Grundlehren der

mathematischen Wissenschaften
A Series of Comprehensive Studies in Mathematics

Series editors
M. Berger P. de la Harpe F. Hirzebruch
N.J. Hitchin L. Hrmander A. Kupiainen
G. Lebeau F.-H. Lin S. Mori
B.C. Ng M. Ratner D. Serre
N.J.A. Sloane A.M. Vershik M. Waldschmidt
Editor-in-Chief
A. Chenciner J. Coates S.R.S. Varadhan

347

For further volumes:

www.springer.com/series/138

Camille Laurent-Gengoux r Anne Pichereau

Pol Vanhaecke

Poisson Structures

Camille Laurent-Gengoux
CNRS UMR 7122, Laboratoire
de Mathmatiques
Universit de Lorraine
Metz, France
Anne Pichereau
CNRS UMR 5208, Institut
Camille Jordan
Universit Jean Monnet
Saint-Etienne, France

Pol Vanhaecke
CNRS UMR 7348, Lab. Mathmatiques
et Applications
Universit de Poitiers
Futuroscope Chasseneuil, France

ISSN 0072-7830 Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften

ISBN 978-3-642-31090-4 (eBook)
ISBN 978-3-642-31089-8
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-31090-4
Springer Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London
Library of Congress Control Number: 2012947315
Mathematics Subject Classification: 17B63, 53D17, 17B80, 53D55, 17B62
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For Clio

Preface

Poisson structures naturally appear in very different forms and contexts. Symplectic manifolds, Lie algebras, singularity theory, r-matrices, for example, all lead to a
certain type of Poisson structures, sharing several features, despite the distances between the mathematics they originate from. This observation motivated us to bring
the different worlds in which Poisson structures live together in a single volume,
providing a multitude of entrances to the book, and hence to the subject. Thus, the
idea of the body of the book, Part II, was born.
It is well known, i.e., it is commonly agreed upon by the experts, that results and
techniques which are valid for one type of Poisson structure ought to apply, mutatis
mutandis, to other types of Poisson structures. When starting to write Part I of the
book, we soon realized that not everything could be derived from the general concept of a Poisson algebra, so we faced the challenge of presenting the concepts and
the results in detail, for the algebraic, algebraic-geometric and geometric contexts,
without copy-pasting large parts of the text two or three times. But as the writing
moved on, both the algebraic and geometric contexts kept imposing themselves; finally, each found its proper place, appearing as being complementary and dual to
the other, rather than a consequence or rephrasing, one of the other. It added, unexpectedly, an extra dimension to the book.
It was pointed out by one of the referees that the main applications of Poisson
structures should be present in a book which has Poisson structures as its main
subject. This was quite another challenge, giving rise to the third and final part of
the book, Part III, undoubtedly an important addition.
Several years were necessary for this project, a big part was done at Poitiers,
when the three of us were appointed to the Laboratoire de Mathematiques et Applications. We were spending long hours together in what our colleagues called
The Aquarium (for an explanation of the name, look up poisson in a French dictionary). When two of us moved away from Poitiers, we sometimes worked together in other places, which always offered us a pleasant and stimulating working
atmosphere. Thus, we are happy to acknowledge the hospitality of our colleagues
from the mathematics departments at the universities of Poitiers, Antwerp, Coimbra,
vii

viii

Preface

Saint-Etienne and at the CRM in Barcelona and the Max-Planck Institute in Bonn.
Each one of us was partially supported by an ANR contract (TcChAm, DPSing and
GIMP, respectively), which made it possible to keep working on a blackboard, rather
than seeing each other on a computer screen.
We learned Poisson structures from our teachers, friends and collaborators: Mark
Adler, Paulo Antunes, Pantelis Damianou, Rui Fernandes, Benoit Fresse, Eva Miranda, Joana Nunes da Costa, Marco Pedroni, Michael Penkava, Claude Roger,
Pierre van Moerbeke, Yvette Kosmann-Schwarzbach, Herve Sabourin, Mathieu
Stienon, Friedrich Wagemann, Alan Weinstein, Ping Xu and Marco Zambon. The
multitude of different points of view on the subject, which we learned from them,
have given a quite specific flavor to the book. Even if a book cannot replace what one
learns through lectures, discussions and collaborations, it is our hope that this book
may further transfer what we learned from them and that it invites other researchers
to explore the subject of Poisson structures, which turns out to be as diverse and rich
as the colorful fauna and flora which inhabit the bottom of our oceans.

April 1, 2012

Camille Laurent-Gengoux, Anne Pichereau and Pol Vanhaecke

Contents

Part I Theoretical Background

1

Poisson Structures: Basic Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1 Poisson Algebras and Their Morphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 Poisson Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2 Morphisms of Poisson Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3 Hamiltonian Derivations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Poisson Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 Affine Poisson Varieties and Their Morphisms . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2 The Poisson Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3 The Rank of a Poisson Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Poisson Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1 Bivector Fields on Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2 Poisson Manifolds and Poisson Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.3 Local Structure: Weinsteins Splitting Theorem . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.4 Global Structure: The Symplectic Foliation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 Poisson Structures on a Vector Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3
4
4
5
6
7
8
10
13
15
16
19
23
26
32
34
35

Poisson Structures: Basic Constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.1 The Tensor Product of Poisson Algebras and the Product
of Poisson Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1 The Tensor Product of Poisson Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2 The Product of Poisson Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Poisson Ideals and Poisson Submanifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Poisson Ideals and Poisson Subvarieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Poisson Submanifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Real and Holomorphic Poisson Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37
38
38
42
46
46
49
52

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Contents

2.3.1

Real Poisson Structures Associated to Holomorphic

Poisson Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 Holomorphic Poisson Structures on Smooth Affine
Poisson Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Other Constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1 Field Extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2 Localization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.3 Germification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

52
55
56
56
57
59
60
61

Multi-Derivations and Kahler Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1 Multi-Derivations and Multivector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1 Multi-Derivations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.2 Basic Operations on Multi-Derivations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.3 Multivector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Kahler Forms and Differential Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1 Kahler Differentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2 Kahler Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3 Algebra and Coalgebra Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.4 The de Rham Differential and Cohomology . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.5 Differential Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 The Schouten Bracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1 Internal Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.2 The Schouten Bracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.3 The Algebraic Schouten Bracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.4 The (Generalized) Lie Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

63
64
64
65
67
68
69
70
71
72
74
75
76
79
84
85
87
88

Poisson (Co)Homology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.1 Lie Algebra and Poisson Cohomology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.1.1 Lie Algebra Cohomology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.1.2 Poisson Cohomology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.2 Lie Algebra and Poisson Homology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.2.1 Lie Algebra Homology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.2.2 Poisson Homology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.3 Operations in Homology and Cohomology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.4 The Modular Class of a Poisson Manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.4.1 The Modular Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.4.2 The Modular Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.4.3 The Divergence of the Poisson Bracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.4.4 Unimodular Poisson Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

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xi

Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.1 Lie Groups and (Their) Lie Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.1.1 Lie Groups and Lie Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.1.2 Lie Group Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.1.3 Adjoint and Coadjoint Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.1.4 Invariant Bilinear Forms and Invariant Functions . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.2 Poisson Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.2.1 Algebraic Poisson Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.2.2 Poisson Reduction for Poisson Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.3 PoissonDirac Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.3.1 Algebraic PoissonDirac Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.3.2 PoissonDirac Reduction for Poisson Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.3.3 The Transverse Poisson Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.4 Poisson Structures and Group Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.4.1 Poisson Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.4.2 Poisson Actions and Quotient Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.4.3 Fixed Point Sets as PoissonDirac Submanifolds . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.4.4 Reduction with Respect to a Momentum Map . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Part II Examples
6

Constant Poisson Structures, Regular and Symplectic Manifolds . . . . 161

6.1 Constant Poisson Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.2 Regular Poisson Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.3 Symplectic Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.3.1 Symplectic Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
6.3.2 Symplectic Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.3.3 Symplectic Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.3.4 Quotients by Finite Groups of Symplectomorphisms . . . . . . . 174
6.3.5 Example 1: Cotangent Bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.3.6 Example 2: Kahler Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

Linear Poisson Structures and Lie Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

7.1 The LiePoisson Structure on g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
7.2 The LiePoisson Structure on g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
7.3 Properties of the LiePoisson Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
7.3.1 The Symplectic Foliation: Coadjoint Orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
7.3.2 The Cohomology of LiePoisson Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
7.3.3 The Modular Class of a LiePoisson Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
7.4 Affine Poisson Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
7.5 The Linearization of Poisson Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
7.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

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Higher Degree Poisson Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

8.1 Polynomial and (Weight) Homogeneous Poisson Structures . . . . . . . 206
8.1.1 Polynomial Poisson Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
8.1.2 Homogeneous Poisson Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
8.1.3 Weight Homogeneous Poisson Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
8.2 Quadratic Poisson Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
8.2.1 Multiplicative Poisson Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
8.2.2 The Modular Vector Field of a Quadratic Poisson Structure . 218
8.3 NambuPoisson Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
8.4 Transverse Poisson Structures to Adjoint Orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
8.4.1 S-triples in Semi-Simple Lie Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
8.4.2 Weights Associated to an S-Triple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
8.4.3 Transverse Poisson Structures to Nilpotent Orbits . . . . . . . . . 229
8.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

Poisson Structures in Dimensions Two and Three . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

9.1 Poisson Structures in Dimension Two . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
9.1.1 Global Point of View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
9.1.2 Local Point of View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
9.1.3 Classification in Dimension Two . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
9.2 Poisson Structures in Dimension Three . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
9.2.1 Poisson Structures on F3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
9.2.2 Poisson Manifolds of Dimension Three . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
9.2.3 Quadratic Poisson Structures on F3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
9.2.4 Poisson Surfaces in C3 and Du Val Singularities . . . . . . . . . . 263
9.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

10 R-Brackets and r-Brackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

10.1 Linear R-Brackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
10.1.1 R-Matrices and the YangBaxter Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
10.1.2 R-Matrices and Lie Algebra Splittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
10.1.3 Linear R-Brackets on g and on g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
10.2 Linear r-Brackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
10.2.1 Coboundary Lie Bialgebras and r-Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
10.2.2 Linear r-Brackets on g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
10.2.3 From r-Matrices to R-Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
10.3 R-Brackets and r-Brackets of Higher Degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
10.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
11 PoissonLie Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
11.1 Multiplicative Poisson Structures and PoissonLie Groups . . . . . . . . 292
11.1.1 The Condition of Multiplicativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
11.1.2 Basic Properties of PoissonLie Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
11.1.3 PoissonLie Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
11.1.4 Linear Multiplicative Poisson Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

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11.2

11.3

11.4
11.5

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11.1.5 Coboundary PoissonLie Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

11.1.6 Multiplicative Poisson Structures on Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . 299
Lie Bialgebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
11.2.1 Lie Bialgebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
11.2.2 Lie Sub-bialgebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
11.2.3 Duality for Lie Bialgebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
11.2.4 Coboundary Lie Bialgebras and r-Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
11.2.5 Manin Triples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
11.2.6 Lie Bialgebras and Poisson Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
PoissonLie Groups and Lie Bialgebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
11.3.1 The Lie Bialgebra of a PoissonLie Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
11.3.2 Coboundary PoissonLie Groups and Lie Bialgebras . . . . . . 316
11.3.3 The Integration of Lie Bialgebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Dressing Actions and Symplectic Leaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

Part III Applications

12 Liouville Integrable Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
12.1 Functions in Involution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
12.2 Constructions of Functions in Involution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
12.2.1 Poissons Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
12.2.2 Noethers Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
12.2.3 Bi-Hamiltonian Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
12.2.4 Poisson Maps and Thimms Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
12.2.5 Lax Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
12.2.6 The AdlerKostantSymes Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
12.3 The Liouville Theorem and the Action-Angle Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . 341
12.3.1 Liouville Integrable Systems and Liouvilles Theorem . . . . . 341
12.3.2 Foliation by Standard Liouville Tori . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
12.3.3 Period Normalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
12.3.4 The Existence of Action-Angle Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
12.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
13 Deformation Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
13.1 Deformations of Associative Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
13.1.1 Formal and k-th Order Deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
13.1.2 Hochschild Cohomology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
13.1.3 Deformations and Cohomology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
13.1.4 The MaurerCartan Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
13.1.5 Star Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
13.1.6 A Star Product for Constant Poisson Structures . . . . . . . . . . . 363
13.1.7 A Star Product for Symplectic Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
13.2 Deformations of Poisson Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
13.2.1 Formal and k-th Order Deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367

xiv

Contents

13.3

13.4

13.5

13.6

13.2.2 Deformations and Cohomology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368

13.2.3 The MaurerCartan Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Differential Graded Lie Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
13.3.1 The Symmetric Algebra of a Graded Vector Space . . . . . . . . 371
13.3.2 Differential Graded Lie Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
13.3.3 The MaurerCartan Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
13.3.4 Gauge Equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
13.3.5 Path Equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
13.3.6 Applications to Deformation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
L -Morphisms of Differential Graded Lie Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
13.4.1 is Well-Defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
13.4.2 Surjectivity of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
13.4.3 Injectivity of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Kontsevichs Formality Theorem and Its Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . 397
13.5.1 Kontsevichs Formality Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
13.5.2 Kontsevichs Formality Theorem for Rd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
13.5.3 A Few Consequences of Kontsevichs Formality Theorem . . 406
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

Multilinear Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411

A.1 Tensor Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
A.2 Exterior and Symmetric Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
A.3 Algebras and Graded Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
A.4 Coalgebras and Graded Coalgebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
A.5 Graded Derivations and Coderivations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425

Real and Complex Differential Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427

B.1 Real and Complex Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
B.2 The Tangent Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
B.3 Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
B.4 The Flow of a Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
B.5 The Frobenius Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
List of Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459

Introduction

Poisson structures appear in a large variety of different contexts, ranging from string
theory, classical/quantum mechanics and differential geometry to abstract algebra,
algebraic geometry and representation theory. In each one of these contexts, it turns
out that the Poisson structure is not a theoretical artifact, but a key element which,
unsolicited, comes along with the problem which is investigated and its delicate
properties are in basically all cases decisive for the solution to the problem.
Hamiltonian mechanics and integrable systems. A first striking example of this
phenomenon appears in classical mechanics. Poissons classical bracket, which is
given for smooth functions F and G on R2r by

r 
F G G F
{F, G} :=
,
(0.1)

qi pi
i=1 qi pi
allows one to write Hamiltons equations of motion
qi =

H
,
pi

pi =

H
,
qi

i = 1, . . . , r ,

(0.2)

associated to a Hamiltonian H = H(q, p), in a coordinate-free manner, treating positions qi and momenta pi on an equal footing. Indeed, using (0.1), the equations of
motion (0.2) can be written as
qi = {qi , H} ,

pi = {pi , H} ,

i = 1, . . . , r .

(0.3)

For every solution t  (q(t), p(t)) to these differential equations, it follows from
(0.1) and (0.3) that
d
F(q(t), p(t)) = {F, H} (q(t), p(t)) ,
dt

(0.4)

for all smooth functions F on R2r .

xv

xvi

Introduction

In differential geometrical terms, the Poisson bracket defines an operator which

associates to every smooth function H on R2r a vector field XH on R2r . In terms
of local coordinates, the vector field XH is given by (0.3) and the variation of a
smooth function F on R2r along any integral curve (q(t), p(t)) of the vector field
XH is given by (0.4). In fact, when the function H is the Hamiltonian (the energy)
of the system, the integral curves of XH describe the time evolution of the system.
Thus, the equations of motion of classical mechanics come along with an associated
Poisson bracket; for simple systems, such as systems of particles with a classical
interaction, the Poisson structure is the above one, but for constrained and reduced
systems, the Poisson bracket takes a more complicated form.
The role which the Poisson structure plays in solving the problems of classical mechanics was known partly to Poisson, who pointed out that the vanishing of
{F, H} and {G, H} implies the vanishing of {{F, G} , H}. In mechanical terms, this
means in view of (0.4) that the Poisson bracket of two constants of motion is again a
constant of motion. Since constants of motion are a great help in the explicit integration of Hamiltons equations, Poissons theorem brings to light the Poisson bracket
as a tool for integration.
A strong amplification of this fact is the Liouville theorem, which states that r
independent constants of motion H1 = H, H2 , . . . , Hr of (0.3) suffice for integrating Hamiltons equations by quadratures, under the hypothesis that these functions
commute for the Poisson bracket (are in involution). A yet further amplification is
the action-angle theorem, which states that in the neighborhood of a compact submanifold, traced out by the flows of the (commuting!) vector fields XHi , there exist
(S1 )r Rr -valued coordinates (1 , . . . , r , 1 , . . . , r ) in which the Poisson bracket
takes the canonical form (0.1), namely

r 
F G G F
{F, G} =
,

i i
i=1 i i
and such that the functions H1 , . . . , Hr (including the Hamiltonian H) depend on the
coordinates 1 , . . . , r only. According to (0.2), Hamiltons equations take in these
coordinates the simple form

H
i =
,
i

i =

H
=0,
i

i = 1, . . . , r ,

which entails that the i are constant and hence that the i are affine functions of
time (since H does not depend on 1 , . . . , r ).
Thus, in a nutshell, the equations of motion of classical mechanics come with a
Poisson bracket, the Poisson bracket is decisive for their integrability and it permits
us to construct coordinates in which the problem (including the Poisson bracket)
takes a very simple form, from which the solutions and their characteristics can be
read off at once.

Introduction

xvii

Abstraction and generalization. Before giving another example of the key role
played by Poisson brackets, we explain the algebraic and geometric abstraction of
the classical Poisson bracket (0.1). It is well known that Poissons theorem is explained by the Jacobi identity
{{F, G} , H} + {{G, H} , F} + {{H, F} , G} = 0 ,

(0.5)

valid for arbitrary smooth functions F, G and H on R2r . It is however noteworthy

to point out that Jacobi discovered this identity only thirty years after Poisson announced his theorem. Taking arbitrary smooth functions xi j = x ji defined on a
non-empty open subset of Rd , with coordinates x1 , . . . , xd , the skew-symmetric bilinear operation { , }, defined on smooth functions by
{F, G} :=

i, j=1

xi j

F G
,
xi x j

(0.6)

satisfies the Jacobi identity if and only if the functions xi j satisfy the identity


x jk
xi j
xki
x
+
x
+
x
k x i x  j x = 0 .
=1
d

This fact was observed by Lie, who also pointed out that under the assumption of
constancy of the rank (which he assumes implicitly), there exist local coordinates
q1 , . . . , qr , p1 , . . . , pr , z1 , . . . , zs , where d = 2r + s, such that (0.6) takes the form

r 
F G G F
{F, G} =
,

qi pi
i=1 qi pi
which is formally the same as (0.1), but on a d = 2r + s dimensional space, with s of
the variables being totally absent from the bracket. An important class of examples
of brackets (0.6), satisfying (0.5), is defined on the dual g of a (finite-dimensional)
Lie algebra g, where the bracket is directly inherited by the Lie bracket. Many important facts about the Poisson bracket on g , such as the relation to the coadjoint
representation of the adjoint group G of g, were observed by Lie and were rediscovered and further expanded by Berezin [21], Kirillov [105, 106], Kostant [117] and
Souriau [185].
It was pointed out by Lichnerowicz in [126] that, in abstract differential geometrical terms, a Poisson structure on a smooth manifold M is a smooth bivector field
on M, satisfying [ , ]S = 0, where [ , ]S stands for the Schouten bracket (a natural
extension of the Lie bracket of vector fields to arbitrary multivector fields). It implies that for every open subset U of M, the bilinear operation { , }U , defined for
F, G C (U) by
{F, G}U (m) := dm F dm G, m  ,
(0.7)
for all m M, satisfies the Jacobi identity, hence defines a Lie algebra structure
on C (U).

xviii

Introduction

Moreover, this Lie algebra structure on C (U) and the associative structure
on C (U) (pointwise multiplication of functions) are compatible in the sense that
{FG, H}U = F {G, H}U + G {F, H}U ,
for all F, G, H C (U).
It is from here easy to make the algebraic abstraction of the notion of a Poisson
structure, leading to the notion of a Poisson algebra. For concreteness, we give the
definition in the case of a vector space A over a field F of characteristic zero (one
may think of R or C). Two products (bilinear maps from A to itself) are assumed
to be given on A , one denoted by , which is assumed to be associative and commutative, while the other one, denoted by { , }, is assumed to be a Lie bracket. The
triple (A , , { , }) is called a Poisson algebra if the two products are compatible in
the sense that
{F G, H} = F {G, H} + G {F, H} ,
(0.8)
for all F, G, H A . It is clear that in the case of a Poisson manifold (M, ), for
each open subset U of M, the triple (C (U), , { , }U ) is a Poisson algebra, where
stands for the pointwise product of functions and { , }U stands for the Lie bracket
defined by (0.7).
Deformation theory and quantization. We now come to a second striking example of Poisson structures making an unexpected appearance, and playing next a very
definite role in the statement of the problem and in its final solution. We give a purely
algebraic, but very simple and natural, introduction to the problem. In this approach,
one speaks of deformation theory. A physical interpretation of the problem will
be given afterwards; one then speaks of quantization or of deformation quantization.
We start with a commutative associative algebra A = (A , ). The reader may
think of the example of the polynomial algebra A = F[x1 , . . . , xd ]. We suppose that
the product in A is part of a family of associative (not necessarily commutative)
products, say we have a family t of bilinear maps
t : A A A
(a, b)  a t b

(0.9)

such that, for each fixed t F, the product t is associative, with 0 being the original
associative commutative product on A , i.e., (A , ) = (A , 0 ). We refer to the family
of associative products t on A as a deformation of A . It is assumed that the family
depends nicely on t, in a way which we do not make precise here. We consider, for
every t F, the commutator of t , which is defined for all a, b A by
[a, b]t := a t b b t a .

Introduction

xix

Since t is associative, the commutator [ , ]t satisfies for each t F the following

identities, valid for all a, b, c A :
[a t b, c]t = a t [b, c]t + [a, c]t t b ,

(0.10)

[[a, b]t , c]t + [[b, c]t , a]t + [[c, a]t , b]t = 0 .

Consider the skew-symmetric bilinear map { , } : A A A , which is defined
for a, b A by
{a, b} :=

d
d
[a, b]t =
(a t b b t a) .
dt |t=0
dt |t=0

Then the first equation in (0.10) implies that { , } satisfies the Leibniz property (0.8), while the second equation in (0.10) implies that { , } satisfies the Jacobi
identity. Combined, it means that (A , , { , }) is a Poisson algebra. Thus, a family of deformations of a given commutative associative algebra leads naturally to a
Poisson bracket on this algebra! In the particular case of the associative algebras of
operators of quantum mechanics, in which t is a multiple of Plancks constant h , the
operators become in the limit h 0 commuting classical variables and the above
procedure yields a Poisson bracket on the algebra of classical variables.
The main problem of deformation theory is to invert this procedure; in the context
of physics, this is called the quantization problem or, more precisely, the problem
of quantization by deformation. In its algebraic version, the first question is whether
given a Poisson algebra (A , , { , }) there exists a family of associative products t
on A , such that (A , ) = (A , 0 ) and such that { , }, obtained from t by the above
procedure, is a Poisson bracket on A . The second question is to classify all such deformations, for a given (A , , { , }). The physical interpretation of these questions
is that, starting from the algebra of classical variables, which inherits from phase
space a Poisson bracket, as explained above in the context of mechanical systems,
one wishes to (re-)construct the corresponding algebra of quantum mechanical operators.
A mathematical simplification of this problem is to ask whether the above procedure can be inverted formally. Stated in a precise way, this means the following.
Let (A , , { , }) be a Poisson algebra and consider the vector space A [[ ]] of formal power series in one variable , whose coefficients belong to A . Let  denote
an associative product on A [[ ]], i.e., an F[[ ]]-bilinear map from A [[ ]] to itself,
which is associative. Given a, b A , we can write

 (a, b) =

k (a, b) k ,

kN

which defines bilinear maps i : A A A for i N. By definition,  is a formal

deformation of (A , , { , }) if 0 (a, b) = a b and 1 (a, b) 1 (b, a) = {a, b}, for
all a, b A . The main question, stated formally, is then if every Poisson algebra
(A , , { , }) admits a formal deformation  .

xx

Introduction

Consider for example R2r , with coordinates (x1 , . . . , x2r ) = (q1 , . . . , qr , p1 , . . . , pr ).

The Moyal product is the R[[ ]]-bilinear product on C (R2r )[[ ]], which is given for
F, G C (R2r ) by

 (F, G) :=

kN 1i1 , j1 ,...,ik , jk 2r

Ji1 , j1 . . . Jik , jk

kF
kG
k
,
xi1 . . . xir x j1 . . . x jr k!



0 1r
. The
1r 0
Moyal product, also called the MoyalWeyl product, defines an associative product
on C (R2r )[[ ]], whose leading terms satisfy 0 (F, G) = FG and

r 
F G G F
,
1 (F, G) 1 (G, F) =

qj pj qj pj
j=1
where J is the skew-symmetric matrix of size 2r, given by J :=

where the latter right-hand side is the Poisson bracket (0.1). This shows that the
classical Poisson bracket admits a formal deformation.
It was shown by De Wilde and Lecomte in [57] that the Poisson algebra of an
arbitrary symplectic manifold (regular Poisson manifolds of maximal rank) admits
a formal deformation. A geometrical proof of their result, which also works in the
case of arbitrary regular Poisson manifolds, was given by Fedosov [73]. Finally, it
was Kontsevich [107] who proved, using ideas which come from string theory, that
the algebra of functions on any Poisson manifold admits a formal deformation. He
proved in fact a quite stronger result, which says that for a given Poisson manifold
(M, ), the equivalence classes of formal deformations of the algebra of smooth
functions on M are classified by the equivalence classes of formal deformations of
the Poisson structure .
Summarizing, when one deforms a commutative associative algebra, a Poisson
structure shows up and it plays a dominant role in the entire deformation process.
The examples. The main idea which led us to the writing of this book, and to its actual structure, is that Poisson structures come in big classes (families) where roughly
speaking each class has its own tools and is related to a very definite part of mathematics, hence leading to specific questions. As a consequence, the main part of the
book (about half of it) is Part II, dedicated to six classes of examples. They make
their appearance in six different chapters, namely Chapters 611, as follows.
Constant Poisson structures, such as Poissons original bracket (0.1), are according to the Darboux theorem the model (normal form) for Poisson structures on real
or complex manifolds, in the neighborhood of any point where the rank is locally
constant. Regular Poisson manifolds and symplectic manifolds (such as cotangent
bundles and Kahler manifolds) are the main examples, which exhibit even in the
absence of singularities some of the main phenomena in Poisson geometry, which
distinguish it from Riemannian geometry and show its pertinence for classical and
quantum mechanics. Constant and regular Poisson structures are studied in Chapter 6.

Introduction

xxi

Linear Poisson structures are in one-to-one correspondence with Lie algebras and
many features of Lie algebras are most naturally approached in terms of the canonical Poisson bracket on the dual of a (finite-dimensional) Lie algebra, the so-called
LiePoisson structure. The coadjoint orbits, for example, of a Lie algebra are the
symplectic leaves of the LiePoisson structure, showing on the one hand that they
are even dimensional, and on the other hand that they carry a canonical symplectic
structure, the KostantKirillovSouriau symplectic structure. Linear Poisson structures appear also on an arbitrary Poisson manifold (M, ) at any point x where the
Poisson structure vanishes: the tangent space Tx M inherits a linear Poisson structure, the linearization of at x. It leads to the linearization problem, which inquires
if and its linearization at x are isomorphic, at least on a neighborhood of x. Linear
Poisson structures and their relation to Lie algebras are the subject of Chapter 7.
Many Poisson structures of interest are neither constant nor linear (or affine). In
fact, while the basic properties of the latter Poisson structures can be traced back to
(known) properties of bilinear forms and of Lie algebras, new phenomena appear
when considering quadratic Poisson structures (i.e., homogeneous Poisson structures of degree two) and higher degree Poisson structures, which often turn out to
be weight homogeneous. A prime example of this is the transverse Poisson structure to an adjoint orbit in a semi-simple Lie algebra. Moreover, this Poisson structure
arises in the case of the subregular orbit from a NambuPoisson structure, defined
by the invariant functions of the Lie algebra. Higher degree Poisson structures are
studied in Chapter 8.
In dimension two, every bivector field is a Poisson structure, yet many questions
about Poisson structures on surfaces are non-trivial. For example, their local classification has up to now only been accomplished under quite strong regularity assumptions on the singular locus of the Poisson structure. In dimension three, the
Jacobi identity can be stated as an integrability condition of a distribution (or of
a one-form), which eventually leads to the symplectic foliation. A surface in C3
which is defined by the zero locus of a polynomial inherits a Poisson structure
from the standard NambuPoisson structure on C3 , with as Casimir. In the case
of singular surfaces C2 /G, where G is a finite subgroup of SL2 (C), this Poisson
structure coincides with the Poisson structure obtained from the canonical symplectic structure on C2 by reduction. Thus, rather than being trivial, Poisson structures in
dimensions two and three form a rich playground on which a variety of phenomena
can be observed. Poisson structures in dimensions two and three are discussed in
Chapter 9.
In a Lie-theoretical context, a linear Poisson structure, different from the canonical LiePoisson structure, often pops up. This Poisson structure appears on the Lie
algebra g at hand, so that the dual g of g comes equipped with a Lie algebra structure, or it appears on g , so that g is equipped with a second Lie algebra structure.
The underlying operator, which relates either of these Lie structures with the original Lie bracket on g is in the first case an element r g g, called an r-matrix,
while it is in the second case a (vector space) endomorphism R of g, called an Rmatrix. These structures appeared first in the theory of integrable systems, but are

xxii

Introduction

nowadays equally important in the theory of LiePoisson groups (see the next item)
and of quantum groups. In the context of Lie algebras which come from associative
algebras, r-matrices and R-matrices also lead to a quadratic Poisson structure on
the Lie algebra, which plays an important role in the theory of LiePoisson groups;
they also lead to a cubic Poisson structure, whose virtue seems at this point still very
mysterious. Poisson structures coming from r-matrices or R-matrices are the subject
of Chapter 10.
A PoissonLie group is a Lie group G, equipped with a Poisson structure for
which the group multiplication G G G is a Poisson map. The Poisson structure leads to a Lie algebra structure on the dual of the Lie algebra g of G, making g
into a Lie bialgebra, a structure generalizing the structure which comes from an rmatrix. Conversely, every finite-dimensional Lie bialgebra is obtained in this way
from a PoissonLie group, a result which extends Lies third theorem (every finitedimensional Lie algebra is the Lie algebra of a Lie group). PoissonLie groups have
many applications, for example in the description of the Schubert cells of a Lie
group. PoissonLie groups are discussed in Chapter 11.
Theoretical foundations. The examples (Chapters 611) are preceded by a first
part (5 chapters) with a systematic exposition of the general theory of Poisson structures. We used two principles in the writing of these chapters. The first one is that we
wanted to develop both the algebraic and geometric points of view of the theory. In
fact, there has for the last decade been an increasing interest in the algebraic aspects
of Poisson structures, while of course geometrical intuition underlies all constructions and the vast majority of examples. In the algebraic context, we have a Poisson
algebra, whose underlying space is an F-vector space, where F is an arbitrary field
of characteristic zero. In the geometric context, we have a Poisson manifold, where
the manifold is either real or complex. In between the algebraic and geometric contexts, Poisson varieties appear, whose underlying object can both be viewed as a
variety or as a finitely generated algebra. Throughout this first part, the reader will
experience that although most of the results are formally very similar in the algebraic and in the geometric setting, their concrete implementation (including proofs
of the propositions) is quite different and needs to be worked out in detail in both
settings.
The second principle which we used was to keep the prerequisites in (commutative and Lie) algebra and in (differential and algebraic) geometry to a minimum.
Thus, for example, when we describe Poisson structures geometrically as bivector
fields, we explain the notion of a bivector field by first recalling the notion of a vector field, rather than simply saying that a bivector field is a section of the exterior
square of the tangent bundle to the manifold. Similarly, while the basic facts about
Lie groups and Lie algebras are supposed to be known, the interplay between Lie
groups and Lie algebras is recalled in detail, as it is further amplified in the presence
of Poisson structures. We added an appendix at the end of the book with some facts
on multilinear algebra (tensor products, wedges, algebra and coalgebra structures)
and an appendix which recalls the basic facts about differential geometry. The ob-

Introduction

xxiii

jects and properties which are recalled in these appendices are used throughout the
book.
Chapters 1 and 2 contain the basic definitions and constructions. A good familiarity with these chapters should suffice for reading a good part of any other chapter
of the book. Chapter 3 deals with multi-derivations and their geometrical analog,
multivector fields, and with Kahler forms, which are the algebraic analogs of differential forms. Chapter 4 deals with Poisson cohomology and Chapter 5 is devoted
to reduction in the context of Poisson structures. At the end of each of these five
chapters, we give a list of exercises, so that the reader can test his understanding of
the theory.
Applications. The third part of the book contains the two major applications, which
we discussed above: integrable systems are discussed in Chapter 12, while deformation quantization is detailed in Chapter 13. They are however not the only
applications which are given in the book. In fact, we end each example chapter
(Chapters 611) with an application of the class of Poisson structures, studied in
that chapter.
What is absent from this book. The main topic about Poisson structures which is
absent from this book is what should be called Poisson geometry. By this we mean
the global geometry of Poisson structures, which involves the integration of Poisson
brackets, Poisson connections, stability of symplectic leaves and related topics. For
this, we refer to [51, 53, 74].
Equally absent from this book are the many generalizations of Poisson structures.
Quasi-Poisson structures and Poisson structures with background are not only mathematically speaking very interesting, see [112], they have in addition non-trivial applications in physics, see [119, 162, 176], and are themselves a particular case of
Dirac structures [48, 89]. The theory of quantum groups, initiated in the seminal
ICM talk [59] by Drinfeld, has several connections with the topics which are developed in this book, but adding several chapters to the book would not have been
sufficient to give a fair account of this subject; we simply refer to the excellent books
[40, 103].
Equally absent from this book is the theory of Lie algebroids, introduced by
Pradines [171], which are both a particular case and a generalization of Poisson
manifolds. In particular, after the pioneering work of [47], the problem of the integration of Poisson manifolds, which claims that symplectic Lie groupoids are to
Poisson manifolds what Lie groups are to Lie algebras, has gained a long attention.
For a definite solution of this problem, given by Cranic and Fernandes, see [49, 50].
The notes and the references. When writing the history of the theory of Poisson
brackets, giving each of the main results in the theory and examples the right
credit is a challenge which is beyond the scope of this book. We claim no originality
in this book, but since none of the proofs which are given are copy-and-paste proofs
from existing proofs, we did not think it was necessary to cite the proof in the literature which is closest to the proof that we give. Also, many properties of Poisson

xxiv

Introduction

structures, and many examples, have been through a long series of transformations
and generalizations, think for example of Weinsteins splitting theorem or the Poisson and PoissonDirac reduction theorems; structuring the long list of important
intermediate results which led to the final results is certainly interesting from the
epistemological point of view, but this was not our main focus when writing the
book.
However, at the end of each chapter, we have put a section called Notes, in
which we indicate some references, including the main references which we know
of, for further reading on what has been treated in the chapter. These notes are also
used to situate, a posteriori, the treated subjects in the scientific literature and to trace
some of their historical developments. Finally, the notes are also used to indicate
some further connections to other fields of mathematics or physics. Since Poisson
structures are a very active field of research, it is clear that the list of connections
with other fields is not exhaustive.

Part I

Theoretical Background

Chapter 1

Poisson Structures: Basic Definitions

In this chapter, we give the basic definitions of a Poisson algebra, of a Poisson

variety, of a Poisson manifold and of a Poisson morphism.
Geometrically speaking, a Poisson structure on a smooth manifold M associates
to every smooth function H on M, a vector field XH on M. In the context of a mechanical system, this vector field yields the equations of motion, when H is taken
as the Hamiltonian. The Poisson bracket is demanded to be a Lie bracket, which
amounts to demanding that Poissons theorem is valid, namely that the Poisson
bracket of two constants of motion is itself a constant of motion.
Algebraically speaking, one considers on a (typically infinite-dimensional) vector space A two different algebra structures: (1) a commutative, associative multiplication, (2) a Lie bracket. It results in the following definition:
Poisson algebra := Comm. assoc. algebra + Lie algebra + Compatibility.
The compatibility between the two algebra structures is precisely what allows us
to associate to elements of A , derivations of A , derivations being the algebraic
analogs of vector fields.
Poisson algebras and their morphisms are defined in Section 1.1. In Section 1.2,
respectively Section 1.3, we introduce Poisson varieties, respectively Poisson manifolds, and their morphisms. Sections 1.2 and 1.3 can be read independently and
in either order; the reader is invited to discover, by comparing them, up to which
point Poisson varieties and Poisson manifolds can be treated uniformly, and how
quickly the techniques and results diverge, past this point. In Section 1.4 we specialize the results of Sections 1.2 and 1.3 to the case of Poisson structures on a
finite-dimensional vector space; such a space can indeed be viewed as an affine
variety or as a manifold, depending on the choice of algebra of functions on it.
Throughout the present chapter, we fix a ground field F of characteristic zero,
which the reader may think of as being R or C, especially in the context of varieties.

C. Laurent-Gengoux et al., Poisson Structures,

Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften 347,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-31090-4 1, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

1 Poisson Structures: Basic Definitions

1.1 Poisson Algebras and Their Morphisms

In this section we introduce the general notions of a Poisson algebra and of a morphism of Poisson algebras. The Hamiltonian operator, which associates to an element of the Poisson algebra a derivation of the Poisson algebra, will be introduced
and its basic algebraic properties will be given.

1.1.1 Poisson Algebras

We start with the algebraic notion of a Poisson algebra over a field F which, as we
have already said, is always assumed to be of characteristic zero.
Definition 1.1. A Poisson algebra is an F-vector space A equipped with two multiplications (F, G)  F G and (F, G)  {F, G}, such that
(1)
(2)
(3)

(A , ) is a commutative associative algebra over F, with unit 1;

(A , { , }) is a Lie algebra over F;
The two multiplications are compatible in the sense that
{F G, H} = F {G, H} + G {F, H} ,

(1.1)

where F, G and H are arbitrary elements of A .

The Lie bracket { , } is then called a Poisson bracket.
Poisson brackets are often constructed on a given commutative associative algebra
A = (A , ). The algebra of regular functions on an (affine algebraic) variety is a
typical example of this, leading to the notion of Poisson variety (Section 1.2); see
Section 1.3 for the case of real or complex Poisson manifolds. On A , one considers
then a skew-symmetric bilinear map { , } : A A A , which satisfies condition (1.1). It will be a Poisson bracket on A as soon as the Jacobi identity
{F, {G, H}} + {G, {H, F}} + {H, {F, G}} = 0

(1.2)

is verified for all triples (F, G, H) of elements of A . In order to shorten the formulas, (1.2) is often written as
{F, {G, H}} +  (F, G, H) = 0 ,
and similarly for other formulas which involve sums over three terms with cyclically permuted variables. The algebraic terminology which expresses (1.1) is that
for every H A the linear map F  {F, H} is a derivation of A . Namely, a linear
map V : A A is called a derivation of A (with values in A ) if
V (FG) = FV (G) + G V (F) ,

(1.3)

1.1 Poisson Algebras and Their Morphisms

for every F, G A . We have written FG for F G, a convenient shorthand which

we will use freely in the sequel. We denote by X1 (A ) the Lie algebra of derivations
of A , where the Lie bracket [ , ] on X1 (A ) is given by the commutator of derivations. A bilinear map P : A A A is called a biderivation of A (with values
in A ) if
P(FG, H) = F P(G, H) + G P(F, H) ,

(1.4)

P(H, FG) = F P(H, G) + G P(H, F) ,

for every F, G, H A . Our biderivations will always be defined by a skewsymmetric bilinear map P : A A A ; we say then that P is a skew-symmetric
biderivation of A . For such a biderivation, it is convenient to enclose its arguments
in square brackets; thus, when P is a skew-symmetric biderivation, we write the first
equation in (1.4) as
P[FG, H] = F P[G, H] + G P[F, H] ;
by the skew-symmetry of P, this formula is of course equivalent with the second
equation in (1.4). Square brackets will also be used to enclose the arguments of
a general skew-symmetric multi-derivation, a notion which will be introduced in
Section 3.1; in particular, we will also use square brackets to enclose the argument
of a derivation, writing V [F] for V (F) when V is a derivation of A .
The F-vector space of skew-symmetric biderivations of A is denoted by X2 (A ).
As recalled in Appendix A, a skew-symmetric bilinear map on A can be viewed as
a linear map on 2 A = A A ; we therefore often abbreviate : A A A to
: 2 A A or : A A A . According to Definition 1.1, a Poisson bracket
on A is in particular a skew-symmetric biderivation of A .

1.1.2 Morphisms of Poisson Algebras

We now turn to the notion of a morphism between two Poisson algebras (defined
over the same field F). Since a Poisson algebra is an algebra in two different ways,
it is natural to demand that a morphism of Poisson algebras be a morphism with
respect to both algebra structures.
Definition 1.2. Let (Ai , i , { , }i ), i = 1, 2, be two Poisson algebras over F. A linear
map : A1 A2 which satisfies, for all F, G A1 ,
(1)
(2)

(F 1 G) = (F) 2 (G);
({F, G}1 ) = { (F), (G)}2 ,

is called a morphism of Poisson algebras.

It is clear that if : A1 A2 is a morphism of Poisson algebras and is bijective,
then 1 : A2 A1 is also a morphism of Poisson algebras. We say then that is
an isomorphism of Poisson algebras.

