site. However, the wall is still built

faade. The price of complexity is reduced flexibility of the mod-

manually on site. The same applies to large-format wall elements,

ule, as adjustments or modifications on site are impossible or can

for example precast concrete units, which can perform some but

only be undertaken with difficulty or to the detriment of quality.

not all the functions of a wall.

When considering the industrial manufacture of the component materials and the incorporated elements, there is also the
question of what is the ideal amount of prefabrication of the modules and elements for a particular building project. The following
aspects influence the decision about the degree of prefabrication: the tradition in that section of the construction industry
what can the contractors supply, in which manufacturing processes does their experience lie? This largely defines the cost of
production and therefore the price. Another relevant factor is the
relationship of labour rates to material costs. In established industrialised societies with high wage costs, for reasons of economy the tendency is to reduce the labour content of a site operation to a minimum and rely upon a larger degree of prefabrication,
while newly industrialised countries with low wage costs can afford to complete more complex works on site. The degree of
development of the industry also has an influence; the transport
costs of a complex technology that is not available locally and
therefore must be imported mean it is usually too expensive to
adopt. Finally, the available transport options have an influence
on prefabrication. If there is no way of transporting large objects,

22

Mega-unit faade
The faade units consist of structural grid width
and storey height faade modules that perform
all the functions of the faade. These units are
prefabricated in the factory and merely installed
on site.

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105

A next step towards prefabrication is the use of modules, i.e.

A further step in the direction of complete prefabrication is the

components consisting of several elements and capable of per-

installation of large-format modules or whole secondary sys-

forming various functions. Faade modules are an example of

tems. In addition to the above-mentioned window modules and

this. If the modules are small enough, they can be easily trans-

faade modules (25, 26), a further example is a complete roof

ported and installed. Larger modules may not be capable of be-

construction prefabricated with all the functional components of

ing installed manually but must be lifted and placed mechani-

the fit-out elements except for the final layer of roof tiles and in-

cally (24).

stalled on site (27). Here as well, the division of the modules is

106

23

24

Holiday development, Burgh-Haamstede, the Netherlands,

2003
Precasting a floor slab with edge formwork, reinforcement and
in-situ concrete.

Holiday development, Burgh-Haamstede

Precast concrete units for walls and ceilings are a good example of
large-format modular construction.

25

26

Holiday development, Burgh-Haamstede

Creation of the wall module with the precast concrete, insulation
and masonry cladding elements. Modules such as windows are
installed as the wall is being built in this form of construction.

Holiday development, Burgh-Haamstede

Detailed section of the wall construction with the precast concrete
unit elements as loadbearing wall, insulation and masonry as the
external skin, and the window module.

TH E COM PON E NTS: SYSTE M S, MODU LE S AN D E LE M E NTS

governed by transport requirements, as the complete roof would

unit faades and the faades of Dutch housing, such as the de-

not be transportable on minor roads. Additional fit-out items, such

velopment in Ypenburg (3133), are examples of this. Com-

as dormers, are also prefabricated, delivered and installed in the

pletely prefabricated faades are installed on to an in-situ or

same way (2830).

prefabricated concrete loadbearing structure and only require to

The possibility of installation of whole secondary systems

largely depends on the dimensions of the modules, which still

be linked to one another at the connection points. The external

skin is attached in a further step.

have to be transportable by road. The above-mentioned mega-

27

28

Holiday development, Burgh-Haamstede

The roof secondary system, consisting of three elements, forms a
roof surface, with only the final weather-proofing layer of roof tiles
to be added.

Holiday development, Burgh-Haamstede

Roof dormer module as a prefabricated component.

29

30

Holiday development, Burgh-Haamstede

The roof dormers are connected to the structural components of
the roof construction. The outermost layer of roof tiles conceals the
connection and seals the roof.

Holiday development, Burgh-Haamstede

Completed holiday home.

TH E COM PON E NTS: SYSTE M S, MODU LE S AN D E LE M E NTS

107

31

Residential development, Ypenburg, The Hague,

2008
In-situ concrete cross-wall construction constructed using
storey-height mobile formwork systems, which allows a
whole room to be created in one process.

32

Residential development, Ypenburg

Concrete cross-wall construction with prefabricated
faades as a secondary system.

33

Residential development, Ypenburg

The prefabricated wooden faade is delivered to site.
Easily recognisable are the preinstalled seals at the top
horizontal edge of the window.

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Maximal prefabrication is achieved when the whole primary system of the building is preinstalled in a factory and merely put in
place on site (3437). With few exceptions whole buildings cannot be prefabricated because of their size and transport problems, and therefore they are subdivided into small transportable
units. It is self-evident that systems with a high degree of prefabrication do not allow much scope for adjustments on site all
units must be made to match each other and manufacturing tolerances accommodated before delivery to site. Their advantages
are speed of erection and the simple reuse of the transport
equipment for the whole units, as all that is required to be completed on site is the connection.

34

Apartment block, Almere, the Netherlands,

Han Slavik, 1994
An apartment block constructed from containers in
the experimental housing development De Realiteijt,
Almere, the Netherlands.

35

Production line De Meeuw, Eindhoven, the Netherlands, 2008

Production of residential and office containers in a process resembling an assembly line.

TH E COM PON E NTS: SYSTE M S, MODU LE S AN D E LE M E NTS

109

The division of the building into systems (primary and secondary

store energy, be transparent and carry loads? The more complex

systems), modules and elements described here makes it pos-

the requirements placed on the building, the more complex the

sible to subdivide complex buildings into smaller units and there-

requirements placed on the components. The same applies to

fore organise the work according to considerations of construc-

the sizes of the components, as here the issues of transport and

tion and function. Functions influence the system through their

installation have to be resolved.

superimposition should the wall only seal and insulate or also

36

Spacebox, student accommodation, Delft, the Netherlands,

2004
Spacebox units are manufactured
and supplied as complete units by
Holland Composite.

37

Mobile Home, USA

The maximum dimensions of the
building are determined by its ability
to be transported by road. The units
are connected together on site.

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Connections
The assembly of a buildings system the primary system, sec-

The primary components of a building consist of basic forms

ondary system, modules and components comprises the con-

point, line, plane and volume. The connections they require gen-

nections and the connected (4042). The modules are separat-

erally take on the form of the component and its contact surfac-

ed from one another for transport at the points of connection.

es, usually nodal, linear or planar (38, 39). The hinge connection

The connections may be integrated parts of the modules or inde-

of a skeletal frame is nodal, the edge connection of a concrete

pendent connecting parts, and are designed to enable quick and

wall to the floor slab is linear.

easy assembly on the building site. The challenge is to make complex connections work in simple ways.