1 Poisson Structures: Basic Definitions

As we will see in the case of Poisson manifolds and of Poisson varieties, one is
often led to morphisms of the associative algebras which underlie the two Poisson
algebras. In this case, we only have to consider condition (2) in the above definition,
which says that is a morphism of Lie algebras.
When one deals with subalgebras or ideals of Poisson algebras, it is important
to distinguish which multiplication (maybe both) is considered. Our convention is
that subalgebra and ideal refer to the associative multiplication, Lie subalgebra and
Lie ideal refer to the Lie bracket, and Poisson subalgebra and Poisson ideal refer to
both. This means that a vector subspace B A is a Poisson subalgebra of A =
(A , , { , }) if
{B, B} B ,
BB B
and
(1.5)
while a vector subspace I A is a Poisson ideal of A if
I A I

and

{I , A } I .

(1.6)

In the first case, B becomes itself a Poisson algebra, when equipped with the restrictions of both multiplications to B and the inclusion map : B A is a morphism of
Poisson algebras. In the second case, A /I inherits a Poisson bracket from A , such
that the canonical projection p : A A /I is a morphism of Poisson algebras. We
will come back at length to the notions of Poisson subalgebra and Poisson ideal in
Chapter 2, when we have developed sufficient concepts and tools to illustrate these
notions geometrically.
In view of Definitions 1.1 and 1.2 we get, for a fixed field F, a category whose
objects are the Poisson algebras over F and whose morphisms are the morphisms of
Poisson algebras.

1.1.3 Hamiltonian Derivations

The biderivation property of the Poisson bracket leads to a fundamental operation
which allows one to associate to elements of A , derivations of A ; in the case of a
real Poisson manifold M, it allows us to associate to a function on M, a vector field
on M (see Section 1.3). This operation, which we introduce now, corresponds in the
Hamiltonian formulation of classical mechanics to writing the equations of motion
for a given Hamiltonian (see Section 6.1).
Definition 1.3. Let (A , , { , }) be a Poisson algebra and let H A . The derivation
XH := { , H} of A is called a Hamiltonian derivation and we call H a Hamiltonian,
associated to XH . We write
Ham (A , { , }) := {XH | H A }
for the F-vector space of Hamiltonian derivations of A , so that we have an F-linear
map

1.2 Poisson Varieties

X : A Ham(A , { , })
H  XH := { , H} .

(1.7)

An element H A whose Hamiltonian derivation is zero, XH = 0, is called a

Casimir and we denote
Cas (A , { , }) := {H A | XH = 0}
for the F-vector space of Casimirs. When no confusion can arise, we write Ham(A )
for Ham(A , { , }) and Cas(A ) for Cas(A , { , }). It is clear that Cas(A ) is the
center of the Lie algebra (A , { , }).
The defining properties of the Poisson bracket lead to the following proposition.
Proposition 1.4. Let (A , , { , }) be a Poisson algebra.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)

Cas(A ) is a subalgebra of (A , ), which contains the image of F in A , under

the natural inclusion a  a 1;
If A has no zero divisors, then Cas(A ) is integrally closed in A ;
Ham(A ) is not an A -module (in general); instead, XFG = FXG + GXF , for
every F, G A ;
Ham(A ) is a Cas(A )-module;
The map A X1 (A ) which is defined by H  XH is a morphism of Lie
algebras; as a consequence, Ham(A ) is a Lie subalgebra of X1 (A );
The Lie algebra sequence
X

0 Cas(A ) A Ham(A ) 0
is a short exact sequence.
Proof. Properties (1)(4) follow from the biderivation property (1.1), while properties (5) and (6) follow from the Jacobi identity (1.2) for { , }. We only show (2).
Let F be integral over Cas(A ), that is F A and there exists a monic polynomial
p(X) Cas(A )[X], such that p(F) = 0. We need to show that F Cas(A ). Let p
be the monic polynomial of smallest degree such that p(F) = 0. If deg(p) = 1, then
F Cas(A ) and we are done. Let us suppose therefore that r := deg(p) > 1. For
every element G A we have by the derivation property that 0 = {p(F), G} =
p (F) {F, G}, where p denotes the derivative of p. Now p (F) = 0, as p /r would
otherwise be a monic polynomial of degree r 1, such that p (F)/r = 0. Since A is
without zero divisors, {F, G} = 0. As G is arbitrary, this shows that F is a Casimir
of A .

1.2 Poisson Varieties

When A is an algebra of functions on some variety or manifold, the properties of
a Poisson bracket on A get a geometrical meaning, leading to many interesting

1 Poisson Structures: Basic Definitions

constructions, which can often be generalized to arbitrary Poisson algebras. In this

section, we consider affine varieties, see the next section for the case of (real or
complex) manifolds.1 The reader, unfamiliar with affine varieties, may on his first
reading of this section think of the affine variety M as being the affine space Fd ,
where d N , equipped with the algebra of polynomial functions F[x1 , . . . , xd ].

1.2.1 Affine Poisson Varieties and Their Morphisms

We use the convention that an affine variety is an irreducible algebraic subset M
of an affine space Fd , where algebraic subset means that M is the zero locus of
a family of polynomials (in d variables). It conforms to the American convention,
see e.g. [93, Ch. I.1]; in the French literature, affine varieties are usually not assumed to be irreducible. Given an algebraic subset M Fd , one considers the prime
ideal I of F[x1 , . . . , xd ] which consists of all polynomial functions, vanishing on M.
Then F[x1 , . . . , xd ]/I becomes a finitely generated (commutative associative) algebra, which can be considered as an algebra of functions on M, since the evaluation of elements of F[x1 , . . . , xd ]/I at points of M is well-defined. This algebra of
functions on M is denoted by F (M) and is called the affine coordinate ring of M.
For F F[x1 , . . . , xd ] we denote its projection in F (M) = F[x1 , . . . , xd ]/I by F or
by F|M , the latter notation being justified by the fact that F can be viewed as the
restriction of F to M. Since M is irreducible, F (M) has no zero divisors. Elements
of F (M) are called regular functions on M, although the name polynomial function
is also used, especially when M = Fd .
Thus, the vector space of regular functions on an affine variety is naturally
equipped with a first algebra structure: the structure of a commutative associative
algebra. The extra datum of a Poisson bracket on this algebra leads to the notion of
an affine Poisson variety.
Definition 1.5. Let M be an affine variety and suppose that F (M) is equipped with
a Lie bracket { , } : F (M) F (M) F (M), which makes (F (M), , { , }) into a
Poisson algebra. Then we say that (M, { , }) is an affine Poisson variety, or simply
a Poisson variety. The Poisson bracket on F (M) is usually referred to as a Poisson
structure on M.
In the case of a Poisson structure on Fd , the Poisson bracket of two functions can be
computed from the following standard formula; see Section 1.2.2 for the case of a
general affine Poisson variety.
Proposition 1.6. Let { , } be a Poisson bracket on A = F[x1 , . . . , xd ]. For all functions F and G in A , their Poisson bracket is given by
{F, G} =

i, j=1
1

xi , x j

 F G
.
xi x j

(1.8)

As we said in the introduction to this chapter, Sections 1.2 and 1.3 can be read independently.

1.2 Poisson Varieties

Proof. The proof is based on the standard argument that two biderivations (or pderivations, in general) of some commutative associative algebra A are equal as
soon as they agree on a system of generators for A . Since we will use this argument
several times, we spell it out in detail. Both sides of (1.8) are bilinear in F and G,
so it suffices to show (1.8) when F and G are monomials in x1 , . . . , xd . If F or G is a
monomial of total degree 0, then the right-hand side in (1.8) is obviously zero, but
also the left-hand side is zero, because constant functions are Casimirs (item (1) in
Proposition 1.4). Also, the fact that (1.8) holds when F and G are both monomials of
degree 1, is clear. Suppose now that (1.8) holds when deg(F)+deg(G)  n, for some
n  2; we show that it holds for all F and G such that deg(F) + deg(G) = n + 1. Let
F and G be non-constant monomials, such that deg(F) + deg(G) = n + 1. By skewsymmetry, we may assume that deg(F) > 1. There exist monomials F1 , F2 A ,
with deg(F1 ) < deg(F) and deg(F2 ) < deg(F), such that F = F1 F2 . Since { , } is a
biderivation and in view of the recursion hypothesis, we have that
{F, G} = {F1 F2 , G} = F1 {F2 , G} + F2 {F1 , G}
d

= F1

i, j=1

xi , x j

d 
 F2 G
 F1 G
+ F2 xi , x j
xi x j
xi x j
i, j=1


 F G
xi , x j
.
xi x j
i, j=1
d

This proves (1.8) for arbitrary polynomials F and G.

We now turn to the notion of a Poisson morphism of Poisson varieties.

Definition 1.7. Let (M1 , { , }1 ) and (M2 , { , }2 ) be two Poisson varieties. A morphism of varieties : M1 M2 is called a Poisson morphism or a Poisson map if
the dual morphism
: F (M2 ) F (M1 )
is a morphism of Poisson algebras.
Recall (see e.g. [182, Ch. I.2.3]) that for a morphism of varieties (also called a
regular map) : M1 M2 , the dual morphism is (well-)defined by (F) :=
F , for all F F (M2 ), so that the first condition in Definition 1.2 is automatically
satisfied:

(FG) = (FG) = (F ) (G ) = ( F) ( G) .
In this case, the second condition, which says that

: (F (M2 ), { , }2 ) (F (M1 ), { , }1 )
is a morphism of Lie algebras, can also be written as
{F, G}2 = {F , G }1 ,

for all F, G F (M2 ) .

10

1 Poisson Structures: Basic Definitions

When N is a subvariety of M, which amounts to saying that the inclusion map :

N  M is a morphism, then N is said to be a Poisson subvariety if N admits a
Poisson structure such that is a Poisson map. See Section 2.2.
Combining Definitions 1.5 and 1.7 we get, for a fixed F, a category whose objects
are (affine) Poisson varieties and whose morphisms are Poisson maps.

1.2.2 The Poisson Matrix

In this section, we show how a Poisson structure on an affine variety can be encoded
in a matrix. We first consider the case of a Poisson structure { , } on the affine
2
space Fd (with its algebra of regular functions A := F[x1 , . . . , xd ]). The
 d structure
functions xi j A , which are defined for 1  i, j  d by xi j := xi , x j , satisfy
xi j = x ji ,

d 
x jk
xi j
xki
xk x + xi x + x j x = 0 ,
=1

(1.9)
(1.10)

for all 1  i, j, k  d. Formula (1.10) is obtained by writing the Jacobi identity (1.2)
for the triple (xi , x j , xk ) in the form

 
 

xi j , xk + x jk , xi + xki , x j = 0 ,
and by using (1.8).
If we view the structure functions xi j as the elements of a (skew-symmetric) d d
matrix X, then the Poisson bracket may, according to (1.8), also be expressed in a
compact form by
{F, G} = [dF] X [dG] ,
where [dF] is the column vector which represents dF, the differential of F, in the
natural basis (dx1 , . . . , dxd ), i.e., the i-th component of [dF] is xFi . The matrix X
Matd (A ) is called the Poisson matrix of (A , { , }).
A natural question is: given a skew-symmetric matrix X = (xi j ) Matd (A ),
where A = F[x1 , . . . , xd ], does the corresponding skew-symmetric biderivation, defined for F, G A by
d
F G
{F, G} := xi j

xi x j
i, j=1
define a Poisson structure on A , i.e., does it satisfy the Jacobi identity? For F, G
and H in A , the biderivation property and the fact that second order derivatives
commute, imply that
{{F, G} , H} +  (F, G, H) =

i, j,k,=1

xk

xi j F G H
+  (F, G, H) (1.11)
x xi x j xk

1.2 Poisson Varieties

11



xi j
F G H
x
+

(i,
j,
k)
,
k x

xi x j xk
i, j,k=1 =1
d

so that the Jacobi identity is satisfied for all triples of elements of A = F[x1 , . . . , xd ]
if and only if (1.10) holds, i.e., if and only if the Jacobi identity holds for every triple
(xi , x j , xk ), with 1  i < j < k  d.
Summarizing, we have the following proposition.
Proposition 1.8. If X = (xi j ) is a skew-symmetric d d matrix, with elements in
A = F[x1 , . . . , xd ], then
d
F G
{F, G} := xi j
(1.12)

xi x j
i, j=1
defines a Poisson bracket on A (with Poisson matrix X) if and only if every triple
(xi , x j , xk ), with 1  i < j < k  d, satisfies the Jacobi identity

  
  

xi , x j , xk + x j , xk , xi + {xk , xi } , x j = 0 ,
which amounts to the condition

d 
x jk
xi j
xki
x
=0.
+
x
+
x
k
i

j

x
x
x
=1
An analogous result is valid when A is the algebra of regular functions on an affine
variety,
A := F[x1 , . . . , xd ]/I ,
where I is a prime ideal of F[x1 , . . . , xd ]. For F F[x1 , . . . , xd ], let us denote the
coset F + I by F. Then x1 , . . . , xd are generators of A and I is the set of all
relations between these generators. We suppose that we are given a skew-symmetric
d d matrix X, whose elements belong to A . We can write X = (xi j ), where the
elements xi j F[x1 , . . . , xd ], which we choose such that xi j = x ji , are of course
not unique. Let us consider the skew-symmetric biderivation { , }0 of F[x1 , . . . , xd ],
defined for F, G F[x1 , . . . , xd ] by
{F, G}0 :=

i, j=1

xi j

F G
.
xi x j

(1.13)

We
like to define a skew-symmetric biderivation { , } of A by setting

 would
F, G := {F, G}0 , for all F, G F[x1 , . . . , xd ]. The problem is that, in general, this
is not well-defined. Namely, for every K I one has that K = 0, so that a necessary
condition for the bracket { , } on A to be well-defined, is that for every K I and
1  i  d,
d
K
{xi , K}0 = xi j
I .
(1.14)
xj
j=1

12

1 Poisson Structures: Basic Definitions

Notice that this condition is independent of the chosen elements xi j F[x1 , . . . , xd ],

which represent xi j .
When condition (1.14) holds for every K I and for every i with 1  i  d,
then {F[x1 , . . . , xd ], I }0 I , since { , }0 is a biderivation. It follows that { , }
is well-defined. Also, { , } is a skew-symmetric biderivation since { , }0 is one.
Since { , } is well-defined,

 
F, G , H = {{F, G}0 , H}0 ,
for all F, G, H F[x1 , . . . , xd ], so that { , } is a Poisson bracket on A if and only if
{{F, G}0 , H}0 + {{G, H}0 , F}0 + {{H, F}0 , G}0 I ,
for all F, G, H F[x1 , . . . , xd ]. Since { , }0 is a skew-symmetric biderivation, this
amounts to checking that


 

 

xi , x j 0 , xk 0 + x j , xk 0 , xi 0 + {xk , xi }0 , x j 0 I ,
for every 1  i < j < k  d. Again, notice that this condition is independent of the
chosen elements xi j F[x1 , . . . , xd ], which represent xi j .
Suppose that { , } is a Poisson bracket on A = F[x1 , . . . , xd ]/I . We can
choose elements
xi j F[x1 , . . . , xd ] such that x ji = xi j for all i and j, and such

that xi j = xi , x j . Define a skew-symmetric biderivation { , }0 on F[x1 , . . . , xd ]
by (1.13). Since {xi , } is a derivation of A , we have that


0 = xi , K =


 K
xi , x j
=
xj
j=1
d

xi j x j = {xi , K}0 ,

j=1

for every K I , so that condition (1.14) holds. This means that { , } , defined


for all F, G A by F, G := {F, G}0 , is a biderivation of A , which coincides
with { , } on a system of generators (x1 , . .. , xd ) of A . Thus, { , } = { , } and
we can compute the Poisson bracket F, G by using (1.13), as in the case of a
polynomial algebra.
We summarize these results in the following proposition.
Proposition 1.9. Let M be an affine variety in Fd , with algebra of regular functions
A = F[x1 , . . . , xd ]/I ,
where I is the ideal of F[x1 , . . . , xd ] of polynomial functions vanishing on M, and let
X = (xi j ) be a skew-symmetric matrix with coefficients in A . Picking representatives
xi j F[x1 , . . . , xd ] of xi j , with xi j = x ji , define a skew-symmetric biderivation { , }0
of F[x1 , . . . , xd ] by
d
F G
{F, G}0 := xi j
.
(1.15)
xi x j
i, j=1

1.2 Poisson Varieties

13

If, for every 1  j  d and for every K I ,

xi xi j I ,

(1.16)

i=1

and, for every 1  i < j < k  d,



 

 

xi , x j 0 , xk 0 + x j , xk 0 , xi 0 + {xk , xi }0 , x j 0 I ,

(1.17)



then a Poisson bracket { , } on A is defined by setting F, G := {F, G}0 , for all
F, G A . Conditions (1.16) and (1.17) are independent of the chosen representatives xi j of the elements of the matrix X. Also, the Poisson bracket { , } on A is
independent of this choice of representatives.


Conversely, given a Poisson structure { , } on A , the Poisson bracket F, G of
any two elements F and G of A can be computed from (1.15), namely


F, G =

i, j=1

xi , x j

 F G
,
xi x j

(1.18)

where F and G are arbitrary polynomials which represent F and G.



As in the case of A = F[x1 , . . . , xd ], the matrix X = ( xi , x j ) is called the Poisson
matrix of (M, { , }), with respect to x1 , . . . , xd . Notice that, even if the Lie algebra
(F (M), { , }) is in general infinite-dimensional, the Poisson bracket of arbitrary
elements of F (M) is, in the case of an affine variety M Fd , completely determined
by the Poisson matrix X, i.e., by the brackets between all pairs of elements of an
arbitrary set of generators of F (M), as is seen from the explicit formula (1.18).

1.2.3 The Rank of a Poisson Structure

In this section, we introduce the rank of a Poisson structure at a point of a Poisson
variety. Our definition is based on the fact that for a Poisson variety (M, { , }) the
rank of its Poisson matrix at a point does not depend on the chosen generators for
the algebra of regular functions on M.
Lemma 1.10. Let (M, { , })be anaffine Poisson variety and let m M. The rank
of the Poisson matrix X = ( xi , x j ) evaluated at m, is independent of the chosen
generators x1 , . . . , xd of F (M).
Proof. It suffices to show that if x1 , . . . , xd are generators of F (M) and x0 is an
arbitrary element of F (M), then the matrices




and
X  (m) := ( xi , x j (m))0i, jd ,
X(m) := ( xi , x j (m))1i, jd

14

1 Poisson Structures: Basic Definitions

have the same rank. Since x0 can be written as a polynomial in the generators
x1 , . . . , xd of F (M), say x0 = F(x1 , . . . , xd ), we have in view of (1.18),
{xi , x0 } (m) =

j=1


F
xi , x j (m)
(m) ,
xj

and so the zeroth column of X  (m) is a linear combination of the other columns of

X  (m), i.e., of the columns of X(m). Thus, X  (m) and X(m) have the same rank.
Definition 1.11. For a Poisson variety (M, { , }) and a point m M, the rank of the
Poisson matrix of { , } with respect to an arbitrary system of generators of F (M),
evaluated at m, is called the rank of { , } at m, denoted Rkm { , }. The maximum
maxmM Rkm { , } is called the rank of { , }, denoted Rk { , }. A point m M is
said to be a regular point of (M, { , }), if Rkm { , } = Rk { , }, otherwise it is said
to be a singular point of (M, { , }). The set of singular points of (M, { , }) is called
the singular locus of (M, { , }).
A more intrinsic definition of the rank of a Poisson structure can be given in terms of
the (Zariski) cotangent space to M at m. Recall that this vector space is intrinsically
defined as Im /Im2 , where Im denotes the ideal of F (M), consisting of all functions
which vanish at m; its dual space is the (Zariski) tangent space to M at m. We
denote the tangent space to M at m by Tm M, while the cotangent space is denoted
by Tm M. Taking generators of F (M) which vanish at m, the ideal Im corresponds
to elements of F (M) without constant term, so that F (M)/Im  F, in a natural
way (i.e., by evaluation at m). A point m of M where the dimension of Tm M attains
its minimal value is called a smooth point of M. The smooth points of M form a
Zariski open subset of M and the dimension of Tm M in a smooth point m of M is
called the dimension of M, denoted dim M.


By the biderivation property (1.1), we have that Im2 , Im Im . Therefore, the
bracket {, } induces for every m M a well-defined skew-symmetric bilinear map:

m :

I m Im
F (M)

F.
Im2 Im2
Im

(1.19)

The bilinear map m is closely related to the Poisson matrix of { , } at m.

Namely, let x1 , . . . , xd be generators of F (M), so that x1 x1 (m), . . . , xd xd (m)
generate the ideal Im . If we express the bilinear map m in terms of the possibly linearly dependent equivalence classes [xi xi (m)] Im /Im2 , then the matrix
which we get has entries




m ([xi xi (m)], [x j x j (m)]) = xi xi (m), x j x j (m) (m) = xi , x j (m) ,
i.e., the resulting matrix is nothing but the Poisson matrix of { , }, with respect to
x1 , . . . , xd , evaluated at m. It follows that the rank of { , } at m can also be defined
as the rank of the intrinsically defined bilinear form m on Tm M.
The main properties of the rank are given in the following proposition.

1.3 Poisson Manifolds

15

Proposition 1.12. Let (M, { , }) be an affine Poisson variety.

(1)
(2)
(3)

For every m M, the rank of { , } at m is even;

The rank of { , } is at most equal to the dimension of M;
For every s N, the subset M(s) of M, defined by
M(s) := {m M | Rkm { , }  2s}
is open; in particular, the subset of points m M such that Rkm { , } =
Rk { , } is open and dense in M.

]/I , the
Proof. Writing F (M) as F[x1 , . . . , xd 
 Poisson matrix of { , } at m M is
the skew-symmetric matrix X(m) = ( xi , x j (m))1i, jd , whose rank is even. This
shows (1). Consider the open subset Rs gld of all d d matrices of rank greater
than or equal to 2s. Since M(s) is the inverse image of Rs by the continuous map
X :M
m 



gld


xi , x j (m) 1i, jd

(1.20)

it is open; since the topology which is considered here is the Zariski topology, these
open subsets are dense as soon as they are non-empty. This yields the proof of (3).
Finally, let m be an arbitrary point of M and denote the rank of { , } at m by 2r.
Consider a point m of M(r) , which is a smooth point of M; such a point exists
because M(r) and the set of smooth points of M are both dense subsets of M. At
such a point m , the dimension of the (co)tangent space coincides with the dimension
of M, so that


Rkm { , }  Rkm { , }  dim Im /Im2 = dim M .
Since, in this formula, m M is arbitrary, Rk { , }  dim M, which is the content
of (2).

A more geometric interpretation of the rank will be given in the next section, when
we consider Poisson structures on manifolds.

1.3 Poisson Manifolds

In this section, we introduce the notion of a Poisson structure on a (real or complex)
manifold. Our definitions and constructions are more geometric than in the previous section. A geometric approach to Poisson structures is in the case of manifolds
not only more natural, but in the case of complex manifolds it is even obligatory,
because a complex manifold cannot be replaced by its algebra of (global) functions,
as the latter may consist of constant functions only. Thus we will use the geometric analog of a skew-symmetric biderivation, which is a bivector field. We will at
the beginning of this section only shortly recall the basic terminology and notations

16

1 Poisson Structures: Basic Definitions

from differential geometry which we will use, referring the reader who needs more
details to Appendix B at the end of the book.

1.3.1 Bivector Fields on Manifolds

We consider both real manifolds and complex manifolds, since many constructions
in Poisson geometry apply in the same way if all manifolds are considered real or
if they are all considered complex; we will therefore make simple statements such
as Let M and N be two manifolds and let : M N be a map, which the reader
may specialize to Let M and N be two differentiable manifolds and let : M N
be a smooth map or to Let M and N be two complex manifolds and let : M N
be a holomorphic map. Similarly, dim M stands for the real or complex dimension,
according to the context, F (M) stands for the appropriate algebra of functions, F
stands for R or C, and so on. In both cases, the coordinates, real or complex, will be
denoted by x = (x1 , . . . , xd ), where d = dim M.
For m M the tangent space to M at m is denoted by Tm M. Elements of Tm M
are by definition pointwise derivation at m, i.e., they are linear forms on the vector
space of all function germs at m, satisfying, for all functions F and G, defined on a
neighborhood of m in M,

m (Fm Gm ) = F(m) m Gm + G(m) m Fm ;

in this formula, Fm stands for the germ of F at m. The dual space to Tm M is the
cotangent space, denoted Tm M. The canonical pairing between Tm M and Tm M is
denoted by  , . A map : M N between manifolds leads for every m M
to a linear map Tm : Tm M T (m) N, called the tangent map of at m. Upon
identifying the tangent spaces to F with F, the tangent map leads to the differential
of a function; specifically, if F is a function on M, then we view the differential of
F at m, denoted dm F as a linear function on Tm M, that is, as an element of Tm M.
We denote by X1 (M) the F (M)-module of vector fields on M and for V X1 (M)
and m M we denote by Vm the value of V at m (which is an element of Tm M). We
often use (and define) vector fields on M through their action on (local) functions:
when U is a non-empty open subset of M and V is a vector field on M (or on U)
then V [F] denotes the function on U, defined by
V [F] : U F
m  Vm Fm .

(1.21)

We also write Vm [F] for Vm Fm , so that

Vm [F] = V [F](m) = dm F, Vm  .

(1.22)

1.3 Poisson Manifolds

17

Notice that we use square brackets to denote the action of a vector field on a function, as we did in the case of a derivation; this notation will be extended to bivector
fields in this section, and to multivector fields in Chapter 3.
We now come to the definition of a bivector field on a manifold. To do this, we
first introduce the notion of a pointwise biderivation.
Definition 1.13. Let M be a manifold and let m M. A bilinear map
Bm :

Fm (M) Fm (M)

is a pointwise biderivation of F (M) at m, if for all functions F, G and H, defined in

a neighborhood of m in M,
Bm (Fm Gm , Hm ) = F(m) Bm (Gm , Hm ) + G(m) Bm (Fm , Hm ) ,
Bm (Hm , Fm Gm ) = F(m) Bm (Hm , Gm ) + G(m) Bm (Hm , Fm ) .
We will usually consider pointwise skew-symmetric biderivations. Given two pointwise derivations m and m at m, we construct a pointwise skew-symmetric biderivation at m by




 m Fm m Gm 


(m m )(Fm , Gm ) := 
,


 m Fm m Gm 
for all functions F and G, defined in a neighborhood of m. It follows easily from the
Hadamard
B.2) that the basic pointwise skew-symmetric bideriva

(Lemma

lemma
x j
span the vector space of all pointwise skew-symmetric
tions xi
m

biderivations at m; therefore, we denote the latter space by 2 Tm M.

The passage from pointwise skew-symmetric biderivations to bivector fields is
similar to the passage from pointwise derivations to vector fields, detailed in Appendix B. Namely, we consider a map P which assigns to every point m of M an element Pm of 2 Tm M. We say that P is a (smooth) bivector field on M, if for every open
subset U of M, and for all functions F, G F (U), one has that P[F, G] F (U),
where P[F, G] is the function on U, which is defined by
P[F, G](m) := Pm (Fm , Gm ) ,
for every m U. We also write Pm [F, G] for Pm (Fm , Gm ). Clearly, P is a (smooth)
bivector field as soon as P[xi , x j ] F (U) for some collection of coordinate charts
(U, x) which cover M, and for all i, j, with 1  i < j  d. Notice that, as we did
for vector fields, we enclose the arguments of a bivector field in square brackets.
Just like vector fields, bivector fields can be restricted to open subsets; the same
notation will be used for P and each of its restrictions to open subsets. The coordinate expression for a bivector field on a coordinate chart (U, x) takes the following

18

1 Poisson Structures: Basic Definitions

form:2

P=

P[xi , x j ]

1i< jd

.
xi x j

(1.23)

In differential geometric terms, one often refers to bivector fields as being (skewsymmetric) tensors (of type (2, 0)), which refers to the fact that they are F (M)-linear
objects. In view of the biderivation property for a bivector field, this may seem
absurd, but the point is that, as a tensor, a bivector field acts on a pair of differential
one-forms, rather than on a pair of functions. To explain this, notice that the value
of a bivector field P on two elements F and G of F (M), at m M, depends on the
differentials dm F and dm G only. Indeed, (1.23) yields
d

P[F, G](m) =

i, j=1

P[xi , x j ](m)

F
G
(m)
(m) ,
xi
xj

where xFi (m) is the i-th component of dm F, and similarly for

of (1.22),

 


F
dm F,
=
[F](m) =
(m) .
xi m
xi
xi

(1.24)
G
x j (m):

in view

The fact that P[F, G](m) depends on dm F and dm G only, implies that we can define
a skew-symmetric F (M)-bilinear map from 1 (M), the F (M)-module of differential one-forms on M, to F (M): simply put

P(dF,
dG) := P[F, G] .
We will in the sequel usually make no distinction between the bivector field P and
and denote both by the same letter P. Note also that the tensorial
the (2, 0)-tensor P,
interpretation, or equivalently (1.23), implies that we may specialize P to points
m M, giving a skew-symmetric, F-bilinear form
Pm : Tm M Tm M F ,

(1.25)

which is the differential geometric analog of (1.19). As in the algebraic case, Pm

totally determines the bivector field P at m.
Just like for vector fields, we can also define the pushforward P of a bivector
field P by a diffeomorphism : M N between two manifolds. The bivector field
P on N is defined by setting3
( P) (m) := 2 (Tm )P ,
for all m M.
2

See (B.8) for the coordinate expression of a vector field, of which (1.23) is a direct generalization.
For a linear map : V W between two vector spaces, the linear map 2 : 2V 2W is
defined by (2 )(v w) := (v) (w), for all v, w V . See Appendix A for details and generalizations.
3

1.3 Poisson Manifolds

19

Remark 1.14. Vector fields on a manifold M can be defined as sections of its tangent bundle, T M, the vector bundle over M, whose fiber over m M is the vector
space Tm M. Similarly, bivector fields on M can be defined as (smooth or holomorphic) sections of 2 T M M, where the latter vector bundle has as fiber over m M
the vector space 2 Tm M.

1.3.2 Poisson Manifolds and Poisson Maps

We are now ready to define the notion of a Poisson structure on a (real or complex)
manifold M. The idea is that a bivector field on M leads for every open subset U
of M to a skew-symmetric product on F (U), which is demanded to make F (U)
into a Poisson algebra.
Definition 1.15. Let be a bivector field on a manifold M. We say that is a Poisson structure on M if for every open subset U of M, the restriction of to U makes
F (U) into a Poisson algebra. We then call (M, ) a Poisson manifold.
The Poisson structure of a Poisson manifold (M, ) will often be denoted by { , },
in particular the Poisson bracket [F, G] of two functions F, G, defined on an open
subset U of M, will usually be denoted by {F, G}. The notation {F, G} for [F, G]
will be referred to as the bracket notation.
Let (U, x) be a coordinate neighborhood of a d-dimensional Poisson manifold
(M, ). On U, the bivector field can, according to (1.23), be written as




xi , x j

xj
i
1i< jd

(1.26)



so that the matrix X := xi , x j 1i, jd encodes the restriction of to U. This
matrix X, whose elements belong to F (U), is called the Poisson matrix of with
respect to the coordinates x1 , . . . , xd . It is the differential geometric analog of the
Poisson matrix, introduced in Section 1.2.2 in the context of affine Poisson varieties.
Evaluating the Poisson matrix X at m M, we get the matrix of the skew-symmetric
bilinear map m : Tm M Tm M F, defined by the Poisson structure at m.
Proposition 1.16. Let = { , } be a bivector field on a manifold M of dimension d.
Then is a Poisson structure on M if and only if one of the following equivalent
conditions holds.
(i)

For every open subset U of M and for all functions F, G, H F (U), the
Jacobi identity holds:
{{F, G} , H} + {{G, H} , F} + {{H, F} , G} = 0 ;

(ii)

(1.27)

For some collection of coordinate charts (U, x) of M which cover M and for
all functions F, G, H F (U), the Jacobi identity (1.27) holds;

20

(iii)

1 Poisson Structures: Basic Definitions

For some collection of coordinate charts (U, x) of M which cover M and for
all i, j, k with 1  i < j < k  d the following equality holds:
d

=1

(iv)

xk

x jk
xi j
xki
+ xi
+ x j
x
x
x


=0,

(1.28)



where xi j := xi , x j , for 1  i, j  d;
For some collection of coordinate charts (U, x) of M which cover M and for
all i, j, k with 1  i < j < k  d, the Jacobi identity holds:

  
  

xi , x j , xk + x j , xk , xi + {xk , xi } , x j = 0 .
(1.29)

Proof. Clearly, (i) holds if and only if makes every F (U) into a Poisson algebra,
hence is a Poisson structure if and only if (i) holds. (ii) is a consequence of (i), by
specialization. The equivalence of (ii) and (iii) follows from the fact that
{{F, G} , H} +  (F, G, H)

xi j F G H
+  (F, G, H)
x xi x j xk
i, j,k,=1

d 
d
xi j
F G H
+  (i, j, k)
,
= xk

xi x j xk

i, j,k=1 =1
d

xk

(1.30)

where we used (1.26) to compute the Poisson brackets. Notice that this computation
shows that the value of (1.30) at a point m U depends only on F, G and H in a
neighborhood of m, in other words on the germs Fm , Gm and Hm . Therefore, if the
Jacobi identity holds on a coordinate neighborhood (U, x), then it will hold on every
open subset V U, which leads to the implication (ii) (i). The equivalence of
(iii) and (iv) is clear because (1.28) is just (1.29) written out explicitly, using (1.26).

Remark 1.17. In the case of a real manifold, every germ is the germ of a globally
defined function, hence it suffices to verify the Jacobi identity for all triples of functions on M. For complex manifolds, this is not sufficient, see Remark B.4.
We now turn to the notion of a Poisson map between two Poisson manifolds.
Definition 1.18. A map : M N between Poisson manifolds (M, ) and (N,  )
is called a Poisson map if for all open subsets U M and V N, with (U) V , the
induced map : F (V ) F (U), which is defined for all F F (V ) by (F) :=
F , is a morphism of Poisson algebras, i.e., for all functions F, G F (V ),
{F , G } = {F, G} ,
where { , } := and { , } :=  .

(1.31)

1.3 Poisson Manifolds

21

The condition that : M N be a Poisson map can be written directly in terms

of the bivector field, without reference to local functions on N, as shown in the
following proposition.
Proposition 1.19. Let : M N be a map between two Poisson manifolds (M, )
and (N,  ). Then is a Poisson map if and only if
2 (T ) =  ,

(1.32)

i.e., 2 (Tm )m =  (m) for every m M.

Proof. Let F and G be functions, defined on a neighborhood of (m) in N, and
let (U, x) be a coordinate chart for M around m, so that can be written on U as
= i< j xi j xi x j .

 


[F, G]
= (Tm ) xi j (m)

xi m
xj m
1i< jd





= xi j (m) Tm
Tm
[F, G]

xj m
i m
1i< jd





[F , G ]
= xi j (m)

xj m
i m
1i< jd


2 (Tm )m [F, G]

= {F , G } (m) ,
where we have set, as usual, { , } := . Setting { , } :=  we clearly have that

 (m) [F, G] = {F, G} ( (m)) ,

so that 2 (Tm )m =  (m) if and only if {F , G } (m) = {F, G} ( (m)) for
all functions F and G, defined in a neighborhood of (m). This proves that is a

Poisson map if and only if 2 (T ) =  .

In the context of Poisson manifolds, one calls the Hamiltonian derivation XH ,
associated to a function H F (M), the Hamiltonian vector field, associated to H.
One says then that H is a Hamiltonian function, corresponding to this vector field.
More generally, a vector field V is called a locally Hamiltonian vector field, if every
point m M belongs to a neighborhood U on which V is Hamiltonian, i.e., there
exists H F (U) such that V = XH on U; such a function is called a local Hamiltonian of V . According to (1.26), the (local) Hamiltonian vector field XH , associated
to H F (U), is given in a coordinate chart (U, x) by
XH =


 H
xi , x j
.
x j xi
i, j=1
d

(1.33)

It follows that the first order differential equation, which describes the integral
curves of XH in a coordinate chart (U, x), is given by

22

1 Poisson Structures: Basic Definitions

dxi
= {xi , H} =
dt


 H
xi , x j
,
xj
j=1
d

i = 1, . . . , d .

(1.34)

Besides the Cas(M)-module Ham(M) of Hamiltonian vector fields on M, we will

also consider the vector space Hamm (M), which consists of all tangent vectors of
the form (XH )m , where H is an arbitrary function, defined on some neighborhood
of m. Elements of Hamm (M) are called Hamiltonian vectors at m.
Definition 1.20. For a Poisson manifold (M, ) and a point m M the integer Rk m ,
which is also the rank of every Poisson matrix of at m, is called the rank of at m,
denoted Rkm . One says that (M, ) is a regular Poisson manifold when its rank is
constant (independent of m M), and that the rank is locally constant at m, when it
is constant on some neighborhood of m in M. The rank of is said to be maximal at
m M, when it coincides with the dimension of M. The maximum maxmM Rkm
is called the rank of , denoted Rk . A point m M is said to be a regular point
of (M, ), if Rkm = Rk , otherwise it is said to be a singular point of (M, { , }).
The set of singular points of (M, ) is called the singular locus of (M, ).
The main properties of the rank are given in the following proposition.
Proposition 1.21. Let (M, ) be a Poisson manifold and let m M.
(1)
(2)

Rkm is even and is equal to dim Hamm (M);

For every s N, the subset M(s) of M, defined by
M(s) := {m M | Rkm  2s}
is open (and dense in the complex case); in particular, the subset of points
m M such that Rkm = Rk is open.

Proof. The rank of at m is the rank of the bilinear map m , so it is the dimension
of the image of the linear map Tm M Tm M, defined by  m ( , ). In turn,
the latter equals the dimension of Hamm (M), since every Tm M can be written
as dm F, for some function F, defined in a neighborhood of m. Also, since m is
skew-symmetric, its rank is even. This shows (1). The set Rs of d d matrices of
rank greater than or equal to 2s is an open subset of gld . Let m be a point in M(s) and
let (x1 , . . . , xd ) be local coordinates on a neighborhood U of m. The restriction to U
of M(s) is open since it is the inverse image of Rs by the continuous map X : U gld



defined by m  xi , x j (m) 1i, jd . This yields the proof of (2).

In the real case, the rank of a Poisson structure does not necessarily attain its maximum on a dense open subset. This is shown in the following example.
Example 1.22. Let be a smooth function on R2 which is positive on the interior
of the unit disk and which is zero elsewhere. Then the rank of the Poisson structure
on R2 , which is defined by the bivector field / x / y, is of rank 2 only on
the inside of the disk.

1.3 Poisson Manifolds

23

To finish this section, we show that the flow of a (locally) Hamiltonian vector field
leaves the Poisson structure invariant.
Proposition 1.23. Let (M, ) be a Poisson manifold. The Lie derivative of with
respect to every (locally) Hamiltonian vector field is zero. As a consequence, the
flow of each (locally) Hamiltonian vector field preserves the Poisson structure.
Proof. Let U be an arbitrary open subset of M and let F, G F (U). We need to
show that the bivector field LV , which is the Lie derivative of with respect
to V , vanishes on the pair (F, G). To do this, we use the classical formula for the
Lie derivative of a tensor; in the case of a bivector field P, this formula is given by
LV P[F, G] := V [P[F, G]] P[V [F], G] P[F, V [G]] ,

(1.35)

for all F, G F (U) (see Section 3.3.4 for generalizations). For P := = { , } and
V := XH , with H F (U), this yields
LXH [F, G] = XH [{F, G}] {XH [F], G} {F, XH [G]}
= {{F, G} , H} {{F, H} , G} {F, {G, H}} ,
whose vanishing is equivalent to the Jacobi identity (1.2).

A vector field V is called a Poisson vector field if taking the Lie derivative with
respect to V kills the Poisson structure, i.e., if LV = 0. Proposition 1.23 implies
that all Hamiltonian vector fields are Poisson vector fields. This property will be
reformulated in cohomological terms in Section 4.1.
Remark 1.24. For a Poisson algebra (A , , ) one says that a derivation V of (A , )
is a Poisson derivation if the Lie derivative of with respect to V vanishes. One
has as in Proposition 1.23 that all Hamiltonian derivations are Poisson derivations;
there is, however, no interpretation of Poisson derivations in terms of flows, since
the notion of a flow does not make sense for derivations of algebras, in general.