The connections vary in intention and function they may be

stiff, hinged, waterproof, airtight and flexible and this accounts

The interchangeability of building components is essential to

for the variety of materials such as steel, aluminium, glue or

the overall design of a product of mass customisation. The mass

wood. The types or functions of structural connections are im-

production and the industrial manufacture of system compo-

portant when considering not only the material, but the design of

nents is a great asset to the building market if there is a choice

the connection. Steel, with its high strength, is common as a

of component size and type. This way, a building design can be

connector for many elements of relatively brittle, elastic or weak

developed with more variables, but the design of the details,

materials. Steel connections for wood, concrete and glass are

among them the connections, remains constant. A typical office

stronger than the connected material itself. They are also rela-

building, for example, could require modules with fixed windows,

tively small and require little labour time. For instance, wood con-

operable windows, ventilation grilles and solid panels in various

nections such as ledgers for beam support, are bigger and more

sizes.

labour-intensive than their steel replacements.

38

Lego, game of cards and Tinkertoy

Whether for nodal, linear or planar components, connections
take on many forms: laying (Lego) bricks, joining slabs with
Charles and Ray Eamess House of Cards, connecting a
skeletal structure with Tinkertoys.

TH E COM PON E NTS: SYSTE M S, MODU LE S AN D E LE M E NTS

111

39

Types of connections
Brickwork (nodal components with linear connections)
at Tate Modern, London, Herzog & de Meuron, 2000;
hollow wood panel construction of homes (planar
components with linear connections) in Oxley Woods,
Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners, 2008; and detail of
Stansted Airport roof structure (linear components with
nodal connections), Norman Foster, 1991.

112

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connections
connections
connections

The geometry:
Connections
wall wall
The
geometry:
wall to
wall
wall
wall
The to
geometry:
wall to wall

frame
Skeletal structure
frame

panels
Wall panels
panels

domino
Domino system
domino

frame

panels

domino

wood frame
wood frame

Timber frame construction

wood frame

steel frame with

steel
frame
with
precast
panels
precast
panels
steel frame
with

Steel skeleton structure

withprecast
prefabricated
panels
panels

concrete or wood
concrete
or panel
wood
frame
panels
Wood
or concrete
frame
panels
construction
concrete
or wood

panel system
panel system
Wall panel system

panel system

frame panels

concrete slabs with

concrete
slabs with
precast panels
precast
concretepanels
slabs with

Prefabricated panels

precast panels

post + beam system

post + beam system
post + beam
system
Post-and-beam
construction

40

Wall-to-wall connections
In the basic examples shown here, the connection between two panels can be integrated with
a primary system (the skeletal structure) or be independent of the primary system either with
or without structural qualities. Le Corbusiers domino system, for example, involves a simple
connection between suspended panels, whereas loadbearing framed panels or massive slabs
involve structurally sound connections. Tolerances, fastening strengths and methods vary
accordingly.

TH E COM PON E NTS: SYSTE M S, MODU LE S AN D E LE M E NTS

113

Stahl
Stahl
(Fertigteil)
(Fertigteil)
Sttze / Trger
Sttze / Trger
Stahl
(Fertigteil)
Sttze / Trger

Steel (prefabricated part)

Column/beam

1
1

2
2

3
3

3
41

(open)
ausRolled
gewalzten
aus
gewalzten
sections
(offenen)
Profilen
(offenen) Profilen
aus gewalzten
(offenen) Profilen

Beam-to-column connections
The nodal connections between
linear elements, such as two or
more pieces of structural steel,
may be welded, bolted or riveted.
The types of connections depend
on the analysis of moment, shear
and tensile stresses.

Mixture of open
Mischung
Mischung
aussections
offenen and tubes
aus
offenen
Profielen
+ Rohren
Profielen + Rohren
Mischung
aus offenen
Profielen + Rohren

only
nurFabricated
aus gezogenen
nur
ausofgezogenen
out
drawn
(geschlossenen)
(geschlossenen)
(closed)
sections
Profilen
(Rohren)
Profilen
(Rohren)
nur
aus gezogenen
(geschlossenen)
Profilen (Rohren)

The geometry:
The geometry:
Connections
roof to roof
wall
roofplane
towall
wall plane

Curtain wall
curtain curtain
wall
wall
faade

T-beam

T-beams
T-beams

42

Roof-to-wall connections
The way loads between the horizontal and vertical planes
are transferred can ultimately influence the architectural
quality of the structure.

Double-skin
faade

Steel joists

and beam support

double-skin
steel+ joists
beam support
double-skin
facade facade
steel joists
beam+support
114

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7 | Future of Building Systems

Building systems have come a long way, and there is a long road

The classic argument against building with prefabricated systems

ahead. The logistics of building systems and the development of

of elements and modules is predictable: a building is a long-term

materials and building components have followed the progres-

investment that warrants an individual design solution generally

sion of the building industry and shaped the design of homes,

not associated with the repetition of prefabrication something

offices and cities built today. Increasingly, both the architect and

that one might readily accept for short- or middle-term invest-

the global individual are becoming aware of issues that have

ments. A counterpoint is the wide acceptance of automobiles,

been neglected along the way: the conservation of the earths

which do include interchangeable parts, although the product

natural resources and the need to plan our built environment in

belongs to the category of middle- or long-term investments.

an intelligent and conscious way.

A clearly decisive factor for the outcome of system building is

There are many reasons why building with systems can be the

the price of labour. The necessity of industrialisation is defined

obvious choice: cost savings, quality control, construction speed

by the cost of labour, especially of the trained workers in the

and economy of materials, to name a few. Financial risk for the

building industry. For industrialised countries, the option of sys-

manufacturer and the lack of trust in factory production are two

temised building is advantageous. Foreign labour is imported, or

of the reasons the establishment of building with systems has

work is outsourced to cheaper production locations. Highly

been slow, laborious and abortive. The gradual understanding of

skilled operatives are gradually becoming too expensive for use

materials, the design of construction and technical processes,

in system building on site in the developing and emerging market

for example, have replaced mere visions with new milestones in

countries; in this context, their skills are more effectively em-

architecture. Where the trends in industrial building are headed

ployed in the technical development of components in the fac-

is directly related to the needs and desires made available

tory.

through these developments, and vice versa: it is in constant

development.