1.3.3 Local Structure: Weinsteins Splitting Theorem

This section deals with Weinsteins splitting theorem, which states that, in the neighborhood of a point where the rank of the Poisson structure is 2r, the Poisson manifold is a product of a symplectic manifold of dimension 2r, and a Poisson manifold
which has rank zero at the origin. It implies the Darboux theorem, which states that
all symplectic manifolds of the same dimension are locally isomorphic, there are
no local invariants in symplectic geometry, as well as a generalization to regular
Poisson manifolds.
Theorem 1.25 (Weinsteins splitting theorem). Let (M, ) be a (real or complex) Poisson manifold, let m M be an arbitrary point and denote the rank

24

1 Poisson Structures: Basic Definitions

of at m by 2r. There exists a coordinate neighborhood U of m with coordinates q1 , . . . , qr , p1 , . . . , pr , z1 , . . . , zs , centered at m, such that, on U,

+ k (z)

z
i
i
k
i=1
1k<s
r

(1.36)

where the functions k are (smooth or holomorphic) functions, which depend

on z = (z1 , . . . , zs ) only, and which vanish when z = 0. Such local coordinates
q1 , . . . , qr , p1 , . . . , pr , z1 , . . . , zs are called splitting coordinates, centered at m.
Proof. We use induction on r. For the case r = 0, it is clear that for every Poisson
manifold (M, ) and for every point m such that the rank of at m is zero, an
arbitrary system of local coordinates (z1 , . . . , zd ), centered at m, works (d := dim M).
Let r N and assume that Theorem 1.25 holds true for every Poisson manifold, at
every point where the rank is 2(r 1). Let (M, ) be a Poisson manifold and let
m M be a point for which Rkm = 2r. We will show that the theorem holds for
(M, ) at m.
Since Rkm > 0, there exists a function p on a neighborhood of m, whose Hamiltonian vector field X p does not vanish at m M; we may suppose that p(m) = 0.
Since X p (m) = 0, there exists by the straightening theorem (Theorem B.7) a system of coordinates (q, y2 , . . . , yd ) on a neighborhood U  of m, centered at m, such
that X p = / q. Writing { , } = , it follows that
{q, p} = X p [q] =

q
=1,
q

[Xq , X p ] = X{p,q} = X1 = 0 and X p [yi ] = 0 ,

for i = 2, . . . , d, on U  . Writing Xq in terms of these coordinates,

X q = 1

+ i  ,
q i=2 yi

we have that 1 = Xq [q] = {q, q} = 0, and all coefficients 2 , . . . , d are independent

of q, since Xq and X p = / q commute. At m, we have
d

1 = {p, q} (m) = Xq [p](m) = i (m)

i=2

p
(m) ,
yi

so that the vector field Xq = di=2 i / yi is independent of q and does not vanish at m. Applying the straightening theorem once more, we may introduce a system of coordinates (q, p , y3 , . . . , yd ) on a neighborhood of m, centered at m, where
p , y3 , . . . , yd depend on y2 , . . . , yd only, with
d

= i  = Xq .

p

yi
i=2

1.3 Poisson Manifolds

25

Substituting p by p we consider (q, p, y3 , . . . , yd ) which is also a system of coordinates on a neighborhood U of m, since

p
= Xq [p] = {q, p} = 1 ,
p
in a neighborhood of m. Since p , y3 , . . . , yd depend on y2 , . . . , yd only, / q has the
same meaning in both coordinate systems, so that the Poisson brackets take in the
new coordinates the following form,
{q, p} = 1 ,
{q, yi } = Xq [yi ] = yi / p = 0 ,
{p, yi } = X p [yi ] = yi / q = 0 ,
for i = 3, . . . , d, and we conclude that the Poisson structure is given, in terms of
the coordinates q, p, y3 , . . . , yd , by

+ {yk , y }

.
q p 3k<d
yk y

(1.37)

To show that {yk , y } is independent of p and q, for all values of k, , we just have
to check that {{yk , y } , p} = {{yk , y } , q} = 0, an easy consequence of the Jacobi
identity for . The Jacobi identity also yields that the second term in (1.37) defines
a Poisson structure  on a neighborhood V of the origin o of Fd2 . The Poisson
matrix of with respect to q, p, y3 , . . . , yd has a diagonal block form, where the
lower block is the Poisson matrix of  with respect to y3 , . . . , yd . Thus,  has
rank 2(r 1) at o, and by the induction hypothesis there exist local coordinates
q2 , . . . , qr , p2 , . . . , pr , z1 , . . . , zs centered at o, such that  takes on V the following
form:
r

 =

+ k (z)

.
pi 1k<s
zk z
i=2 qi
In terms of the system of coordinates (q1 , q2 , . . . , qr , p1 , p2 , . . . , pr , z1 , . . . , zs ), which
is centered at m, takes the required form (1.36), where we have set q1 := q and

p1 := p.
For a given point m in a Poisson manifold M, splitting coordinates are not unique.
We will see however in Section 5.3.3 that the Poisson structure, which is defined
in a neighborhood of z = 0 in Fs by the second term in (1.36), is unique, up to
isomorphism.
In terms of the splitting coordinates q1 , . . . , qr , p1 , . . . , pr , z1 , . . . , zs , the Poisson
structure (1.36) has the block form

0 1r 0
1r 0 0
0 0

26

1 Poisson Structures: Basic Definitions



where Mats (F (M)) is given by i j := zi , z j and 1r denotes the identity
matrix of size r. It follows that = 0 in a neighborhood of m, when the rank of
is locally constant (= 2r) at m. This leads to the following strengthening of the
splitting theorem for points at which the rank is locally constant.
Theorem 1.26 (Darboux theorem). Let (M, ) be a (real or complex) Poisson
manifold of dimension d, and suppose that m is a point where the rank of is
locally constant and equal to 2r. There exists a coordinate neighborhood U of m
with coordinates (q1 , . . . , qr , p1 , . . . , pr , z1 , . . . , zs ) such that, on U,

.
pi
i=1 qi
r

(1.38)

Moreover, is locally of the form (1.38), in terms of arbitrary splitting coordinates

on M. Such coordinates are called Darboux coordinates.
Corollary 1.27. The only local invariant of a regular (smooth or complex) ddimensional Poisson manifold (M, ) is its rank Rk .
To close this section we state a generalization of Weinsteins splitting theorem
which we will use in Chapter 12. It provides a set of Darboux coordinates for the
Poisson structure , which contains a given set p1 , . . . , pr of functions in involution
(i.e., functions which pairwise commute for the Poisson structure), whose Hamiltonian vector fields are assumed to be independent at a point m M. See [120] for a
proof and see Section 12.3 below for an application.
Theorem 1.28. Let m be a point of a Poisson manifold (M, ) of dimension d. Let
p1 , . . . , pr be r functions in involution, defined on a neighborhood of m, which vanish
at m and whose Hamiltonian vector fields are linearly independent at m. There exist,
on a neighborhood U of m, functions q1 , . . . , qr , z1 , . . . , zd2r , such that
(1)
(2)

The d functions (q1 , . . . , qr , p1 , . . . , pr , z1 , . . . , zd2r ) form a system of coordinates on U, centered at m;

The Poisson structure is given on U by
d2r

+ gi j (z)

zj
i
i
i
i=1
i, j=1
r

(1.39)

where each function gi j (z) is a smooth function on U and is independent of

q1 , . . . , q r , p 1 , . . . , p r .
The rank of at m is 2r if and only if all the functions gi j (z) vanish for z = 0.

1.3.4 Global Structure: The Symplectic Foliation

We now come to the global structure of a Poisson manifold. As we will explain in
this section, a Poisson manifold naturally decomposes into immersed submanifolds,

1.3 Poisson Manifolds

27

where each submanifold inherits a Poisson structure from the ambient Poisson structure; since this induced Poisson structure is of maximal rank, it is symplectic,4 so
one usually refers to this decomposition as the symplectic foliation of the Poisson
manifold. We combine two approaches, which are both due to Weinstein [199], to
obtain the symplectic foliation; both have their advantage, a fact that we exploit to
get at the decomposition in a natural way and to prove its properties with minimal
effort. For another approach, using the theory of generalized distributions, we refer
to [125]. Throughout this section (M, ) is an arbitrary Poisson manifold.
The idea which underlies the decomposition is based on the following two observations. First, recall from Proposition 1.23 that the flow of every Hamiltonian
vector field preserves the Poisson structure, hence its rank at each point. Second,
the rank of the Poisson structure at a point is precisely the dimension of the space
of Hamiltonian vector fields, at that point. Thus, the flow of all Hamiltonian vector
fields, starting from a given point m M where the rank of the Poisson structure
is 2r, should trace out locally a submanifold of dimension 2r, on which the Poisson
structure has constant rank 2r. This leads, for m M, to the following definition of
a subset of M,


Sm (M) := m M | a piecewise Hamiltonian path in M from m to m .
By a Hamiltonian path from m to m we mean a curve , defined on an open neighborhood5 of [0, 1], with (0) = m and (1) = m , which is an integral curve of a
Hamiltonian vector field XF , where F is a function, defined on an open neighborhood of ([0, 1]). More generally, when points m0 , . . . , mN in M are such that there
exists a Hamiltonian path from mi1 to mi , for i = 1, . . . , N, we say that there exists
a piecewise Hamiltonian path from m0 to mN .
It is clear that the subsets Sm (M) define a well-defined global decomposition
of M: the subsets Sm (M), with m M fill up M, and two subsets Sm (M) and
Sm (M) are disjoint, unless they coincide. Notice however that some care has to be
taken when passing to open subsets: if U is an open subset of M, then Sm (U) is,
in general, not the intersection of Sm (M) and U: the subset Sm (U) is by definition path-connected, while Sm (M) U does not have to be connected, even if U is
connected.
The differential geometric properties of Sm (M) are best understood by relating
Sm (M) to an immersed submanifold of M, passing through m, which appears naturally in the splitting theorem (Theorem 1.25). Recall that a subset N of a manifold
M is called an immersed submanifold if the inclusion map : N M is an immersion, i.e., for every m N the tangent map Tm : Tm N Tm M is injective. We are
viewing here N as a manifold in its own right, i.e., with a topology, which is not
necessarily the induced topology from M (one speaks of an embedded submanifold
4

Symplectic manifolds will be introduced and discussed in Chapter 6. For now, the reader may
think of a symplectic manifold as being a Poisson manifold (M, ) whose rank Rkm at each point
is equal to the dimension of M.
5 The neighborhood is taken in R when M is a real manifold and is taken in C when M is a complex
manifold.

28

1 Poisson Structures: Basic Definitions

when the manifold topology on N is the induced topology). However, locally, with
respect to the manifold topology on N, every point in N has a neighborhood, which

sits in M in the same way an open subset of Fd sits in Fd (d  = dim N  d = dim M).
To construct this immersed submanifold of M, through m, we choose on a neighborhood U of m, splitting coordinates (at m) which we denote by x = (q1 , . . . , qr ,
p1 , . . . , pr , z1 , . . . , zs ) and we define


Sm (U, x) := m U | z1 (m ) = = zs (m ) = 0 .
It is clear that Sm (U, x) is an embedded submanifold of M of dimension 2r, and
that (q1 , . . . , qr , p1 , . . . , pr ) (restricted to Sm (U, x)) forms a system of coordinates
on Sm (U, x). Since the Poisson structure has on U the form

+ k (z)

z
i
i
k
i=1
1k<s
r

(1.40)

where the functions k (z) vanish for z = 0, it follows that at points m Sm (U, x),
the Poisson structure takes the form ri=1 qi pi , which defines a Poisson structure
on Sm (U, x), which we denote by S . The map : (Sm (U, x), S ) (M, ) is a
Poisson map, since for all functions F, G F (U), and for every m Sm (U, x), we
have that

r 
F  G 
F  G 


{F, G} ((m )) = {F, G} (m ) =
(m )
(m )
(m )
(m )
pi
pi
qi
i=1 qi
= {F , G }S (m ) .
In the language of Section 2.2, (Sm (U, x), S ) is a Poisson submanifold of (M, ).
Notice that S has constant rank 2r = dim Sm (U, x). In the following proposition
we show that, for each m M, the subsets Sm (U) and Sm (U, x) coincide, for small
enough U.
Proposition 1.29. Let m be a point in a Poisson manifold (M, ) and let x =
(q1 , . . . , qr , p1 , . . . , pr , z1 , . . . , zs ) be splitting coordinates at m, on a coordinate neighborhood U, with x(U) convex. Then Sm (U) = Sm (U, x).
Proof. For F F (U) and m Sm (U, x) we have, in view of (1.40), that
XF [zi ](m ) = {zi , F} (m ) =

i (m ) z (m ) = 0 ,

=1

since the functions i vanish at all points m of Sm (U, x). It follows that all Hamiltonian vector fields of U are tangent to Sm (U, x) at points m Sm (U, x). Thus,
a (piecewise) Hamiltonian path in U which starts at m must stay in Sm (U, x). It
follows that Sm (U) Sm (U, x). In order to show the other inclusion, suppose that
m Sm (U, x). We show that there exists a Hamiltonian path from m to m in U.
Consider the (linear) function H on U, given by

1.3 Poisson Manifolds

29
r

H := (qi (m )pi pi (m )qi ) ,

i=1

whose (constant) Hamiltonian vector field XH is given by

H
dqi

=
= qi (m ) ,
dt

p
i
XH :

H
dp

i =
= pi (m ) .
dt
qi
Consider the integral curve of XH , defined for t in a small neighborhood of [0, 1]
(in R or C) by

: t  (q1 (m )t, . . . , qr (m )t, p1 (m )t, . . . , pr (m )t, 0, . . . , 0) .

The image of is contained in U, because x(U) F2r+s is a convex open subset.
Since is a Hamiltonian path from m = (0) to m = (1) in U, it follows that

m Sm (U).
We use Proposition 1.29 to build a topology and a differential structure on each
one of the subsets Sm (M). A subset V Sm (M) is by definition an open subset if
and only if for all splitting coordinates (U, x) at m V , with x(U) convex, V U is
an open subset of Sm  (U, x) = Sm (U). Similarly, an algebra of functions is defined
on Sm (M) by saying that F : Sm (M) F is smooth (holomorphic in the complex
case), when its restriction to every such Sm  (U, x) = Sm (U) is smooth (or holomorphic). Since the topology and the differential structure on these subsets Sm (U)
is intrinsically defined, as embedded submanifolds of M, these definitions yield a
well-defined manifold structure on Sm (M). In general, the topology which we defined on Sm (M) is different from (finer than) the induced topology which Sm (M)
inherits as a subset of M: it is an immersed submanifold, which is not necessarily
an embedded submanifold. The Poisson structure on the submanifolds Sm  (U, x)
yields a well-defined Poisson structure of maximal rank (symplectic structure) on
Sm (M). The results of the present section, combined, prove the following fundamental theorem.
Theorem 1.30. Every Poisson manifold (M, ) is the disjoint union of immersed
submanifolds, whose tangent spaces are spanned by the Hamiltonian vector fields
of (M, ). The Poisson structure, restricted to each of these submanifolds yields
a Poisson structure of maximal rank (symplectic structure). This decomposition is
called the symplectic foliation of M and the immersed submanifolds are called the
symplectic leaves of M. For m M the symplectic leaf which contains m is given by


Sm (M) = m M | a piecewise Hamiltonian path in M from m to m .
The first part of the theorem can also be restated by saying that the (singular)
distribution, defined by the Hamiltonian vector fields, is integrable (admits an inte-

30

1 Poisson Structures: Basic Definitions

gral manifold through each point), see [125, Appendix 3]. The theorem leads to the
following description of the symplectic leaves of a Poisson manifold.
Proposition 1.31. Let (M, ) be a Poisson manifold of dimension d and rank 2r.
(1)
(2)

(3)

A function F on M is a Casimir function if and only if F is constant on each

symplectic leaf;
The (non-empty open subsets of the) symplectic leaves are the smallest embedded manifolds of M which are Poisson submanifolds (i.e., such that the
inclusion map is a Poisson map);
If Y is a Poisson vector field on M which is tangent to every symplectic leaf
of M, then Y is Hamiltonian in the neighborhood of every point m M where
the rank of is 2r.

Proof. The fact that the manifold Sm (M) admits locally (in the sense of the topology on Sm (M) which we have constructed) the description as a submanifold
Sm (U, x), leads at once to the proof of (1) and (2). We proceed to the proof of (3).
If the rank of at m is 2r, so that m is a regular point of , then there exists local
coordinates q1 , . . . , qr , p1 , . . . , pr , z1 , . . . , zd2r in a contractible neighborhood U of m
with respect to which the Poisson structure is given by:

pi
i
i=1
r

(1.41)

The vector fields q , p , . . . , qr , pr span the symplectic leaves of on U. There1

1
fore, every vector field Y , which is tangent to the symplectic leaves of , is of the
form
r
r

Y = Fi
+ Gi
(1.42)

qi
i
i=1
i=1
for some smooth or holomorphic functions F1 , . . . , Fr , G1 , . . . , Gr , defined on U. Suppose now that Y is a Poisson vector field, so that LY = 0. Then one computes
easily from (1.35), (1.41) and (1.42) that

Fj
Fi
=
,
qj
qi

Gj
Gi
=
pj
pi

and

Fi
Gi
=
,
pj
qj

for i, j = 1, . . . , r. By the classical Poincare lemma, there exists a function H, defined

on the contractible subset U, which satisfies
Fi =

H
qi

and

Gi =

H
,
pi

for i = 1, . . . , r. Hence,
r
d2r
H
H
H
X qi +
X pi +
Xzk = Y ,

p
i
i
i=1
i=1
k=1 zk
r

XH =

which shows that Y is a Hamiltonian vector field on U.

1.3 Poisson Manifolds

31

Locally, the regular leaves (i.e., the leaves which pass through a point where the
rank is maximal, hence locally constant) are given as the level sets of the (local)
Casimir functions. This is shown in the following proposition.
Proposition 1.32. Let (M, ) be a Poisson manifold of dimension d, let U be a nonempty open subset of M and let F1 , . . . , Fs F (U), satisfying:
(1)
(2)
(3)

The rank of is constant on U and is equal to d s;

The functions F1 , . . . , Fs are Casimirs of the restriction of to U;
For every point m of U, the differentials dm F1 , . . . , dm Fs are independent.

Then the symplectic foliation of the restriction of to U coincides with the foliation
which is defined on U by the map F := (F1 , . . . , Fs ) : M Fs .
Proof. Under the stated assumptions, the restriction of to U is a regular Poisson
structure, hence the symplectic foliation is a regular foliation of U, where every
leaf has dimension d s. Since F := (F1 , . . . , Fs ) has constant, maximal rank, F
also defines a foliation F on U, whose leaves are (d s)-dimensional. In view
of (1) in Proposition 1.31, F is constant on every symplectic leaf in U, hence every
symplectic leaf is contained in a leaf of F . Since all symplectic leaves and all leaves
of F have the same dimension (d s), it follows that both foliations coincide.

In good cases most or all of the symplectic leaves are level sets of the Casimir
functions, but this is not true in general.
Example 1.33. Consider the Poisson structure / x / y on R3 , where x, y, z are
the natural coordinates on R3 . Since translations over a constant vector are obviously
Poisson maps, it descends to a Poisson structure on every torus R3 / , where is a
lattice in R3 . Unless is very special, all symplectic leaves are dense on the torus,
hence they cannot be the level sets of a (Casimir) function.
Proposition 1.34. Let 1 and 2 be two Poisson structures on a manifold M. Suppose that both Poisson structures define the same symplectic foliation on M and that
for every symplectic leaf S (of both structures), the Poisson (symplectic) structure
induced on S by 1 is the same as the Poisson structure induced on S by 2 . Then
1 and 2 are equal.
Proof. Let 1 = { , }1 and 2 = { , }2 be two Poisson structures on M which
determine the same symplectic foliation on M. Let m M and let S be the leaf
which passes through m; we denote by S the inclusion map S : S  M. It
is assumed that the induced Poisson structures { , }i,S on S coincide, so that
{F S , G S }1,S = {F S , G S }2,S for every F, G F (M). Since S is a
Poisson map, when M is equipped with 1 , or with 2 , we have for every m S ,
{F, G}1 (m) = {F S , G S }1,S (m) = {F S , G S }2,S (m) = {F, G}2 (m) .
This applies to every point m of M, so that {F, G}1 (m) = {F, G}2 (m), for all m M,
which was to be shown.

32

1 Poisson Structures: Basic Definitions

1.4 Poisson Structures on a Vector Space

On a finite-dimensional F-vector space V , one can consider its algebra of polynomial functions, which is canonically isomorphic to the symmetric algebra SV , but
when F = R one may also consider the algebra of smooth functions on V , while
when F = C one may consider the algebra of holomorphic functions on V . The difference corresponds to viewing V as an affine variety or as a real/complex manifold.
What makes a vector space V special, from either point of view, is that it admits a
basis, say (e1 , . . . , ed ), and hence a dual basis, consisting of linear forms xi : V F,
for i = 1, . . . , d.
(1) From the affine variety point of view, SV = F[x1 , . . . , xd ], so every function can
be written uniquely as a polynomial in x1 , . . . , xd . More generally, every derivation V
of SV can be uniquely written as V = di=1 Vi xi , where Vi := V [xi ], and similarly
for biderivations, such as Poisson structures.
(2) From the manifold point of view, x1 , . . . , xd are global coordinates on V , i.e., V
is covered by a single coordinate chart. Functions, vector fields, Poisson structures,
and so on, admit a global coordinate representation in terms of these global coordinates.
Many results about Poisson structures on a vector space take formally the same
form when the Poisson structures are considered on the algebra of polynomial functions or on the algebra of smooth/holomorphic functions. Therefore we will often
refer to F (V ) as the algebra of functions on V , independently of whether the algebra
of polynomial, smooth or holomorphic functions is considered; however, when F is
different from R and C, then F (V ) always stands for the algebra of polynomial
functions on V . To stress that we consider a Poisson bracket on the algebra of polynomial functions on V , we often use the term polynomial Poisson structure.
Vector fields on a real or complex vector space V can be identified with derivations of the algebra of smooth or holomorphic functions on V , so we will simply
write X1 (V ) for the Lie algebra of vector fields on V ; even when F is different
from R and C, we refer to elements of X1 (V ) as vector fields on V . Similarly, we
refer to elements of X2 (V ) as bivector fields on V . Vector fields and bivector fields
admit in this general context the following description.
Proposition 1.35. Let V be a vector space and let F (V ) be its algebra of functions.
Let V be a vector field on V and let P be a bivector field on V . In terms of linear
coordinates x1 , . . . , xd for V , the elements V and P can be written (uniquely) as
d

V = Vi
i=1

,
xi

P=

1i< jd

Pi j

,
xi x j

where Vi F (V ) and Pi j F (V ), for all 1  i, j  d. In particular, every vector

field on V is determined by its values on a system of linear coordinates on V , and
every bivector field on V is determined by its values on all pairs of functions, taken
from a system of linear coordinates on V .

1.4 Poisson Structures on a Vector Space

33

Suppose now that we have a bivector field = { , } on V and that we wish to

express that is a Poisson structure. When F (V ) is the algebra of polynomial
functions on V , then is a Poisson structure if and only if satisfies the Jacobi
identity,
{F, {G, H}} + {G, {H, F}} + {H, {F, G}} = 0 ,
(1.43)
for all F, G, H F (V ); however, when F (V ) is the algebra of smooth of holomorphic functions on V , precisely the same condition expresses that is a Poisson
structure, because V can be covered with a single coordinate chart. We formulate
this result in the following proposition, which is a transcription and a specialization
of Propositions 1.8 and 1.16 to the case of a vector space V .
Proposition 1.36. Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space, with algebra of functions F (V ) and let (x1 , . . . , xd ) be a system of linear coordinates on V . Given
a skew-symmetric matrix (xi j )1i, jd of elements of F (V ), consider the skewsymmetric biderivation of F (V ), which is defined, for F, G F (V ), by
{F, G} :=

xi j

i, j=1

F G
,
xi x j



which is the unique skew-symmetric biderivation of F (V ) such that xi , x j = xi j ,
for all 1  i, j  d. The following conditions are equivalent.
(i)
(ii)

is a Poisson structure on V ;
satisfies the Jacobi identity: for all F, G, H F (V ),
{F, {G, H}} + {G, {H, F}} + {H, {F, G}} = 0 ;

(iii)

For all i, j, k, with 1  i < j < k  d,

  
  


xi , x j , xk + x j , xk , xi + {xk , xi } , x j = 0 ;

(iv)

For all i, j, k, with 1  i < j < k  d,

d

=1


xk

x jk
xi j
xki
+ xi
+ x j
x
x
x


=0.

In this case, the skew-symmetric matrix (xi j )1i, jd is the Poisson matrix of with
respect to the coordinates x1 , . . . , xd .
At every point m V , the tangent space TmV is in a canonical way isomorphic to V ,
and similarly the cotangent space TmV is canonically isomorphic to V . Therefore,
one usually thinks of the Poisson bivector at m, which is a skew-symmetric bilinear
map m : TmV TmV F, as a skew-symmetric bilinear map V V F, as an
element of V V , or as a linear map V V . The rank of the latter linear map is the
rank of the Poisson structure at m.
It is clear that the results in this section are also valid when the vector space V is
replaced by a non-empty open subset of V .

34

1 Poisson Structures: Basic Definitions

1.5 Exercises
1. Suppose that V is a derivation of A := F[x1 , . . . , xd ]. Show that, for every
F A,
d
F
V [xi ] .
V [F] =
i=1 xi
Deduce from it an alternative proof of Proposition 1.6.
2. Two elements F, G of a Poisson algebra (A , , ) are said to be in involution
if {F, G} = 0. Prove Poissons theorem: if F and G are in involution with a third
element H A , then {F, G} is in involution with H. The original motivation of
Poissons theorem is that, since functions which are in involution with the Hamiltonian are constants of motion, taking the Poisson bracket of two constants of motion
produces a (a priori new) constant of motion.
3. Let be a polynomial Poisson structure on Fd , with Poisson matrix X, and
suppose that X vanishes at the origin o Fd (i.e., all entries xi j of X vanish at o).
Let Y be the matrix whose entry yi j is the linear part of xi j , for 1  i, j  d. Show
that Y is a Poisson matrix.
4. Let (M1 , 1 ) and (M2 , 2 ) be two affine Poisson varieties, or two Poisson manifolds. Let : M1 M2 be a Poisson map. Show that
Rkm M1  Rk (m) M2 ,
for every m M1 .
5. Given a skew-symmetric biderivation { , } on a commutative associative algebra A , define its Jacobiator J as the skew-symmetric tri-linear map A 3 A ,
given by
J (F, G, H) := {F, {G, H}} + {G, {H, F}} + {H, {F, G}} .
Show that J is a derivation in each of its arguments (as in (1.4); in the language of
Section 3.1, it is a triderivation) and derive from it an alternative proof of Proposition 1.8.
6. Consider on F2 the bivector field , defined by {x, y} := x2 , and let Y denote the
vector field on F2 , defined by Y [x] := 0 and Y [y] := x. Show that Y is a Poisson
vector field, but that there exists no neighborhood of o = (0, 0) on which Y is a
Hamiltonian vector field (see item (3) of Proposition 1.31).
7. The following is an open problem: given a Poisson algebra (A , , { , }) of finite type, do there
 generators x1 , . . . , xd of A and representatives xi j = x ji
 exist
F[x1 , . . . , xd ] of xi , x j such that


x jk
xi j
xki
xk x + xi x + x j x = 0 ,
=1
d

1.6 Notes

35

for every 1  i, j, k  d; in other words, such that the matrix X := (xi j )1i, jd is a
Poisson matrix?

1.6 Notes
In the mathematics and physics literature, Poisson structures are most often considered in the case of smooth manifolds. In this context, Poisson structures are usually
defined as sections of the exterior square of the tangent bundle of the manifold (see
Vaisman [194]), as Lie algebra structures on the algebra of functions on the manifold (see Cannas da SilvaWeinstein [34] or DufourZung [63]) or as sheafs of
Poisson algebras on the manifold (see Przybylski [172]). Abstract Poisson algebras
are considered in BhaskaraViswanath [23]; see also Huebschmann [96]. For more
information on the general theory of real manifolds, we refer to Warner [198] or to
Spivak [187]; for complex manifolds, see Wells [203]. For a gentle introduction to
algebraic geometry, in particular the link between commutative associative algebras
and affine varieties, see Perrin [165] or Shafarevich [182].
The main result in this chapter is Weinsteins splitting theorem (Theorem 1.25),
from which we derived the symplectic foliation. This general theorem admits further
generalizations: for example, an equivariant version is given in DufourZung [63],
while a generalization to arbitrary Lie algebroids is given in Fernandes [75]. See
LaurentMirandaVanhaecke [120] for the CaratheodoryJacobiLie theorem for
Poisson manifolds, which was stated without proof in Theorem 1.28 above; for regular Poisson manifolds, this theorem goes back to Lie and Engel [128].

Chapter 2

Poisson Structures: Basic Constructions

In this chapter we give a few basic, general constructions which allow one to build
new Poisson structures from given ones. These constructions are fundamental and
will be used throughout the book. More advanced constructions, which all fall under
the general concept of reduction, will be discussed in detail in Chapter 5, while
several constructions which are specific to a particular class of examples will be
given in Part II.
As in the previous chapter, all Poisson algebras will be defined over an arbitrary
field F of characteristic zero, our Poisson varieties will be affine varieties over F
and our Poisson manifolds will be either real smooth manifolds (F = R) or complex
manifolds (F = C). We will adhere to our habit of reformulating all our algebraic
constructions in geometrical terms, or, conversely, present the geometrical construction in general algebraic terms. We stress that although the geometrical and algebraic
constructions are based on the same idea, their concrete implementation is usually
quite different.
Section 2.1 deals with the tensor product of Poisson algebras, which geometrically corresponds to the construction of a Poisson structure on the product of
two Poisson manifolds. We investigate in Section 2.2 the notion of a Poisson ideal,
whose geometrical counterpart is that of a Poisson submanifold. A Poisson structure cannot be restricted to any submanifold; a necessary and sufficient conditions
for this is that all Hamiltonian vector fields be tangent to the submanifold. In Section 2.3, we show on the one hand how real and complex Poisson structures are
related, and on the other hand how complex algebraic and holomorphic Poisson
structures are related. In Section 2.4, we assemble a few constructions which are of
a different nature, namely changing the base field, localization and germification.
Unless otherwise stated, F stands throughout this chapter for an arbitrary field of
characteristic zero.

C. Laurent-Gengoux et al., Poisson Structures,

Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften 347,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-31090-4 2, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

37

38

2 Poisson Structures: Basic Constructions

2.1 The Tensor Product of Poisson Algebras and the Product

of Poisson Manifolds
The product of two Poisson algebras/varieties/manifolds is in a natural way a Poisson algebra/variety/manifold. We first give the algebraic construction and we make
precise what we mean by a natural way (Proposition 2.1); it yields by a direct
translation the corresponding construction for Poisson varieties, where we give an
explicit formula for the product structure in terms of the Poisson matrix (Proposition 2.4). Finally, we give a purely geometric construction, in terms of bivector
fields, for the product of two Poisson manifolds (Proposition 2.5).

2.1.1 The Tensor Product of Poisson Algebras

Let (A1 , 1 ) and (A2 , 2 ) be two commutative associative algebras over F, with unit.
Their tensor product A1 A2 is itself a commutative associative algebra with unit,
with respect to the F-bilinear product, which is defined for F1 , G1 A1 and for
F2 , G2 A2 by:
(F1 F2 ) (G1 G2 ) := (F1 G1 ) (F2 G2 ) .

(2.1)

In this formula, and in the formulas which follow, we use the obvious abbreviations
F1 G1 for F1 1 G1 and similarly for F2 G2 . The algebras A1 and A2 are naturally
identified with subalgebras of A1 A2 via the inclusion maps ji : Ai A1 A2
(i = 1, 2), given by j1 (F) = F 1 for every F A1 , and similarly j2 (F) = 1 F
for every F A2 . Also, to a derivation V of A1 we can associate in a natural way a
derivation V of A1 A2 (with values in A1 A2 ), such that V [j1 (F)] = j1 (V [F]),
for every F A1 . It is defined by
V : A1 A2 A1 A2
F1 F2  V [F1 ] F2 .

(2.2)

Notice that V [j2 (F)] = 0, for every F A2 . To see that V is indeed a derivation of
A1 A2 , use the fact that V is a derivation of A1 , combined with (2.1). Similarly, to
of A1 A2 ,
a derivation W of A2 , we can associate in a natural way a derivation W
[j2 (F)] = j2 (W
[F]), for every F A2 .
such that W
By extending this construction to the case of skew-symmetric biderivations, we
can construct a skew-symmetric biderivation of A1 A2 (with values in A1 A2 ),
starting from a skew-symmetric biderivation of A1 (or of A2 ). We use this in the
following proposition to construct a Poisson structure on A1 A2 , starting from a
Poisson structure on A1 and a Poisson structure on A2 .

2.1 Tensor Products and Products

39

Proposition 2.1. Let (Ai , i , { , }i ) be two Poisson algebras over F, where i = 1, 2.

The tensor product A1 A2 admits a unique Poisson bracket { , }, making the
canonical inclusions ji : Ai A1 A2 into Poisson morphisms with Poissoncommuting images, {j1 (A1 ), j2 (A2 )} = 0. For Fi , Gi Ai , this Poisson bracket is
given by
{F1 F2 , G1 G2 } = {F1 , G1 }1 (F2 G2 ) + (F1 G1 ) {F2 , G2 }2 .

(2.3)


For every Hamiltonian derivation XH of A1 , with H A1 , X
H is a Hamiltonian
derivation of A1 A2 , more precisely,

X
H = XH1 ,
and similarly for the Hamiltonian derivations of A2 .
We call (A1 A2 , , { , }) the Poisson tensor product of A1 and A2 , while { , } is
called the product Poisson bracket.
Proof. Let 1 : A1 A1 A1 be a skew-symmetric biderivation of A1 . Then it can
be verified, as in the case of derivations, that the skew-symmetric bilinear map 1 ,
defined by

1 : (A1 A2 ) (A1 A2 ) A1 A2
(F1 F2 , G1 G2 )

 1 [F1 , G1 ] (F2 G2 )

(2.4)

is a biderivation of A1 A2 . If 1 satisfies moreover the Jacobi identity, so that 1

is a Poisson bracket on A1 , then 1 is a Poisson bracket on A1 A2 , since




1 1 [F1 F2 , G1 G2 ], H1 H2 = 1 1 [F1 , G1 ], H1 (F2 G2 H2 ) .
Notice also that 1 has the following properties:

1 [F1 1, G1 1] = 1 [F1 , G1 ] 1 ,
1 [F1 1, 1 G2 ] = 0 ,
1 [1 F2 , 1 G2 ] = 0 ,
for every Fi , Gi Ai , (i = 1, 2). The first formula tells us that j1 : A1 A1 A2
is a morphism of Poisson algebras, when we take 1 as a Poisson bracket on A1
A2 ; according to the second formula, j1 and j2 have Poisson-commuting images;
however, the third formula indicates that j2 : A2 A1 A2 is only a morphism of
Poisson algebras when A2 is equipped with the trivial Poisson bracket.
However, letting 2 denote a Poisson bracket on A2 and taking the sum := 1 +

2 , we obtain a skew-symmetric biderivation of A1 A2 , and the above formulas
lead to

40

2 Poisson Structures: Basic Constructions

[F1 1, G1 1] = 1 [F1 , G1 ] 1 ,
[F1 1, 1 G2 ] = 0 ,
[1 F2 , 1 G2 ] = 1 2 [F2 , G2 ] .
By the biderivation property, these formulas can be summarized in the single formula

[F1 F2 , G1 G2 ] = 1 [F1 , G1 ] (F2 G2 ) + (F1 G1 ) 2 [F2 , G2 ]

(2.5)

for every Fi , Gi Ai , (i = 1, 2). It follows that satisfies the Jacobi identity, because (2.5), combined with the fact that is a biderivation, implies that

[ [F1 F2 , G1 G2 ], H1 H2 ]+  (F, G, H)
= 1 [1 [F1 , G1 ], H1 ] (F2 G2 H2 ) + (F1 G1 H1 ) 2 [2 [F2 , G2 ], H2 ]+  (F, G, H) .
Therefore, is a Poisson bracket on A1 A2 , both maps ji : Ai A1 A2 are
morphisms of Poisson algebras and they have Poisson-commuting images. Notice
that in order to establish formula (2.5) we have used only that is a biderivation
of A1 A2 , such that canonical inclusions ji : Ai A1 A2 are Lie algebra homomorphisms and have Poisson-commuting images, which yields uniqueness of a
Poisson bracket on A1 A2 with the stated properties, and it provides us with an
explicit formula for it. In the bracket notation, (2.5) is (2.3).
Finally, let us show that the linear map V  V sends Hamiltonian derivations
of A1 to Hamiltonian derivations of A1 A2 . To do this, it suffices to show that

for every H A1 , the derivation X
H is the Hamiltonian derivation of A1 A2 ,
associated to H 1. Let F1 A1 and F2 A2 be arbitrary elements. According
to (2.2) and (2.5)

X
H [F1 F2 ] = XH [F1 ] F2 = 1 [F1 , H] F2 = [F1 F2 , H 1]
= XH1 [F1 F2 ] ,

so that X
H = XH1 , as was to be shown.




Given two affine varieties M1 and M2 , their product M1 M2 is an affine variety,

with algebra of functions F (M1 M2 )  F (M1 ) F (M2 ). Under the latter isomorphism, the natural projection maps pi : M1 M2 Mi , with i = 1, 2, are dual
to the inclusion maps ji : F (Mi ) F (M1 ) F (M2 ); specifically, the following
triangle of algebra homomorphisms is commutative:
pi

F (Mi )

F (M1 M2 )


ji

F (M1 ) F (M2 )
Translated in the language of varieties, Proposition 2.1 yields the following result.

2.1 Tensor Products and Products

41

Fig. 2.1 On the product of two affine varieties M1 and M2 , functions which are constant on the
fibers of the canonical projection map p1 : M1 M2 M1 are of the form p1 F = F p1 , for some
F F (M1 ). Every vector field on M1 M2 which annihilates all these functions is tangent to the
fibers of p1 .

Proposition 2.2. Let (Mi , i ) be two affine Poisson varieties, where i = 1, 2. The
product variety M1 M2 has a unique Poisson structure = { , } such that the
projection maps pi : M1 M2 Mi (i = 1, 2) are Poisson maps and such that
{p1 F1 , p2 F2 } = 0 ,

(2.6)

for all functions F1 F (M1 ) and F2 F (M2 ). Each Hamiltonian vector field on M1
(or M2 ) extends to a Hamiltonian vector field on M1 M2 , tangent to the fibers of
p2 (or p1 ).
The Poisson variety (M1 M2 , ) is called the product Poisson variety of (M1 , 1 )
and (M2 , 2 ), while is called its product Poisson structure.
Remark 2.3. For i = 1, 2, the fibers of the projection maps pi : M1 M2 Mi have
the following properties (see Fig. 2.1):
1.
2.

A function F F (M1 M2 ) is of the form pi Fi for some Fi F (Mi ) if and

only if it is constant on all the fibers of pi ;
A vector field V on M1 M2 satisfies V [pi Fi ] = 0 for every function Fi
F (Mi ) if and only if it is tangent to all the fibers of pi .

It follows that the condition given by (2.6) can be rephrased in either of the following
equivalent ways.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Every function which is constant on all the fibers of p1 is in involution with

every function which is constant on all the fibers of p2 ;
The Hamiltonian vector field of every function which is constant on all the
fibers of p1 is tangent to all the fibers of p2 ;
The Hamiltonian vector field of every function which is constant on all the
fibers of p2 is tangent to all the fibers of p1 .

To finish this section, we describe the Poisson matrix of the product Poisson structure on M1 M2 , when M1 and M2 are affine Poisson varieties. We show that, in

42

2 Poisson Structures: Basic Constructions

terms of natural generators of F (M1 M2 ), coming from generators of F (M1 ) and

F (M2 ), the Poisson matrix takes a block diagonal form.
Proposition 2.4. Suppose that (M1 , { , }1 ) and (M2 , { , }2 ) are affine Poisson va

rieties, with Poisson matrices X = (xi j )di,1j=1 = ( xi , x j 1 )di,1j=1 , respectively Y =


(yi j )di,2j=1 = ( yi , y j 2 )di,2j=1 , with respect to generators x1 , . . . , xd1 for F (M1 ), respectively y1 , . . . , yd2 for F (M2 ). The Poisson matrix for the product Poisson structure { , } on M1 M2 takes, in terms of the d1 +d2 generators p1 x1 , . . . , p1 xd1 , p2 y1 ,
. . . , p2 yd2 for F (M1 M2 ), the form

p1 xi j
0

d1
i, j=1

0
p2 yi j


 d2

(2.7)

i, j=1

Proof. Since p1 is a Poisson map we have that





p1 xi , p1 x j = p1 xi , x j 1 = p1 xi j ,
which yields the first diagonal block of the Poisson matrix of { , }. Similarly, the
fact that p2is a Poisson map yields the second diagonal block. The other entries

p1 xi , p2 y j of the Poisson matrix are zero, as follows from (2.6). 


By a slight abuse of notation, one usually simply writes

 p1 xi and y j for p2 y j .
xi for
X 0
and the product PoisThen the Poisson matrix (2.7) takes the simple form
0Y
son structure = { , } can be explicitly written in the following form

1i< jd1

xi j

+ yi j

.
xi x j 1i<

yj
i
jd2

2.1.2 The Product of Poisson Manifolds

The product of two manifolds M1 and M2 has a natural structure of a manifold,
whose construction we briefly recall. First, as a topological space, M1 M2 is endowed with the product topology. Second, an atlas of M1 M2 is constructed from
an atlas of M1 and of M2 : let (Ui , x(i) )iI be coordinate charts covering M1 and let
(V j , y( j) ) jJ be coordinate charts covering M2 , then (Ui V j )(i, j)IJ is an open covering of M1 M2 and the homeomorphisms
(x(i) , y( j) ) : Ui V j x(i) (Ui ) y( j) (V j ) Fd1 +d2
define compatible coordinate charts, hence endow M1 M2 with a manifold structure; in this formula, d1 and d2 are the dimensions of M1 and M2 respectively; as
before, F = R or F = C, depending on whether the manifolds which are considered
are real or complex.

2.1 Tensor Products and Products

43

Fig. 2.2 A vector field on M1 can be naturally lifted to a vector field on M1 M2 , tangent to the
fibers of p2 : M1 M2 M2 .