System building industry

The automobile industry made a breakthrough in the history of
rationalisation and industrial efficiency with the novel development of the assembly line over 100 years ago. This was followed
by improved forms of efficiency, which were responsible for the
immense success of the automobile industry by implementing
the individualisation of the product. Decades later, the building
industry has not come close to this level of prefabrication or even
mass production. Automobiles now drive faster, more smoothly,
provide seemingly all comforts and are more energy-efficient. In
contrast, the establishment of prefabrication in the housing, industrial and office building sectors has had only partial success.
Ongoing attempts from architects, whether motivated by the
search for alternative aesthetic forms or for solutions to specific
problems, give impulse to the industry and prove that the desire
exists.

Mechanical systems
The use of prefabricated elements in
mechanical building systems is common
practise.

FUTU R E OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

115

Architect vs. system building

Just by observing the built environment, it becomes clear that

than 5% of all homeowners have spoken to an architect; in

most buildings were not designed by architects. In fact, many of

Europe the percentage, depending on the country, is 1550%.

the buildings built without the professional help of an architect

Almost all other buildings in the residential sector are built by

did not require it, because they were built with prefabricated

developers employing a sensible use of standardisations both

building systems that included all necessary calculations and au-

in terms of logistics and economics (3, 4). This automatically

thorisations as part of the package (1, 2). Industrial buildings

implies a uniformity of the homes as well as the use of industrial

need only work out their functional organisation, and fool-proof

production. The built product also must have good marketability,

designs take care of the rest. In North America, for example, less

meaning that any experiments with the outward appearance of

Simple faade system

Individualised prefabrication of large faade
components.

Different stages of construction on a

large-scale building site
Construction of a concrete structure: assemble
formwork, place reinforcement, pour concrete,
remove formwork.

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FUTU R E OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

the house can easily lead to financial disaster for a housing de-

The developers marketing stance, however, does not necessar-

veloper. Considering the breadth of investment a developer

ily promote architectural quality nor does it call for the architects

brings into such a project, this is too much of a risk to take. So,

creativity. Given the low profit margin of individually designed

the decision to go stylistically mainstream is a sensible one but

and manufactured buildings, the resulting low profit margins of

consequently limits any creative innovation. The alternative mar-

all involved and high prices of materials to top it off, the develop-

keting strategy could be the branding of a fashionable theme, for

ment toward a stronger standardisation is an advantage for all

example, the energy-efficient house, or the attachment of a spe-

parties. While most architects use digital design tools, they are

cific branding.

often hesitant to adopt a digitally governed building construction

process: they are afraid this would have detrimental effects and
result in a uniform manufactured product by limiting their control
over the detailing.

EnBV City, Stuttgart, RKW Architektur + Stdtebau, 2008

The logistics of a large construction site
must accommodate various simultaneous
building stages. For increased efficiency,
the upper floors of the building structure
are still under construction while in the
lower areas the faade panels are
already being mounted.

FUTU R E OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

117

CAD and CAM

Digital Age

A challenging issue today is the individualisation of systemised

We build with systems, and these systems have become more

building (6). The experience with overly uniform housing devel-

complex. We have tested almost all combinations and permuta-

opments, the resulting social problems and, in the worst case, its

tions of systems; at the same time they must be versatile enough

uselessness, has left system building with a stigma. At the same

to ride the waves of the quickly changing context of time, infor-

time, building must respect the individual needs of the society.

mation and technology. The challenge is to satisfy the needs of

With the implementation of CAD (computer-aided design) sys-

a generation used to the constant renewal of gadgets such as

tems, it is possible to resolve these problems using mass cus-

mobile phones, laptops, entertainment stations or automobile

tomisation. Tools for administering data, organising and process-

extras.

ing were accordingly developed and are key in the planning

Likewise, the market for building industry products was very

process (5). CAD programmes are also developed for the logis-

different as little as a decade ago, and we can expect similar

tics of supplier coordination, production, transportation and as-

advancements in another ten years. Reyner Banham may have

sembly. CAM (computer-aided manufacturing) directly translates

observed this with amusement, were he alive today. He defined

the design to the product, cutting study models as well as pro-

the First Machine Age, followed by the Second Machine Age,

ducing elements and modules. Its application in more complex

and speculated over the Third Machine Age, which was all about

building systems is, however, less present.

mobility and experience as presented by his colleagues at Ar-

Today it is evident that the full switch from paper to CAD ar-

chigram, Superstudio and Haus Rucker Co. with the futuristic

chitectural drawings and partly to CAM systems has taken place

Plug-In City, The Walking Machine and the Mind Expander. The

with improvements in the quality of building construction (6). The

Machine Age now is certainly the Digital Age, the age of limitless

coordination of the interface between design, fabrication and as-

communication and information. The architects of the ages have

sembly, which is necessary in achieving building construction

consequently been building according to the ages with practi-

completely controlled by CAD/CAM systems, is still in continu-

cal intent in the First Machine Age, with ambitions in design in

ous development.

the Second Machine Age, with poetic freedom in the Third and
now, with variability and choice. In the context of the Digital Age,
the building industry is also aspiring to offer variability and
choice.

Building system for a storage facility

Maximum efficiency is achieved through
planning, standardisation, prefabrication,
logistics and assembly.

118

FUTU R E OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

When limits are reached, there must be a turn. Joel Garreau,

it has experienced 27 doublings. The continuous expansion of

analyst of global culture and author of Edge City, an account of

material and knowledge must end somewhere, or the top of the

the inevitable expansion of Americas suburbs, identifies a few of

S-curve is often overlapped with the beginnings of new curves.

such limits. Since the start of industrialisation, the railroad build-

The railroad industry met with other forms of transportation. The

ing industry has experienced 14 doublings of railroad produc-

automobile industry, which has experienced similar growth, has

tion. The exponential curve waned off, resulting in an S-curve.

made cars first faster and bigger, then smaller and trendier; the

Garreau applies Moores Law to this example of industrial expan-

work is now concentrated on electronic gadgets and lower gas-

sion. Named after the co-founder of Intel, the law regarding the

oline consumption. The Digital Age must similarly reach the top

long-term trend in the history of computing hardware states that

of the S-curve.

the rate of growth of the storage capacity of a transistor, and

The same applies to building technology. The advancements

later the chip, is increasing exponentially. From 1960 until 2004,

in materials and methods have far exceeded their purpose. Concrete decking can be made almost as thin as cardboard, but
walking on it does not feel solid anymore. Steel buildings are
made to withstand earthquakes, wind and fire and reach enormous heights but often lack usable space. We have structural
glass, transparent concrete, bent wood and non-scratchable
plastic. Lean production methods cannot become more efficient.
The answer to the future of building systems does not lie in
improvements, as we can pretentiously admit that there are few
improvements to be made. Instead we must attend to the negligence of the environment; each conscious step towards a greener environment is a challenge in creativity and technology.

Jin Mao Tower, Shanghai, Skidmore, Owings and

Merrill, 1998
The complex faade of the Jin Mao Tower was prefabricated in Germany by Gartner and transported by ship to
Shanghai, where it was installed.

FUTU R E OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

119

Sustainable building and intelligent design

As the development of technology advances, the demands on

architects increasingly urgent challenge is pre-empted by the

the science of building increase. Sparked by the intensive de-

startling fact that buildings are responsible for half of the worlds

bates on global warming and the related topics on energy-sav-

CO2 emissions and a great share of the worlds energy and wa-

ing measures, building regulations have become stricter. The

ter consumption. Reducing a buildings impact on the environment while maintaining optimum indoor comfort requires precise, well-orchestrated building and service systems of highest
quality. Usage and maintenance costs affect the buildings
value.
The embodied energy (EE) of a building is an important consideration for architects and building owners when designing
the construction of a building. Different from the operating energy (electricity, heating, cooling, etc.), which accounts for between 5080% of the energy consumed by a building, the EE is
the cumulative energy required for all stages of the buildings
life: the procuring of the materials, the manufacture, transportation and recycling. The use of building systems that allow for
easy disassembling and recycling of components helps sustain
a green environment. Furthermore, the use of reusable parts
such as wall and floor panels (8) is especially useful in a world of

Unilever Headquarters, Hamburg, Behnisch Architekten, 2009

The double faade with outer ETFE foil layer allows for the optimised natural circulation of air and is an example of advancement in
systemised building climate engineering. The use of resource-efficient technology, such as concrete core activation for cooling and a heat
recovery system, achieves a primary energy requirement of only 100kWh/a/m2.

120

FUTU R E OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

Building Information Modelling

changing office patterns and demographics. The objectives of

Building Information Modelling (BIM), an open platform for use

optimum flexibility, more efficient technologies, increased quality

by all the design disciplines involved in a construction project,

of a product and waste reduction can be greatly improved with

allows an integrated rather than a sectionalised approach to the

prefabrication.

design of the architecture, building services and loadbearing

In Western Europe the aims of sustainable building have al-

structure as early as at the preliminary design stage. The auto-

ready been addressed and often been integrated into general

mobile and aerospace industries were also leaders in the devel-

building practice. The relatively high energy prices are an addi-

opment of this technique. Working with BIM synchronises the

tional incentive. Furthermore, the European Union and national

information flows of each project participant. Changes during

governments have made consistent efforts to develop sustain-

the design process are automatically implemented in the whole

able building. A typical office building in Germany uses about

project, and, as all the designers have access to the same mod-

25% less energy than one in the USA (7). Now, for most young

el, the consequences are immediately apparent for all the spe-

architects in Western Europe, building sustainable architecture

cialist disciplines. The design process as such is systemised,

is seen as a moral responsibility. Many of the most ambitious

and the synchronised processing and immediate checking of the

experiments are carried out by European architects with clients

data comprise new design opportunities for the architect.

seeking not only cost-saving solutions, but also a very modern

corporate identity found in sustainability. Objectives of reaching
zero energy by balancing primary energy needs through heat
and power generation as well as integrated photovoltaics are
not improbable goals.

Interior furnishings
Demountable partitions and furniture allow flexibility of working patterns without exorbitant remodelling costs and hence a
prolonged use of materials.

FUTU R E OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

121

Sustainability rating systems

In recent years governments of many nations have come up with

fessionals and likewise increase the attractiveness of a product

sustainability rating systems with which architects, builders and

for the eco-minded consumer. Critics of these programmes claim

property owners must or can comply. The LEED programme of

that builders spend too much time collecting points for rating

the United States Green Building Council, for example, a non-

systems rather than concentrating on working on real solutions.

profit group set up in 1993, the Energy Star programme also of

All in all, however, for the building industry and the countries that

the USA and the younger Green Star of Australia aim to promote

have such rating systems, it is a sign of progress in the industry.

green building practices. In Great Britain, the BRE (Building Re-

Whereas earlier buildings applied more or less standard

search Establishment) has initiated BREEAM (for non-residen-

methods of interior temperature and climate control (also known

tial buildings) and Ecohomes (for residential buildings) as envi-

as building systems in the context of mechanical engineering) to

ronmental rating schemes. The rating systems vary, but they

maintain a comfortable indoor environment, today building phys-

generally take into account design, construction methods, living

ics are integrated into the early stages of the design. Architects

comfort, energy conservation, power generation, materials and

are networking with climate engineers to develop specialised

recyclability in the calculation of a green building. Awards, seals,

solutions for intelligent climate control with sustainable building

memberships and the like are voluntary but are signs of ecolo-

methods in projects such as Harvards Allston Science Complex

gical quality, which facilitate the differentiation for the non-pro-

(9) in Boston (design: Behnisch Architekten 2008; climate engi-

Harvard Allston Science Complex, Boston, Behnisch Architekten, design 2008

The design comprises an intelligent climate control system and will thus achieve an optimised overall energy performance.The building skin
has moveable parts for ventilation, sun-shading and light shelves that direct light deep into laboratory spaces.

122

FUTU R E OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

neering: Transsolar). Faade consultants and structural engineers also contribute to efficient green buildings using elements
such as the buildings orientation, sun shades, layered faades
and natural cooling and ventilation methods (1012). Generally,
it is essential to build with the prospect that the spaces may be
temporary or short-lived, but that the materials can be recycled.
Prefabricated building systems are the key to recycling spaces
or components.

11

Headquarters Q-Cells, Bitterfeld, Germany,

bhss-architekten, 2009
The administration building was put together from six-storey office
building modules. The multi-layer faade construction contains
solar panels, which provide shade and generate energy.