As in the case of varieties, we denote by pi : M1 M2 Mi the canonical projection maps (i = 1, 2). For m1 M1 and m2 M2 , we will also use the inclusion
maps m2 : M1  M1 M2 and m1 : M2  M1 M2 , defined by m2 (x) := (x, m2 )
and m1 (y) := (m1 , y), for x M1 and y M2 .
To a vector field on an open subset of M1 (or of M2 ), we can associate a
vector field on an open subset of M1 M2 by using the tangent maps T m2 (respectively T m2 ). Namely, to a vector field V X1 (U1 ), where U1 is an open
subset of M1 , we associate the vector field V X1 (U1 M2 ), whose value at
m = (m1 , m2 ) U1 M2 is by definition
Vm := Tm1 m2 (Vm1 ) Tm (M1 M2 ) .
This means that for every F F (U1 ) and G F (U2 ), where U2 is an open subset
of M2 ,
V[F p1 ] = V [F] p1
and
V[G p2 ] = 0 ,
(2.8)
since for all m = (m1 , m2 ) U1 U2 ,
V[F p1 ](m) = Vm (F p1 ) = Tm1 m2 (Vm1 )(F p1 )
= Vm1 (F p1 m2 ) = Vm1 (F) = V [F](p1 (m)) ,
and similarly for the second equality in (2.8). These equalities can be used to
write V in terms of local coordinates, showing in particular that V is a vector field
(i.e., it is smooth/holomorphic). Similarly, every vector field W on an open subset
 on M1 U2 . See Fig. 2.2.
U2 of M2 leads to a vector field W
By extending this construction to the case of bivector fields, we can construct
a bivector field on open subsets of M1 M2 , starting from a bivector field defined
on open subsets of M1 (or M2 ). We will use this in the following proposition to
construct a Poisson structure on M1 M2 , starting from a Poisson structure on M1
and a Poisson structure on M2 .

44

2 Poisson Structures: Basic Constructions

Proposition 2.5. Let (M1 , 1 ) and (M2 , 2 ) be two Poisson manifolds. The product
manifold M1 M2 has a unique Poisson structure { , } = , such that the projection
maps pi : M1 M2 Mi (i = 1, 2) are Poisson maps and such that, for all open
subsets Ui Mi and for every Fi F (Ui ) with i = 1, 2, the functions F1 p1 and
F2 p2 are in involution (on U1 U2 ),
{F1 p1 , F2 p2 } = 0 .

(2.9)

The Poisson manifold (M1 M2 , ) is called the product Poisson manifold of M1

and M2 , while is called its product Poisson structure.
Proof. We have seen how we can associate in a natural way to a vector field on M1
a vector field on M1 M2 . In order to generalize this to bivector fields, we use that
every F-linear map : V W between vector spaces V and W , leads to a linear
map 2 : 2V 2W . As recalled in Appendix A (Section A.2) it is defined for
v1 , v2 V by
2 (v1 v2 ) := (v1 ) (v2 ) .
Applied to the linear map
Tm1 m2 : Tm1 M1 Tm (M1 M2 )
we can define a bivector field 1 on M1 M2 by its value at m = (m1 , m2 ):

1m := 2 (Tm1 m2 )(1 )m1 2 Tm (M1 M2 ) .

For open subsets U1 M1 and U2 M2 and for functions F1 , G1 F (U1 ) and
F2 , G2 F (U2 ) we have, as in (2.8), that

1 [F1 p1 , G1 p1 ] = 1 [F1 , G1 ] p1 ,
1 [F1 p1 , G2 p2 ] = 0 ,
1 [F2 p2 , G2 p2 ] = 0 .
It follows that the bivector field := 1 + 2 , where 2 is constructed in the same
way as 1 , but using Tm2 m1 instead of Tm1 m2 , has the following properties:

[F1 p1 , G1 p1 ] = 1 [F1 , G1 ] p1 ,
[F1 p1 , G2 p2 ] = 0 ,

(2.10)

[F2 p2 , G2 p2 ] = 2 [F2 , G2 ] p2 .
Since every point in M1 M2 admits local coordinates of the form xi p1 and y j
p2 , where xi and y j are coordinate functions on M1 , respectively on M2 , it follows
from (2.10) that every point admits local coordinates in which satisfies the Jacobi
identity. In view of (iv) in Proposition 1.16, this implies that is a Poisson structure.

2.1 Tensor Products and Products

45

Moreover, the first and third equations in (2.10) express that p1 and p2 are Poisson
maps, while the second one says that satisfies (2.9).
If a Poisson structure on M1 M2 satisfies the requirements of Proposition 2.5,
then it satisfies the equations (2.10), from which one can obtain explicit formulas for it, in local coordinates, which provides uniqueness of such a Poisson structure. In order to show how these explicit formulas are obtained from (2.10), let
(U, x) and (V, y) be coordinate charts of M1 and M2 , where x = (x1 , . . . , xd1 ) and
y = (y1 , . . . , yd2 ). By a slight abuse of notation, we write the corresponding coordinates on U V as x1 , . . . , xd1 , y1 , . . . , yd2 . According to (1.26) and (2.10), is given
in terms of these coordinates by

[xi , x j ]

1 [xi , x j ] p1

1i< jd1

+ [yi , y j ]

xi x j 1i<

yj
i
jd2

1i< jd1

+ 2 [yi , y j ] p2

,
xi x j 1i< jd2
yi y j

which is written, in the bracket notation, as

{ , } =

1i< jd1

xi , x j


1




yi , y j 2

,
xi x j 1i< jd2
yi y j





where xi , x j 1 and yi , y j 2 are taken as functions on U V . 

Remark 2.6. Note that for all open subsets U1 M1 and U2 M2 , the restriction
of the Poisson structure { , } on M1 M2 to F (U1 ) F (U2 ) F (U1 U2 ) is
precisely equal to the product Poisson bracket, introduced in the previous section,
of the Poisson algebras F (U1 ) and F (U2 ).
Remark 2.7. Remark 2.3 applies also to manifolds, upon replacing the functions
and vector fields which appear in that remark by arbitrary local functions and vector
fields, i.e., functions and vector fields which are defined in the neighborhood of a
point.
To finish this section, we give a useful formula for computing the product Poisson
bracket. As above, let (M1 , 1 ) and (M2 , 2 ) be Poisson manifolds and let denote
the product Poisson structure on M1 M2 . Let F, G be functions on a non-empty
open subset U of M1 M2 and let (m1 , m2 ) U. By definition of , we have that

(m1 ,m2 ) = 1 (m1 ,m2 ) + 2 (m1 ,m2 )


= 2 (Tm1 m2 ) (1 )m1 + 2 Tm2 m1 (2 )m2 ,

(2.11)

so that

(m1 ,m2 ) (F, G) = (1 )m1 (F m2 , G m2 ) + (2 )m2 (F m1 , G m1 ) ,

which yields, in the bracket notation, the following formula for the product bracket

46

2 Poisson Structures: Basic Constructions



{F, G} (m1 , m2 ) = {F m2 , G m2 }1 (m1 ) + F m1 , G m1 2 (m2 ) ,

(2.12)

valid for all F, G F (U), where U is an open subset of M1 M2 , which contains (m1 , m2 ).

2.2 Poisson Ideals and Poisson Submanifolds

The simplest sub-objects of Poisson manifolds are Poisson submanifolds, which are
submanifolds, equipped with a Poisson structure, with respect to which the inclusion map is a Poisson map. For a submanifold, several conditions will be given,
which are equivalent to the fact that it is a Poisson submanifold, including the well
known condition that all Hamiltonian vector fields (of locally defined functions) be
tangent to the submanifold. The algebraic condition, which corresponds to it, is that
the ideal of functions which vanish on the submanifold, is a Poisson ideal. In general algebraic terms, for an ideal I of a Poisson algebra (A , , { , }), one has the
following fact: A /I has a Poisson bracket which makes the canonical projection
into a morphism of Poisson algebras if and only if I is a Poisson ideal; if such a
Poisson bracket on A /I exists, then it is unique.
We give in Section 2.2.1 the algebraic construction, and we reformulate the result
in geometrical terms for subvarieties of affine Poisson varieties. In Section 2.2.2, we
give a purely geometrical construction for (immersed or embedded) submanifolds of
a Poisson manifold. For the latter, we also relate the Poisson submanifold condition
to the intersection of the submanifold with the symplectic leaves.

2.2.1 Poisson Ideals and Poisson Subvarieties

Let (A , ) be a commutative associative algebra and let I be an ideal of A . The
quotient A /I inherits from A the structure of an associative algebra. We denote
the quotient map by p : A A /I and we use, for F A , the convenient notation
F := p(F). For a derivation V of A , the following conditions are equivalent:
(i)
(ii)

There exists a derivation V0 of A /I such that V [F] = V0 [F], for every

F A;
V maps I to itself: for every F I , V [F] I .

The proof (i) (ii) is immediate; for the other implication, we define V0 on elements F A /I by V0 [F] := V [F], which is well-defined in view of (ii), and which
is then easily shown to be a derivation of A /I .
Similarly, if A comes equipped with a Poisson bracket, i.e., (A , , { , }) is a
Poisson algebra, it is a natural question to ask what are the conditions on the ideal
I which imply that A /I carries a Poisson bracket { , }0 , which comes from

2.2 Poisson Ideals and Poisson Submanifolds

47

{ , }, i.e., such that p is a Poisson morphism. The fact that p is surjective implies
that, if such a bracket exists, then it is unique.
Suppose that such a Poisson bracket { , }0 exists. The morphism property


F, G


0

= {F, G}

(2.13)

implies that {F, G} = 0 for every F I and G A , since F = 0 if F I . This

means that I is a Lie ideal of (A , { , }), i.e., {I , A } I . Thus I is an ideal for
both multiplications of the Poisson algebra: one calls such an ideal a Poisson ideal.
Conversely, suppose that I is a Poisson ideal of A . Then (2.13) can be taken as
the definition of a bilinear map { , }0 from A /I into itself. Since it is well-defined,



F, G 0 , H 0 = {{F, G} , H} ,
for all elements F, G and H of A , so that { , }0 defines a Lie bracket on A /I .
Since p is a morphism for both algebra structures on A , { , }0 is also a biderivation.
Thus, { , }0 is a Poisson bracket on A which makes p into a Poisson morphism.
The condition {F, G} I for all F I , G A , rewritten as XG (F) I
means that every Hamiltonian derivation of A maps I to itself, and rewritten as
XF (G) I means that every Hamiltonian derivation of F I maps A to I .
Summarizing, the following proposition holds.
Proposition 2.8. Let (A , , { , }) be a Poisson algebra and let I be an ideal
of (A , ). The following conditions are equivalent:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

There exists a Poisson bracket { , }0 on A /I such that p : A A /I is

a Poisson morphism;
I is a Poisson ideal of (A , , { , });
For every F A , the Hamiltonian derivation XF preserves I ;
For every F I , the Hamiltonian derivation XF is I -valued.

Moreover, if one of these conditions holds, then the Poisson bracket { , }0 on A /I ,

satisfying (i), is unique and it is defined by


F, G 0 := {F, G} ,
for all F, G A .
We now turn to the case of affine Poisson varieties, which will bring us to the notion
of a Poisson subvariety. We first recall that if N and M are affine varieties which
belong to the same affine space Fd , then N is said to be an affine subvariety of M if
N M. Then N is the zero locus of a prime ideal IN in F (M) and F (N) is in a
natural way isomorphic to F (M)/IN , with which it will in the sequel be identified.
We denote by : F (M) F (N) the canonical projection, which we think of as a
restriction map.

48

2 Poisson Structures: Basic Constructions

Translating the equivalent algebraic conditions, given at the beginning of this section, to the case of varieties, we have that for a derivation V of F (M), the following
conditions are equivalent:
(i)

There exists a derivation V0 of F (N) such that (V [F]) = V0 [ (F)], for every
F F (M), which can be expressed as the commutativity of the following
diagram:
V
F (M)
F (M)

F (N)
(ii)

V0

F (N)

V maps the prime ideal IN of all functions which vanish on N to itself: for
every F IN , V [F] IN .

As we will see in the next section, these two equivalent conditions on V correspond
in the context of manifolds to the fact that V , viewed as a vector field on M, is
tangent to N, and V0 is the restriction of V to N. In the case of varieties, we therefore
also think of V0 as being the restriction of V to N and, by a slight abuse of language,
we say that V is tangent to N (at points of N), if V satisfies V [IN ] IN .
Definition 2.9. Let (M, { , }) be a Poisson variety and let N M be a subvariety.
We say that N is a Poisson subvariety of M if there exists a Poisson structure on N
which turns the inclusion map : N  M into a Poisson map.
This means that, if N is a subvariety of M, and IN F (M) denotes the prime
ideal of all functions on M which vanish on N, then N is a Poisson subvariety of
(M, { , }) if and only if F (M)/IN has a Poisson bracket such that the quotient
map : F (M) F (M)/IN is a morphism of Poisson algebras. It leads, for affine
Poisson varieties, to the following geometric analog of Proposition 2.8.
Proposition 2.10. Let (M, { , }) be an affine Poisson variety and let N be a subvariety of M, defined by a prime ideal IN F (M). The following are equivalent:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

N is a Poisson subvariety of (M, { , });

IN is a Poisson ideal of F (M);
For every F F (M), the Hamiltonian vector field XF is tangent to N;
For every F F (M) which vanishes on N, the restriction of the Hamiltonian
vector field XF to N is zero.

Moreover, if one of these conditions holds, then the Poisson structure on N which
makes the inclusion map into a Poisson map is unique.

2.2 Poisson Ideals and Poisson Submanifolds

49

2.2.2 Poisson Submanifolds

Another approach is needed in the case of submanifolds of a Poisson manifold, as
submanifolds are, in general, not defined by ideals. Moreover, important examples
of submanifolds in Poisson geometry are not embedded submanifolds, but immersed
submanifolds; even locally they are, in general, not defined by an ideal. Think, for
example, of the leaves of the symplectic foliation of a Poisson manifold (see Section 1.3.4).
First, let us recall the basic vocabulary. Suppose that : N0 M is a map, where
both M and N0 are manifolds. If for every point n0 N0 the tangent map Tn0 :
Tn0 N0 T(n0 ) M is injective, then is said to be an immersion. If the immersion is
injective one says that (N0 , ) is an immersed submanifold, or submanifold for short;
one often refers to the subset N := (N0 ) of M as being an immersed submanifold,
keeping in mind that N comes with its own differential structure and topology. Since
Tn0 is injective we can, by the implicit function theorem, find a coordinate chart
(V, y = (y1 , . . . , ys )) of N0 , containing n0 , and a coordinate chart (U, x = (x1 , . . . , xd ))
of M, containing (n0 ), with (V ) U, and such that is given in terms of these
coordinates by
(y1 , . . . , ys )  (x1 , . . . , xd ) = (y1 , . . . , ys , 0, . . . , 0) ,
where s is the dimension of N0 and d is the dimension of M. The coordinate chart
(U, x) for M is then said to be adapted to N at (n0 ).
In the special case in which the topology on N which comes from N0 coincides
with the induced topology from M, i.e., is a homeomorphism between N0 and
N (equipped with the induced topology from M), one says that N is an embedded
submanifold. Open subsets of N are then restrictions to N of open subsets of M and
every coordinate chart for N, can be extended to a coordinate chart of M, adapted
to N.
When N = (N0 ) is a submanifold of M, then for n := (n0 ) N, the subspace
Tn0 (Tn0 N0 ) of Tn M is denoted by Tn N and is called the tangent space to N at n.
A vector field V , defined on an open subset U M, is said to be tangent to N if
Vn Tn N for every n U N.
Definition 2.11. Let (M, ) be a Poisson manifold. An (immersed or embedded)
submanifold (N0 , ) of M is called a Poisson submanifold if there exists on N0 a
Poisson structure N such that the inclusion map is a Poisson map. Viewing N :=
(N0 ) as a submanifold of M, we refer to N as a Poisson structure on N and we say
that N is an (immersed or embedded) Poisson submanifold of M.
We give in the following proposition a characterization of Poisson submanifolds
in terms of (locally defined) Hamiltonian vector fields, as well as in terms of the
symplectic leaves of the ambient Poisson manifold.
Proposition 2.12. Let (M, ) be a Poisson manifold. For an (immersed or embedded) submanifold N = (N0 ) of M, the following conditions are equivalent:

50

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

2 Poisson Structures: Basic Constructions

N is a Poisson submanifold of (M, );

For every open subset U M and for every F F (U), the Hamiltonian
vector field XF is tangent to N;
For every n N, the intersection of N with the symplectic leaf Sn (M) contains a neighborhood of n in Sn (M);
For every n N, the bivector n belongs to 2 Tn N.

Moreover, if one of these conditions holds, then the Poisson structure on N, which
makes the inclusion map into a Poisson map, is unique.
Proof. (i) = (ii). Let n := (n0 ) N, where n0 N0 is an arbitrary point. Let
(U, x) be a coordinate chart of M, adapted to N at n. In terms of the coordinates
x = (x1 , . . . , xd ), where d is the dimension of M, the Hamiltonian vector field of
F F (U) is given, according to (1.33), by
s

XF = {xi , F}
i=1

+ {x j , F}
,
xi j=s+1
xj

where s is the dimension of N0 and { , } := . Let us

structure
 denote
 the Poisson

 on
N by { , }0 = 0 . Since is a Poisson morphism, x j , F (n) = x j , F 0 (n0 ),
which is zero when s + 1  j  d, since x j = 0, for such j. It follows that, for
n N U,




s
s

(XF )n = {xi , F} (n)

= {xi , F} (n) Tn0
,
xi n i=1
xi n0
i=1


so that (XF )(n0 ) Tn0 Tn0 N0 = Tn N, for all n0 N0 , which means that XF is
tangent to N. This shows that all (locally defined) Hamiltonian vector fields are
tangent to N.
(ii) = (iii). Let n N and consider the symplectic leaf Sn (M) which contains n (see Section 1.3.4). Since is an immersion, there exists an open subset V of
N0 which contains n0 , where n = (n0 ), and an open subset U of M, such that (V ) is
a closed, embedded submanifold of U. We also consider the symplectic leaf Sn (U),
which is an open subset of Sn (M) (recall that it is, in general, strictly smaller than
Sn (M) U). We claim that Sn (U) (V ). To show this, it suffices to show that
every Hamiltonian path in U which starts in (V ), stays in (V ). Consider a Hamiltonian path : I U, where I is an open neighborhood of 0 in F (which is R or C),
with (0) (V ). It is the integral curve of a Hamiltonian vector field XF , with
F F (U ), which is tangent to (V ), at all points of (V ), where U is an open
subset of U, containing (I). Suppose that (I) is not entirely contained in (V ).
Consider
I := {t I | (t) (V )} ,
which is an open subset of I, since is an integral curve of a vector field which is
tangent to (V ). Let I0 denote the connected component of I which contains 0. Let t
be an arbitrary element of the (topological) boundary of I0 and let n := (t ). Then

2.2 Poisson Ideals and Poisson Submanifolds

51

n (V ), since (V ) is a closed subset of U. Since is an integral curve, passing

through n , of a vector field which is tangent to (V ), we have that (t ) (V ) for t
in a neighborhood of t , which contradicts the fact that t belongs to the boundary
of I0 . Therefore, all Hamiltonian paths : I U, defined on a neighborhood I of 0,
with (0) (V ), stay in (V ) and (V ) Sn (U). Since the latter is an open subset
of Sn (M), property (iii) follows.
(iii) = (i). Let n0 N0 be an arbitrary point and let n := (n0 ). Since is an
immersion,
Tn0 : Tn0 N0 Tn N Tn M
is an isomorphism, while (iii) implies that Tn Sn (M) Tn N. It follows that there
exists a unique bivector (N )n0 2 Tn0 N0 such that
2 (Tn0 )(N )n0 = n ,

(2.14)

as the latter belongs to 2 Tn Sn (M). We claim that the map

N : N0 2 T N0
n0  (N )n0

(2.15)

is a Poisson structure on N0 , such that is a Poisson map. To see that N is a

(smooth/holomorphic) bivector field on N0 , let n0 be an arbitrary point and let
F0 , G0 be arbitrary functions, defined on a neighborhood of n0 in N0 . There exists a
neighborhood U of n := (n0 ), and functions F, G F (U), such that F = F0 and
G = G0 on some neighborhood V of n0 in N0 . For every n = (n 0 ) U (V ) we
have that

N [F0 , G0 ](n 0 ) = N [F , G ](n 0 )



= (N )n dn (F ), dn (G )
0
0
0
= n (dn F, dn G) = [F, G]((n 0 )) ,
where we have used the definition (2.14) of N to obtain the last line. Since n 0 
[F, G]((n 0 )) is clearly a smooth/holomorphic function on V N0 , it follows that
N is a (smooth/holomorphic) bivector field on N0 . The same computation, with
three functions F0 , G0 and H0 , defined on a neighborhood of n0 in N0 , yields

N [N [F0 , G0 ] , H0 ] (n 0 ) = [ [F, G] , H] ((n 0 )) ,

for all n 0 in a neighborhood V of n0 in N0 . It leads to the Jacobi identity for N , so
that N is a Poisson structure on N0 .
According to Proposition 1.19, is a Poisson map; it is clear that N is the unique
Poisson structure on N0 , such that is a Poisson map.
(ii) (iv). As in the first step of the proof, let (U, x) be a coordinate chart
of M, adapted to N at n N. On U we can write as

52

2 Poisson Structures: Basic Constructions

1i< js

i j

d
d

+ i j

,
xi x j i=1 j=s+1 xi x j

where all the coefficients i j are functions, defined on U, with ji = i j . If n

2 Tn N, then i j (n) = 0 for all i, j with 1  i  d and s + 1  j  d, which is
equivalent to saying that every Hamiltonian vector field on U is tangent to N at n.
This shows that (ii) and (iv) are equivalent. 


2.3 Real and Holomorphic Poisson Structures

This section is devoted to three constructions which are intimately related to the real
or holomorphic nature of Poisson structures.

2.3.1 Real Poisson Structures Associated to Holomorphic Poisson

Structures
Our aim is to construct from a holomorphic Poisson structure on a complex manifold, real Poisson structures on the underlying real manifold. Let M be a complex
manifold of (complex) dimension d N , whose underlying real manifold will be
denoted by MR . We fix some notations for the different algebras of functions which
will be considered on M or MR :
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

H (M) denotes the C-algebra of all holomorphic functions on M,

C (MR , C) denotes the C-algebra of all C-valued R-differentiable functions
on MR ,
C (MR ) denotes the R-algebra of all R-valued R-differentiable functions on
MR ,
H (M) denotes the C-algebra of all anti-holomorphic functions on M, i.e. the
functions of the form F, with F H (M).

We also use analogous notations for the functions defined on an open subset U of M
(or UR of MR ). We then have

(2.16)
H (U)  C (UR , C)  C (UR ) + 1C (UR ) ,
where the latter isomorphism consists of writing a C-valued function as the sum
of its real and its imaginary parts. It is clear that every coordinate chart (U, z)
of M, with z = (z1 , . . . , zd ) leads to a coordinate chart (UR , Z) of MR , with Z =

(x1 , . . . , xd , y1 , . . . , yd ),
where xk , yk C (UR ) are the real smooth functions obtained
by writing zk = xk + 1 yk under the decomposition (2.16).
Let V be a holomorphic vector field on M. According to (B.8), in a coordinate
chart (U, z), we can write

2.3 Real and Holomorphic Poisson Structures

V =

V [zk ]

k=1

53

1 d

.
= V [zk ]
1
zk
2 k=1
xk
yk

(2.17)

Decomposing V [zk ] into its real and imaginary parts, leads to the definition of
two derivations of C (UR ), the real and imaginary parts of V , denoted by (V )
and (V ), by putting:



1 d
(V
[z
,
])
+
(V
[z
])
k
k

2 k=1
xk
yk



1 d
.
(V [zk ])
(V ) := (V [zk ])
2 k=1
xk
yk

(V ) :=

(2.18)
(2.19)

These two derivations of

the R-algebra C (UR ) extend uniquely to the C-algebra

C (UR , C)  C (UR ) + 1C (UR ), by C-linearity; we will denote these extensions

still by (V ) and (V ). Writing a holomorphic function F on U as
F = G + 1 H and using the CauchyRiemann equations

G
H
=
,
xk
yk

G
H
=
,
yk
xk

one verifies by a direct computation that, for all F H (U),

1
(V )[F] = V [F],
2

1
(V )[F] = V [F] .
2

(2.20)

These equations characterize (V ) since (2.18) can be derived from it. Similarly,
the imaginary part (V ) is characterized by the fact that

1
1
V [F], (V )[F] =
(V )[F] =
V [F] ,
2
2
for all F H (U). These characterizations imply that (V ) and (V ) are independent of the choice of the coordinates and therefore, define (smooth) vector fields
on MR .
An analogous construction works in the case of bivector fields. Indeed, let P be a
bivector field of M. According to (1.23), we can write P in a coordinate chart (U, z)
as

zk z
1k<d



1
=
P[zk , z ] xk 1 yk x 1 y .
4 1k<d

P=

P[zk , z ]

As above, decomposing P[zk , z ] into its real and imaginary parts, leads to the definition of two skew-symmetric biderivations (P) and (P) of C (UR ), by putting,

54

2 Poisson Structures: Basic Constructions

1
(P) :=
(P[zk , z ]) xk x yk y
4 1k<d


1
+
(P[zk , z ]) xk y + yk x ,
4 1k<d

and similarly for (P). By definition, (P) and (P) are skew-symmetric biderivations of C (UR ) and they uniquely extend to skew-symmetric biderivations of
C (UR , C), by C-linearity. Then, (P) is, as in (2.20), characterized by the following properties: for all F, G H (U),
1
P[F, G] ,
2
(P)[F, G] = 0 ,
1
(P)[F, G] = P[F, G] .
2
(P)[F, G] =

(2.21)

There is an analogous characterization for the imaginary part (P). Because of

these characterizations, we can conclude, as in the case of vector fields, that (P)
and (P) are well-defined bivector fields of MR . We show in the next proposition
that, if the bivector field P has the additional property of being a Poisson structure,
then (P) is also Poisson structure. One shows similarly that (P) is a Poisson
structure.
Proposition 2.13. If (M, ) is a complex Poisson manifold of dimension d, then the
bivector field ( ) is a Poisson structure on MR . In local coordinates, ( ) is given
by:


1
( ) =
(k ) xk x yk y
4 1k<d


1

+
(

k

4 1k<d
xk y yk x

where zk = xk + 1yk and k := (zk , z ), for 1  k,   d.

Proof. According to the characterization of ( ), given above, and since is a
holomorphic Poisson bracket, we have, for every coordinate chart (U, z) and for all
F, G, H H (U),
1
{{F, G} , H} ,
4
( )[( )[F, G], H] = 0 ,
( )[( )[F, G], H] =

( )[( )[F, G], H] = 0 ,

1
( )[( )[F, G], H] = {{F, G} , H} ,
4

2.3 Real and Holomorphic Poisson Structures

55

where we have written { , } for . Since satisfies the Jacobi identity, these equations imply that ( ) satisfies the Jacobi identity, when applied to arbitrary triples
of holomorphic or anti-holomorphic functions on U. In particular, for every coordinate chart (UR , Z), the Jacobi identity will be satisfied by ( ) for the coordinate
functions xk and y , because they can be written as C-linear combinations of the
holomorphic and anti-holomorphic functions zk and zk . Then, according to Proposition 1.16, ( ) is a bivector field of MR , satisfying the Jacobi identity, i.e., it is a

Poisson structure on MR . 

2.3.2 Holomorphic Poisson Structures on Smooth Affine Poisson

Varieties
Let N be an s-dimensional complex affine variety, N Cd . It is the zero locus of a
prime ideal I of C[x1 , . . . , xd ] and the algebra of regular functions on N is related
to I by F (N) = C[x1 , . . . , xd ]/I (see Section 1.2.1). Let H1 , . . . , Ht be a system of
generators of I . The set of points n of N where the rank of the Jacobian matrix


Hi
(n)
1it
xj
1 jd

equals d s is a (Zariski) open subset of N, called the smooth part of N, and denoted N sm . The points of N sm are called smooth points of N. By the implicit function
theorem, N admits in the neighborhood of every smooth point the structure of a complex manifold, which is the unique structure for which the functions x1 |N , . . . , xd |N
are holomorphic. In particular, N sm is a complex manifold. For every point n in N sm
we can choose s functions among x1 |N , . . . , xd |N , which constitute local coordinates
of N in a neighborhood of n in N sm and the other functions xi |N are then expressible
as holomorphic functions in terms of these local coordinates.
Suppose now that N comes equipped with a Poisson structure, i.e., (N, { , }) is
a (complex) affine Poisson variety, N Cd . Since { , } associates to two regular
functions1 on N a regular function on N, we may choose,
forevery i, j, with 1 

i, j  d, a representative xi j of the Poisson bracket xi |N , x j |N , i.e., an element of


C[x1 , . . . , xd ] such that xi j |N = xi |N , x j |N . Since all xi j are polynomials, the skewsymmetric biderivation

xi j xi x j
1i< jd
defines a holomorphic bivector field on Cd . We use it to construct a holomorphic
bivector field on N sm . Let n be an arbitrary point of N sm and let F, G be holomorphic
1 Recall that a regular function on N is, by definition, the restriction to N of a polynomial function
on Cd .

56

2 Poisson Structures: Basic Constructions

functions, defined on a neighborhood W of n in N sm . We extend F and G to functions

defined on a neighborhood U of n in M. For n in a neighborhood of V in
F and G,
sm
N , contained in W U, we define,
{F, G}H (n ) :=

1i< jd

xi j (n )

F G
(n )
(n ).
xi
xj





= xi |N , x j |N on V ,
It defines the unique bivector field on V such that xi |N , x j |N
H
for all 1  i, j  d, hence it is a well-defined holomorphic
bivector field on N sm .

Since { , } satisfies the Jacobi identity for all triples xi |N , x j |N , xk|N , with 1  i <
j < k  d, the same holds true for { , }H , which means that the Jacobi identity
holds for { , }H , since in a neighborhood of every point, a subset of x1 , . . . , xd
yields a system of local coordinates. This shows that { , } leads to a holomorphic
Poisson structure { , }H on N sm . In particular, if N is a smooth Poisson variety, so
that N sm = N, the above construction yields a holomorphic Poisson structure on N,
starting from the Poisson bracket on the algebra of regular functions on N.

2.4 Other Constructions

We finish this chapter with a few isolated constructions, which are of a different
nature.

2.4.1 Field Extension

If A is a commutative associative F-algebra and if F is a field extension of F (think
of C, which is a field extension of R), then the tensor product F F A carries a

natural structure of a commutative associative F-algebra,

simply by putting, for all
a, b F and for all F, G A ,
a(b F) := (ab) F ,
(a F)(b G) := (ab) (FG) .

(2.22)

This very general algebraic procedure is known as extension of scalars. In fact,

an F-Lie algebra structure [ , ] on A leads, in a similar way, to an F-Lie

algebra

structure on F F A : simply replace the second line in (2.22) by

[a F, b G] := (ab) [F, G] .

(2.23)

Combining (2.22) and (2.23) shows that every F-Poisson algebra (A , , { , }), leads

in a natural way to an F-Poisson

algebra (F F A , , { , }). For example, it allows

2.4 Other Constructions

57

one to pass from a Poisson bracket on an F-algebra A to a Poisson bracket on

F F A , where F is the algebraic closure of F.

2.4.2 Localization
A classical construction in algebra and in algebraic geometry is to localize a commutative associative algebra A with respect to a multiplicative system S in A (multiplicative means that S, which is a subset of A \ {0}, is closed under multiplication).
When A is without zero divisors, which we assume in the sequel of this section,
the localization A /S may be defined as the smallest algebra which contains the elements of A and the inverses of elements of S. Formally this means that one forms
the quotient of A S by the equivalence relation , defined by
(F, H) (F , H ) FH = F H .

(2.24)

The class of (F, H) is denoted by F/H or by HF and A /S is made into an algebra by

defining the sum and product of such elements in the way one adds and multiplies
fractions. We think of A as a subalgebra of A /S by using the inclusion F  F/1,
where the latter element is also simply written as F.
A derivation V of A extends to a unique derivation VS of A /S. To show this, we
first prove that a derivation VS of A /S is entirely determined by its values VS [F] =
V [F] on elements F = F/1 of A . For F A and H S, applying the derivation VS
to the equality F = HF H, we find the familiar formula from calculus,
 
F
H V [F] F V [H]
VS
=
,
(2.25)
H
H2
showing that VS is indeed determined by its values on A . In order to show that every
derivation V of A extends to a derivation of A /S one takes (2.25) as a definition
of VS . One needs to check that (2.25) is well-defined: to do this, suppose that F1 H2 =
F2 H1 , with Fi A and Hi S. First, notice that the equality F1 H2 = F2 H1 implies
that V [F1 H2 F2 H1 ] = 0, which we write as
V [F1 ] V [F2 ] F2 V [H1 ] F1 V [H2 ]

=
.
H1
H2
H1 H2

(2.26)

The definition (2.25) of VS , combined with (2.26) and with the equality F1 H2 =
F2 H1 , yields

58

2 Poisson Structures: Basic Constructions

VS [F1 /H1 ] VS [F2 /H2 ]

= F1 V [H1 ]/H12 + V [F1 ]/H1 + F2 V [H2 ]/H22 V [F2 ]/H2
= F1 V [H1 ]/H12 + F2 V [H2 ]/H22 + F2 V [H1 ]/(H1 H2 ) F1 V [H2 ]/(H1 H2 )
= (F2 H1 F1 H2 )V [H1 ]/(H12 H2 ) + (F2 H1 F1 H2 )V [H2 ]/(H1 H22 )
= 0.
This shows that VS is well-defined. It is easy to verify that (2.25) and the fact that V
is a derivation, imply that, for all F, F A and H, H S, one has that


 
 
F F
F
F
F
F
,
(2.27)
VS
= VS
+ VS


HH
H
H
H
H
which says that VS is a derivation of A /S.
In the same way, every skew-symmetric biderivation P of A extends uniquely
to a skew-symmetric biderivation PS of A /S. As above, one obtains that the basic
formulas which allow one to compute PS , are given as follows: if F, G A /1  A
and H, K S, then PS [F, G] = P[F, G], and



P[H, G]
1
1
, G = PS G,
=
,
PS
H
H
H2


1 1
P[H, K]
,
=
.
PS
H K
H 2K2


(2.28)

As above, it is easily checked that PS is a skew-symmetric biderivation of A /S. If P

is a Poisson bracket on A , then PS is a Poisson bracket on A /S. That is the content
of the following proposition.
Proposition 2.14. Let (A , , { , }) be a Poisson algebra without zero divisors and
let S be a multiplicative system of A . The localization algebra A /S carries a unique
Poisson structure { , }S which makes the natural inclusion A  A /S into a morphism of Poisson algebras.
Proof. If a Poisson structure { , }S on A/S, for which A  A /S is a Poisson morphism, exists, then { , }S is the extension of { , } to A /S, as constructed above.
Therefore, we only need to prove the Jacobi identity for { , }S . Since A /S is generated by all elements F, where F A and 1/H, where H S, we only need to
verify the Jacobi identity for triples consisting of such elements. Let us do this for a
triple (F, 1/H, 1/K), where F A and H, K S. From (2.28) we compute,
{{1/H, 1/K}S , F}S + {{1/K, F}S , 1/H}S + {{F, 1/H}S , 1/K}S

 
 

= {H, K} /(HK)2 , F S {K, F} /K 2 , 1/H S {F, H} /H 2 , 1/K S
= ({{H, K} , F} +  (H, K, F))/(HK)2 2 {K, H} {K, F} /(H 2 K 3 )
2 {H, K} {HK, F} /(HK)3 2 {F, H} {H, K} /(H 3 K 2 )

2.4 Other Constructions

59

{{H, K} , F} +  (H, K, F)
,
(HK)2

which is zero, in view of the Jacobi identity for { , }. 


In the case of an affine variety M there are two important cases of localization. The
first one consists in taking for S the set Sm of all functions F F (M) which do not
vanish at a given point m. Then the localization F (M)/Sm is the algebra of rational
functions F/G, with F, G F (M) and G(m) = 0. By the above, every Poisson
structure on M will induce a Poisson structure Sm on this algebra of functions. Of
course, the algebra of all rational functions on M also inherits a Poisson structure
from M, leading to a Poisson algebra which contains all (F (M)/Sm , Sm ) as Poisson
subalgebras.
The second special case of localization consists in taking a non-constant function G A and considering for S the set SG := {Gn | n N}. Then F (M)/SG is
the algebra of rational functions F/Gn , with F F (M) and n N. Picking an indeterminate we have an algebra isomorphism

F (M)[ ]
F (M)/SG
G 1
n

Fi i

i=0

Fi /Gi .

i=0

It follows that the localization F (M)/SG is the algebra of regular functions on an

affine variety, which we may think of as being obtained by removing the zero locus
G = 0 from M. Such an open subset of M is sometimes called a principal open
subset. By the above, every Poisson structure on M will lead to a Poisson structure
on this open subset, making it into an affine Poisson variety.

2.4.3 Germification
Recall that a function germ at a point m of a manifold M is an equivalence class
of functions, defined on a neighborhood of m, where the equivalence is defined by
F G if there exists an open neighborhood U of m in M, such that F|U = G|U .
Recall also that we denote the germ of F at m by Fm . Suppose that M (or at least a
neighborhood of m in M) is equipped with a Poisson structure and let Fm and Gm
be two germs at m, represented by functions F and G, which are both defined on
a neighborhood U of m. For every open subset U which is contained in U, the
restriction of [F, G] to U depends on the restrictions of F and G to U only, hence
the germ ( [F, G])m of [F, G] at m is well-defined. Thus, a Poisson structure ,
defined on a neighborhood of m M leads to a Poisson bracket m on the algebra
of germs of functions at m. We may now define an equivalence relation on the set
of all Poisson structures, defined in a neighborhood of m by saying that m if

60

2 Poisson Structures: Basic Constructions

m = m . It amounts to saying that if F and G are functions which are defined in

a neighborhood of m in M, then [F, G] and [F, G] agree on some neighborhood
of m in M. A germ of a Poisson structure at m is then an equivalence class of m ; by
a slight abuse of notation we denote the germ of at m by m . In bracket notation,
the germ m is given by
{Fm , Gm }m =

i, j=1

(xi j )m

F
xi


m

G
xj


,

(2.29)

where F and G are arbitrary representatives of Fm and Gm ; also x1 , . . . , xd are local
coordinates, in a neighborhood of m and xi j := xi , x j . Evaluating {Fm , Gm }m at m
yields a skew-symmetric bilinear map Tm M Tm M F, which is precisely the
pointwise biderivation at m, associated to the Poisson structure, which we denoted
earlier by m . Although we have used the same notation m for the germ of the
Poisson structure at m and for the Poisson bivector at m, one should not forget that
the germ at m contains more information than the Poisson bivector at m.

2.5 Exercises
1. Determine the algebra of Casimirs of the Poisson tensor product of two Poisson
algebras.
2. Let A and B be two Poisson algebras and let : A B A be a Poisson
morphism, where the right-hand side is equipped with the product bracket. Prove
that
A B := {F A | (F) = 1 F}
is a Poisson subalgebra of A .
3. Prove Proposition 2.14 in the case in which A may have zero divisors (in
this case, the definition (2.24) of the equivalence relation is replaced by (a, s)
(a , s ) u S such that u(as a s) = 0).
4. Reprove Proposition 2.14 by first showing that a biderivation of A /S vanishes,
as soon as it vanishes on A .
5. Let (M1 , 1 ) and (M2 , 2 ) be two Poisson manifolds. Let : M1 M2 be a
Poisson map. Show that if (M1 ) is a submanifold of M2 , then it is a Poisson submanifold.
6. Let (M, ) be a complex Poisson manifold. Show that every linear combination
of the Poisson structures ( ) and ( ), defined in Section 2.3.1, is a Poisson
structure on MR .
7. Let be a Poisson structure on an open subset U of Rd , where d  2, and let F
be a smooth function on U. Show that if has rank at most 2 at every point of U,
then F is a Poisson structure on U.

2.6 Notes

61

8. We assume in this exercise that the reader is familiar with the notion of symplectic manifold (see Section 6.3). Let (M, ) be a symplectic manifold, and denote
by the canonical Poisson structure, associated to . Prove that the open subsets
of M are the only Poisson submanifolds of (M, ).
9. The purpose of this exercise is to establish the existence of non-trivial Poisson
structures on every (smooth real) manifold of dimension at least 2. Throughout the
exercise we consider Rd with its algebra of smooth functions.
a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

Show that, if d  2, then there exists a Poisson structure on Rd which has

constant rank 2 in a neighborhood of 0 and which has rank zero outside some
compact subset of Rd ;
Show that, if d  4, then there exists a Poisson structure on Rd which has
constant rank 4 in a neighborhood of 0 and which has rank at most 2 outside
some compact subset of Rd . Using Exercise 6, conclude that there exists such
a Poisson structure, which vanishes outside some compact subset of Rd ;
Generalizing parts a. and b., show that for every s N, such that 2s  d, there
exists a Poisson structure on Rd which has constant rank 2s in a neighborhood
of 0 and which vanishes outside some compact subset of Rd ;
Using a coordinate chart, conclude that every manifold of dimension d  2,
admits a non-trivial Poisson structure; it can be chosen such that its rank, at a
given point, equals a given even integer 2s  d;
The following is an open problem: show that for every Poisson structure on
Rd there exists a Poisson structure on Rd which coincides with in a neighborhood of the origin of 0 and which vanishes outside some compact subset
of Rd .

2.6 Notes
The constructions which were given in this chapter are so basic that it is difficult
to give the original references. Most of the geometrical constructions are at least
implicit in Lichnerowiczs seminal paper [126], in which Poisson manifolds (of
constant rank) were introduced. The algebraic formulation of these constructions
follows easily. For the link between real and holomorphic Poisson structures, explained in Section 2.3.1, see LaurentStienonXu [121].