10

SAP Call Centre, Galway, Ireland, Bucholz McEvoy Architects, 2005

The deep beams of the atrium form a herringbone pattern and are oriented
towards the sun path to provide optimum light at different times of the day.
Slender prefabricated faade panels house natural cross ventilation systems.

FUTU R E OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

123

Development potential of system building

One of the fundamental lessons of this study of systems is that
in order to build with a system, not all the demands and details

sustainability, renewable energy, materials and their embodied energy (EE), the ability to recycle

have to be resolved within that one system of solutions. The

Despite the tendency to think that prefabricated or system build-

more determining task is to resolve only the essential problems

ing has only negative effects on the architectural profession,

with a building system, and then to find new solutions for spe-

young professionals pursue new ways of thinking not by working

cific problems.

against, but with the industry of building systems. With the nu-

The future of building systems does not depend on better

merous types of applications system building has for dealing

detail solutions or more efficient design of construction; the

with design flexibility, cost savings, quality control and sustain-

more relevant issues are:

ability, architects actually have great potential to utilise it.

logistics and distribution suiting individual needs of the user,

the architect and the manufacturer

flexibility and reusability, in order to adapt to an ever-changing

society for which variable and mobile systems are essential

12

Elm Park Development, Dublin, Bucholz

McEvoy Architects, 2008
The climate-controlled buildings provide high
comfort levels without the use of mechanical
ventilation or air-conditioning. Prefabricated
panels are oriented toward the sun for better
effectivity.

124

FUTU R E OF B U I LDI NG SYSTE M S

Selected Bibliography
History and General Documentation
Baldwin, J.
Bucky Works: Buckminster Fullers Ideas for Today
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1996
Banham, Reyner
Theory and Design in the First Machine Age
The Architectural Press, London, 1960
Banham, Reyner
The Architecture of the Well-Tempered
Environment
The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1969
Banham, Reyner
Klarheit, Ehrlichkeit, Einfachkeit and Wit Too!:
The Case Study Houses in the Worlds Eyes, in:
Smith, Elisabeth A. T. (ed.),
Blueprints for Modern Living: History and Legacy
of the Case Study Houses
MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1989, p. 183196
Bergdoll, Barry and Christensen, Peter
Home Delivery: Fabricating the Modern Dwelling
The Museum of Modern Art, New York, and
Birkhuser, Basel, 2008
Buisson, Ethel and Billard, Thomas
The Presence of the Case Study Houses
Birkhuser, Basel, 2004
Colomina, Beatriz
Escape from Today: Houses of the Future,
in: Vegesack, Alexander von and Eisenbrand,
Jochen (ed.)
Open House: Architektur und Technologie fr
intelligentes Wohnen
Vitra Design Museum, Weil am Rhein, 2007,
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Davies, Colin
The Prefabricated Home
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Futagawa, Yukio (ed.)
Paul Rudolph: Dessins darchitecture,
Architekturzeichnungen, Architectural Drawings
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Garreau, Joel
Edge City
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Hayden, Dolores
A Field Guide to Sprawl
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Hayden, Dolores
Building Suburbia: Green Fields and Urban
Growth 18202000
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Head, Peter
Entering the Ecological Age: The Engineers
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Herbert, Gilbert
Pioneers of Prefabrication:
The British Contribution in the 19th Century
The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore,
1978

McCoy, Esther and Goldstein, Barbara (ed.)

Arts & Architecture: The Entenza Years
Columbia Lithograph, Santa Fe Springs,
California, 1990
(selective reprint of Arts & Architecture from
19431959)
Measures in Japanese Culture, in:
Kansai Window
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Pawley, Martin
The Private Future
Random House, New York, 1974

Herbert, Gilbert
The Dream of the Factory-Made House
MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1984

Pawley, Martin
A Prefab Future, in: Grant, Carol (ed.),
Built to Last? Reflections on British Housing
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Hpfner, Rosemarie and Fischer, Volker (ed.),

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Phillipson, Mark
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Modular Process in Construction
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Jessee, Chris and Rourk, Will

The Crystal Palace: 3D Modeling
Institute for Advanced Technology in the
Humanities, University of Virginia, 2001
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Russell, Barry
Building Systems, Industrialization and
Architecture
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Kaluarachchi, Y. D., Tah, J. H. M. and Howes, R.

The Historical Development of Standardised
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edition 1999
Le Corbusier
Toward an Architecture
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McCoy, Esther
Case Study Houses 19451962
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1977
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Modern California Houses)

Smith, Elizabeth
Case Study Houses
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Smithson, Alison and Peter
Changing the Art of Inhabitation
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Steinhausen, Ansgar
Plattenbau. Eine architekturhistorische
Darstellung, in: DAM Architektur Jahrbuch
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Stevenson, Katherine Cole and Jandl, H. Ward
Houses by Mail: A Guide to Houses from Sears,
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Alison and Peter Smithson: Works and Projects
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Christa and Sumi, Christian
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Technique and Design
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German in 1930)

Mathieu, Renee
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United States, Sweden and Japan,
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Whiteley, Nigel
The Digital Age: the Fourth Machine Age, 2005
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Shelar, Scott
Labor Shortage Threatening U. S. Construction
Industry
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Housing
Arieff, Allison and Burkhart, Bryan
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Project Environment,
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Ching, Francis D. K.
Building Construction Illustrated
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the 21st Century, in: ToolBase Services, 1998
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Hoke, John Ray (ed.)
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126

appendi x

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Wichmann, Hans and Haller, Fritz

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Processes
Ford, Henry and Crowther, Samuel
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Industrial Buildings
Beyeler, Theresia, Medici, Roberto and
Office Haller
Catalogue for exhibition
Fritz Haller Bauen und Forschen
Office Fritz Haller, Solothurn, 1998
Broeze, Frank
The Globalisation of the Oceans
International Maritime Economic History
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Elemente und Systeme (special issue)
DETAIL, no. 4, 2001
Haus der Zukunft
ARCH+, no. 198/199, 2010
Khler, Lutz
Entwicklungen beim Bau von
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Slimbouwen
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Markus
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2008

Gundermann, Beate
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schlsselfertiger Bauausfhrung
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Knaack, Ulrich and Hasselbach, Reinhard
New Strategies for Systems
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Liker, Jeffrey K.
The Toyota Way
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Mainka, Thomas
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schlsselfertigen Bauausfhrung
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Ohno, Taiichi
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Beyond Large-Scale Production
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Womack, James P., Jones, Daniel T. and
Roos, Daniel
The Machine That Changed the World
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Components
Ackermann, Kurt
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Deutsche Verlagsanstalt, Stuttgart, 1988
Ackermann, Kurt
Geschossbauten fr Gewerbe und Industrie,
Deutsche Verlagsanstalt, Stuttgart, 1993

Boake, Terri Meyer

Unterstanding Steel Design:
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Birkhuser, Basel, 2012

Krieg, Stefan
Gusseiserne Elementbauten,
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Useful Websites

Brm, Matthias
Konstruktives Entwerfen mit Betonelementen
ZWH Zurich University of Applied Sciences,
Winterthur, 2002

Rush, Richard D. (ed.)