Chapter 3

Multi-Derivations and Kahler Forms

The Jacobi identity, which is a key element in the definition of a Poisson bracket on
an algebra A (or a Poisson structure on a manifold M), can be naturally formulated
in terms of the Schouten bracket on the space X (A ) of all skew-symmetric multiderivations of A (or on the space X (M) of all multivector fields on M). In a sense,
the Schouten bracket is dual to the differential on the space of Kahler forms (A )
(or on (M), the space of differential forms on M). See Table 3.1 for an overview
of the algebraic structures which will be explained in detail in this chapter, with
special emphasis on their connections with Poisson structures.
Table 3.1 A summary of the operations which will be considered in this chapter. In the table,
P X p , where p > 0.
X (A ), X (M)

(A ), (M)

Algebraic

multi-derivation

Kahler form

Geometric

multivector field

differential form

Wedge product

: X X X

d : +1

Differential
Schouten bracket

[ , ]S

: X X

X1

Lie derivative

LP : X X+p1

LP : p+1

Internal product

P : p

Since we are using mostly the algebraic properties of these operations, our constructions will be mainly algebraic, but they will always be reformulated in geometrical terms. Multi-derivations are introduced in Section 3.1 and Kahler forms in
Section 3.2. The Schouten bracket and the closely related notion of (generalized)
Lie derivative will be introduced in Section 3.3.
Unless otherwise stated, F stands throughout this chapter for an arbitrary field of
characteristic zero.
C. Laurent-Gengoux et al., Poisson Structures,
Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften 347,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-31090-4 3, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

63

64

3 Multi-Derivations and Kahler Forms

3.1 Multi-Derivations and Multivector Fields

In this section, we generalize the notion of a derivation and of a skew-symmetric
biderivation, defined in Section 1.1.1, to the notion of a skew-symmetric multiderivation. We assemble all multi-derivations in one graded vector space, which
becomes a graded algebra, upon introducing the wedge product. Multivector fields,
which are the geometrical analogs of skew-symmetric multi-derivations, will be discussed in Section 3.1.3.

3.1.1 Multi-Derivations
Let A be a commutative associative F-algebra and let p  1. A skew-symmetric,
p-linear map P HomF ( p A , A ) is called a skew-symmetric p-derivation of A
(with values in A ), if P is a derivation in each of its arguments. By skew-symmetry,
this is equivalent to demanding that P be a derivation in its first argument, i.e.,
P(FG, F2 , . . . , Fp ) = F P(G, F2 , . . . , Fp ) + G P(F, F2 , . . . , Fp ) ,

(3.1)

for arbitrary elements F, G, F2 , . . . , Fp of A . We keep using our convention, introduced in Chapter 1, to enclose the list of arguments of a skew-symmetric multiderivation in square brackets; in this notation, (3.1) becomes
P[FG, F2 , . . . , Fp ] = F P[G, F2 , . . . , Fp ] + G P[F, F2 , . . . , Fp ] .

(3.2)

In view of the derivation property (3.2), two skew-symmetric p-derivations of A are

equal as soon as they are equal for all p-tuples, taken from a system of generators
of A ; in particular, a p-derivation of A vanishes as soon as it vanishes on all ptuples, taken from a system of generators of A (a detailed argument of this fact was
given in the case of derivations in the proof of Proposition 1.6). The vector space of
all skew-symmetric p-derivations of A is denoted by X p (A ) and we introduce the
graded vector space
X (A ) :=


pN

X p (A )

HomF ( p A , A ) ,

pN

whose elements are called skew-symmetric multi-derivations. By convention, the

first term in this sum, X0 (A ), is just A , and X p (A ) := {0} for p < 0. Every X p (A )
has a natural A -module structure, where for F A and P X p (A ), the product
FP X p (A ) is defined by setting
(FP)[F1 , . . . , Fp ] := F P[F1 , . . . , Fp ] ,
for all F1 , . . . , Fp A . Thus, X (A ) is actually a graded A -module.

3.1 Multi-Derivations and Multivector Fields

65

We often think of A as being the algebra of regular functions on an affine variety M; then P is an operator which associates to p regular functions on M a regular
function on M.

3.1.2 Basic Operations on Multi-Derivations

There are two natural composition laws on the graded A -module X (A ) of skewsymmetric multi-derivations of a commutative associative F-algebra A . The first
one, introduced here, is the wedge product. The second one is a graded Lie bracket,
the Schouten bracket, which will be introduced in Section 3.3.
We first recall the notion of a shuffle. For p, q N, a (p, q)-shuffle is a permutation of the set {1, . . . , p + q}, such that (1) < < (p) and (p + 1) < <
(p + q). The set of all (p, q)-shuffles is denoted by S p,q . For a shuffle S p,q ,
we denote the signature of (as a permutation) by sgn( ). It is also convenient to
/ for p, q N.
define S p,1 := 0/ and S1,q := 0,
p
q
For P X (A ) and Q X (A ), their wedge product P Q X p+q (A ) is the
skew-symmetric (p + q)-derivation of A , defined by
(P Q)[F1 , . . . , Fp+q ] :=

S p,q

sgn( ) P[F (1) , . . . , F (p) ] Q[F (p+1) , . . . , F (p+q) ] ,

(3.3)

for all F1 , . . . , Fp+q A . Notice that, in particular, F P = P F = FP when F

X0 (A ) = A . Stated briefly, the wedge product is the skew-symmetrization of the
tensor product (of skew-symmetric multi-linear maps). A priori, we have only that
P Q Hom( p+q A , A ), but the reader will easily check that indeed P Q
X p+q (A ), by showing that P Q verifies the derivation property (3.2). The wedge
product has the following properties.
Proposition 3.1. Let A be a commutative associative algebra. The wedge product


: X (A ) X (A ) X (A )

makes X (A ) into an associative graded A -algebra. Moreover, it is graded commutative: for P X p (A ) and Q Xq (A ), one has
P Q = (1) pq Q P .

(3.4)

Example 3.2. If V and W are derivations, then V W is the skew-symmetric

biderivation, given by
(V W )[F, G] = V [F] W [G] V [G] W [F] ,

66

3 Multi-Derivations and Kahler Forms

for F, G A . More generally, if V1 , . . . , Vk are derivations of A and F1 , . . . , Fk are

elements of A , then


 V1 [F1 ] V1 [Fk ] 



..  .
(V1 Vk )[F1 , . . . , Fk ] =  ...

.


 Vk [F1 ] Vk [Fk ] 
Each element F of A defines a graded A -linear map
F : X (A ) X1 (A ) ,
of degree 1, by taking F as the first element on which the multi-derivation is
evaluated: for P X p (A ), the skew-symmetric (p 1)-derivation F P is defined by
F P[F2 , . . . , Fp ] := P[F, F2 . . . , Fp ] ,

(3.5)

for all F2 , . . . , Fp A . For a derivation V X1 (A ), this yields F V = V [F]; for

a function G (element of X0 (A )), the above definition should be understood as
F G := 0, since X p (A ) = {0} for p < 0. For every F A , the graded linear map
F is a graded derivation1 of degree 1 of X (A ), i.e.,
F (P Q) = F P Q + (1) p P F Q .

(3.6)

This follows immediately from (3.3), upon using that for every shuffle S p,q , one
has that either (1) = 1 or (p + 1) = 1. Also, each derivation V X1 (A ) defines
a graded F-linear map of degree 0,
LV : X (A ) X (A ) ,
which is called the Lie derivative with respect to V . For P X p (A ), its Lie derivative LV P X p (A ) is defined as follows:
p

LV P[F1 , . . . , Fp ] := V [P[F1 , . . . , Fp ]] P[F1 , . . . , V [Fi ], . . . , Fp ] ,

(3.7)

i=1

for all F1 , . . . , Fp A . It is easy to check that indeed LV P X p (A ) by showing that

LV P, as defined in (3.7), satisfies (3.2). Notice that, in particular, LV F = V [F],
for F A , and LV W = [V , W ], for all V , W X1 (A ); for a skew-symmetric
biderivation P, (3.7) is precisely (1.35). It follows at once from the definition that
the Lie derivative is a graded derivation of degree 0 of X (A ):
LV (P Q) = LV P Q + P LV Q ,

(3.8)

for all P, Q X (A).

1

See Appendix A (in particular, Section A.5) for the basic definitions and properties of graded
derivations and coderivations.

3.1 Multi-Derivations and Multivector Fields

67

3.1.3 Multivector Fields

We have already pointed out in Section B.2 that, in the context of manifolds, the
analog of a derivation, respectively skew-symmetric biderivation, is a vector field,
respectively a bivector field. Similarly, multivector fields are the geometrical analogs
of skew-symmetric multi-derivations. Since the basic definitions and properties of
multivector fields are a direct generalization of what we have seen for bivector fields
in Section B.2, the explanations and justifications which are given in this section are
kept to a minimum.
Let M be a manifold (a real manifold when F = R, a complex manifold when
F = C) and let p N and m M. Generalizing Definition 1.13, we call a skewsymmetric p-linear map


Fm (M) p
m :
F

a skew-symmetric pointwise p-derivation at m, if for all functions F, G, H, . . . , K,

defined in a neighborhood of m in M,

m (Fm Gm , Hm , . . . , Km )
= F(m) m (Gm , Hm , . . . , Km ) + G(m) m (Fm , Hm , . . . , Km ) .
The vector space of all pointwise, skew-symmetric p-derivations at m is denoted
by p Tm M, since, in a coordinate chart (U, x) around m, a basis of this vector space
is given by the pointwise p-derivations,







,
x i1 m
x i2 m
xi p m
where 1  i1 < i2 < < i p  dim M; in this formula, the wedge product is the
wedge product of (linear) maps, as in the previous section (see for example Eq. 3.3).
A map, which assigns to every point m M an element Pm of p Tm M is called a
p-vector field on M if for every open subset U M and for all functions F1 , . . . , Fp
F (U), one has that P[F1 , . . . , Fp ] F (U), where P[F1 , . . . , Fp ] is the function on U,
defined for all m U by P[F1 , . . . , Fp ](m) := Pm ((F1 )m , . . . , (Fp )m ), which we also
write as Pm [F1 , . . . , Fp ]. Thus, on every coordinate chart (U, x), the p-vector field P
becomes a skew-symmetric p-derivation of the algebra of functions F (U) and P
admits the local coordinate expression
P=

1i1 <<i p d

P[xi1 , . . . , xi p ]

,
x i1
xi p

(3.9)

where d := dim M. It follows that a p-vector field is a tensorial object: for m M,

the value of P[F1 , . . . , Fp ](m) depends on the differentials dm F1 , . . . , dm Fp only. This
is a useful fact for constructing multivector fields, since it implies that it is sufficient

68

3 Multi-Derivations and Kahler Forms

to define a multivector field for all local functions, defined on open subsets which
cover the manifold M.
We denote the F (M)-module of p-vector fields on M by X p (M) and we define the graded F (M)-module X (M) := pN X p (M), which is the geometrical
analog of X (A ). The operations which we have introduced in Section 3.1.2 for
skew-symmetric p-derivations, namely the wedge product , the contraction F by
a function F and the Lie derivative LV , are introduced in the same way for p-vector
fields, upon replacing the functions on which they act by local functions. Clearly,
all properties of these operations can be repeated word-for-word, as they are purely
algebraic. However, in a geometrical approach, the formula (3.7) for the Lie derivative of a p-vector field should be viewed as a property of the Lie derivative, not as its
definition. To give the geometrical definition of the Lie derivative, let us first recall
that if V and W are vector fields on a manifold M, then their commutator [V , W ] is
the vector field on M, whose value at m M is given by
[V , W ]m := (LV W )m :=



d
Tt (m) t Wt (m) ,
dt |t=0

(3.10)

where t is the local flow of V . Notice that the tangent map Tt (m) t of the map
t at t (m) sends tangent vectors at t (m) (here, the vector Wt (m) ) to tangent
vectors at m, so taking the derivative in (3.10) amounts to differentiating a curve
in Tm M. More generally, for P a p-vector field on a manifold M and V a vector
field on M, the Lie derivative of P with respect to V is defined as the p-vector field,
whose value at m M is given by
(LV P)m :=



d
p Tt (m) t Pt (m) .
dt |t=0

(3.11)

One immediate consequence of this definition is that LV P = 0 if and only if P is preserved by the local flow of the vector field V . The graded derivation property (3.8)
of the Lie derivative, and hence also (3.7), follow easily from (3.11).

3.2 Kahler Forms and Differential Forms

In this section, we introduce the objects which are, in a sense, dual to skewsymmetric multi-derivations of a (commutative associative) algebra A : the Kahler
forms of A . In the case of a manifold M, the dual objects to multivector fields are
differential forms. The modules of Kahler forms and of differential forms will be
described in this section, together with their algebraic structure.

3.2 Kahler Forms and Differential Forms

69

3.2.1 Kahler Differentials

Let A be a commutative associative F-algebra. The module of Kahler differentials
of A (over F) is the A -module 1 (A ), which is the free A -module generated by
the set {d(F) | F A }, modulo the submodule, generated by all elements of either
one of the following forms:
d(F + G) d(F) d(G) ,
d(FG) F d(G) G d(F) ,
d(a) ,
where a F and F, G A . We write dF rather than d(F) and we consider d as a
map A 1 (A ), defined by F dF. The pair ( 1 (A ), d) satisfies the following
universal property: for every derivation V : A A , there exists a unique A -linear
map V : 1 (A ) A , such that V d = V . In other words, there exists a unique
arrow V which makes the following diagram commutative:
d

A
V

1 (A )
V

A
In order to prove the universal property, notice that the commutativity of the diagram
amounts to saying that V (dF) = V [F], for all F A . It is then clear that V should
be defined as the (unique) A -linear map, such that
V (G dF) = G V [F] ,

(3.12)

for all F, G A . It is indeed easily verified that V , given by (3.12), is well-defined;

for example, if F, G A , then


V d(FG) FdG GdF = V [FG] FV [G] GV [F] = 0 ,
since V is a derivation of A . Given an arbitrary A -linear map V : 1 (A ) A , it
is also clear that V d : A A is a derivation of A . This fact, combined with the
universal property, implies the existence of a natural isomorphism (of A -modules)
X1 (A )  HomA ( 1 (A ), A ) ,

(3.13)

which allows us to think of derivations of A as A -linear maps on some A -module,

intimately related to A .

70

3 Multi-Derivations and Kahler Forms

3.2.2 Kahler Forms

In order to generalize (3.13) to skew-symmetric p-derivations, we introduce, for
p N, the A -module p (A ) := p 1 (A ), where is the wedge product over A ;
for p = 0, this should be read as 0 (A ) := A . Together, the A -modules p (A )
form the graded A -module

(A ) :=

p (A ) .

pN

The elements of p (A ), with p > 0, are called Kahler p-forms, or simply Kahler
forms. As a vector space, respectively as an A -module, p (A ) is generated by
elements of the form GdF1 dFp , respectively of the form dF1 dFp , where
G, F1 , . . . , Fp A . Being, by definition, an exterior algebra, it is an associative,
graded commutative A -algebra with product . The F-linear map d : A 1 (A )
extends by functoriality of to an F-linear map d : A (A ). Explicitly,
it is given by
d(F1 Fp ) := dF1 dFp ,
(3.14)
where F1 , . . . , Fp A . It is clear that d is a homomorphism between the algebras
( A , ) and ( (A ), ). For every skew-symmetric p-derivation P of A , there
exists a unique A -linear map P : p (A ) A , such that the following triangle is
commutative:
pd

pA

p 1 (A ) = p (A )

The definition of P for arbitrary p is the natural generalization of the definition (3.12) of V , which corresponds to the case of p = 1. It is given by
dF1 dFp ) := G P[F1 , . . . , Fp ] ,
P(G

(3.15)

for all G, F1 , . . . , Fp A . It leads to a natural isomorphism (of A -modules):

X p (A )  HomA ( p (A ), A ) .

(3.16)

For some of the computations which we will do later, it is useful to view P as an

defined in (3.15), trivially to Kahler
A -linear map (A ) A , so we extend P,
q-forms, with q = p:
dF1 dFq ) := 0, if q = p ,
P(G

(3.17)

for all G, F1 , . . . , Fq A . With this notation, the map P P yields a natural isomorphism

3.2 Kahler Forms and Differential Forms

X (A )

71

HomA ( p (A ), A ) .

pN

Remark 3.3. For p N, the natural pairing

: X p (A ) A p (A ) A
)
 , P := P(
P

(3.18)

induces two A -linear maps

1 : X p (A ) HomA ( p (A ), A ) ,
2 : p (A ) HomA (X p (A ), A ) .
As we have seen in (3.16), 1 is an isomorphism. In general, 2 is neither injective
nor surjective; however, if A is the algebra C (M) of smooth functions on a real
manifold M, the map 2 is also an isomorphism (see Section 3.2.5).

3.2.3 Algebra and Coalgebra Structure

We now consider the algebra and coalgebra structures on (A ), which are closely
related to the corresponding structures on A , where A is as before a commutative associative F-algebra. We assume that the reader is familiar with the facts,
recalled in Appendix A (in particular, in Sections A.3 and A.4), that ( A , ) is an
associative, graded commutative F-algebra, and that ( A , ) is a coassociative Fcoalgebra. Since (A ) is an exterior algebra (over A ), we have, as we mentioned
in the previous section, a wedge product on (A ), also denoted by , which
makes ( (A ), ) into an associative, graded commutative A -algebra. Also, it
leads to an A -linear coassociative coproduct

: (A ) (A ) A (A ) ,
which is defined in the same way as in the case of A (see (A.17)). Namely, p,q
is given, for p, q N, and F1 , . . . , Fp+q A by

p,q (dF1 dFp+q )

(3.19)
:= sgn( )(dF (1) dF (p) ) (dF (p+1) dF (p+q) ) .
S p,q

Recall that coassociativity means that

(1 (A ) ) = ( 1 (A ) ) .

(3.20)

It is clear, from its definition (3.14), that d is a homomorphism of the F-coalgebras

( A , ) and ( (A ), ).

72

3 Multi-Derivations and Kahler Forms

A useful application of the coproduct of (A ), is that the wedge product (3.3) of two multi-derivations P, Q X (A ) can be expressed in terms of ,
as follows:
,
(3.21)
P
Q = (P Q)
where is the canonical isomorphism

: A A (A ) (A )
F

(3.22)

F .

We used in (3.21) only for the case of 0 (A ) = A , but we will need its
general form later on; in particular we will need the following properties of :
,
P = (1A P)

(3.23)

= ( 1 (A ) ) (1A ) ,

where P X (A ). The proof of these properties follows at once from the definition
(3.22) of .

3.2.4 The de Rham Differential and Cohomology

The differential d : A 1 (A ) extends to a well-defined graded F-linear map
d : (A ) +1 (A ) ,
by putting
d(G dF1 dFp ) := dG dF1 dFp ,

(3.24)

for all G, F1 , . . . , Fp A , where p N. It is called the (algebraic) de Rham differential. It is a graded derivation, of degree 1, of ( (A ), ), as
d( ) = d + (1) p d ,

(3.25)

for p (A ) and (A ), an easy consequence of (3.24). Since da = 0 for

every a F, it follows from (3.24) that d d = 0, so that d is a coboundary operator
and the sequence
0

0 (A )

1 (A )

2 (A )

is a complex, called the (algebraic) de Rham complex. A Kahler p-form for which
d = 0 is called closed, while it is called exact if it is contained in the image of d. By
the above, exact Kahler forms are closed, which leads, for p N, to the cohomology

3.2 Kahler Forms and Differential Forms

space2
p
HdR
(A ) :=

73

Ker(d : p (A ) p+1 (A ))
,
Im(d : p1 (A ) p (A ))

0 (A ) := Ker(d : A 1 (A )) = F. The F-vector

where it is understood that HdR
p
(A ) is called the p-th de Rham cohomology space and the graded vector
space HdR
space
 p

HdR
(A ) :=
HdR (A )
pN

is called the (algebraic) de Rham cohomology of A .

The derivation property (3.25) of d implies the following two facts: (1) the wedge
product of two closed Kahler forms is closed; (2) the wedge product of an exact
Kahler form with a closed Kahler form is exact. Combining these two properties
shows that there is an induced product
(A ) H (A ) H (A )
: HdR
dR
dR

([ ], [ ])

[ ]

where [ ] denotes the de Rham cohomology class of a closed Kahler form . It fol (A ), ) is, just like ( (A ), ), an associative, graded commutative
lows that (HdR
F-algebra.
To close this section, we wish to point out that leads to a covariant functor
from the category of commutative associative F-algebras to the category of graded
F-vector spaces (associative, graded commutative F-algebras, if you wish). Namely,
let : A B be an algebra homomorphism, where A and B are commutative
associative algebras. For every p N, the induced linear map p ( ) : p (A )
p (B) is defined as follows:

p ( ) :

p (A )

p (B)
G dF1 dFp (G) d (F1 ) d (Fp ) .

From this definition, it is easily verified that is indeed a covariant functor. Since
( ) and d commute, ( ) induces a graded linear map of degree 0:

( ) : HdR
(A ) HdR
(B) .
HdR
is also a (covariant) functor.
It follows that HdR
2

Notice that it is only a vector space and not an A -module, as the differential d is only F-linear.

74

3 Multi-Derivations and Kahler Forms

3.2.5 Differential Forms

There are several equivalent ways of defining the notion of a differential form on a
manifold. The most economical definition of a differential p-form on a real manifold
is that it is an F (M)-linear map from X p (M) to F (M). In other words, it is a skewsymmetric, F (M)-p-linear map from X1 (M) to F (M). This definition does not
work in the case of a complex manifold since, as we have already said, the space of
holomorphic functions on M may consist of constant functions only. To remedy this,
one considers local functions and local vector fields. Namely, given a manifold M, a
map which assigns to every m M an element m p Tm M, is called a differential
p-form if for every open subset U M and for all vector fields V1 , . . . , V p X1 (U),
one has that (V1 , . . . , V p ) F (U), where (V1 , . . . , V p ) is the function on U,
defined by
(V1 , . . . , V p )(m) := m ((V1 )m , . . . , (V p )m ) ,
for all m U. Thus, on every coordinate chart (U, x), the differential p-form
becomes a skew-symmetric F (U)-p-linear map from F (U) to itself. It follows
that admits the local coordinate expression



=
(3.26)
xi , . . . , xi dxi1 dxi p ,
p
1
1i <<i p d
1

where d denotes the dimension of M. Just like a p-vector field, a differential p-form
is a tensorial object: for m M, the value of (V1 , . . . , V p )(m) depends only on the
values at m of the vector fields V1 , . . . , V p , which is a useful fact for constructing
differential p-forms.
The F (M)-module of differential p-forms on M is denoted by p (M) and we
define the graded F (M)-module

(M) :=

p (M) ,

pN

which is the geometrical analog of the A -module (A ), which was defined

in Section 3.2.2. If U is the domain of a coordinate chart on M, then p (U) =
p 1 (U), just like in the case of Kahler differentials, although p (M) = p 1 (M),
in general. The fact that, locally, p (M) is an exterior algebra, leads to a product,
called the wedge product of differential forms. It makes (M) into an associative,
graded commutative algebra. The differential of a function, which we introduced in
Section 1.3.1, is naturally viewed as a linear map d : 0 (M) 1 (M). It extends
to a unique graded derivation of (M) of degree 1, which means that
d( ) = d + (1) p d ,

(3.27)

for p (M) and (M), just like in (3.25). In a coordinate chart (U, x), it
leads to the classical formula for the differential of a differential p-form, namely,

3.3 The Schouten Bracket

75

1i1 <<i p d

i1 ,...,i p dxi1 dxi p

i1 ,...,i p
dx j dxi1 dxi p ,
xj
j=1
d

1i1 <<i p d

and d is called the de Rham differential. It has formally the same properties as the
algebraic de Rham differential, in particular it leads to a complex, known as the de
Rham complex, whose cohomology

HdR
(M) :=

p
HdR
(M) :=

pN

 Ker(d : p (M) p+1 (M))

pN

Im(d : p1 (M) p (M))

is called the de Rham cohomology of M. In the manifold case, the properties of the
de Rham differential are usually derived from the following explicit formula: d is
given, for p (M), by
d (V0 , V1 , . . . , V p ) =

 

i

V
(1)
V

,
V
,
.
.
.
,
V
,
.
.
.
,
V
i
i
p
0 1

i=0

(3.28)



j , . . . , V p ,
(1)i+ j [Vi , V j ] , V0 , . . . , V i , . . . , V

0i< jp

where V0 , . . . , V p are arbitrary local vector fields on M.

3.3 The Schouten Bracket

In this section we introduce a few extra natural operations on the graded algebras
of skew-symmetric multi-derivations and of Kahler forms on a commutative associative algebra A . The first one is an action of X (A ) on (A ), which generalizes the natural pairing between multi-derivations and Kahler forms, which we
encountered in Remark 3.3. The second operation is the Schouten bracket which extends the classical commutator of derivations to the case of skew-symmetric multiderivations. It will lead at the end of the section to the so-called Gerstenhaber algebra structure on X (A ) and to two generalizations of the Lie derivative, acting
in one case on the algebra of multi-derivations, in the other case on the algebra of
Kahler forms, where the derivative is in both cases taken with respect to a multiderivation. In the geometrical setting, this yields for every manifold M on the one
hand an action of the graded algebra of multivector fields X (M) on the graded algebra of differential forms (M) and on the other hand a graded Lie bracket, the
Schouten bracket, on X (M).

76

3 Multi-Derivations and Kahler Forms

3.3.1 Internal Products

The universal property of the graded A -module (A ) of Kahler differentials on a
commutative associative algebra A leads to a natural action of X (A ) on (A ),
often referred to as the internal product. To introduce it, we associate to P X p (A ),
the graded A -linear map of degree p,
P : (A ) p (A ) ,
which is defined for = dF1 dFk k (A ), by
P (dF1 dFk ) :=

S p,kp

sgn( )P[F (1) , . . . , F (p) ] dF (p+1) dF (k)

(3.29)
when k  p, and otherwise P := 0; for F X0 (A ) = A , (3.29) has to be understood as F := F . The reader may wish to write the definition of P differently,
using


P[F (1) , . . . , F (p) ] = P dF (1) dF (p) .
which
With this notation, it is obvious that the restriction of P to p (A ) is just P,
was defined in (3.15); the restriction to the spaces q (A ), with q = p, is however
different, since P acts trivially on them (see (3.17)). It also follows that P can be
written, for every P X (A ), in terms of the coproduct , defined in (3.19), as
P = (P 1 (A ) ) .

(3.30)

As a consequence, P is the adjoint of taking the wedge product with P: for P

X p (A ) and Q Xq (A ) and p+q (A ), we have in terms of the notations
in (3.18),
P , Q =  , P Q .
(3.31)
Indeed, (3.30), (3.23) and (3.21) imply that, on p+q (A ),
Q P = Q (P 1 (A ) )
(P 1 (A ) )
= (1A Q)

= (P Q)
= P
Q ,
which yields (3.31), when applied to p+q (A ). Equation (3.31) explains the
notation P : as in the case of F (F A ), defined in (3.5), P provides with the
p-derivation P as its first p arguments. Yet, when considering F G for F, G A
one should decide from the context whether G is interpreted as a 0-derivation or as
a 0-form, since in the first case F G = 0 (as defined in (3.5)), while in the second
case F G = FG (as defined in (3.29)).
In the following proposition, we establish the main properties of .

3.3 The Schouten Bracket

77

Proposition 3.4. Let A be a commutative associative algebra. The following identities hold, for P X p (A ) and Q Xq (A ):
(1)
(2)
(3)

P Q = QP ;
[P , Q ] = P Q (1) pq Q P = 0;
For every F A and (A ):
P (dF ) = (F P) + (1) p dF P .

(3.32)

Proof. We give three different proofs of (1). The first one is a quick proof, but it
is not valid for general algebras, because we assume that HomA (X p (A ), A ) 
p (A ), for all p N (see Remark 3.3 at the end of Section 3.2.2). Applying (3.31)
three times, we find for every k (A ) and for homogeneous elements P, Q and
R of X (A ), whose degrees sum up to k,
QP , R =  , (Q P) R =  , Q (P R)

(3.33)

= Q , P R = P (Q ), R .

Under the above assumption, the fact that (3.33) is valid for all R, implies that
QP = P (Q ), for all (A ), which leads to (1). Our second proof is
based on the fact that is coassociative. To simplify the notation, we will write 1
for 1 (A ) ; using (3.30), the properties (3.23) of , the coassociativity (3.20) of
and (3.21) (in that order), we find
P Q = (P 1) (Q 1)
= (P 1) ( 1) (1A ) (Q 1)
= ( 1) (1A P 1) (Q 1 1) (1 )
= ( 1) (Q P 1) ( 1)
) 1)
= (( (Q P)



= Q
P1
= QP .
This terminates the second proof. For the third proof, we show by direct computation
that
(3.34)
(P Q ) (dF1 dFk ) = QP (dF1 dFk )
for all F1 , . . . , Fk . Since P is A -linear for all P X p (A ), this will provide a third
proof of (1). Since P = 0 for q (A ) when q < p, where P X p (A ), it
suffices to prove (3.34) when k  p + q. On the one hand,
P Q (dF1 dFk )

= P

Sq,kq

sgn( )Q[F (1) , . . . , F (q) ]dF (q+1) dF (k)

78

3 Multi-Derivations and Kahler Forms

Sq,p,kqp

sgn( )Q[F (1) , . . . , F (q) ]P[F (q+1) , . . . , F (q+p) ]

dF (q+p+1) dF (k) ,

where Sq,p,kpq is the set of all permutations of the set {1, . . . , k} which are
increasing on the intervals 1, . . . , q and q + 1, . . . , q + p and q + p + 1, . . . , k. On the
other hand, (3.29) and (3.3) lead to
QP (dF1 dFk )
=
sgn( )(Q P)[F (1) , . . . , F (q+p) ]dF (q+p+1) dF (k)
Sq+p,kqp

Sq,p,kqp

sgn( )Q[F (1) , . . . , F (q) ]P[F (q+1) , . . . , F (q+p) ]

dF (q+p+1) dF (k) ,

which yields the third proof. The point of this computation is that an element of
Sq,p,kpq can be uniquely obtained from a shuffle Sq,kq , followed by a shuffle
of the set (q + 1), . . . , (k), or from a shuffle Sq+p,kpq , followed by a shuffle
of the set (1), . . . , (q + p).
The proof of (2) is immediate from (1), since the graded commutator is given by
[P , Q ] = P Q (1) pq Q P = QP (1) pq PQ , and since PQ = (1) pq Q P
(graded commutativity, see (3.4)).
We now prove (3). Since, for every Q X (A ), the map Q is A -linear and
the wedge product is also A -bilinear, we can suppose that is of the form =
dF1 dFk , with k N , k  p 1 and F1 , . . . , Fk A . In this case,
P (dF dF1 dFk )

S p1,kp+1

S p,kp

sgn( ) P[F, F (1) , . . . , F (p1) ] dF (p) dF (k)

(1) p sgn( ) P[F (1) , . . . , F (p) ] dF dF (p+1) dF (k) ,

since every (p, k p + 1)-shuffle of {0, . . . , k} has 0 as the first element in its first
part or in its second part. The first sum is exactly (F P) (dF1 dFk ) = (F P) ,
while the second sum is given by (1) p dF P (dF1 dFk ) = (1) p dF P .
This yields a proof of Eq. (3.32). 

For P X p (A ), the operation P : (A ) p (A ) is closely related to the
natural extension of P : p A A to a coderivation
P : A p+1 (A )
of degree p 1 of ( A , ). It is defined by

3.3 The Schouten Bracket

1 Fk ) :=
P(F

79

S p,kp

sgn( ) P[F (1) , . . . , F (p) ] F (p+1) F (k) , (3.35)

1 Fk ) := 0 otherwise (see Example A.4 in Appendix A).

for k  p and P(F
Comparing this formula with (3.29), it is clear that d P and P correspond under
the map d : A (A ), i.e., the following diagram is commutative:
P

p+1 A

d
dP

(A )

p+1 (A )

(A )

As before, the algebraic constructions in this section, in particular the internal

product, can easily be transcribed for the case of a manifolds. For a manifold M, the
internal product is an action of X (M) on (M), where we recall that X (M) is
the F (M)-module of multivector fields on M and (M) is the F (M)-module of
differential forms on M. This action is defined as in (3.29), the functions F1 , . . . , Fk
being now arbitrary local functions on M. The formulas in Proposition 3.4 remain
valid, with P, Q X (M), with (M) and F F (M).

3.3.2 The Schouten Bracket

We now introduce the Schouten bracket, which is a product of skew-symmetric
multi-derivations, based on the operation of composition. It is a family of maps
[ , ]S : X p (A ) Xq (A ) X p+q1 (A ) ,
for p, q N, which therefore only respects the grading up to a shift over 1, suggesting to shift the degree of all multi-derivations by 1. Namely, we define X p1 (A ) :=
X p (A ), for p N, and we call p := p 1 the shifted degree of an element P of
X p (A ) = X p (A ). Thus, elements of A have shifted degree 1, derivations of A
have shifted degree 0, and so on. Notice that p + q 1 = p + q, so that the Schouten
bracket is a family of maps
[ , ]S : X p (A ) Xq (A ) X p+q (A ) ,
for p, q N {1}, hence respects the (new) grading. It is defined, for P X p (A )
and Q Xq (A ), and for F1 , . . . , Fp+q+1 A , by

80

3 Multi-Derivations and Kahler Forms

[P, Q]S [F1 , . . . , Fp+q+1 ]



= sgn( )P Q[F (1) , . . . , F (q) ], F (q+1) , . . . , F (q+p)
Sq,p

(1) pq

S p,q

(3.36)



sgn( )Q P[F (1) , . . . , F (p) ], F (p+1) , . . . , F (p+q) .

A priori, we have only that [P, Q]S Hom(A (p+q+1) , A ), but the reader will easily check that indeed [P, Q]S X p+q+1 (A ) = X p+q (A ), by showing that [P, Q]S is
skew-symmetric and verifies the derivation property (3.2). In the case of a manifold,
the Schouten bracket of multivector fields is defined as in (3.36), but replacing the
functions Fi by local functions.
The Schouten bracket can be seen as a generalization of many classical elementary operations on functions, derivations and multi-derivations. First, let Q := F A
and P X p (A ), then [P, F]S = F P (see (3.5)). Second, let P := V X1 (A ) and Q
Xq (A ), then [V , Q]S = LV Q, the Lie derivative of Q with respect to V (see (3.7)).
Third, the Schouten bracket of two skew-symmetric biderivations P, Q X2 (A ) is
given by
[P, Q]S [F1 , F2 , F3 ] = P[Q[F1 , F2 ], F3 ] + Q[P[F1 , F2 ], F3 ]+  (F1 , F2 , F3 ) ,

(3.37)

where F1 , F2 , F3 A . This leads to the following result.

Proposition 3.5. Let A be a commutative associative algebra. If P is a skewsymmetric biderivation of A , i.e., P X2 (A ), then P defines a Poisson bracket
on A if and only if [P, P]S = 0.
Similarly, in the case of a manifold M, a bivector field P on M defines a Poisson
structure on M if and only if [P, P]S = 0.
We say that P, Q X2 (A ) are compatible if [P, Q]S = 0. It follows that two Poisson brackets P and Q are compatible if and only if their sum (equivalently, an arbitrary linear combination with non-zero coefficients) is a Poisson bracket.
In the following proposition, we express the Schouten bracket in terms of the de
Rham differential.
Proposition 3.6. Let A be a commutative associative algebra. If P and Q are two
skew-symmetric multi-derivations of A , then
[[P , d] , Q ] = [P,Q]S .

(3.38)

This formula is called Cartans formula.

Proof. We prove Cartans formula for elements P X p (A ) and Q Xq (A ). Let
us first show that the linear map [[P , d], Q ] is A -linear. We take F A and
(A ). Then, using (3.32),
[P , d](F ) = P (dF ) + FP d (1) p d(FP )

3.3 The Schouten Bracket

81

= (F P) + FP d (1) p FdP
= F[P , d] + (F P) ,
so that
[[P , d], Q ](F )
= [P , d](FQ ) (1) pq Q [P , d](F )
= F[P , d](Q ) + (F P) Q (1) pq FQ [P , d] (1) pq Q (F P)
= F[[P , d], Q ] ,


where we have used in the last step that (F P) , Q = 0 (Proposition 3.4). This shows
that
[[P , d] , Q ] : (A ) pq+1 (A )
is A -linear. It follows that, in order to establish Cartans formula (3.38), we only
need to show that
P dQ (1) p dP Q (1) pq Q dP = [P,Q]S ,

(3.39)

for of the form = dF1 dFk , where F1 , . . . , Fk A and where k N.

We do this by induction on k, starting with k = 0, so that we take := 1 A .
Notice that both sides in (3.39) have degree k p q + 1, so that when k = 0,
both sides of (3.39) are zero as soon as p + q > 1. If p + q = 1, we may suppose
that p = 1 and q = 0 (the case p = 0 and q = 1 is obtained by symmetry): then
P := V X1 (A ) and Q := F A and the right-hand side of (3.39) (with = 1)
is given by [V ,F]S 1 = V [F] 1 = V [F], while the left-hand side is given by V dF +
dV F F dV 1 = V dF = V [F], as V F = 0 for degree reasons. If p + q = 0, then
p = q = 0 so that P := F and Q := G, with F, G A . Then [F, G]S = 0, while the lefthand side of (3.39) reduces to F dG d(FG) + G dF = FdG d(FG) + GdF = 0.
This shows that (3.39) holds for of degree 0, for all P and Q.
We now assume that (3.39) holds for k (A ) and we show that it holds
for dF , where F A is arbitrary. On the one hand, (3.32) and the induction
hypothesis imply that
[P,Q]S (dF )
= (F [P,Q]S ) (1) p+q dF [P,Q]S
= (F [P,Q]S ) (1) p+q dF ([[P , d] , Q ] )
= (1)q [F P,Q]S + [P,F Q]S (1) p+q dF ([[P , d] , Q ] ) ,
where we have used
F [P, Q]S = (1)q [F P, Q]S + [P, F Q]S

(3.40)

82

3 Multi-Derivations and Kahler Forms

to obtain the last line, which is similar to (3.6), and is a direct consequence of the
definition of [P, Q]S . Equation (3.40) has to be compared to [[P , d] , Q ] (dF ), i.e.,
to
(P dQ (1) p dQP (1) pq Q dP )(dF ) .
(3.41)
Using (3.32) twice and (3.25) once, we find
P dQ (dF ) = P d(F Q) (1)q P (dF dQ )
= P d(F Q) (1)q (F P) dQ (1) p+q dF P dQ .
Similarly, we compute, using (3.32) and (3.6)
dQP (dF ) = d(F (QP)) + (1)q+p dF dQP
= d(F QP) + (1)q d(QF P) + (1)q+p dF dQP .
If we substitute these results in (3.41), then we find nine terms which can, by using
the induction hypothesis twice, be written as follows:
(P d(F Q) (1) p d(F QP) (1) pq (F Q) dP ) = [P,F Q]S
(1)q ((F P) dQ + (1) p d(QF P) (1) pq Q d(F P) ) = (1)q [F P,Q]S


dF (1) p+q P dQ + (1)q dQP (1) pq Q dP =
(1) p+q dF ([[P , d] , Q ] ) .
This yields precisely the three terms in (3.40). 

Cartans formula leads to a simple proof of the main properties of the Schouten
bracket, as given in the following proposition.
Proposition 3.7. Let A be a commutative associative algebra. The Schouten bracket
[ , ]S : X (A ) X (A ) X (A ) ,
defines a graded Lie algebra structure on X (A ), meaning that, for all homogeneous elements P, Q and R in X (A ), of respective shifted degree p, q and r,
(1)
(2)
(3)

[P, Q]S X p+q (A );

(graded skew-symmetry);
[P, Q]S = (1) pq [Q, P]S ,
(1) pr [P, [Q, R]S ]S +  (P, Q, R) = 0
(graded Jacobi identity).

Moreover, the associative product and the Lie bracket [ , ]S are compatible in the
sense that [, P]S is a graded derivation of (X (A ), ) of degree p:
(3.42)
[Q R, P]S = [Q, P]S R + (1) pq Q [R, P]S ,
(graded Leibniz identity),
with P, Q and R as above. In view of the graded skew-symmetry of [ , ]S , one also
has, for such elements,

3.3 The Schouten Bracket

83

[P, Q R]S = Q [P, R]S + (1) pr [P, Q]S R .

(3.43)

Proof. (1) and (2) follow at once from the explicit formula for the Schouten bracket
(Eq. (3.36)). Notice that the graded skew-symmetry also follows from Cartans formula (3.38). Indeed, the graded Jacobi identity for the graded commutator [ , ],
(1) pq [[P , d] , Q ] + (1) p [[d, Q ] , P ] + (1)q [[Q , P ], d] = 0 ,
leads, since [Q , P ] = 0, to
[Q,P]S = [[Q , d], P ] = (1) pq [[P , d], Q ] = (1) pq [P,Q]S ,
which proves that [Q, P]S = (1) pq [P, Q]S , since P P is injective. We next prove
the graded Jacobi identity for [ , ]S . Let P X p (A ) and Q Xq (A ). We associate
to these multi-derivations, the coderivations P (of degree p) and Q (of degree q) of
the coalgebra ( A , ), as in (3.35). We claim that

= [P,
Q]
[P,
Q]S .

(3.44)

Since both members are coderivations of A of degree p + q 2, it suffices to

verify that they agree in degree k := p + q 1 (see Example A.4 in Appendix A).
For F1 , . . . , Fk A , we have that
1 , . . . , Fk )
(P Q)(F

= P

Sq,p

Sq,p

sgn( ) Q[F (1) , . . . , F (q) ] F (q+1) F (k)



sgn( )P Q[F (1) , . . . , F (q) ], F (q+1) , . . . , F (k) ,

which leads, in view of (3.36), to


1 , . . . , Fk ) = [P, Q]S [F1 , . . . , Fk ] = [P,
Q](F
[P,
Q]S (F1 , . . . , Fk ) .
This shows (3.44). As a consequence, for all skew-symmetric multi-derivations P, Q
and R,
  



R
Q,
[Q,
([P, [Q, R]S ]S ) = P,
R]S = P,
and the graded Jacobi identity for the Schouten bracket follows from the graded
Jacobi identity for the commutator of coderivations.
The Leibniz property of the Schouten bracket follows easily from Cartans formula. Indeed, for P, Q and R as in (3.43), Cartans formula and (1) of Proposition 3.4
imply that
[P,QR]S = [[P , d] , QR ] = [[P , d] , R Q ]

84

3 Multi-Derivations and Kahler Forms

= [[P , d] , R ] Q + (1)rp R [[P , d] , Q ]

= Q[P,R]S + (1)rp [P,Q]S R ,
which yields (3.43), and hence also (3.42). We have used the formula3
[ , 1 2 ] = [ , 1 ] 2 + (1)d1 d 1 [ , 2 ] ,

(3.45)

which is valid for graded linear maps 1 , 2 and , of respective degrees d1 , d2

and d. 

We have equipped X (A ) with two graded algebra structures: the wedge product ,
which is associative and graded commutative, and the Schouten bracket [ , ]S , which
is a graded Lie bracket (with respect to a different grading). Moreover, we have seen
that these two products are, in a sense, compatible. Formalizing these properties
leads to the notion of a Gerstenhaber algebra.
Definition 3.8. Let V = pZVp be a graded F-vector space and denote by p :=
p 1 the shifted degree of P Vp . Suppose that V is equipped with two multiplications and [ , ], such that
(1)
(2)
(3)

(V , ) is an associative, graded commutative algebra over F;

(V , [ , ]) is a graded Lie algebra over F, with respect to the shifted grading;
The two algebra structures are compatible in the sense that
[Q R, P] = [Q, P] R + (1) pq Q [R, P] ,
where P, Q and R are arbitrary homogeneous elements of V , of degree p, q
and r.

Then (V , , [ , ]) is called a Gerstenhaber algebra (over F).

Comparing the three items in Definition 3.8 to the ones in Definition 1.1, one sees
that the notion of a Gerstenhaber algebra is a natural graded analog of the notion of
a Poisson algebra.
Proposition 3.7 can be reformulated by saying that for every commutative associative F-algebra A , the graded F-vector space X (A ), equipped with the wedge
product and the Schouten bracket, is a Gerstenhaber algebra (over F). In the case of a
manifold M, the graded F-vector space X (M) of multivector fields on M, equipped
with the wedge product and the Schouten bracket, is a Gerstenhaber algebra.

3.3.3 The Algebraic Schouten Bracket

For any Lie algebra (g, [ , ]) there is a graded Lie algebra structure on g, which is
the natural extension of the Lie bracket [ , ] on g. It is very similar to the Schouten
3

The formula is a graded version of the well-known matrix identity [x, yz] = [x, y]z + y[x, z]; also,
it is half of the Jacobi identity (A.13).

3.3 The Schouten Bracket

85

bracket on multi-derivations, in particular it only becomes a graded Lie algebra

structure when we shift the grading: for p N , we let p1 g := p g and we let
p := p 1. The definition and main properties of the graded bracket on the graded
vector space g := kN k g are given in the following proposition.
Proposition 3.9. Let (g, [ , ]) be a Lie algebra and let [[ , ]] denote the bracket
on g, defined for all pairs of monomials by
[[x1 x p , y1 yq ]]
p

(3.46)

:= (1) pq (1)i+ j [xi , y j ] x1 x i x p y1 y j yq .

i=1 j=1

Then ( g, , [[ , ]]) is a Gerstenhaber algebra. The graded Lie bracket [[ , ]] on g

is called the algebraic Schouten bracket.
Proof. The proof of each one of the properties of ( g, , [[ , ]]) is either immediate
from the definitions or follows from a direct computation. Using the graded Leibniz
identity
(3.47)
[[Y Z, X]] = [[Y, X]] Z + (1) pqY [[Z, X]] ,
valid for all X p g, Y q g and Z g, the graded Jacobi identity can be
proven easily by recursion, since for three elements of shifted degree zero, it is just
the Jacobi identity in g, while if at least one element is a monomial of higher shifted
degree, say X, it can be written as X = X  x, with x g and X  g, of lower
degree. For a quick proof of (3.47), one clearly only needs to check that the signs
in the right-hand side of (3.47) are correct, which follows at once from the graded
skew-symmetry of [[ , ]]. 


3.3.4 The (Generalized) Lie Derivative

We have already encountered the Lie derivative of a multi-derivation with respect
to a derivation in Section 3.1.2; it is the algebraic analog of the Lie derivative of a
multivector field with respect to a vector field, as briefly discussed in Section 3.1.3.
As we have shown in Section 3.3.2, the Lie derivative can be written in terms of the
Schouten bracket, namely LV Q = [V , Q]S , for V X1 (A ) and Q Xq (A ) (as before, A is a commutative associative algebra). Since [ , ]S is a graded derivation of
degree one in its first argument (see (3.42)), taking the Schouten bracket with a given
p-derivation P, is a natural generalization of the Lie derivative, called generalized
Lie derivative, or simply Lie derivative. Explicitly, for P X p (A ), the generalized
Lie derivative LP is given by the graded linear map (of degree p = p 1)
LP : X (A ) X+p (A )
Q [P, Q]S .

(3.48)

86

3 Multi-Derivations and Kahler Forms

The properties of the Schouten bracket, given in Proposition 3.7, lead at once to the
following properties for this generalized Lie derivative.
Proposition 3.10. Let A be a commutative associative algebra and let P, Q and R
be homogeneous elements of X (A ) of shifted degrees p, q and r. Then
(1)
(2)
(3)

LP Q X p+q (A ) ;
LP (Q R) = Q LP R + (1) pr (LP Q) R ;
LP [Q, R]S = [LP Q, R]S + (1) pq [Q, LP R]S .

In the geometrical context, the generalized Lie derivative becomes a Lie derivative with respect to an arbitrary p-vector field P; it associates to a q-vector field a
(q + p 1)-vector field, i.e., it raises the degree of a multivector field by p = p 1.
Since the calculus of differential forms has been more popularized than the calculus of multivector fields, the notion of the Lie derivative of a differential form
(rather than of a multivector field) with respect to a vector field is better known.
We recall this definition and generalize it to the Lie derivative of a differential form
with respect to a multivector field. We start from the geometrical definition, which
is similar to the geometrical definition (3.11). Namely, let V be a vector field on a
manifold M and let be a differential p-form on M. Then LV is the differential
p-form on M, whose value at m M is given by
(LV )m =



d
t (m) ,
dt |t=0 t

where t is the local flow of V and t the pull-back of by t , so that t (t (m) )

is a differential p-form on Tm M (depending on t). The classical4 Cartan formula says
that
(3.49)
LV = V d + d V ,
a formula which we can take as a definition of the Lie derivative in the algebraic setting. Writing (3.49) as LV = [V , d], where we recall that [ , ] denotes
the graded commutator (see (A.12)), leads to the following natural generalization
of the Lie derivative to an action of a multivector field (or multi-derivation) on
a differential form (Kahler form), namely we define the Lie derivative with respect to a skew-symmetric multi-derivation P X p (A ) as the graded F-linear map
(A ) p (A ) of degree p, given by
LP := [P , d] ,
where we recall that P was defined in (3.29). Explicitly, this means that for
(A ),
(3.50)
LP := P (d ) (1) p d(P ) .
Comparing the Definitions (3.48) and (3.50) of the generalized Lie derivative,
one notices that there is some ambiguity in the definition of the generalized Lie
4

The classical Cartan formula should not be confused with Cartans formula (3.38), which relates
the Schouten bracket to the de Rham differential.

3.4 Exercises

87

derivative of a function with respect to a p-vector field, when p  2. In fact, a function F A can be viewed as an element of X0 (A ) or as an element of 0 (A ).
According to (3.48), LP F = F (P) X p1 (A ), which is a priori different from
zero; however, according to (3.50), LP (F) 1p (A ) = {0}. Therefore, when
applying the generalized Lie derivative to functions, one should decide from the
context and/or from the problem at hand, whether Definition (3.48) is used, or Definition (3.50).
The main properties of the Lie derivative LP : (A ) p (A ) are summarized in the following proposition.
Proposition 3.11. Let A be a commutative associative algebra. For P X p (A )
and Q Xq (A ), the following formulas hold:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

[LP , d] = 0 ;
[LP , Q ] = [P,Q]S ;
L[P,Q]S = [LP , LQ ] ;
LPQ = Q LP + (1) p LQ P .

Proof. Since dd = 0, we have that [LP , d] = (1) p dP d+(1) p dP d = 0,

which leads to (1), while (2) is precisely Cartans formula (3.38). Combined with
(1) and (2), the graded Jacobi identity for [ , ] yields


[LP , LQ ] = [LP , [Q , d]] = [[LP , Q ] , d] = [P,Q]S , d = L[P,Q]S ,
which proves (3). Finally, using PQ = Q P (see Proposition 3.4) and (3.45),
LPQ = [PQ , d] = [Q P , d]
= Q [P , d] + (1) p [Q , d] P
= Q LP + (1) p LQ P ,
which proves (4).




3.4 Exercises
1. Prove the explicit formula (3.28) for a Kahler k-form on an arbitrary commutative associative algebra A ; the arguments Vi are in this context arbitrary derivations of A .
2. Give an alternative proof of the graded Jacobi identity for the Schouten bracket
by using Cartans formula (3.38).
3. Let A be an arbitrary commutative associative algebra. Prove the following
formulas, for F A and (A ):
LFP = F LP (1) p dF P ,
LP (F ) = F LP + (F P) .

88

3 Multi-Derivations and Kahler Forms

These formulas show that LP is neither A -linear in P nor in .

4. Let A be a commutative associative algebra and let B be an A -module. A
linear map : A B is called a derivation of A with values in B if for all
F1 , F2 A , one has (F1 F2 ) = F1 (F2 ) + F2 (F1 ).
a.
b.

c.

Interpret the Hamiltonian operator X , associated to a Poisson bracket on A

(see Definition 1.3), as a derivation of A with values in X1 (A );
For A = F (M) an algebra of functions on a variety or manifold, interpret
pointwise derivations at a point m M as derivations with values in F, where F
is viewed as an A -module, via F a := F(m)a, for F A and a F;
Interpret the de Rham differential d as a derivation of A with values in 1 (A ).

5. Suppose that A is a commutative associative algebra, that { , } is a Poisson

bracket on A and that V is a derivation of A . Show that { , } and the Lie derivative
of { , } with respect to V are compatible (see Section 3.3).
6. Let A := F[x, y]/x2 + y2 . Show that X2 (A ) = 0 and that 2 (A ) = 0.
7. The purpose of this exercise is to give an example of an algebra A , which
admits skew-symmetric biderivations which cannot be written as the sum of wedge
products of derivations of A . In formulas, this means that X2 (A ) = 2 X1 (A ).
Consider the quotient algebra
A :=

F[x, y, z]
.
yx, yz, y2 

induces a non-zero skew-symmetric biderivation P

y z

a.

Show that P := y

b.

of A ;
Show that P does not belong to the exterior algebra 2 X1 (A ).

8. Let A be a commutative associative algebra, and let P X2 (A ) be a skewsymmetric biderivation of A . Let A [ ] denote the vector space of all polynomials
in with coefficients in A . Consider on A [ ]/ 2 the product, defined for elements F1 + F2 and G1 + G2 of A [ ]/ 2 by
(F1 + F2 )  (G1 + G2 ) := F1 G1 + (F1 G2 + F2 G1 + P[F1 , G1 ]) .
a.
b.

Show that  is F[ ]-bilinear and associative;

Show that, if  can be extended to an associative F[ ]-bilinear product on
A [ ]/ 3 , then P satisfies the Jacobi identity.

3.5 Notes
The calculus of differential forms on manifolds is explained in detail in all basic
books on differential geometry, see for example Spivak [186, 187] or Warner [198].

3.5 Notes

89

For the algebraic analog, which is the calculus of Kahler forms, we refer to
Hartshorne [93].
Multivector fields are rarely explicitly treated in books on differential geometry; even if those fields themselves are particular cases of tensor fields, everywhere
treated in detail, their algebraic structure does not derive from the general tensor
formalism. The calculus of multivector fields is presented in detail in Vaisman [194]
and in BhaskaraViswanath [23]. Cannas da SilvaWeinstein [34] concentrate on
the structure of the space of multivector fields as a Gerstenhaber algebra, which
they present as a particular case of the Gerstenhaber algebra of a Lie algebroid.
The Schouten bracket, also called the SchoutenNijenhuis bracket, was introduced by Schouten in [177, 178]; a generalization of the Schouten bracket, which
also generalizes the FrohlicherNijenhuis bracket on vector valued differential
forms, is given in Vinogradov [197].

Chapter 4

Poisson (Co)Homology

A Poisson bracket on a commutative associative algebra A , or a Poisson structure

on a manifold M, leads in a natural way to cohomology spaces, derived from the
multi-derivations of A (multivector fields on M), and to homology spaces, derived
from the Kahler differentials of A (differential forms on M). These spaces give
information on the derivations, normal forms, deformations and several invariants
of the Poisson structure. In some specific, but important, cases they are related to
classically known cohomology spaces, as de Rham cohomology or Lie algebra cohomology. In general, Poisson cohomology is finer, but is also more difficult to
compute. See Table 4.1 for a concise overview of the spaces and the (co)boundary
operations which will be introduced in this chapter.
Table 4.1 A summary of the notations which we use for Lie and Poisson homology and cohomology. (A , , ) is an arbitrary Poisson algebra over F, and g is a Lie algebra with a representation
space V .
k-(co)chains (co)boundary (co)homology spaces
Lie cohomology

Hom(k g,V )

Lk

HLk (g;V )

Poisson cohomology

Xk (A )

Hk (A )

Lie homology

V k g

kL

HkL (g;V )

Poisson homology

k (A

Hk (A )

In Sections 4.1 and 4.2, we construct the various complexes which lead to the homologies and cohomologies which we will consider. In Section 4.3 we describe a
few natural operations in Poisson cohomology and homology and we show in Section 4.4 that the Poisson cohomology and homology spaces of a Poisson manifold
are, under certain conditions, isomorphic to each other.
Throughout this chapter, F is an arbitrary field of characteristic zero.
C. Laurent-Gengoux et al., Poisson Structures,
Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften 347,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-31090-4 4, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

91

92

4 Poisson (Co)Homology

4.1 Lie Algebra and Poisson Cohomology

Before constructing the Poisson cohomology complex, and deriving the cohomology spaces from it, we recall Lie algebra cohomology, which is formally very similar to Poisson cohomology, and more widely known (see [156]). The basic notions
which we recall will also be useful when we compare Poisson and Lie algebra cohomology in the case of the canonical Poisson structure, defined on the dual of a
Lie algebra (see Chapter 7).

4.1.1 Lie Algebra Cohomology

Let (g, [ , ]) be a Lie algebra over F. We recall that a representation of g is a Lie
algebra homomorphism : g End(V ), where V is an F-vector space, called the
representation space and the Lie algebra structure on End(V ) is given by the commutator: , for , End(V ). The vector space V , together with the
representation , is called a g-module. We write x for (x), where x g. We fix a
representation ( ,V ) of g and we introduce, for k N, the F-vector space
Ck (g;V ) := Hom(k g,V )
of skew-symmetric k-linear maps from g to V . Elements of Ck (g;V ) are called V valued k-cochains of g. The Lie coboundary map Lk : Ck (g;V ) Ck+1 (g;V ) is
given, for c Ck (g;V ) and x0 , . . . , xk g, by

Lk (c)(x0 , . . . , xk ) =

(1)i xi c(x0 , . . . , xi , . . . , xk )

i=0

(1)

i+ j

 (4.1)

c [xi , x j ] , x0 , . . . , xi , . . . , xj , . . . , xk ,

0i< jk

where the symbol  over an argument means that we omit that argument. Elements of Ker Lk are called Lie k-cocycles, while elements in Im Lk1 are called Lie
k-coboundaries. The Jacobi identity for [ , ] and the fact that is a Lie algebra homomorphism permits one to show that Lk Lk1 = 0, for every k N . In words:
every coboundary is a cocycle. The converse is not true in general and the cohomology spaces precisely measure the obstruction. Namely, for k N , we define
HLk (g;V ) := Ker Lk / Im Lk1 ,
and HL0 (g;V ) := Ker L0 . Putting these spaces together, we obtain a graded F-vector
space

HLk (g;V ) ,
HL (g;V ) :=
kN

which is called the V -valued Lie algebra cohomology of g.

4.1 Lie Algebra and Poisson Cohomology

93

For example, for k = 0, the coboundary operator is given by L0 (v)(x) = x v, for

v V  C0 (g;V ) and x g. It follows that HL0 (g;V ) = Ker L0 is given by
HL0 (g;V ) =

Ker x ,

xg

the subspace of all invariant elements in V , also denoted by V g . The following

lemma is fundamental in Lie theory; we will use it several times to illustrate the
phenomena which we encounter. For a proof, see [102].
Lemma 4.1 (Whiteheads lemma). Let g be a semi-simple Lie algebra and let :
g End(V ) be a representation of g. If V is finite-dimensional, then HL1 (g;V ) = 0
and HL2 (g;V ) = 0.
The following two examples of representations ( ,V ) are of particular interest
and will be our main cases.
Example 4.2. Let : g F be the trivial representation: x = 0 for every x g.
Then
Ck (g; F) = Hom(k g, F)
and (4.1) becomes:


(1)i+ j c [xi , x j ] , x0 , . . . , xi , . . . , xj , . . . , xk .

Lk (c)(x0 , . . . , xk ) =

(4.2)

0i< jk

In this case, the Lie algebra cohomology of g is called the trivial Lie algebra cohomology of g and is simply denoted by HL (g). It follows from (4.2) that Im L0 = {0}
and that Ker L1 = {c g | x, y g, c([x, y]) = 0} , so that


HL1 (g)  g/ [g, g] .
For a semi-simple Lie algebra g, for example, it is well known that [g, g] = g (see
[190, Ch. 20]). Therefore, HL1 (g) = 0 when g is semi-simple, which is a special case
of Whiteheads lemma (Lemma 4.1).
Example 4.3. Let := ad, the adjoint representation of g on itself, which is given
by x = adx := [x, ], for x g. Then
Ck (g; g) = Hom(k g, g)
and (4.1) becomes:

Lk (c)(x0 , . . . , xk ) =

(1)i [xi , c(x0 , . . . , xi , . . . , xk )]

i=0

 (4.3)

(1)i+ j c [xi , x j ] , x0 , . . . , xi , . . . , xj , . . . , xk .

0i< jk

In this case, the Lie algebra cohomology of g is called the ChevalleyEilenberg

(g). Let us give an interpretation of
cohomology of g. We denote it by HCE

94

4 Poisson (Co)Homology

1 (g). The 1-cocycles are the derivations of g, since

the space HCE

L1 (c)(x, y) = [x, c(y)] + [c(x), y] c([x, y])

for x, y g and c Hom(g, g). Since L0 (x) = adx , for x g  C0 (g; g), the space
of 1-coboundaries Im L0 consists of all derivations of g of the form adx , where x g;
1 (g) is the quotient
these derivations are called inner derivations. It follows that HCE
of the space of all derivations of g, by the space of all inner derivations of g. The
elements of this quotient are called the exterior derivations of g.
2 (g) and H 3 (g) play an important r
ole in the theory of formal
The spaces HCE
CE
deformations of Lie algebras. This fact is quite similar (by forgetting the multiderivation aspect) to what happens in the case of Poisson algebras. Therefore, we
will not make it explicit in the Lie algebra case, but in the Poisson algebra case, see
Section 13.2.

4.1.2 Poisson Cohomology

We now define Poisson cohomology for a Poisson algebra (A , , { , }); the Poisson
bracket on A will also be denoted by , so that (F, G) = {F, G}, for F, G A .
For k N, the space of k-cochains of the Poisson cohomology complex is by
definition Xk (A ), the F-vector space of skew-symmetric k-derivations of A (see
Section 3.1.1). The Poisson coboundary operator is the Poisson analog of the
ChevalleyEilenberg coboundary operator (4.3), where Hom(k g, g) has been replaced by Xk (A ), and where the Lie bracket [ , ] is the Poisson bracket { , }.
Namely, the graded F-linear map (of degree 1) : X (A ) X+1 (A ) is defined,
for Q Xq (A ), where q N, by

q (Q)[F0 , . . . , Fq ] :=

(1)i

i , . . . , Fq ]
Fi , Q[F0 , . . . , F

i=0

(1)i+ j Q

(4.4)




i , . . . , Fj , . . . , Fq ,
Fi , Fj , F0 , . . . , F

0i< jq

for all F0 , . . . , Fq A . In order to establish that q (Q) is indeed a skew-symmetric

multi-derivation of A and that q+1 q = 0, for q N, we relate the coboundary
operator to the Schouten bracket. In fact, the explicit formula (3.36) for the Schouten
bracket [ , ]S , implies that
q (Q) = [Q, ]S ,
(4.5)
for Q Xq (A ). Thus, q (Q) is the Schouten bracket of two skew-symmetric multiderivations, so it is itself a skew-symmetric multi-derivation. In order to see that
q+1 q = 0, we write down the graded Jacobi identity of the Schouten bracket
(Proposition 3.7) for the triple (Q, , ),

4.1 Lie Algebra and Poisson Cohomology

95

(1)q1 [Q, [ , ]S ]S [ , [Q, ]S ]S + (1)q1 [ , [ , Q]S ]S = 0 ,

(4.6)

where we have used that the shifted degree q of a q-derivation is q 1, in particular

the shifted degree of is 1. Since [ , ]S = 0 (because is a Poisson bracket) and
since [Q, ]S = (1)q [ , Q]S (graded skew-symmetry of [ , ]S ), the identity (4.6)
reduces to [ , [ , Q]S ]S = 0, for every Q Xq (A ), showing that q+1 q = 0, for
all q N. Thus, we have a complex, the Poisson cohomology complex of A ,

q1

Xq1 (A )

Xq (A )

q+1

Xq+1 (A )

The elements of Ker q are called Poisson q-cocycles, while the elements of Im q1
are called Poisson q-coboundaries. Elements of the q-th Poisson cohomology space
are Poisson q-cocycles modulo Poisson q-coboundaries,
Hq (A ) := Ker q / Im q1 ,
for q N and H0 (A ) := Ker 0 . The graded vector space
H (A ) :=

Hq (A ) ,

qN

is called the Poisson cohomology of A .

In the case of a Poisson manifold (M, ), one replaces in the above construction
the multi-derivations of A by the multivector fields on M, leading to the following
complex,

q1

Xq1 (M)

Xq (M)

q+1

Xq+1 (M)

where the coboundary operator is defined by (4.5), for Q Xq (M) (a q-vector

field on M). This complex is called the Poisson cohomology complex of M. The
q-th Poisson cohomology space of (M, ), respectively the Poisson cohomology of
(M, ), is denoted by Hq (M) respectively H (M).
Remark 4.4. Let (A , , { , }) be a Poisson algebra over F. Forgetting the associative product, (A , { , }) is simply a Lie algebra and it makes sense to consider C (A , A ), with the ChevalleyEilenberg coboundary operator (4.3). This
yields precisely (4.4), so that the Poisson coboundary operator of (A , , { , }) is
the ChevalleyEilenberg coboundary operator, restricted to the multi-derivations
of (A , ).
For small q, the Poisson coboundary operator q has a natural interpretation, which
yields a natural interpretation for the Poisson cohomology space Hq (A ). One easily
reads off from (4.4) that for F X0 (A ) = A and for V X1 (A ),

0 (F) = XF ,

1 (V ) = LV ,

(4.7)

96

4 Poisson (Co)Homology

where we recall that XF is the Hamiltonian derivation associated to F A (see

Definition 1.3), and LV denotes the Lie derivative with respect to V (see (3.7)).
Also, for Q X2 (A ) and F, G, H A ,

2 (Q)[F, G, H] = {F, Q[G, H]} + Q[F, {G, H}]+  (F, G, H) .

It follows from (4.7) that Poisson 0-cocycles are Casimirs,
H0 (A ) = Cas(A ) ,
Poisson 1-cocycles are Poisson derivations and Poisson 1-coboundaries are Hamiltonian derivations. Denoting the space of all Poisson derivations of A by P(A ), it
follows that
P(A )
.
H1 (A ) =
Ham(A )
Poisson 2-cocycles Q X2 (A ) are skew-symmetric biderivations which satisfy
[ , Q]S = 0, i.e., they are the ones which are compatible with { , }, see Section 3.3.2;
Poisson 2-coboundaries are biderivations, obtained as a Lie derivative of the Poisson
structure. It follows that
H2 (A ) =

skew-symmetric biderivations compatible with { , }

.
Lie derivatives of { , }

As we will see in Section 13.2, H2 (A ) and H3 (A ) show up naturally in deformation theory.

There is a natural morphism from de Rham cohomology to Poisson cohomology,
which we explain here in the algebraic context; this morphism is defined in the same
way in the case of a smooth manifold. We first construct an A -linear map

 : 1 (A ) X1 (A )
G dF
GXF .

(4.8)

It is clear that this map is well-defined; for example, we have for all F, G A that

 (d(FG) FdG GdF) = XFG FXG GXF = 0 ,

where we used (3) of Proposition 1.4 in the last step. The map  extends naturally
to an A -linear map
 : (A ) X1 (A ) X (A ) ,
which is explicitly given by
q  (FdG1 dGq ) = FXG1 XGq ,

4.2 Lie Algebra and Poisson Homology

97

for all F, G1 , . . . , Gq A . It leads to a natural morphism between the de Rham

cohomology and the Poisson cohomology of (A , ).
Proposition 4.5. Let (A , , { , }) be a Poisson algebra. The maps q  : q (A )
Xq (A ) define a chain map from ( (A ), d) to (X (A ), ), i.e., for every q N,
the following diagram is commutative:

q (A )

q+1 (A )

q 

q+1 
q

Xq (A )

Xq+1 (A )

q
It leads for every q N to an F-linear map HdR
(A ) Hq (A ).

Proof. Let := G dF1 dFq q (A ). On the one hand,

q+1  (d ) = q+1  (dG dF1 dFq ) = XG XF1 XFq .
On the other hand, (4.5) and (3.42) imply that


q (q  ( )) = q (GXF1 XFq ) = GXF1 XFq , S
= [G, ]S XF1 XFq = XG XF1 XFq ,
where we also used that each Hamiltonian vector field XFi is a Poisson 1-cocycle,
[XFi , ]S = 0. This leads to the commutativity of the above diagram. It follows that
q  sends q-cocycles to q-cocycles and sends q-coboundaries to q-coboundaries.
Thus, it induces a map in cohomology. 

Remark 4.6. Contrary to what we will see for Poisson homology in Section 4.2,
Poisson cohomology is not a functor: a homomorphism : A B between two
Poisson algebras does not lead in general to a homomorphism between the spaces
of all multi-derivations of A and B, not even between their corresponding Poisson
cohomology spaces. In the case of manifolds, for example, it is well known that
vector fields cannot be transferred, in either direction, by a smooth map, which is
not a diffeomorphism.

4.2 Lie Algebra and Poisson Homology

A Poisson bracket on a commutative associative algebra A also leads to homology
spaces. In special cases they are isomorphic to the Poisson cohomology spaces, but
in general they define new invariants for a Poisson algebra. The Poisson homology
spaces have fewer immediate applications than the Poisson cohomology spaces, but
have the advantage of being sometimes easier to compute and have better functorial

98

4 Poisson (Co)Homology

properties, as we will see. As in the previous section, we start with the Lie algebra
case.

4.2.1 Lie Algebra Homology

The basic setup of Lie algebra homology is the same as in the case of Lie algebra
cohomology: (g, [ , ]) is a Lie algebra and ( ,V ) is a representation of g. For k N,
we define
Ck (g;V ) := V k g ,
whose elements are called V -valued k-chains of g. Note that C0 (g,V )  V , since
0 g = F. The Lie boundary operator kL : Ck (g;V ) Ck1 (g;V ) is the linear map
given, for all v V and x1 , . . . , xk g, by:


kL v (x1 xk )


k
= (1)i xi v x1 xi xk
i=1



(1)i+ j v [xi , x j ] x1 xi xj xk

1i< jk
L L = 0 as a consequence of the Jacobi identity
and 0L := 0. We have that k1
k
for [ , ] and the Lie homomorphism property for . The operators kL lead to a
homology, called the V -valued Lie algebra homology of g. Namely, the k-th V valued Lie algebra homology space of g is denoted and defined by:
L
.
HkL (g;V ) := Ker kL / Im k+1

We denote by HL (g;V ) the graded vector space

HL (g;V ) :=

HkL (g;V ) .

kN

For v V and x g, we have that

1L (v x) = x v .
Therefore, the subspace Im 1L of V is denoted by gV and H0L (g;V ) = V /gV , since
0L = 0. When V = g and = ad, as in Example 4.3, the boundary operator takes
the following form

4.2 Lie Algebra and Poisson Homology

99



kL x0 (x1 xk )
k



x1 xi xk


(1)i+ j x0 [xi , x j ] x1 xi xj xk .

(1)i [xi , x0 ]

i=1

(4.9)

1i< jk

In this case, gV = [g, g], so that H0CE (g) := H0L (g; g) = g/[g, g]. This space also
appears when one computes H1L (g; F), where : g F is the trivial representation,
as in Example 4.2. Indeed, in this case,
Ker 1L = C1 (g; F) = {a x | a F and x g}  g ,
Im 2L = {a [x, y] | a F and x, y g}  [g, g] .
This leads to H1L (g) := H1L (g; F)  g/[g, g].

4.2.2 Poisson Homology

A Poisson bracket = { , } on a commutative associative algebra A leads to
a homology, called its Poisson homology. The k-chains which define the Poisson homology complex are the Kahler differentials on A (the differential forms
when A = F (M), the algebra of smooth functions on a manifold M). In analogy
with (4.9), the Poisson boundary operator : (A ) 1 (A ) is given by

k (F0 dF1 dFk )

k

i dFk
(1)i {Fi , F0 } dF1 dF

i=1


i dF
j dFk ,
(1)i+ j F0 d Fi , Fj dF1 dF

1i< jk

where F0 , . . . , Fk A . For k = 0, this formula should be read as 0 (F0 ) := 0. The

main properties of follow from the fact that = L = [ , d], the Lie derivative
with respect to , as stated in the following proposition.
Proposition 4.7. Let (A , , ) be a Poisson algebra. Then the linear map , defined above, is given by the Lie derivative

= L = [ , d] = d d .
It commutes (in the graded sense) with d and with ,
[ , d] = d + d = 0 ,

(4.10)

[ , ] = = 0 ,

(4.11)

and satisfies = 0 (i.e., it is a boundary operator).

100

4 Poisson (Co)Homology

Proof. For the biderivation = { , }, the internal product is, according to (3.29),
explicitly given by
(F0 dF1 dFk )



i dF
j dFk ,
(1)i+ j+1 F0 Fi , Fj dF1 dF

1i< jk

where F0 , . . . , Fk A , so that
d(F0 dF1 dFk )
=



i . . . dF
j dFk ,
(1)i+ j+1 Fi , Fj dF0 dF

0i< jk

and
d (F0 dF1 dFk )



i . . . dF
j dFk ,
(1)i+ j+1 Fi , Fj dF0 dF

1i< jk


i . . . dF
j dFk .
(1)i+ j+1 F0 d Fi , Fj dF1 dF

1i< jk

Taking the difference of these two formulas leads at once to = [ , d] = L . The

properties of the Lie derivative (Proposition 3.11) imply that d + d = 0,
and that
[ , ] = [L , ] = [ , ]S = 0 ,
where we used in the last equality that is a Poisson structure. This yields (4.10)
and (4.11). Similarly, since L has degree 1,
2 L L = [L , L ] = L[ , ]S = 0 ,

which shows that = L is a boundary operator. 
According to the proposition, we have a complex

k+1 (A )

k+1

k (A )

k1 (A )

k1

whose homology is called the Poisson homology of (A , , ). Namely, we define the

k-th Poisson homology space

,
Hk (A ) := Ker k / Im k+1

Poisson
and we call elements of Ker k Poisson k-cycles and elements of Im k+1
k-boundaries. Putting the Poisson homology spaces together leads to the graded
vector space H (A ) := kN Hk (A ). In the case of a Poisson manifold (M, ),

4.3 Operations in Homology and Cohomology

101

Poisson homology is defined similarly, using the differential forms on M, rather

than the Kahler forms on A . It is denoted by H (M).
For example, H0 (A ) is the abelianization of A : since Ker 0 = A while
Im 1 = (A , A ) = {A , A }, we have that
H0 (A ) =

A
.
{A , A }

For the higher Poisson homology spaces, no simple interpretation is known.

Remark 4.8. Unlike Poisson cohomology, Poisson homology is a (covariant) functor. Indeed, every algebra homomorphism : (A , ) (B, ) extends to a degree
zero map ( ) : (A ) (B), which commutes with d. For k N, it is given
by k ( )(F0 dF1 dFk ) = (F0 )d (F1 ) d (Fk ), where F0 , . . . , Fk A .
If A and B are equipped with Poisson brackets A and B , and is a morphism of Poisson algebras, then ( ) A = B ( ), so that ( ) A =
B ( ). Thus, there is an induced map H ( ) : H (A ) H (B), which is
a homomorphism of graded vector spaces. Clearly, H has all properties which are
required for a (covariant) functor.

4.3 Operations in Homology and Cohomology

We have introduced on the graded vector space X (A ) (where A is a commutative
associative algebra) two multiplications, the wedge product , which is associative,
graded commutative and the Schouten bracket [ , ]S , which is a graded Lie bracket
(with a grading, shifted by 1). As we discussed in Section 3.3.2, these two products make (X (A ), , [ , ]S ) into a Gerstenhaber algebra. Moreover, we have two
natural operations (the internal product) and L (the Lie derivative) of X (A ) on
the module of Kahler differentials (A ). We will show in this section that these
four operations induce similar operations, with the same algebraic properties, in
(co)homology. The reader will have no difficulty in transcribing these operations
(and their properties) for the case of (real or complex) manifolds.
We first define the wedge product and the Schouten bracket in cohomology. The
graded Leibniz identity and the graded Jacobi identity for the Schouten bracket,
[Q R, P]S = [Q, P]S R + (1) pq Q [R, P]S ,
(1) pr [P, [Q, R]S ]S + (1)qp [Q, [R, P]S ]S + (1)rq [R, [P, Q]S ]S = 0 ,
become, for P = , Q Xq (A ) and R Xr (A ), with = [, ]S ,

(Q R) = (Q) R + (1)q Q (R) ,

([Q, R]S ) = [Q, (R)]S + (1)r [ (Q), R]S .

102

4 Poisson (Co)Homology

First, it follows from these formulas that if Q and R are Poisson cocycles, then Q R
and [Q, R]S are Poisson cocycles. This means that both operations can be restricted to
cocycles. Second, it follows from the same formulas that either product of a Poisson
cocycle with a Poisson coboundary is a Poisson coboundary. This means that, for
Poisson cocycles Q and R, the cohomology class of Q R and the cohomology
class of [Q, R]S are independent of the representatives Q and R of their cohomology
classes. Thus, we have two well-defined products in Poisson cohomology, which we
also denote by and [ , ]S . Obviously, their algebraic properties are the same as on
X (A ) and we obtain:
Proposition 4.9. For every Poisson algebra (A , , ), (H (A ), , [ , ]S ) is a Gerstenhaber algebra.
We now consider the action of Poisson cohomology on Poisson homology, which
comes from the internal product and from the Lie derivative. Remembering that
the Poisson boundary operator is the Lie derivative L , we take from Proposition 3.11 the formulas which compute the graded commutator of a Lie derivative
with an internal product, or with another Lie derivative, namely,
[LP , Q ] = [P,Q]S

and

[LP , LQ ] = L[P,Q]S ,

which can be written, for P = and (A ), as

(1)q (Q ) = Q ( ) (Q) ,
(1)q (LQ ) = LQ ( ( )) + L (Q) .
It follows from these formulas, as above, that and L induce indeed actions of the
Poisson cohomology of A on the Poisson homology of A .

4.4 The Modular Class of a Poisson Manifold

The modular class of a Poisson manifold M is a Poisson cohomology class (element
of H1 (M)) which is canonically associated to the Poisson structure. We will not
give the description in the most general case and restrict ourselves to the case of
an orientable (real) Poisson manifold. The definitions and arguments remain valid
in the case of Cd , equipped with its algebra of holomorphic functions, but some
minor adaptations are needed for the affine space Fd , equipped with its algebra
of polynomial functions: see Remark 4.13 below. Our exposition is based on the
following:
Question: Let M be a Poisson manifold. Does there exist a volume form on M,
preserved by all Hamiltonian flows?
We call a Poisson manifold, which admits such a volume form, a unimodular Poisson manifold; the Poisson structure is then called a unimodular Poisson structure.

4.4 The Modular Class of a Poisson Manifold

103

For a symplectic1 manifold (M, ), the answer to the above question is yes. Indeed, since the symplectic structure is preserved by all Hamiltonian flows, the
same is true for the Liouville form d on M, where dim M = 2d. Thus, every symplectic manifold is a unimodular Poisson manifold. Many properties of symplectic
manifolds generalize to the case of unimodular Poisson manifolds. For example, for
unimodular Poisson manifolds the Poisson cohomology and the Poisson homology
spaces are isomorphic to each other (Theorem 4.18).

4.4.1 The Modular Vector Field

We first list a few basic facts about volume forms on a real orientable manifold
M. Suppose that is an arbitrary volume form on M. Recall that this means that
is a differential d-form on M, where d := dim M, vanishing at no point of M,
and that such a form exists on a manifold if and only if the manifold is orientable;
moreover, two such forms differ only by a factor, which is a nowhere vanishing
smooth function on M. We have that d = 0 and that dF = 0, for every F
F (M). Combined with (3.32), this yields
(F P) = (1) p dF P ,

(4.12)

for all P X p (M). In particular,

V [F] = dF V ,

(4.13)

for every vector field V X1 (M). Also, if is a Poisson structure on M, then (4.12)
specializes to
(4.14)
XF = dF .
The Lie derivative of with respect to some vector field is again a top form, hence it
is a multiple of . For F F (M), let us denote by DF F (M) the smooth function
on M defined by LXF = DF . We show that the map F
DF is a derivation.
Indeed, for all F, G F (M), we have that
DFG = LXFG = LGXF +FXG
= GLXF + {G, F} + FLXG + {F, G}
= (GDF + FDG ) ,
where the identity

LHV = HLV + V [H]

(4.15)

for all H F (M), V X1 (M) has been used (to prove (4.15), write LV = V d +
d V and use (4.13)). Since D : F
DF is a derivation of F (M), it corresponds to
a vector field.
1

See Section 6.3.

104

4 Poisson (Co)Homology

Definition 4.10. Let (M, ) be a real Poisson manifold, equipped with a volume
form . The vector field , defined by
LXF = [F] ,

(4.16)

for all F F (M), is called the modular vector field of with respect to .
When the chosen volume form is clear from the context, we simply write for .
Notice that the modular vector field can also be defined as the unique vector field
on M, satisfying
(4.17)
L = .
This is seen by writing [F] in two different ways. On the one hand, (4.13) tells
us that [F] = dF , for all F F (M). On the other hand, (4.16), (4.14) and
the formula L = d d imply that

[F] = LXF = d(XF ) = d(dF ) = dF d = dF L ,

for all F F (M). It follows that dF = dF L for every F F (M), which
leads to (4.17).
In view of Definition 4.10, the question which we posed at the beginning of this
section now becomes:
Question: Let M be a Poisson manifold. Does there exist a volume form on M,
with respect to which the modular vector field is zero?
By giving a cohomological interpretation of the modular vector field, we will be
able to answer the question in the next section.

4.4.2 The Modular Class

The modular vector field which we constructed in the previous section depends on
the choice of volume form on M. We will now show that when the volume form is
changed, the modular vector field will be modified by a Hamiltonian vector field.
We also show that the modular vector field is a Poisson vector field, so that it defines
a Poisson cohomology class which, by the above, is independent of the choice of
volume form.
Proposition 4.11. Let (M, { , }) be a real Poisson manifold, which is orientable.
For a volume form on M, the modular vector field has the following properties:
(1)
(2)
(3)

is a Poisson vector field, i.e., it is a Poisson 1-cocycle;

The Poisson cohomology class of is independent of the chosen volume
form ;
If is a Hamiltonian vector field, i.e., if the Poisson cohomology class of
is zero, then there exists a volume form  , with respect to which the modular
vector field is zero (and therefore  is preserved by all the Hamiltonian flows).

4.4 The Modular Class of a Poisson Manifold

105

Proof. In order to prove (1) we need to verify that [{F, G}] = { [F], G} +
{F, [G]}, for all F, G F (M). The basic properties of the Poisson bracket and
the Lie derivative yield:


[{F, G}] = LX{F,G} = L[XG ,XF ] = LXG , LXF
= LXG ( [F] ) LXF ( [G] )
= ({ [F], G} + {F, [G]}) ,
where we have used in the last step that

[F]LXG = [F] [G] = [G]LXF .

This proves (1). Let us consider now another volume form on M and let us denote
by and the modular class of { , } with respect to , respectively . There
exists a nowhere vanishing function F (M) such that = . Using that and
are both top forms and (4.13), we compute, for an arbitrary F F (M),
LXF ( ) = XF [ ] + LXF = X [F] + [F] ,
to conclude that

1
[F] = [F] X [F] ,

for all F F (M), and hence that

1
= X = Xln | | .