The Building Systems Integration Handbook
Butterworth-Heinemann, Stoneham, Mass., 1986
(reprinted 1991)

Inhabitat
http://www.inhabitat.com/category/architecture/

Braun, Dietrich, Phantastisch Plastisch,

in: Blcher, Claudia von and Erdmann, Gnther
et al (ed.)
Faszination Kunststoff
Deutsches Kunststoff Museum, Dsseldorf, 1998

Steel and You: The Life of Steel,

International Iron and Steel Institute,
Bruxelles, 2008
http://www.worldsteel.org/?action=publicationde
tail&id=71

Some Assembly Required: Contemporary

Prefabricated Houses
http://design.walkerart.org/prefab

Hauschild, Moritz
Konstruieren im Raum:
Eine Baukonstruktionslehre zum Studium
Callwey, Munich, 2003

Trewin, Ed
The Advanced Composites Industry:
Global Markets, Technology Trends and
Applications 20022007
Materials Technology Publications, Watford, 2003

Fabprefab modernist prefab dwellings

http://www.fabprefab.com/fabfiles/fablisthome.htm

dwell modern home magazine online

http://www.dwell.com/articles/101-prefab.html

Watts, Andrew
Modern Construction Handbook
Springer, Vienna, 2009

Appendix

127

Authors
Professor Dr. Ing. Ulrich Knaack is an architect and worked in an architectural practice in Dsseldorf. Today, he is Professor for Design of Construction and Building Technology at the Delft University of Technology, the
Netherlands; he is also Professor for Design and Construction at Ostwestfalen-Lippe University of Applied Sciences in Detmold, Germany. He is
author of several well-known reference books on glass in architecture and
editor of the publication series Principles of Construction.
Dipl.-Ing. Sharon Chung-Klatte is an architect with degrees from Cornell
University and the Kunstakademie Dsseldorf, where she earned the title
Meisterschlerin. She worked in practices in New York, London and Germany, among them the offices of Oswald Mathias Ungers and Ingenhoven,
Overdiek und Partner. She has taught architectural design and construction
at various universities, including the Akademie van Bouwkunst Maastricht in
the Netherlands, the Kunstakademie Dsseldorf and Ostwestfalen-Lippe
University of Applied Sciences in Detmold, Germany. She is currently practicing in Dsseldorf.
Dipl.-Ing. Reinhard Hasselbach studied architecture at RWTH Aachen.
System building is the focus of his research, which he undertakes at the chair
of Professor Knaack at the Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands.
He is a practicing architect and curator in Berlin.

A ppendi x

129

Index
Abiquiu House, Abiquiu 51
adapto (modular systems) 70
AIROH (aluminium bungalow) 26, 27, 27
Aisslinger, Werner 48
Aladdin Homes 17
Alchemy Architects 52
Almere 53, 53, 109
Anderson Anderson Architecture 51
Archigram 118
Arcon (system housing) 26
Armilla 34, 70, 7273, 89
Arts & Architecture (magazine) 28
Atterbury, Grosvenor 18
Ballmoos Krucker Architekten 78, 78
Balloon frame construction 38
Banham, Reyner 15, 16, 118
Bauhaus 15, 17, 21
Baumeister, Willi 21
Behnisch Architekten 120, 122, 122
Behrens, Peter 21
bhss-architekten 123
Bison (large panel system) 27
Bogardus, James 17
BoKlok House 47, 58
Boogertman + Partners 10
Bosch Siemens Homeproducts, Hoofddorp 74
Brutalism 35, 36
Bruynzeel 20
Bucholz McEvoy Architects 123, 124
Building Research Establishment (BRE) 20, 28,
122
Building Research Station (BRS) 20, 28
Burgh-Haamstede 45, 106, 107
CAD (Computer Aided Design) 11, 88, 89, 90,
118
CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) 88,
89, 118
Capsule Hotel, Osaka 49
Cartwright Pickard Architects 58
Case Study House 2830, 29, 30
CD 20 Building System 77, 77
CLASP 27
Collins, Penny 43
Combined construction 37
Concrete skeleton 61, 61, 77, 77, 78, 79, 82,
82, 83, 84
Concrete-steel skeleton 61, 61, 74
Conservatorium van Amsterdam 98
Container 49, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 109, 109
Cross-wall construction 108
Crystal Palace, London 24, 25
Daiwa House Group 54, 87, 96
De Architekten Cie. 98
De Meeuw 87, 96, 97, 109
De Vijf 48
Dessau-Trten 20, 21
Deutscher Werkbund 21, 21
Dietrich Untertrifaller Architekten 60
DIY House, San Francisco 47