This shows that the vector fields and differ by a Hamiltonian vector field,
i.e., a Poisson 1-coboundary. The cohomology class of the modular form is therefore
independent of the chosen volume form, which proves (2). The previous calculation
shows that if this cohomology class is trivial, i.e., = XF for some F F (M),

then := exp(F) is a volume form whose modular vector field is zero. 
Summarizing, we have a complete answer to our question:
Answer: The Poisson manifold (M, ) admits a volume form, preserved by all
Hamiltonian flows if and only if its modular class is zero.
It leads to the following definition.
Definition 4.12. Let (M, { , }) be a real Poisson manifold, which is assumed orientable. The cohomology class of the modular vector field (with respect to an arbitrary volume form on M) is called the modular class of the Poisson manifold. If
this cohomology class is trivial, then we say that (M, { , }) is a unimodular Poisson
manifold. A volume form on M, whose modular vector field is zero, is called an
invariant density.

106

4 Poisson (Co)Homology

Notice that if one multiplies an invariant density by a nowhere vanishing Casimir

function, then one obtains another invariant density; up to this ambiguity, the invariant density on a unimodular Poisson manifold is unique.
Remark 4.13. In the case of a finite-dimensional vector space V , a natural volume
form is given, in terms of linear coordinates x1 , . . . , xd on V , by 0 := dx1 dxd ,
and every top form on V is of the form F 0 , where F is an arbitrary function on V .
Up to a non-zero constant, 0 is the only translation invariant volume form on V . If
F is assumed to be algebraically closed, then 0 is, again up to a non-zero constant,
the unique volume form on V , because every non-constant polynomial F has a nonempty zero locus, on which the top form F 0 fails to be a volume form. Notice that,
since the modular vector field does not change when the volume form is multiplied
by a constant, the modular vector field of a Poisson structure is independent of
the chosen volume form, when only translation invariant volume forms on V are
considered.
We show in the following proposition that the obstruction to the existence of an
invariant density is intimately related to the existence of points where the rank of
the Poisson structure drops: in the neighborhood of each regular point, the modular
vector field is Hamiltonian, hence an invariant density exists on this neighborhood.
Proposition 4.14. Let (M, { , }) be a real orientable Poisson manifold and let be
a volume form on M.
(1)

(2)

The modular vector field is a Hamiltonian vector field in a neighborhood

of every point at which the rank is locally constant. In particular, it is tangent
to all symplectic leaves of maximal dimension;
The modular class is preserved under Poisson diffeomorphisms M M.

Proof. Let m M be a point where the rank of { , } is locally constant. According

to the Darboux theorem (Theorem 1.26), there exist splitting coordinates q1 , . . . , qr ,
p1 , . . . , pr , z1 , . . . , zs on a neighborhood U of m, such that

,
pi
i=1 qi
r

{ , } =

on U, where Rkm { , } = 2r. We take on U as volume form

:=

r


(dqi dpi )

i=1

and we denote

k :=


i=k

s


dz j ,

j=1

(dqi dpi )

s


dz j ,

j=1

for k = 1, . . . , r. For such k and for F F (M) we have

4.4 The Modular Class of a Poisson Manifold

107





LXF (dqk dpk ) = LXF dqk dpk + dqk LXF dpk




F
F
dpk dqk d
.
=d
pk
qk
Therefore, for all k = 1, . . . , r,


k LXF (dqk dpk ) =

2F
2F

qk pk pk qk


=0,

from which it follows that LXF = 0, i.e., the modular vector field is zero on U.
Then (2) of Proposition 4.11 implies that all modular vector fields are Hamiltonian
on U, hence they are tangent on U to all symplectic leaves. The second property is
obvious, since the modular class depends on { , } only. 

Example 4.15. If m is a point where the rank of the Poisson structure is not locally
constant, then it may happen that there does not exist a neighborhood of m on which
the modular vector field is Hamiltonian. In fact, the modular vector field may be
non-vanishing at a point where the rank of the Poisson structure vanishes. Consider
for example the Poisson structure { , } = x x y on R2 , equipped with the volume

form dx dy. The rank at the origin is zero, while =

class of this Poisson structure is not zero.

y . In particular, the modular

4.4.3 The Divergence of the Poisson Bracket

We now show that the modular vector field is (up to a sign) the divergence of the
Poisson structure (with respect to ). The divergence operator (with respect to ) is
the graded F-linear map (of degree 1),
Div : X (M) X1 (M) ,
which makes the following diagram commute
X (M)

d (M)

Div

X1 (M)

(4.18)

d+1 (M)

where d := dim M. The diagram involves the star operator , which is the family of
F (M)-linear isomorphisms  : Xk (M) dk (M), defined for Q Xk (M) by
 Q := Q .

(4.19)

108

4 Poisson (Co)Homology

Since is a top form, we have for every vector field V on M that

LV = dV = d  V =  Div(V ) = Div(V ) .

(4.20)

For example, taking the standard volume form on Rd , i.e., = dx1 dxd
the star of a vector field V = di=1 Fi / xi , respectively of a bivector field P =
i< j Pi j / xi / x j is given by
V =

i dxd ,
(1)i1 Fi dx1 dx

i=1

P =

i dx
j dxd ,
(1)i+ j1 Pi j dx1 dx

1i< jd

so that Div(V ) is given by the classical formula

Fi
,
i=1 xi
d

Div(V ) =

(4.21)

and Div(P) is given by

Div(P) =

1i< jd

Pi j
Pi j

x j xi
xi x j


.

(4.22)

In general, the divergence of a bivector field, written in terms of vector fields, can
be computed using the following proposition.
Proposition 4.16. Let be a volume form on an orientable manifold M and let V
and W be two vector fields on M. The divergence of V W with respect to is
given by
Div(V W ) = Div(W )V Div(V )W [V , W ] .
(4.23)
Proof. According to the definition of the (generalized) Lie derivative (3.50) and its
properties (4) and (2) in Proposition 3.11, we have that
dV W = LV W = LW V W LV = V LW W LV [V ,W ] .
According to the definition of the divergence, this leads to
Div(V W ) = 1 dV W

= 1 V LW 1 W LV 1 [V ,W ]
= Div(W )V Div(V )W [V , W ] ,

where we used in the last step that V LW = V (Div(W ) ) = Div(W )V =

(Div(W )V ) and that  [V , W ] = [V ,W ] . 

We now show that the modular vector field is, up to a sign, the divergence of the
Poisson structure.

4.4 The Modular Class of a Poisson Manifold

109

Proposition 4.17. Let (M, ) be a real Poisson manifold, which is assumed orientable. For every volume form on M,

= Div( ) .

(4.24)

In particular, the divergence of the modular vector field of is zero.

Proof. Let be an arbitrary volume form on M and let F F (M). The definitions
of and of , combined with (4.17), imply that
 Div( ) = d  = d( ) = L = =  .

(4.25)

Since  is an isomorphism, this shows that the modular vector field is minus the
divergence of . Since Div Div = 1 d d  = 0, the modular vector field is
divergence-free. 

According to (4.25), the modular vector field can also be defined by the formula
d =  ;
forgetting the stars, the modular vector field is the differential of the Poisson bracket.
The string (4.25) also contains the identity L =  , which amounts to

( ) =  .

(4.26)

Thus,  is always a Poisson 1-boundary, while is a Poisson 1-coboundary if

and only if the underlying Poisson manifold is unimodular.

4.4.4 Unimodular Poisson Manifolds

We now prove that, for unimodular Poisson manifolds, the Poisson homology and
cohomology spaces are isomorphic. Let (M, ) be a d-dimensional Poisson manifold. We first show how the Poisson boundary and coboundary operators are related
via the modular vector field . To do this, we specialize Cartans formula (3.38)
[[P , d] , Q ] = [P,Q]S ,
valid for P X p (M) and Q Xq (M), to the case P = , giving

Q (1)q Q = (1)q1 (Q) .

(4.27)

If we apply (4.27) to and use (4.26), then we find

(Q) (1)q Q = (1)q1  (Q) ,

which we also write, using Q P = PQ , valid for P, Q X (M) (see Proposition 3.4), as follows,

110

4 Poisson (Co)Homology

 ( Q) =  (Q) + (1)q ( Q) .

(4.28)

The latter formula says that the modular vector field measures the non-commutativity of the following diagram
X (M)

X+1 (M)

d (M)

(4.29)

d1 (M)

The reader is invited to compare the diagrams (4.29) and (4.18), keeping in mind
that both depend on the volume form , but only the second one depends on the
Poisson structure . Equation (4.28) leads at once to the following duality theorem.
Proposition 4.18. For every unimodular Poisson manifold (M, { , }) of dimension
d, the Poisson cohomology spaces and Poisson homology spaces are isomorphic:

(M),
Hk (M)  Hdk

0kd.

(4.30)

Proof. Let be an invariant density on M, so that = 0. Then (4.28) implies that

the isomorphism  : X (M) d (M) is a bijection between the Poisson cocycles
(respectively coboundaries) of M and the Poisson cycles (respectively boundaries)
of M. It follows that  induces isomorphisms, as indicated in (4.30). 

Notice that the isomorphism in (4.30) is not canonical, since there is no canonical
invariant density (in general; symplectic manifolds form an important exception).
Remark 4.19. The proposition is also valid for Fd , equipped with a Poisson structure, in case it is a unimodular Poisson variety (see Remark 4.13).

4.5 Exercises
1. Show that does not induce a product in Poisson homology (Hint: compute
(dF dG) for F, G A ).
2. Show that the Poisson cohomology spaces are modules over the algebra of
Casimirs.
3. Find a formula for the Poisson cohomology of the tensor product of two Poisson
algebras.
4. Prove property (2) of Proposition 4.11 by using the star operator (4.19).
5. Suppose that g is a Lie algebra, equipped with a symmetric bilinear form  | 
which is ad-invariant, i.e., [x, y] | z = x | [y, z] for all x, y, z g. Consider the ele-

4.6 Notes

111

ment C Hom(3 g, F), defined by C(x, y, z) := [x, y] | z. Show that C is a 3-cocycle
in the trivial Lie algebra cohomology.
6. Consider the Poisson structure on F2 given by

:= x

.
x y

a.
b.
c.

Show that the modular class of is not trivial;

Compute the Poisson homology and the Poisson cohomology of ;
Conclude from part b. that the conclusion of Proposition 4.18 does not hold for
(F2 )
the Poisson manifold (F2 , ), i.e., that the vector spaces Hk (F2 ) and H2k
are not isomorphic, for k = 0, 1, 2.

7.

Let (A , , { , }) be a Poisson algebra.

a.

Show that the skew-symmetric biderivation { , } is a Poisson 2-cocycle for the

Poisson cohomology of A ;
Assume that A is a polynomial algebra, A = F[x1 , . . . , xd ], and that the polynomials xi , x j , for i, j = 1, . . . , d, are all homogeneous of the same degree k.
Show that if k = 2, then the skew-symmetric biderivation { , } is a coboundary
(Hint: compute 1 (E ) where E := di=1 xi xi );
Assume now that A := C[x, y, z], and that

b.

c.

:= x2

+ y2
+ z2
.
y z
z x
x y

Show that is a Poisson bracket on A := C[x, y, z] which is not a coboundary

(Hint: show first that if there exists a derivation V = F1 x + F2 y + F3 z
X1 (A ) satisfying 1 (V ) = , then there exists such a derivation where F1 , F2
and F3 are linear functions).

4.6 Notes
Poisson cohomology was first introduced in Lichnerowiczs paper [127], where it
was shown that the Poisson cohomology of a symplectic manifold is canonically
isomorphic to its de Rham cohomology. See BhaskaraViswanath [23] and Huebschmann [96] for the algebraic cohomology of a general Poisson algebra. The relation between Poisson cohomology and singularities is studied by Monnier [152]
and RogerVanhaecke [174] in the two-dimensional case and by Pichereau [166]
in the three-dimensional case. The definition of Poisson homology goes back to
GelfandDorfman [81], Koszul [118] and Brylinski [28]. The modular vector field
of a Poisson manifold was first introduced by Koszul [118]. It was studied for general Poisson manifolds and extended to Lie algebroids by Weinstein [201], Evans
LuWeinstein [71] and KosmannWeinstein [116]. See FernandesCrainic [51, 52]

112

4 Poisson (Co)Homology

for applications of Poisson cohomology to the linearization and stability of Poisson structures; for applications of Poisson cohomology to deformation theory, see
Chapter 13 below.

Chapter 5

Reduction

In Chapter 2, we have given a few basic constructions which allow one to build
new Poisson structures from given ones. In the present chapter, we explain a few
more advanced constructions, which all fall under the general concept of reduction. Roughly speaking, reduction means that the object under study (here a Poisson
structure), is replaced by an object of the same type, but on a manifold of smaller
dimension, in classical terms with fewer degrees of freedom. These constructions
are based on geometrical considerations, yet their algebraic formulation highlights
some key elements of the reduction mechanism. We therefore present all constructions in both algebraic and geometrical terms.
We present two constructions for reducing Poisson structures. Geometrically
speaking, the first one, called Poisson reduction, deals with Poisson structures on
quotients of Poisson manifolds, or, more generally on quotients of (coisotropic) submanifolds of Poisson manifolds. Poisson reduction is presented in Section 5.2. The
second construction, called PoissonDirac reduction, concerns Poisson structures
on submanifolds, which are not necessarily Poisson submanifolds; a typical example is a submanifold which is transverse to a symplectic leaf, leading to the notion
of transverse Poisson structure. PoissonDirac reduction is discussed in Section 5.3.
As an application of these constructions, we consider in Section 5.4 Poisson varieties and Poisson manifolds on which a group acts; we show how a Poisson structure is inherited on the quotient space, the subspace of fixed points of the action, and
on the reduced space of the so-called momentum map. For the convenience of the
reader, and in order to fix both our notations and conventions, the basic facts on Lie
groups, and their relation with Lie algebras are recalled in the first section of this
chapter.
As in the previous chapters, all Poisson algebras are defined over an arbitrary
field F of characteristic zero, all Poisson varieties are affine varieties over F and the
Poisson manifolds are real or complex manifolds.

C. Laurent-Gengoux et al., Poisson Structures,

Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften 347,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-31090-4 5, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

113

114

5 Reduction

5.1 Lie Groups and (Their) Lie Algebras

We recall in this section the natural correspondence between Lie groups and Lie algebras, we give the basic definitions and properties of group actions and we explain
construction of invariant (multi-)vector fields on a Lie group.

5.1.1 Lie Groups and Lie Algebras

A Lie group is a set G endowed with two structures, a group structure and a manifold
structure, which are required to be compatible, in the sense that the product map (the
group structure)
: G G G : (g, h)  gh
is assumed to be smooth (or holomorphic). Then the inverse map
inv : G G : g  g1
is also smooth (or holomorphic). The product of two elements g, h of G is denoted
by (g, h) or simply by gh, and the unit of G is denoted by e; as a manifold, G
may be either real or complex. The identity map on G is denoted by 1G . Given two
Lie groups G and H, a Lie group morphism from G to H is a group homomorphism
: G H, which is a smooth (or holomorphic) map. If G is contained in H and the
inclusion map is a Lie group morphism, then G is said to be a Lie subgroup of H.
The multiplication in G leads to three, a priori different, sets of diffeomorphisms
of G: given g G, we define left translation, right translation and conjugation by
g G respectively as follows:
Lg : G G : h 

gh ,

Rg : G G : h 

hg ,

Cg : G G : h  ghg1 .
The tangent maps of and inv can be expressed in terms of these diffeomorphisms:
since (g, h) = Lg (h) = Rh (g) for all g, h G, the tangent map of at (g, h) is given
by
T(g,h) (v, w) = Tg Rh (v) + Th Lg (w)
(5.1)
for all (v, w) T(g,h) (G G)  Tg G Th G. Differentiating the identities Lg Lg1 =
1G at e and (g, inv(g)) = e at g G, leads, upon using (5.1), to the following
expression for the tangent map of inv at g G,
Tg inv = Te Lg1 Tg Rg1 .

(5.2)

5.1 Lie Groups and (Their) Lie Algebras

115

Notice that, in particular, Te inv = 1Te G . Similarly, one computes from Cg = Lg

Rg1 , valid for g G, that the tangent map of the conjugation map Cg is given, at
the unit e, by
TeCg = Tg1 Lg Te Rg1 .
(5.3)
Since for a fixed g G, left translation by g is a diffeomorphism of G, which
sends e to g, we can identify the tangent spaces Te G and Tg G by using the linear

x on G by
map Te Lg . For a fixed x Te G, this allows us to define a vector field
setting, for all g G:

x g := Te Lg (x) .

The same can be done using right translation by g, yielding a vector field
x on G,
defined for all g G by

x g := Te Rg (x) .

It is clear that the vector fields x and

x are determined by their value, x, at e.
This fact is closely related to an invariance property which we now define. A vector
field V on G is said to be left-invariant (respectively right-invariant) if Th Lg (Vh ) =
Vgh , for all g, h G (respectively, Tg Rh (Vg ) = Vgh , for all g, h G). Each one of the

vector fields
x , where x Te G, is left-invariant, since

x h ) = Th Lg (Te Lh (x)) = Te (Lg Lh )(x) = Te Lgh (x) =

x gh ,
Th Lg (

for all g, h G. Similarly, each of the vector fields

x is right-invariant. It follows that there is a natural identification between Te G and the vector space of all
left-invariant vector fields on G (or the vector space of all right-invariant vector
fields on G). Since the commutator of two left-invariant vector fields on G is a leftinvariant vector field on G, the tangent space Te G at the unit of a Lie group G has a
natural Lie algebra structure. It leads to the following basic correspondence between
Lie groups and Lie algebras (for a proof, see [66]).
Theorem 5.1 (Lies theorem). Let G and H be Lie groups, whose units are denoted
by e and e respectively, and let : G H be a Lie group homomorphism.
(1)
(2)

The tangent space Te G is equipped with a natural Lie bracket [ , ];

The linear map Te : Te G Te H is a morphism of Lie algebras.

The Lie algebra (Te G, [ , ]) is called the Lie algebra of G and is denoted by (g, [ , ])
(or g, for short). Denoting h := Te H, the linear map Te : g h is called the Lie
algebra homomorphism associated to .
Conversely, let g and h be finite-dimensional Lie algebras and let : g h be a
Lie algebra homomorphism.
(3)
(4)

There exists a connected and simply connected Lie group, whose Lie algebra
is isomorphic to g; up to isomorphism, such a Lie group is unique;
Let G be a connected and simply connected Lie group with Lie algebra g,
and let H be a Lie group with Lie algebra h. There exists a unique Lie group
homomorphism : G H, such that is the Lie algebra homomorphism
associated to ;

116

5 Reduction

(5)

Let G be a connected and simply connected Lie group with Lie algebra g, and
let h be a Lie subalgebra of g. There exists a unique connected Lie subgroup H
of G with Lie algebra h.

In a different vein, a Lie group and its Lie algebra are related as follows: there exists
a diffeomorphism exp between a neighborhood of the origin o in g and a neighborhood of the unit e in G, having the fundamental property that for every x g, the

integral curve of
x which starts from o is given (for small |t|) by t  exp(tx). In
fact, one possible construction of the diffeomorphism exp is by integrating, for x in

a neighborhood of o in g, the left-invariant vector fields

x . We refer to exp as the
exponential map.
We end this section with a few comments on algebraic groups, which for us will
always be complex (defined over C). By definition, a (complex) algebraic group is
an algebraic variety with a group structure, such that the product map and the inverse
map are morphisms (of algebraic varieties). Much of what we discussed in this
section carries over to algebraic groups, for example there is canonically associated
to every algebraic group G a Lie algebra, whose underlying vector space g is the
(Zariski) tangent space to G at the unit e of G. However, there is in general no
algebraic analog of the exponential map and parts (3) and (4) of Lies theorem do
not hold in general. When dealing with quotients of algebraic varieties by algebraic
group actions, we will often assume that the algebraic group is reductive, which
means that all its finite-dimensional representations are completely reducible; as we
will explain at the end of Section 5.1.2, such quotients are rather well-behaved.

5.1.2 Lie Group Actions

Given a Lie group G and a manifold M, a group action : G M M is called
a Lie group action, if is smooth (or holomorphic); since the only actions of Lie
groups on manifolds which are considered here are Lie group actions, we will simply call them group actions. When the action is clear, we write gm for (g, m),
where (g, m) G M. Clearly, a group action of G on M induces a group action
of G on F (M), the algebra of smooth (or holomorphic) functions on M, by defining
for g G and F F (M)
(g F)(m) := F(g1 m) ,

(5.4)

for all m M. The virtue of the latter group action is that it is a representation
of G (on F (M)); a representation of a Lie group G on a vector space V is a group
action : G V V with the property that for every g G the map g : V V ,
defined for all x g by g (x) := (g, x), is a linear map (an endomorphism of V ).
The action of an algebraic group on an algebraic variety is defined in an analogous
way, demanding now that the map is a morphism of algebraic varieties.
The main group actions which we will consider in this chapter are the group
actions of G on itself, given by

5.1 Lie Groups and (Their) Lie Algebras

L : G G G : (g, h) 

117

gh ,

R : G G G : (g, h)  hg1 ,
C : G G G : (g, h)  ghg1 .
These actions are called left translation, right translation and conjugation (in that
order). Notice that taking the inverse of g in the definition of R is essential to make
it into an action (otherwise it would be a so-called right action); we stress that it
amounts to R(g, h) = Rg1 (h) for all g, h G.
For a fixed group action of G on a manifold M, the fundamental vector field
associated to x Te G, denoted x, is the vector field on M, whose value at m M is
given by
d
F( (exp(tx), m)) ,
(5.5)
xm [F] :=
dt |t=0
for all functions F, defined on a neighborhood of m in M. Writing g = exp(tx),
one sees that Eq. (5.5) is the infinitesimal version of (5.4). Applied to the case of
right translation (recall that R(g, h) = Rg1 h = hg1 ), this yields for all functions F,
defined in a neighborhood of g in G,
d
d
F(R(exp(tx), g)) =
F(g exp(tx))
dt |t=0
dt |t=0
d
=
((F Lg ) exp(tx)) = x[F Lg ]
dt |t=0

x g [F] .
= Te Lg (x)[F] =

xg [F] =

x g , for all g G, i.e., x =

x . In words: the left-invariant
We conclude that xg =
vector field on G, whose value at e is x, is the fundamental vector field of right
translation, corresponding to x. Similarly, the fundamental vector field of left trans
lation on G, corresponding to x g, is given by
x . Also, since Cg = Rg1 Lg ,
the fundamental vector field of conjugation on G, corresponding to x g, is given

by
x
x . The identity
inv Rg = Lg1 inv
implies that a vector field V on G is right-invariant if and only if the vector field
on G, defined1 by inv V , is left-invariant. It follows, using Te inv = 1Te G , that

x =
x , for every x g.
inv
Given a group action of a Lie group G on a manifold M, the map g X1 (M),
which associates, as above, to x g the fundamental vector field x on M, admits
as a natural generalization a map g X (M), which associates to a multivector
X of g a multivector field X on M. For X p g of the form X = x1 x p , the
p-vector field X is defined as
Recall that for a diffeomorphism : M N between manifolds and for V a vector field on M,
we denote by V the vector field on N, which is defined by ( V ) (m) := Tm (Vm ), for all
m M, and similarly for multivector fields on M.

118

5 Reduction

X := x1 x p
and is called the fundamental p-vector field, corresponding to X. In the case of right

and left translations on a Lie group G, we write X , respectively (1) p X for the
p
fundamental multivector field, associated to X g. Equivalently, for X p g, the

vector fields X and X can be defined by X g := p (Te Lg )X and X g := p (Te Rg )X,

for all g G. As above, it follows from this definition that X is a left-invariant

multivector field and that X is a right-invariant multivector field.

We show in the following proposition that the map, which sends X g to X ,

2
is a homomorphism of Gerstenhaber algebras.
Proposition 5.2. Let G be a Lie group with Lie algebra g. For all X,Y g, we
have



X Y = X Y ,
[[X,Y ]] = X , Y S ,
(5.6)

so the map X  X preserves the wedge product and the Schouten bracket. Up to a

sign, the same is true for the map X  X : for all X,Y g, we have

X Y = X Y ,
Moreover,
for all X,Y


[[X,Y ]] = X , Y S .


X,Y S=0,

(5.7)
(5.8)

g.

Proof. Since every element of g is a sum of elements of the form x1 x p ,

where 1  p  dim g, and x1 , . . . , x p g, it suffices to prove (5.6)(5.8) for X and Y of
this form. Then the first equation in (5.6) follows from the associativity of on g
and on X (G). The second equation in (5.6) clearly holds when X and Y belong
to g; upon using the graded Leibniz identities (3.42) and (3.47) of the Schouten
brackets [[ , ]] on g and [ , ]S on X (G), it follows that this formula holds for

x =
x , for all x g, we have inv X = (1) p X ,
general X,Y g . Since inv
p
for all X g; therefore, applying inv to both equations in (5.6), we find the
equations in (5.7). We now prove (5.8). In view of the graded Leibniz rule for the
Schouten bracket, it suffices to prove (5.8) when X and Y are elements of g, which

we write as x and y. The vector fields

x and
y are the fundamental vector fields
of the actions of right, respectively left, translation of G on itself. These actions

commute, hence the flows of

x and
y also commute. The commutator [
x ,
y ] is
therefore zero. 

For algebraic groups there is, in general, no exponential map, but for linear actions on vector spaces (representations), such as the actions which we will consider in the next section, taking the differential of the action, viewed as a map
: G End(V ), yields a linear vector field on V , which is the analog (up to a
sign) of the fundamental vector field, defined in (5.5).
Recall that ( g, , [[ , ]]) is a Gerstenhaber algebra, just like (X (M), , [ , ]S ), where M is an
arbitrary manifold (see Proposition 3.9).

5.1 Lie Groups and (Their) Lie Algebras

119

To finish this section, we recall some rather general conditions under which the
quotient space M/G of a group action G M M is of the same type as M, i.e., is
an affine variety or a manifold.
(1) Suppose that M is an affine variety on which a reductive algebraic group G acts.
Then the algebra of G-invariant functions F (M)G is finitely generated, hence is the
algebra of regular functions on an affine variety, which can be identified with the
orbit space M/G. Since, in particular, every finite group G is reductive, the quotient
of an affine variety by a finite group is an affine variety.
(2) Suppose that M is a manifold and that G is a Lie group, which acts properly
and locally freely on M. Then the orbit space M/G has a unique manifold structure
for which the canonical map p : M M/G is smooth. Interesting particular cases
include free actions of a finite group and locally free actions of a compact group on
a manifold. We recall that an action : G M M is called a proper action, if
the map

p2 : G M M M
(g, m)  (gm, m)

(5.9)

is a proper map, i.e., the inverse image of every compact subset of M M is a

compact subset of G M. Also, is called a locally free action if, for every m M,
there exists a neighborhood U of the identity in G such that the restriction to U of
the map g  gm is injective.

5.1.3 Adjoint and Coadjoint Action

We next consider the adjoint action of a Lie group G on its Lie algebra g, and more
generally on the space g; we will also consider its infinitesimal version, which is
a Lie algebra action of g on itself, and more generally on g. Dually, we will also
consider the corresponding group action of G and the corresponding Lie algebra
action of g on its dual vector space g and on g . The formulas are most naturally
written in terms on the natural pairing ,  between p g and p g, given for all
1 , . . . , p g and for all x1 , . . . , x p g by


 1 [x1 ] 1 [x p ] 


  .
..  .
1 p , x1 , . . . , x p :=  ..
(5.10)

.


 p [x1 ] p [x p ] 
For g G, the conjugation map Cg : G G is a Lie group automorphism of G.
According to Theorem 5.1, the tangent map to Cg at e is a Lie algebra automorphism
of g. It is customary to denote this map by Adg . Thus, Adg := TeCg : g g and
Adg ([x, y]) = [Adg x, Adg y] ,

120

5 Reduction

for all x, y g. For g, h G, we have that

Adgh = TeCgh = Te (Cg Ch ) = (TeCg ) (TeCh ) = Adg Adh ,
so that the assignment (g, x)  Adg x defines a group action of G on g. It is called
the adjoint action of G on g, denoted Ad. Since the maps Adg are linear maps, Ad is
actually a representation of G, the adjoint representation of G on g. The transpose
map of Adg1 is denoted by Adg : for all g and for all x g,

 
Adg , x = , Adg1 x .

The resulting map (g, )  Adg is a group action of G on g , called the coadjoint action of G on g , denoted Ad . As in the case of the adjoint action, Ad is a
representation of G, the coadjoint representation of G on g.
These adjoint and coadjoint actions extend to group actions of G on g and
on g , also denoted by Ad and Ad , upon setting
Adg (x1 x p ) := Adg x1 Adg x p ,

(5.11)

Adg (1 p ) := Adg 1 Adg p ,

(5.12)

for all g G, all p N , all x1 , . . . , x p g and all 1 , . . . , p g . It follows from

these definitions that


 
Adg , X = , Adg1 X ,
for all g G, all p g and all X p g.
The tangent map of Ad : G End(g) at e is the linear map
ad := Te Ad : g End(g) ,
called the adjoint representation of g. Writing adx for the image of x g by ad,
it is a fundamental fact that the endomorphism adx is given by adx (y) = [x, y],
for all y g. It follows that ad is indeed a Lie algebra representation: ad[x,y] =
adx ady ady adx , for all x, y g. More generally, taking the tangent map of
Ad : G End( g) at e we obtain the adjoint representation of g on g, still
denoted by ad. Equation (5.11) implies that
p

adx (x1 x p ) = x1 [x, xi ] x p ,

i=1

for all x1 , . . . , x p g hence that adx X = [[x, X]], for all X g. In view of the graded
Jacobi identity for the algebraic Schouten bracket [[ , ]], we have for all x, y g and
for all X g that
ad[x,y] X = [[[x, y] , X]] = [[x, [[y, X]]]] [[y, [[x, X]]]] = adx (ady X) ady (adx X) ,

5.1 Lie Groups and (Their) Lie Algebras

121

so that ad[x,y] = adx ady ady adx , which shows that ad is indeed a Lie algebra representation of g (on g). Similarly, we obtain the coadjoint representation by taking
the tangent map of Ad : G End( g ) at e, which yields ad : g End( g ).
As above, ad is for all x g a derivation of g and adx is related to adx by
adx , X = , adx X = , [[x, X]] ,

(5.13)

for all p g and all X p g.

To finish this section, we shortly discuss invariant multivectors. An element X
g is said to be Ad-invariant (respectively ad-invariant) if Adg X = X, for all g G
(respectively adx X = 0, for all x g). The following lemma relates Ad and adinvariance and gives a useful characterization in terms of the associated infinitesimal
multivector fields.
Proposition 5.3. Let G be a Lie group with Lie algebra g, and let X g.
(1)
(2)
(3)

If X is Ad-invariant, then X is ad-invariant;

If G is connected, then X is Ad-invariant if and only if X is ad-invariant;

X is Ad-invariant if and only if X = X .

Proof. Let X g. If X is Ad-invariant, then the map G g, defined for

g G by g  Adg X is a constant map, hence its tangent map is zero, adx X =
Te Ad(x)(X) = 0, for all x g. Conversely, the latter map is locally a constant map
on G when adx X = 0 for all x g; if G is connected, this implies that g  Adg X is
a constant map, hence that X is Ad-invariant. This proves (1) and (2). For X g,

say X p g, and for g G, the equality X g = X g , which can also be written as

p (Te Lg )X = p (Te Rg )X ,
is equivalent to p Adg X = X, because
p Adg = p (TeCg ) = p (Tg Rg1 ) p (Te Lg ) = p (Te Rg )1 p (Te Lg ) .

Therefore, X g = X g for all g G if and only if X is Ad-invariant, which is the

content of (3). 


5.1.4 Invariant Bilinear Forms and Invariant Functions

Let G be a Lie group and let g be its Lie algebra. A bilinear form |  on g is called
Ad-invariant, if for all g G and for all x, y g,


Adg x | Adg y = x | y .
If |  is Ad-invariant, then
[z, x] | y + x | [z, y] = 0 ,

122

5 Reduction

for all x, y, z g; a bilinear form on g satisfying the latter condition is called adinvariant. When G is connected, every bilinear form which is ad-invariant is Adinvariant, so the two notions of invariance need not be distinguished.
We often use a non-degenerate symmetric bilinear form to identify g with its dual
vector space g . Non-degeneracy of a bilinear form |  means that the linear map
: g g , which sends x g to the linear form x |  : y  x | y, is an isomorphism.
Its inverse will be denoted by . Explicitly, is given by
(x), y = x | y = (y), x ,
for all x, y g. If |  is moreover Ad-invariant, then for every g G and for all
x, y g it follows from the definitions that
 


 
Adg ( (x)), y = (x), Adg1 y = x | Adg1 y
 


= Adg x | y = (Adg x), y ,
so that the following diagram is commutative:
g

g
Adg

Adg

(5.14)

A Lie algebra g, equipped with a non-degenerate symmetric bilinear form | ,

which is ad-invariant is called a quadratic Lie algebra.
A function F on g is called Ad-invariant if it is invariant for the adjoint action
of G on g, i.e., if F(Adg x) = F(x) for all g G and x g. Similarly, a function F
on g is called Ad -invariant if it is invariant for the coadjoint action of G on g .
The Ad -invariance of a function F on g is characterized infinitesimally by
add F = 0 ,

(5.15)

for all g . Indeed, for z g and g ,


  



add F , z = , z, d F = d F, adz = 0 ,
where we used in the last step that dtd |t=0 F(Adexptz ) = 0, itself a direct consequence of the Ad -invariance of F. If F : g F is an Ad -invariant function and
if the bilinear form |  is Ad-invariant, then the commutativity of (5.14) leads for
every g G to
F Adg = F Adg = F ,
so that F is Ad-invariant. Similarly, |  is Ad-invariant and F is Adinvariant, then F is Ad -invariant. Thus, establishes a one-to-one correspondence

5.2 Poisson Reduction

123

between Ad -invariant functions on g and Ad-invariant functions on g. For a function F : g F, the Ad-invariance of |  also leads to



add (F ) = ( ) F, ( ) ,
(5.16)

where x F := (dx F), for x g. It follows that a function F on g is Ad-invariant if

and only if [x F, x] = 0 for all x g. The proof of (5.16) follows at once from the
definitions of , ad, and the ad-invariance of | .

5.2 Poisson Reduction

In many geometrical situations of interest, one deals with a quotient of a submanifold of a Poisson manifold, and while the submanifold itself does not inherit a
Poisson structure from its ambient space (i.e., it is not a Poisson submanifold, as
in Section 2.2), the quotient does inherit a Poisson structure. The construction of
such a Poisson structure is called Poisson reduction, while the Poisson structure
itself is called a reduced Poisson structure. We give in this section necessary and
sufficient conditions for Poisson reduction: we formulate them first algebraically
(Section 5.2.1) and then for manifolds (Section 5.2.2). The geometrical picture to
keep in mind, reading this section, consists of the following manifolds and maps:
N M
p

(5.17)

P
where M = (M, ) is a Poisson manifold, N is a submanifold of M and p is a submersion. The example to keep in mind is that of a Poisson manifold on which a
group G acts, a submanifold N which is G-invariant and the quotient P = N/G. We
will come back to this example in Section 5.4.2.

5.2.1 Algebraic Poisson Reduction

We first describe Poisson reduction in purely algebraic terms. Dualizing the diagram (5.17), we consider a Poisson algebra (A , , { , }), an ideal I of (A , ), the
canonical map : A A /I and a subalgebra B of A /I , as in the following
diagram:

124

5 Reduction

(5.18)

B A /I
We
would
like to have a Poisson structure { , }B on B, such that {F, G}B =
G , for every F, G B, where F and G are arbitrary representatives in A
F,
of F and G.
Definition 5.4. Let (A , , { , }) be a Poisson algebra, let I be an ideal of (A , )
and let B be a subalgebra of A /I . We say that the triple (A , I , B) is Poisson
reducible if there exists a Poisson bracket { , }B on B, such that


G ,
{F, G}B = F,
(5.19)
G are arbitrary representatives of F and G in A . The
for all F, G B, where F,
Poisson bracket { , }B on B is called the reduced Poisson bracket.
We give in the following proposition a necessary and sufficient condition for a
triple (A , I , B) to be Poisson reducible. For the ideal I of (A , ) we denote its
normalizer in (A , { , }) by N (I ),
N (I ) = {F A | {I , F} I } .

(5.20)

Clearly, N (I ) is a Poisson subalgebra of A : since { , } is a biderivation, N (I )

is a subalgebra of (A , ), while the Jacobi identity for { , } implies that N (I ) is
a Lie subalgebra of (A , { , }).
Proposition 5.5. Let (A , , { , }) be a Poisson algebra, let I be an ideal of (A , )
and let B be a subalgebra of A /I . Then (A , I , B) is Poisson reducible if and
only if the following conditions are satisfied:
(1)
(2)

1 (B) N (I );
1 (B) is a Lie subalgebra of (A , { , }).

For F, G B, their reduced Poisson bracket {F, G}B is then given by



G ,
{F, G}B = F,

(5.21)

where F and G are arbitrary representatives in A of F and G.

Proof. Suppose first that conditions (1) and (2) are satisfied. We wish to define a
G be representaPoisson bracket on B by using Eq. (5.21). Let F, G B and let F,
tives in A of F and G; both F and G are determined uniquely up to an element
 of I .
G is,
According to condition (1), F and G belong to N (I ), so their bracket F,
and G for F and G. Conmodulo I , independent
of
the
chosen
representatives
F




G B. It follows that
G 1 (B), so that F,
dition (2) implies that F,
(5.21) defines a map { , }B : B B B. Since is an algebra homomorphism,

5.2 Poisson Reduction

125

the fact that { , } is a skew-symmetric biderivation of A implies that { , }B is

a skew-symmetric biderivation of B. For the Jacobi identity, observe that, for all
F, G, H B, (5.21) yields that


G , H
{{F, G}B , H} =
F,
B

G and H are arbitrary representatives of F, G and H. The Jacobi identity for

where F,
{ , }B therefore follows from the Jacobi identity for the bracket { , }. We conclude
that (A , I , B) is Poisson reducible, in particular the reduced Poisson bracket on
B is given by (5.21).
Suppose now that (A , I , B) is Poisson reducible, so that B admits a Poisarbitrary elements of
son bracket { , }B which satisfies (5.19).Since F and G are 
1 (B), the latter formula implies that 1 (B), 1 (B) B, which yields
1

condition (2). For arbitrary

G I we have from (5.19),
 elements
 F (B)
 and
1

since (G) = 0, that F, G = 0, so that (B), I I , which yields

condition (1). 

Notice that since 1 (B) is a subalgebra of (A , ) and N (I ) is a Poisson
subalgebra of (A , , { , }), the two conditions (1) and (2) in Proposition 5.5 can be
summarized in the single condition:

1 (B) is a Poisson subalgebra of N (I ) .

Moreover, viewing the canonical map as a map : 1 (B) B, the formula (5.21) for the reduced Poisson bracket can be simply stated as being a
morphism of Poisson algebras, where 1 (B), which is a Poisson subalgebra
of N (I ), and hence of A , is equipped with the Poisson bracket which it inherits
from A .
We next consider Poisson reduction in the setting of affine varieties. We do this
by replacing each of the algebras in (5.18) by an affine variety, keeping in mind that
under the basic correspondence between algebras of finite type and affine varieties,
surjective algebra homomorphisms are replaced by injective maps between varieties
(with the direction of the arrow being reversed) while injective algebra homomorphisms are replaced by dominant maps between varieties, i.e., maps whose image
is (Zariski) dense in the target variety. We are thus led to consider the following
diagram,
N M
p

(5.22)

P
where M, N and P are affine varieties and p is a dominant map.
Definition 5.6. Let N be a subvariety of an affine Poisson variety (M, { , }) and let
p : N P be a dominant map, where P is also an affine variety. We say that the
triple (M, N, P) is Poisson reducible if there exists a Poisson structure { , }P on P,
such that, for every n N,

126

5 Reduction



G (n) ,
{F, G}P (p(n)) = F,
G F (M) of F p and G p. The
for all F, G F (P) and for all extensions F,
Poisson structure { , }P is called a reduced Poisson structure.
It is clear from the definitions that a triple of affine varieties (M, N, P) is Poisson
reducible if and only if the triple of algebras (A , I , B) := (F (M), IN , F (P)) is
Poisson reducible, where IN denotes the ideal of N. The geometric interpretation
of the normalizer N (IN ) of IN , defined in (5.20), is that
N (IN ) = {F F (M) | XF is tangent to N at every point of N} .

(5.23)

Also, 1 (B) = 1 (F (P)) consists of all functions on M, whose restriction to N

is of the form H p, for some function H F (P). It follows that Proposition 5.5
leads for affine varieties to the following result.
Proposition 5.7. Let (M, { , }) be an affine Poisson variety, let N be a subvariety
of M and let P be an affine variety. Suppose that p : N P is a dominant map, as
in diagram (5.22). Then (M, N, P) is Poisson reducible if and only if the following
conditions are satisfied:
(1)

(2)

All Hamiltonian vector fields, which are associated to functions, whose restriction to N is of the form H p, for some function H F (P), are tangent
to N;
G F (M) of
For every two functions F, G F (P) and for all extensions F,


G (n) =
F p and G p to M, there exists a function H F (P), such that F,
H(p(n)), for every n N.