130

appendix

Dome Tent 62
DW Systembau 77, 77
Dymaxion Deployment Unit (DDU) 32, 3233
Dymaxion Dwelling Machine 33
Dymaxion House 32, 3233, 35
Eames, Charles and Ray 16, 29, 29, 111
EcoHat 58, 58
Elbphilharmonie, Hamburg 65
Elm Park Development, Dublin 124
Embryological House 11
EnBV City, Stuttgart 117
Endres Ware 47
Energy and water company Buchs 78, 78
Entenza, John 2829
Entry 06, Essen 12
F.O.B. 55, 55, 56
Fierloos Architecten 53
Fiorentino, Mario 23
Flat-pack system 47, 69
Flavin, Dan 7, 8
Ford Model T 86, 86
Ford, Henry 15, 8586
Forster, Stefan 22, 23
Foster, Norman 112
Framework and panel construction 33
Frankfurt Kitchen 20, 20
Frankfurt Slab System 19, 19
Freitag lab AG, Zrich 66, 68
Friedrichsfelde, Berlin 18, 19
Friesland Foods Building, Deventer 68
Fuller, Richard Buckminster 11, 32, 32, 33, 33,
35, 62
Garreau, Joel 119
Gaud, Antoni 98
Geodesic Dome 11, 62, 63, 64
George Wimpey Company 27
Ger see Mongolian yurt
Gill, Irving 28
Gobaplan 70, 74, 74, 75, 76
Goldbeck (office building system) 70, 74, 75, 75
Gorio, F. 23
Granada 9
Grimshaw, Nicholas 11, 11
Gropius, Walter 15, 17, 20, 21, 21, 33
Gugelot, Hans 16
Haller, Fritz 34, 35, 70, 71, 73, 89
Harvard Allston Science Complex, Boston 122,
122
Haus Rucker Co. 118
Headquarters Q-Cells, Bitterfeld 123
Headquarters Unilever, Hamburg 120
Herzog & de Meuron 112
Holland Composite 48, 110
Hotel Post, Bezau 49, 49
House Burger, Detmold 40
House E. Kaufmann, Andelsbuch 42, 43
House F., Bezau 60
House of the Future 35, 35

Ideal Home Exhibition 35, 35

IKEA 47, 58
Individual Building Platform 79, 79, 80, 80
Industry Park, Langenfeld near Dsseldorf 74
Jin Mao Tower 119
Johnson Creek weeHouse, Honesdale 52
Jong, Mart de 48
Kansai Airport 11
Kaufmann, Johannes 42, 46, 46, 59, 60
Kaufmann, Michael 60
Kaufmann, Michelle 51
Kaufmann, Oskar Leo 42, 46, 46, 49, 59
Koenig, Pierre 30
KOW Architekten 74
Kraanspoor, Amsterdam 73, 7374
Kndig Bickel Architekten 70
Kurokawa, Kisho 49
La Corviale, Rome 23, 23
Larsen-Nielsen System 28
Le Corbusier 7, 15, 16, 21, 23, 30, 37, 113
Le Haut du Livre, Nancy 22
Leinefelde town villas 23
Levittown, Pennsylvania 17
Lichtenberg, Jos 84
Light frame construction 37, 37, 38, 38, 44, 54
Living Homes 51, 52
Lloyds Building, London 76, 76
Loftcube, Berlin 48
Lugli, P. M. 23
LV Series Home, Perryville 51
Lynn, Greg 11
Maison Citrohan 1617
Maison Tropicale 31, 31
Marmol Radziner and Associates 51
May, Ernst 19, 1921, 86
Mc Donough & Partners 74
McLuhan, Marshall 15
Mega-unit faade 103, 105, 105, 107
Mercedes Benz Museum, Stuttgart 90, 90
Middelburg 8, 53
Midi (building system) 34, 35, 70, 71, 72,
7273, 89
Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig 21, 22, 42
Mitsui 54
Modern Modular Housing 43
Modular construction 61, 61, 64, 68, 70
Modular construction 37, 48
Modulor 7
Mongolian yurt 13, 13, 33
Muji 47, 47
Mller, Gerd Alfred 16
Murray Grove 58
Nakagin Capsules, Tokyo 49
Namba, Kazuhiko 47, 47
Neutra, Richard 28

Ohno, Taichi 86
Oriental Masonic Gardens, New Haven 36, 36
OSB-Platten 40, 41, 51
OTH Ontwerpgroep Trude Hooykaas 73, 73
Oud, Jacobus Johannes Pieter 21
Oxley Woods, Milton Keynes 57, 58, 58, 112
Packaged House 33, 33, 34
Parco Homes 9, 52
Pawley, Martin 16, 57
Paxton, Joseph 24, 25
Piano, Renzo 11
Platform frame construction 38, 39
Portal House 26
Post-and-beam construction 42, 100, 103
Primary system 87, 98, 99, 100, 101, 105, 109111, 113
Prouv, Jean 31, 31
Pruitt-Igoe, St. Louis 23
Quadrant Homes 9, 50, 95
Residential development, Ypenburg,
The Hague 108
Richmond Hall, Houston, Texas 8
Ridge tent 62
RKW Architektur + Stdtebau 117
Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners 57, 58, 58, 112
Rogers, Richard 76, 7677
Romero, Rocio 51, 51
Ronan Point 28
Rudolph, Paul 35, 36, 36
Ruf, Albert 49

Sagrada Familia, Barcelona 98

San Francisco 9, 47
SAP Call Centre, Galway 123
SBB Training Centre, Lwenberg 71
Schindler, Rudolph 28
Schtte-Lihotzky, Margarete 20, 20
Sears, Roebuck and Co. 17, 18
Secondary system 87, 98, 99, 100, 100, 101,
105, 106, 107, 110, 111
Sekisui Chemical 54
Simpson Strong-Tie 44, 44
SIP composite panel 41, 41
Skidmore, Owings and Merrill 119
Slab construction 22, 23, 37, 40, 41
Slavik, Han 109
Slimline (floor system) 74, 74
Smithson, Alison and Peter 35, 35, 36
Soccer City Stadium, Johannesburg 10
Sorest, Toyota Homes 54
Sottsass, Ettore 16
Spacebox, Delft 48, 110
Spillmann Echsle Architekten 68
Stansted Airport 112
Steel frame structure 22, 26, 29, 29, 54, 61,
65, 68
Sterbini, G. 23
Stick-building method 9, 45
Stick frame construction 17, 39, 50, 51
Superstudio 118
SU-SI House, Reuthe 59
System Occident 18

Ultra-lightweight 61, 61
Um House, Ikoma 55, 56
UN Studio 90
Uni-Seco (system housing) 26
USM Haller 3435, 70
Valentine (Olivetti typewriter) 16
Valori, M. 23
Volkswagen factory 15
Vorarlberg 11, 12, 5960
Wachsmann, Konrad 33, 3334, 34
Wagner, Martin 18, 19
Warhol, Andy 7
Waterloo Station, London 11, 11
Weienhofsiedlung Stuttgart 15, 19, 21, 21, 22,
29, 42
Wichita House 33, 33
Wimpey No-Fines System 27
Wimpey see George Wimpey Company
Windermere, Forsyth County 50
Wood frame construction 26, 41, 42, 51
Wood panel construction 113
Woonhof De Dolphijn, Middelburg 53
Wright, Frank Lloyd 28
Yurt see Mongolian yurt
Zehrfuss, Bernard 22
Zendome 62, 63
Page numbers in italics refer to images.

Tarran (system housing) 26

Tatami house 14
Tatami mat 7, 14, 14, 54
Tate Modern, London 31, 112
Taut, Bruno 21
Team X 35
Temple Street Parking Garage, New Haven
36, 36
Tent systems 62, 62, 63
Timber frame construction 26, 41, 54
Toyoda, Eiji 50, 86
Toyota Homes 9, 54
Trailer homes 49
Train station, Detmold 18
Transsolar 123
Turner, Huw 43

A ppendi x

131

Illustration Credits
1 Introduction
1, 4, 8 Sharon Chung-Klatte
2, 7, 9 Ulrich Knaack
3 Ben Parco
5, 6 Rieder Faserbeton-Elemente GmbH
2 History of Building Systems
1 Martin Schumann
2 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
4 from: Bernard Rudofsky, Architecture Without
Architects, Museum of Modern Art, New York,
1964
5 Mark Boucher
6, 26, 27 from: Walter Meyer-Bohe, Vorfertigung,
Vulkan-Verlag Dr. W. Classen, Essen, 1964,
S. 29, 170
7 Anja Krmer, Freunde der Weienhofsiedlung e. V.
8 Holger Ellgard
9 Klemens Erdmann
10 from: Frank D. Graham and Thomas J. Emery,
Audels Carpenters and Builders Guide, T. Audel
& Co, New York, 1923 (reprints 1947, 1951)
11 National Archives and Records Administration,
Washington
12, 13 Sears Brands, LLC
14, 19, 39 Sharon Chung-Klatte
17, 18 Dr. Paul Wolff & Tritschler, Institut fr
Stadtgeschichte, Frankfurt am Main
20 Bauhaus Stiftung
21 Staatsgalerie Stuttgart, Graphische Sammlung
23, 35, 41 Ulrich Knaack
24 Dominique Zehrfuss-Modiano,
Cit de lArchitecture et du Patrimonie,
Centre dArchives dArchitecture, Cit Chaillot
25 photograph: Jean-Luc Valentin, Stefan Forster
Architekten
26 Zoe Star Small
32, 33 Crown, National Monuments Record
37 Denise McKinney
38 Fred Hong
42, 44 The Estate of R. Buckminster Fuller
45, 47 archive Konrad Wachsmann, Akademie der
Knste Berlin
48, 49 Reinhard Hasselbach
50, 51 Smithson Family Collection
52, 53 Library of Congress, Prints and
Photographs Division

3 Systems in Housing
3, 4, 5, 26 Tae Hyun Chung
7 Marcel Bilow
8, 15, 21, 31, 32 Ulrich Knaack
9, 10, 11, 16, 17, 24 Oskar Leo Kaufmann and
Albert Ruf with Johannes Kaufmann
12 Penny Collins and Huw Turner
13 Simpson Strong-Tie Company Inc.
18, 19 John Ware
20 red fur ball, Flickr
22 Reinhard Hasselbach
27 Jay David
28 Anderson Anderson Architecture
29 Alchemy Architects
33 Toyota Homes
34, 35 F.O.B. Architecture and F.O.B. Homes
36 photograph: Tony Maclean, Rogers Stirk
Harbour + Partners
37, 39, 40 Sharon Chung-Klatte
38 Ignacio Martinez
4 Systems in Industrial Buildings
4, 5, 6 Zendome
8, 9, 12 Containex
13 photograph: RolandTnnler
14 De Meeuw
19 ERNE AG Holzbau, Laufenburg
20, 21, 22 Haller Bauen und Forschen,
Therese Beyeler
25 photograph: Christiaan de Bruijne,
OTH Ontwerpgroep Trude Hooykaas
26 photograph: Gido Wesdorp
27, 30 Goldbeck
31 iStockphoto.com/Baloncici
32 CD20 Bouwsystemen
33 Fischer Bauplanung
34 Ballmoos Krucker Architekten
35, 36, 37, 38, 39 TU Delft, Jrgen Heinzel

6 The Components: Systems, Modules and

Elements
1, 3, 6, 7, 14, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28,
29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37 Ulrich Knaack
2, 15, 17 Marcel Bilow
38, 39 Sharon Chung-Klatte
7 Future of Building Systems
1, 3, 4, 5 Ulrich Knaack
2, 7 Marcel Bilow
6 photographs: Richard Schieferle,
Josef Gartner GmbH
8 Hanns Joosten
9 Behnisch Architekten
10, 12 Michael Moran
11 bhss-architekten
We are especially grateful to these image
providers. All other illustrations were created
specifically for this book or were provided by the
authors. Every reasonable attempt has been made
to identify owners of copyright. If unintentional
mistakes or omissions occurred, we sincerely
apologise and ask for a short notice. Such
mistakes will be corrected in the next edition of
this publication.

5 Processes
3, 4 Ford-Werke
9 iStockphoto.com/archives
10, 11 Reinhard Hasselbach
12, 15, 16 DW Systembau
13, 14 Goldbeck
17 Haller Bauen und Forschen, Therese Beyeler
18 Reinhard Hasselbach, De Meeuw

A ppendi x

133

Faades

Principles of Construction
Ulrich Knaack; Tillmann
Klein; Marcel Bilow;
Thomas Auer
Introduction on the principles of faade design and construction for
practitioners and students
135 pages. 165 ills., 140 drawings
21.0 x 27.0 cm. Softcover.
ISBN 978-3-7643-7962-9

Facade Construction
Manual

Thomas Herzog; Roland

Krippner; Werner Lang
This new first edition of the Facade Construction Manual provides a
systematic survey of contemporary expertise in the application of new
materials and energy- efficient technologies in facade design, and representsan invaluable addition to our series of Construction Manuals.
319 pages. 350 colour, 50 b/w ills and 500 drawings
23.0 x 29.7 cm. Hardcover.
ISBN 978-3-7643-7109-8

Constructing Architecture
Materials, Processes,
Structures, A Handbook
Andrea Deplazes, ETH
Zurich, Switzerland (Ed.)

Combining creativity and technical expertise: an integral

approach to design and construction
512 pages. 610 ills, 920 plans and drawings
23.5 x 29.7 cm. Softcover
ISBN 978-3-7643-7189-0

Birkhuser
P.O. Box
CH-4009 Basel