In this case, the Poisson bracket of F, G F (P) at p(n), where n N, is given by



G (n) ,
{F, G}P (p(n)) = F,
where F and G are arbitrary extensions to M, of F p and G p.
There are two extreme cases of Proposition 5.7. The first one occurs when N = P.
Comparing Definitions 2.9 and 5.6, one has that (M, N, N) is defined to be Poisson
reducible if and only if N is a Poisson subvariety of M; Proposition 5.7 says that this
is the case precisely when all Hamiltonian vector fields are tangent to N. Thus the
equivalence (i) (iii) in Proposition 2.10 is a particular case of Proposition 5.7.
For the second extreme case of Proposition 5.7, suppose now that N = M. Then
Proposition 5.7 says that (M, M, P) is Poisson reducible if and only if the Poisson
bracket of every pair of functions which are of the form H p, with H F (P), is
also of that form. We will see an important particular case of this in Section 5.4,
where these functions are the invariant functions for some group action. Another
particular case of Proposition 5.7 is given in the following corollary.
Corollary 5.8. Let (M, { , }) be an affine Poisson variety, let N be a subvariety
of M and let P be an affine variety. Suppose that p : N P is a dominant map and
that for a function F F (M) the following conditions are equivalent:

5.2 Poisson Reduction

(i)
(ii)

127

The restriction of F to N is of the form H p, for some H F (P);

The Hamiltonian vector field XF is tangent to N.

Then (M, N, P) is Poisson reducible.

Proof. If (i) and (ii) are equivalent, then condition (1) in Proposition 5.7 is clearly
G F (M) be extensions of
satisfied. For condition (2), let F, G F (P) and let F,
F p and G p. According to (i) (ii), XF [IN ] IN and XG [IN ] IN , where,
as before, we denote the ideal of all functions on M which vanish on N by IN . Using
the Jacobi identity for { , } in the form of Proposition 1.4 (5), it follows that




IN + X F,
IN XF [IN ] + XG [IN ] IN ,
G,
X{F,
G } [IN ] XF
G


G to N is of the
which implies, in view of (ii) (i), that the restriction of F,
form H p, for some H F (P). 

The sufficient condition for Poisson reducibility, given in Corollary 5.8, is not a
necessary one. For example, let P and Q be affine Poisson varieties and consider the
triple (P Q, P Q, P), where P Q is equipped with the product Poisson structure.
If Q is of positive dimension (i.e., is not a point), then conditions (i) and (ii) in the
corollary are not equivalent. However, the triple is reducible, since condition (1) in
Proposition 5.7 is trivially satisfied, while condition (2) is a consequence of the fact
that the projection map p2 : P Q Q is a Poisson map (see Proposition 2.2).

5.2.2 Poisson Reduction for Poisson Manifolds

We now turn to the case of Poisson manifolds. The basic setup and the basic definition are very similar to the case of affine Poisson varieties (Section 5.2.1). First,
recall that, by definition, a map p : N P between manifolds is a submersion if the
tangent map Tn p : Tn N Tp(n) P is surjective for every n N; in particular, every
submersion is an open map (it maps open subsets of N to open subsets of P).
Definition 5.9. Let (M, { , }) be a Poisson manifold, N an (immersed or embedded)
submanifold of M, P a manifold and p : N P a surjective submersion, as in the
following diagram:
N M
p

(5.24)

P
We say that the triple (M, N, P) is Poisson reducible if there exists a Poisson structure P = { , }P on P, such that for all open subsets V N and U M, with
V U N, and for all functions F, G F (p(V )), one has


G (n) ,
{F, G}P (p(n)) = F,
(5.25)

128

5 Reduction

G F (U) are arbitrary extensions of F p| and

at all points n of V , where F,
V
G p|V . The Poisson structure P on P is called the reduced Poisson structure.
Remark 5.10. Recall from Section 2.2.2 that an immersed submanifold comes with
its own topology and differential structure, so the open subset V of N need not be
of the form U N for some open subset U of M. However, when N is an embedded
submanifold of M, it carries the induced topology from M and the condition in the
above definition simplifies to: for every open subset U M and for all functions
G F (U) are
F, G F (p(U N)), one has (5.25), for all n U N, where F,
arbitrary extensions of F p|UN and G p|UN .
Proposition 5.11. Let (M, { , }) be a Poisson manifold, let N be an (immersed or
embedded) submanifold of M and let p : N P be a surjective submersion onto a
manifold P. Then (M, N, P) is Poisson reducible if and only if for all open subsets
V N and U M, with V U N, the following conditions are satisfied:
(1)
(2)

For every function F F (U), whose restriction to V is constant on the fibers

of p, the Hamiltonian vector field XF is tangent to N at every point of V ;
G F (U) whose restrictions to V are constant
For every pair of functions F,


G , restricted to V , is constant on
on the fibers of p, their Poisson bracket F,
the fibers of p.

In this case, for every open subset V N and for all n V , the Poisson bracket of
F, G F (p(V )) at p(n) P is given by


G (n) ,
{F, G}P (p(n)) = F,
(5.26)
where F and G are arbitrary extensions to a neighborhood of n in M, of F p|V
and G p|V . In particular, the Hamiltonian vector field associated to F is given,
at p(n), by
(5.27)
(XF ) p(n) = dn p (XF )n .
Proof. We first point out that for an open subset V N and a function F F (V )
the following conditions are equivalent:
(i)
(ii)

F is of the form H p for some function H F (p(V ));

F is constant on all the fibers of p.

The only thing which is not obvious in this equivalence is the fact that the function H, constructed in (ii) (i), is smooth/holomorphic; it is a consequence of the
implicit function theorem, applied to the surjective submersion p.
Suppose that (M, N, P) is Poisson reducible. Let V N and U M be open subsets, with V U N, and suppose that F F (U) is constant on the fibers of p,
when restricted to V . Then F|V = F p|V for some function F F (p(V )). For an
defined on a neighborhood U  of n
arbitrary n V and an arbitrary function G,
in
 M, and
vanishing on some neighborhood of n in N, we have in view of (5.25) that
G (n) = {F, G}P (p(n)) = 0, since G = 0, in a neighborhood of p(n). ThereF,
fore, XF is tangent to N at n, leading to condition (1). Condition (2) follows also

5.2 Poisson Reduction

129

from (5.25), because the left-hand side of (5.25) depends only on p(n), i.e., on the
fiber which contains n, rather than on n itself.
Suppose now that conditions (1) and (2) hold. For every w P, we define a skewsymmetric biderivation (P )w at w by: for all germs Fw , Gw at w,


G (n) ,
(P )w [Fw , Gw ] := n [Fn , G n ] = F,
(5.28)
where n is an arbitrary point of N for which p(n) = w and Fn , G n are germs at n
defined on a neighborhood of n in M, and satisfying
G,
of arbitrary functions F,

F|V = F p|V and G|V = G p|V for some neighborhood V of n in N. The right-hand
side in (5.28) is independent

of the choice of n (with p(n) = w) because, according
G at points n of V depends on p(n) only. Similarly, it
to (2), the value of F,

is independent of the chosen F and G because, according


to (1), if G is such that

G|V = 0 and F is such that F|V = F p|V , then F, G (n) = 0. Thus P is welldefined at every point w P and it inherits from the biderivation property at
each point. We need to show that the bivector field P , defined on P by w  (P )w
is smooth/holomorphic. Let w P, let n p1 (w) and let V be a neighborhood
of n in N, having the property that every function in F (V ) extends to a function
in F (U), where U is a neighborhood of V in M. Such neighborhoods V and U exist
because N is an immersed submanifold of M. For every pair of functions F, G
F (p(V )), we then have, using the equivalence (i)(ii), given at the beginning of
the proof, that


G
{F, G}P p = F,
= H p ,
|
V

for some function H F (p(V )), in particular {F, G}P F (p(V )). This shows that
P is a smooth/holomorphic bivector field in a neighborhood of w; since w was
arbitrary, P is a smooth/holomorphic bivector field on P. In the bracket notation, it
is given by (5.26), for arbitrary points p(n) in P and for arbitrary functions F and G,
defined in a neighborhood of p(n) in P. Notice that (5.26) implies that


G , H (n) ,
{{F, G}P , H}P (p(n)) = F,
(5.29)
H ex G,
for arbitrary functions F, G, H, defined in a neighborhood of p(n), and F,
tensions as before. It follows from (5.29) that the Jacobi identity for { , } implies
the Jacobi identity for { , }P . Also, (5.27) is an immediate consequence of (5.26).


According to (1) in Proposition 5.11, if (M, N, P) is Poisson reducible and F is
a function, defined on an open subset of M, whose restriction to an open subset V of N vanishes, then the Hamiltonian vector field XF is tangent to N at every
point of V . This motivates the following definition, from which it follows that if
(M, N, P) is Poisson reducible, then N is a coisotropic submanifold of the Poisson
manifold (M, ).
Definition 5.12. A submanifold N of a Poisson manifold (M, ) is said to be a
coisotropic submanifold of M if for every open subset V of N and for every func-

130

5 Reduction

defined on a neighborhood of V in M, and such that F|

tion F,
= 0, the HamiltoNV
nian vector field XF is tangent to N, at every point of V .
The notion of a coisotropic submanifold generalizes the notion of a Poisson submanifold, since the Hamiltonian vector fields, associated to (local) functions which
vanish on a Poisson submanifold, are not only tangent to the Poisson submanifold,
but they actually vanish on it.
The condition that a submanifold N of a Poisson manifold is coisotropic can be
stated pointwise. To do this, we introduce, for every m M, the linear map m :
Tm M Tm M, which corresponds3 to the bivector m 2 Tm M, and for n N, the
subspace Tn N of Tn M, which consists of the annihilator of Tn N in Tn M,
Tn N := { Tn M | v Tn N, (v) = 0} .
By the implicit function theorem, every element of Tn N can be realized as the
defined on a neighborhood of n in M, and whose
differential at n of some function F,
restriction to N vanishes. It leads to the following two pointwise characterizations
of a coisotropic submanifold.
Lemma 5.13. Let N be a submanifold of a Poisson manifold (M, ). The following
conditions on N are equivalent.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

N is a coisotropic submanifold;
For every n N, n (Tn N, Tn N) = {0};
For every n N, n (Tn N) Tn N.

Similarly, the stronger condition that all Hamiltonian vector fields XF are tangent to
the fibers pn := p1 (p(n)) of the surjective map p : N P can be stated as follows:
for every n N,
n (Tn N) Tn pn .
In the following proposition we show that for a triple (M, N, P) as above, if all the
tangent spaces Tn pn are spanned by Hamiltonian vector fields which come from
functions which vanish on N, then (M, N, P) is Poisson reducible.
Proposition 5.14. Let (M, ) be a Poisson manifold, N an (immersed or embedded)
submanifold of M and let p : N P be a surjective submersion with connected
fibers. If

n Tn N = Tn pn
(5.30)
for every n N, then N is a coisotropic submanifold of M and (M, N, P) is Poisson
reducible.
Our sign convention is that m (dm H)[F] = m [Hm , Fm ] = {H, F} (m), for all functions F and H,
defined on a neighborhood of m.

5.2 Poisson Reduction

131

Proof. Notice first that in view of (iii) (i) in Lemma 5.13, N is a coisotropic
submanifold of M. To show that (M, N, P) is Poisson reducible, we verify both conditions (1) and (2) in Proposition 5.11.
(1) The skew-symmetry of n , combined with (5.30), yields that n (Tn pn ) Tn N,
for every n N. It implies that the Hamiltonian vector field of every function, defined on a neighborhood of n in M, whose restriction to N is constant on the fibers
of p, is tangent to N, which is condition (1).
G
(2) Let U M and V N be non-empty open subsets, with V U N. Let F,
F (U) be two functions whose
restrictions
to
V
are
constant
on
the
fibers
of
p. We


G to V is constant on the fibers of p. Let n V
show that the restriction of F,
and v Tn pn be arbitrary. Then v can be extended, on a neighborhood of n in M,
to a Hamiltonian vector field, which is tangent to the fibers of p. Indeed, by (5.30),
there exists a function H on a neighborhood U  U of n in M, whose restriction
= v. Since H is zero on V  , its
to V  := V U  is zero, with (XH )n = n (dn H)
Hamiltonian vector field XH is indeed, again by (5.30), tangent to the fibers of p at
is zero on V  , because F| is
every point of V  . It follows that the function XH [F]
V


is

constant on the fibers of p. By (5.30), XH 

[F], G vanishes
on
N
(recall
that
G

F (n) = 0. Using the Jacobi
also constant on the fibers of p). Similarly, XH [G],
identity, it follows that








(n) = 0 .
G (n) = XH [F],
G (n) + F,
XH [G]
G = XH F,
v F,


G to each connected
Since n N and v Tn pn are arbitrary, the restriction of F,
component of pn V is constant. Notice that, since pn V is not
necessarily con G to every fiber of p
nected, we cannot conclude from it that the restriction of F,


G
is constant. However, there is a function H on p1 (p(V )), which agrees with F,
at every point of V and which has the same property of being constant, when restricted to each
 fiber
pn , where n V ; since each fiber pn is connected, we can
G is constant, when restricted to the fibers of p. In order to conconclude that F,
struct H, let n be an arbitrary point of p1 (p(V )). Since F is constant on the fibers
of p, its restriction to V is of the form F p|V for some function F. On a small neighborhood U  of n in M we can construct an extension F0 of F p|V  , where V  is a
It
neighborhood of n in N, with V  U  N. Similarly, we construct G 0 from G.


follows from (5.30) that H := F0 , G0 is at points of V independent of the chosen

1
extensions,

hence leads to a well-defined function on p (p(V )), which coincides

with F, G on V . Moreover, it follows as earlier in this proof that H is constant on

the fibers of p. This proves the existence of H, with the announced properties, hence
achieves the proof. 

Remark 5.15. Let N be a coisotropic submanifold of a Poisson manifold (M, ).
Assume that the dimension of n (Tn N) is independent of n N. According to
Lemma 5.13, a distribution is defined on N by assigning to every n N the subspace n (Tn N) of Tn M. This distribution is differentiable, because it is locally defined by the Hamiltonian vector fields which correspond to local functions on M

132

5 Reduction

which vanish on N. For functions F, G, defined on an open subset U of M, and

vanishing on N, their commutator [XF , XG ] = X{F,G} is the Hamiltonian vector
field of the function {F, G}, which vanishes on N; indeed, {F, G} = XG [F] vanishes
on N because F is constant on N (in fact, it vanishes on N) and XG is tangent to N
(since N is coisotropic). Thus, [XF , XG ] belongs to the distribution and the latter is
integrable in the sense of Frobenius. If the space P of leaves of this distribution is a
manifold, then the conditions of Proposition 5.14 hold, so that (M, N, P) is Poisson
reducible and P inherits a Poisson structure from (M, ).
Remark 5.16. It is instructive to write down the conditions of Poisson reducibility
in terms of a well-chosen system of local coordinates for the ambient manifold. It
leads to an expression for the Poisson matrix of the reduced Poisson structure in
terms of the Poisson matrix of the initial Poisson structure.
Let (M, N, P) be three manifolds with N M a submanifold of M, and p : N P
a surjective submersion. For simplicity, we assume that N is an embedded submanifold. We define s,t and u by
s := dim P,

s + t := dim N,

s + t + u := dim M .

Let n be an arbitrary point of N and let (x1 , . . . , xs ) be an arbitrary coordinate system,

defined on a neighborhood of p(n) in P. For i = 1, . . . , s, choose an extension xi
of xi p to a neighborhood of n in M. Then there exist on a neighborhood of n
in M functions y1 , . . . , yt and z1 , . . . , zu , such that (x1 , . . . , xs , y1 , . . . , yt , z1 , . . . , zu ) is a
coordinate system for M in a neighborhood U of n, and such that N U is given by
the equations z1 = = zu = 0.
Let be a Poisson structure on M. The Poisson matrix X of with respect to the
coordinates x1 , . . . , xs , y1 , . . . , yt , z1 , . . . , zu (in that order) is given by the block matrix

A
B C
X = B D E
C E  F
D and F are square matrices of size s, t and u respectively. Each of the
where A,
B, C, . . . is a matrix-valued function on U, whose restriction to U N
blocks A,
is denoted by A |N , B|N , C|N , . . . We summarize the conditions related to Poisson
reducibility, expressed in terms of the Poisson matrix X, in Table 5.1.
The proof of each one of the lines of the table is a direct consequence of the
definitions. To start with, N U is coisotropic in U M if and only if every Hamiltonian vector field XG , with G a function on U which vanishes on N U, is tangent
to N at every point of N U. Since N U is the zero locus of the local coordinates
z1 , . . . , zs , this happens if and only if the Hamiltonian vector fields Xzi are tangent
to N U at every point of N U for all i = 1, . . . , u, i.e. if and only if Xzi [z j ](n ) = 0
for all i, j = 1, . . . , s and n N U. This is equivalent to saying that F|N = 0.
Let us explain the second line in the table. Condition (1) in Proposition 5.11
demands that the Hamiltonian vector field XG is tangent to N for every function
G whose restriction to N is of the form G p for some function G defined in a

5.2 Poisson Reduction

133

Table 5.1 A summary of the conditions related to Poisson reducibility, expressed in terms of the
Poisson matrix X.

Condition

Poisson matrix

N is a coisotropic submanifold

F|N = 0

Condition (1) in Proposition 5.11

C|N = F|N = 0

Condition (2) in Proposition 5.11

A |N depends only on x1 , . . . , xs

(M, N, P) is Poisson reducible

Condition (5.30) in Proposition 5.14

C|N = F|N = 0
A |N depends only on x1 , . . . , xs
C|N = F|N = 0
Rk(E(n )) = t

for every n N U

neighborhood of p(n) in P. It implies that the Hamiltonian vector fields associated

to the functions x1 , . . . , xs , z1 , . . . , zu are tangent to N, hence that C|N = F|N = 0. The
inverse implication follows from the fact that if the restriction of a function G to N
is constant on the fibers of p, then this restriction is independent of the coordinates
y1 , . . . , yt .
For the third
 line, condition (2) in Proposition 5.11 is tantamount to saying that
the functions xi , x j , restricted to U N depend on the functions x1 , . . . , xs only;
in terms of the Poisson matrix X, this condition amounts to saying that A |N depends
only on x1 , . . . , xs .
The fourth line follows from the second and third lines, because (M, N, P) being
Poisson reducible means precisely that conditions (1) and (2) in Proposition 5.11
are satisfied.
For the last line in the table, condition (5.30) in Proposition 5.14, which states


that n Tn N = Tn pn for every n N, implies that condition (1) in Proposition 5.11
is satisfied, so that C|N = F|N = 0. It also implies that, at every point n N U, the
u columns of the matrix E, which represent the Hamiltonian vector fields of the
functions z1 , . . . , zu , generate a space of dimension t, namely the tangent space of
the fiber of p through n .
When (M, N, P) is Poisson reducible, A |N depends only on the variables x1 , . . . , xs ,
so that there exists a matrix-valued function A, such that A p = A |U . In view of
(5.26), the Poisson matrix of the reduced Poisson structure on P, expressed in terms
of the local coordinates x1 , . . . , xs , is precisely the matrix A.

134

5 Reduction

5.3 PoissonDirac Reduction

We saw in Section 2.2 that if (A , , { , }) is a Poisson algebra and I is a Poisson
ideal of (A , ), then A /I inherits a Poisson algebra structure from A . As we will
show in this section, A /I may inherit a Poisson structure from A under weaker
conditions; we then say that the Poisson structure on A /I is obtained by Poisson
Dirac reduction. For Poisson manifolds it amounts to obtaining a Poisson structure
on a submanifold, which is not a Poisson submanifold.

5.3.1 Algebraic PoissonDirac Reduction

Let (A , , { , }) be a Poisson algebra and let I be an ideal of (A , ). Consider the
composition of algebra homomorphisms
N (I )

A
I

(5.31)

where we recall from Section 5.2.1 that N (I ) is the normalizer of I ,

N (I ) := {F A | {F, I } I } ,
which is a Poisson subalgebra of A . The kernel of the composite map in (5.31) is the
Poisson ideal N (I ) I of N (I ). It follows that N (I )/(N (I ) I ) is itself
a Poisson algebra. Notice that it is isomorphic to a subalgebra of A /I , although
the latter is not a Poisson algebra, in general. It leads to the following definition.
Definition 5.17. Let (A , , { , }) be a Poisson algebra. An ideal I of (A , ) is said
to be a PoissonDirac ideal if one of the following equivalent conditions holds:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

The natural inclusion of algebras N (I )/(N (I ) I )  A /I is an isomorphism;

The composition of algebra homomorphisms N (I )  A A /I is surjective;
I + N (I ) = A .

The three conditions in the definition are clearly equivalent. Condition (i) implies
that A /I is a Poisson algebra, isomorphic to N (I )/(N (I ) I ), as stated in
the following proposition.
Proposition 5.18. Let I be a PoissonDirac ideal of a Poisson algebra (A , , { , }).
Then A /I has a unique Poisson bracket which makes the surjective morphism
N (I )  A A /I into a morphism of Poisson algebras. This bracket is said
to be obtained by PoissonDirac reduction.
When I is a PoissonDirac ideal, the different Poisson algebras which appear in
PoissonDirac reduction can be summarized in the following commutative diagram,

5.3 PoissonDirac Reduction

135

N (I )

N (I )
N (I ) I

(5.32)

A /I

where all maps are morphisms of Poisson algebras, except (in general) for the
canonical projection : A A /I .
We now consider PoissonDirac reduction for affine Poisson varieties. Suppose
that N M is a subvariety of an affine Poisson variety (M, { , }). We denote the
ideal of N (in F (M)) by IN . Recall from (5.23) that N (IN ) consists of all functions on M whose Hamiltonian vector field is tangent to N. Translating (ii) of Definition 5.17 into geometrical terms, leads to the following definition.
Definition 5.19. Let (M, { , }) be an affine Poisson variety. A subvariety N M is
said to be a PoissonDirac subvariety if every function on N is the restriction of a
function on M whose Hamiltonian vector field is tangent to N.
Thus, a subvariety N is, by definition, a PoissonDirac subvariety if and only if its
ideal IN is a PoissonDirac ideal. In view of Definition 5.17 this leads to other, algebraic, characterizations of PoissonDirac subvarieties and Proposition 5.18 shows
that a PoissonDirac subvariety inherits a Poisson structure from its ambient Poisson variety. That is the content of the following proposition.
Proposition 5.20. Let N be a PoissonDirac subvariety of an affine Poisson variety
(M, { , }). There exists a unique Poisson structure { , }N on N such that, for every
F, G F (N), their Poisson bracket is given by


G 
{F, G}N = F,
(5.33)
N
G are arbitrary extensions of F, G to M, whose Hamiltonian vector fields
where F,
XF and XG are tangent to N at all points of N. In particular, every Hamiltonian
vector field on (N, { , }N ) is the restriction, to N, of a Hamiltonian vector field
on (M, { , }). The Poisson structure { , }N is called a reduced Poisson structure.
Remark 5.21. Suppose that N is a PoissonDirac subvariety of an affine Poisson
variety (M, { , }). Then the subalgebra N (IN ) of F (M) may not be finitely generated, and therefore may not be the algebra of functions on some affine variety.
However, when N (IN ) is finitely generated, then the commutative diagram (5.32)
leads to the following commutative diagram of affine varieties

136

5 Reduction

QN

DN

where QN , respectively DN , is the affine variety, whose algebra of regular functions

is N (IN ), respectively N (IN )/ (N (IN ) IN ). All maps in this diagram are
Poisson maps, except (in general) for the inclusion N  M.
We have seen in Section 2.2 that if N is a Poisson subvariety of a Poisson variety
(M, { , }), then for every function F on M, which vanishes on N, the Hamiltonian
vector field XF vanishes at every point of N. For PoissonDirac subvarieties a similar, but weaker, property holds.
Proposition 5.22. Let (M, { , }) be an affine Poisson variety and let N be a Poisson
Dirac subvariety, whose ideal is denoted by IN . Let F IN . If the Hamiltonian
vector field XF is tangent to N at some point n N, then it vanishes at that
point, (XF )n = 0. In other words, Hamn (IN ) Tn N = {0} for every n N, where
Hamn (IN ) = {(XF )n | F IN } is the vector space of Hamiltonian vectors at n,
which come from elements of IN .
Proof. Let F IN and let n N. Suppose that XF is tangent to N at n, which
means that XF [G](n) = 0, for every G IN . We wish to show that (XF )n = 0. If
H F (M), then H can be written as H1 + H2 with H1 IN and H2 N (IN ),
since IN is a PoissonDirac ideal (condition (iii) in Definition 5.17). By the above,
XF [H1 ](n) = 0, while XF [H2 ](n) = {H2 , F} (n) = 0, since H2 belongs to the normalizer of IN . Therefore, XF [H](n) = 0 for every H F (M), which means that

(XF )n = 0. 
To finish this section, we write a Poisson matrix for the reduced Poisson structures,
obtained by PoissonDirac reduction. Assume that N is a PoissonDirac subvariety of an affine Poisson variety (M, { , }). As before, the ideal of N is denoted
by IN and its normalizer by N (IN ). There exist generators F1 , . . . , Fs , G1 , . . . , Gt
of F (M) with every Fi belonging to N (IN ) and every Gi belonging to IN ; to
construct such generators one can for example start from generators H1 , . . . , Hs for
F (M) = N (IN ) + IN and decompose every Hi as Fi + Gi , with Fi N (IN )
and Gi IN . In terms of the generators F1 , . . . , Fs , G1 , . . . , Gt , the Poisson matrix of
(M, { , }) is a 2 2 block matrix


A B
B D
where


Ai j = Fi , Fj , Bik = {Fi , Gk } , Dk = {Gk , G } ,

for 1  i, j  s and 1  k,   t. Since N is a PoissonDirac subvariety, the functions

F1 , . . . , Fs , restricted to N, generate F (N). Also, the Poisson matrix of (N, { , }N ),

5.3 PoissonDirac Reduction

137


in terms of these generators, is given by the matrix A, with entries Ai j = Fi , Fj | ,
N
where 1  i, j  s; indeed, the Hamiltonian vector fields of F1 , . . . , Fs are tangent
to N at every point ofN, hencewe can use these functions in (5.33) to compute
the Poisson brackets Fi |N , Fj |N . Note also that all entries of B belong to IN ,
N
hence vanish on N; see Proposition 5.25 below for a converse in the differentialgeometrical context.

5.3.2 PoissonDirac Reduction for Poisson Manifolds

Let N be an (immersed or embedded) submanifold of a manifold M. Given a point
n in N and a function F, defined on a neighborhood W of n in N, a local extension

of F at n is a triple (F,U,V
) where
(1)
(2)
(3)

U M is a neighborhood of n in M;
V (W U) N is a neighborhood of n in N;
F F (U) is a function such that F|V = F|V .

The relation between the different subsets and maps is represented in the following
diagram:
N
M

V
F

F|

U
F

F
Every function F, defined on an open subset of N, admits a local extension at every
point of its domain of definition.
Definition 5.23. Let (M, { , }) be a Poisson manifold and let N be an (immersed or
embedded) submanifold of M. We say that N is a PoissonDirac submanifold of M,
if for every n N, every function F, defined in a neighborhood of n in N, admits a

local extension (F,U,V

) at n, such that XF is tangent to N at every point of V .
Note that, in particular, a Poisson submanifold N of a Poisson manifold (M, { , }) is
a PoissonDirac submanifold, since all Hamiltonian vector fields are tangent to N.
We show in the following proposition that every PoissonDirac submanifold inherits a Poisson structure from its ambient Poisson manifold.
Proposition 5.24. Let (M, { , }) be a Poisson manifold and let N be a Poisson
Dirac submanifold of M. There exists on N a unique Poisson structure { , }N such
G
that, for all open subsets V N and U M with V U, for every function F,

138

5 Reduction

F (U) whose Hamiltonian vector fields are tangent to N at every point of V , and for
every n V , we have


G (n) ,
{F, G}N (n) = F,
(5.34)
G to V . In particular, locally, every
where F, G F (V ) are the restrictions of F,
Hamiltonian vector field on N is the restriction to N of a Hamiltonian vector field
on M.
Proof. For every n N, we define a skew-symmetric pointwise biderivation (N )n
by its values on germs Fn , Gn at n,


G (n) ,
(N )n (Fn , Gn ) := F,
(5.35)
where the right-hand side is constructed as follows:
Choose functions F and G, defined in a neighborhood of n in N, with germs
Fn , Gn at n;

Choose local extensions (F,U,V

) and (G,U,V
) of F and G at n, such that the
Hamiltonian vector fields XF and XG are tangent to N, at every point of V .
We have to check that this definition makes sense: a priori, the right-hand side
of (5.35) depends on the choice of representatives F and G of the germs Fn and Gn ,

and on the choice of local extensions (F,U,V

) and (G,U,V
). The Hamiltonian vec
tor field XG is tangent to N at every point of the subset V of N, so that XG [F](n)

depends only on the restriction of F to V , and therefore depends only on the germ Fn
of F at n. Hence


G (n) = XG [F](n)
= XF [G](n)
F,
depends only on the germs Fn and Gn , as was to be checked.
We may now define a bivector field N = { , }N on N by its value on every pair
of functions F, G, defined on an open subset V of N, setting


G (n) ,
{F, G}N (n) := (N )n (Fn , Gn ) = F,
(5.36)
for every n V . To check that the bivector field is smooth/holomorphic, notice that

the above extensions (F,U,V

) and (G,U,V
) are local extensions of F and G at

every n V , with Hamiltonian vector fields tangent to N at every point of V , so
that (5.36) is not only valid for n, but for every n V . Since the right-hand side of
(5.36) is a smooth or holomorphic function of n, and since F and G are arbitrary
functions, we can conclude that the bivector field N is also smooth or holomorphic
(on V , hence on N).
H be three functions, defined on an open subset U of M,
G,
Let, as above, F,
assume that their Hamiltonian vector fields are tangent to N at every point of an open
subset Vof N, and let F, G, H denote their restrictions to V . The Hamiltonian vector
G is tangent to N, at every point of V , since X = [XF , XG ]
field of F,
{F,G}


(item (5) in Proposition 1.4). As a consequence, F, G ,U,V is a local extension

of {F, G}N at n, whose Hamiltonian vector field is tangent to N at every point of V ,
hence

5.3 PoissonDirac Reduction

{{F, G}N , H}N (n) =

139

G , H (n) ,
F,

(5.37)

for every n V , so that the Jacobi identity for the bracket { , }N follows from the
Jacobi identity for { , }. 

In order to give a geometrical characterization of PoissonDirac submanifolds
(Proposition 5.25 below), we express the Poisson bivector on a Poisson manifold
in terms of local coordinates which are adapted to the PoissonDirac submanifold.
To do this, let N be a PoissonDirac submanifold of a Poisson manifold (M, ), and
let n N. We denote the dimension of M by d and the dimension of N by s. There exists a coordinate chart (U, x) of M, adapted to N, and centered at n, such that the vector fields Xx1 , . . . , Xxs are tangent to N, at every point of an open subset V of U N,
which contains n. In order to construct such local coordinates, one may start from an
arbitrary coordinate chart (U, y) of M, adapted to N at n, and centered at n; since N is
a PoissonDirac submanifold, each of the functions y1 |N , . . . , ys |N can be extended in
a neighborhood of n, to produce the above functions x1 , . . . , xs , with the stated property, and supplemented with the remaining functions xs+1 := ys+1 , . . . , xd := yd they
form the required coordinate chart, after possibly shrinking the neighborhoods U
and V of n.
Since the vector fields Xx1 , . . . , Xxs are tangent to N, at every point of V , all the
functions {xi , x j } = [xi , x j ] = Xxi [x j ] vanish on V , for 1  i  s < j  d. For
every point n V , the Poisson structure , at n , is therefore given by:











xi j (n ) xi  x j  + xi j (n ) xi  x j  (5.38)
n
n
n
n
1i< js
s<i< jd


where xi j (n ) := xi , x j (n ), for 1  i < j  d, and where the first sum is the reduced Poisson structure at n. Equation (5.38) implies that, in well-chosen local coordinates, the Poisson matrix of at points of N takes a block-diagonal form. We
show in the following proposition that this fact characterizes PoissonDirac submanifolds.
Proposition 5.25. Let (M, ) be a Poisson manifold of dimension d and let N be a
submanifold of M. Then N is a PoissonDirac submanifold of M if and only if there
exists for each n N a coordinate chart (U, x) of M, adapted
N, and centered
 at
at n with the following property: if the Poisson matrix X := ( xi , x j )1i, jd of in
terms of these coordinates is written in block form


A B
,
X=
B D
where A has size s := dim N, then there exists a neighborhood V of n in U N,
such that B(n ) = 0 for every n V . Moreover, when these equivalent conditions
are satisfied, then the Poisson matrix of the reduced Poisson structure N on N is
given, in terms of the above coordinates x1 |V , . . . , xs |V , on a neighborhood of n in N,


.
by A|V = xi , x j |
V

1i, js

140

5 Reduction

Proof. We start with the stated characterization of a PoissonDirac submanifold. By

the above, every PoissonDirac submanifold admits indeed such an adapted coordinate chart, for each n N. For the inverse implication, let n N and assume that a
coordinate chart (U, x) of M is given, adapted at N, and centered at n. Let V denote
the corresponding open subset of N which contains n, and on which x1 |V , . . . , xs |V
are local coordinates for N. Suppose that the Poisson matrix of { , } in terms of
the coordinate chart (U, x) takes a block-diagonal form at every point n in a neighborhood of n in N, as in (5.38). Let F be a function, defined in a neighborhood
of n in N and let F := F p, where p : U V is the projection map, associated

to (U, x). Then (F,U,V

) is an extension of F at n. Since the coordinate expression

of F on (U, x) depends on the first s variables x1 , . . . , xs only, the Hamiltonian vector

takes at points n in a neighborhood of n in N the form
field XF , associated to F,


s


 F
(XF )n = xi j (n )
(n )
,
xj
xi n
i=1
so it is tangent to N at n . According to Definition 5.23, this shows that N is a
PoissonDirac submanifold.
We can use these coordinate charts to compute the Poisson matrix of the reduced Poisson structure on N. Indeed, on a neighborhood V of n in N, 
the functions

x1 |V , . . . , xs |V are local coordinates on N and their Poisson brackets xi |V , x j |V
N


can, according to Proposition 5.24, be computed as xi , x j V . It follows that, in
terms of these coordinates, the Poisson matrix of the reduced Poisson structure is
the matrix A, restricted to V . 

We give in the following proposition a description of the symplectic leaves of a
PoissonDirac submanifold.
Proposition 5.26. Let (N, N ) be a PoissonDirac submanifold of a Poisson manifold (M, ) and let n N. Denoting by Sn (N), respectively Sn (M), the symplectic
leaf of (N, N ), respectively of (M, ), which contains n, the symplectic leaf Sn (N)
is the connected component of N Sn (M) which contains n.
Proof. Let n N and let n Sn (N). By the definition of the symplectic leaf Sn (N),
passing through n, this means that there exists a piecewise Hamiltonian path for N
with endpoints n and n (recall from Section 1.3.4 that a Hamiltonian path is by
definition an integral curve of a Hamiltonian vector field). Since N is a Poisson
Dirac submanifold of M, every function F on N admits at every point n in its domain

of definition a local extension (F,U,V

), whose Hamiltonian vector field XF is equal
to XF on V . Since the image of is compact, it can be covered by finitely many such
local extensions, and is therefore a piecewise Hamiltonian path for . It follows
that
Sn (N) Sn (M) N .
(5.39)
Let C be the connected component of Sn (M) N containing n N. Since Sn (N) is
a connected set, (5.39) implies the stronger inclusion Sn (N) C . We need to prove
that Sn (N) = C .

5.3 PoissonDirac Reduction

141

To do this, let (U, x) be local coordinates in a neighborhood of n N, which

are adapted to the PoissonDirac submanifold, as in (5.38). For every function
with respect to { , }, and
F F (U), the Hamiltonian vector field XF of F,
the Hamiltonian vector field XF of its restriction F = F|V F (V ), with respect
to { , }N , are related at n V by



 F 
(n )
.
(XF )n = (XF )n + xi j (n )
xi
x j n
s<i< jd
In particular, the tangent vector (XF )n in Tn M belongs to Tn N if and only if it is
equal to (XF )n . Since, by Theorem 1.30, the tangent space of a symplectic leaf at
a given point n is the space of all Hamiltonian vectors (XF )n at n , an element in
Tn Sn (M) belongs to Tn N if and only if it belongs to Tn Sn (N). In short, we have,
for all n Sn (N),
Tn Sn (N) = Tn Sn (M) Tn N .
(5.40)
In general geometrical terms, (5.39) and (5.40) say that we have three submanifolds
M0 , M1 and M2 of M, such that
M0 M1 M2

and

Tm0 M0 = Tm0 M1 Tm0 M2 ,

for all m0 M0 . According to the implicit function theorem, there exist in this case
neighborhoods U0 , U1 and U2 of m0 in M0 , M1 and M2 respectively such that U0 =
U1 U2 . In particular, there is a neighborhood of m0 in M1 M2 , which is contained
in M0 . Applied to (5.39) and (5.40), this means that Sn (N) is an open subset in C .
Let us show that Sn (N) is also a closed subset of C . Let n be a point in the closure
of Sn (N) in C . There is, for the above reasons, an open subset W of C contained in
Sn (N). Since W has a non-empty intersection with Sn (N), the symplectic leaves
Sn (N) and Sn (N) coincide, so that in particular n Sn (N), i.e., Sn (N) is a closed
subset of C . In conclusion, Sn (N) is, for every n N, an open and closed subset

of C , the connected component of Sn (M) N, which contains n. 
We now explain how to compute the Poisson matrix of a Poisson structure obtained
by PoissonDirac reduction out of the Poisson matrix of the Poisson structure on the
ambient space. According to (5.34), if x1 , . . . , xs are functions whose Hamiltonian
vector fields are tangent to N, at every point in a neighborhood V of n in N, and
such that their
restrictions x1 , . . . , xs to V are local coordinates for N, then the matrix



xi , x j |
is the Poisson matrix of { , }N with respect to the coordinates
V

1i, js

x1 , . . . , xs . We show in the following proposition how to construct such functions and

we derive from it an explicit formula for the latter Poisson structure.
Proposition 5.27. Let (M, ) be a Poisson manifold and let N be an s-dimensional
submanifold of M. Suppose that (U, x) is a coordinate chart of M, adapted to N
and centered at some point
 n N. LetV denote an open subset of N, containing n,
having the property that x1 |V , . . . , xs |V is a system of local coordinates on V . Let X


denote the Poisson matrix xi , x j 1i, jd of with respect to these coordinates.

142

5 Reduction

We write X in the block form


X=

A B
B D

where A and D are square matrices, of size s, respectively d s, while B has size
s (d s). If the matrix D(m) is invertible for every m U, then
(1)
(2)

V is a PoissonDirac submanifold of (M, );

The Poisson matrix XN of the reduced Poisson structure on V is given, at
n V , by
XN (n ) = A(n ) + B(n )D(n )1 B(n ) .

Proof. We write the above coordinates x1 , . . . , xd as x1 , . . . , xs , y1 , . . . , yt , where t :=

d s, and we consider on U alternative coordinates (x , y ) = (x1 , . . . , xs , y1 , . . . , yt ),
defined by
 
  
1s C
x
x
=
,
y
y
0 1t
where C is a matrix which we will determine. These alternative coordinates are
also adapted to N, since xi xi vanishes on V , for i = 1, . . . , s. We determine C by
demanding that the s Hamiltonian vector fields Xxi are tangent to N at every point




of V . This means that dn y j , Xxi  = 0 for all 1  i  s, 1  j  t and n V ,
n

where ,  stands for the canonical pairing between Tn M and Tn M. Using the fact
that, for all F, G F (V ), we have that (XFG )n = F(n ) (XG )n at every point n
of N where the function G vanishes, we find that


 

t

 


dn y j , Xxi  = dn y j , (Xxi )n Cik (n ) dn y j , Xyk n
n

k=1


= y j , xi (n ) Cik (n ) y j , yk (n )
t

k=1

= (B +CD)i j (n ) ,
which is zero, precisely if we choose C := BD1 . According to Proposition 5.25, V
is a PoissonDirac submanifold of M and the
 matrix

of the reduced Poisson

Poisson
structure on V N is given by the matrix

xi , xj (n )

1i, js

, whose entries we

compute as above,


xi , x j (n ) = Xxi [xj ](n ) = Xxi [x j ](n ) =

t

xi Cik yk , x j (n )
k=1



= Ai j (n ) + Cik (n )B
k j (n ) = A +CB
k=1

ij

(n ) .

5.3 PoissonDirac Reduction

143

Since C = BD1 , the Poisson matrix of the reduced structure is given on V by A +


BD1 B . 

5.3.3 The Transverse Poisson Structure

Let (M, ) be a Poisson manifold and let m M be a point where the rank of is 2r.
Suppose that q1 , . . . , qr , p1 , . . . , pr , z1 , . . . , zs are splitting coordinates, defined on a
neighborhood U of m in M, and centered at m. According to Weinsteins splitting
theorem (Theorem 1.25), this means that, on U,

+ k (z)

z
i
i
k
i=1
1k<s
r

where the functions k are (smooth or holomorphic) functions, which depend on

z = (z1 , . . . , zs ) only, and which vanish when z = 0. In view of Definition 5.23, the
embedded submanifold N of M, defined by
N := {m U | q1 (m ) = p1 (m ) = = qr (m ) = pr (m ) = 0}
is a PoissonDirac submanifold of M. According to Proposition 5.20, the reduced
Poisson structure N on N is given by

N =

1k<s

k (z)

,
zk z

with the understanding that (z1 , . . . , zs ) stands for the restriction of (z1 , . . . , zs ) to N.
The submanifold N of M which appears in the latter example is transverse at m
to the symplectic leaf Sm through m, since Tm N Tm Sm = Tm M. Recall that two
submanifolds N and O of a manifold M are said to be transverse at a point m M if
m N O and Tm N + Tm O = Tm M; when N and O have complementary dimension
in M, this is equivalent to Tm N Tm Om = Tm M. The following theorem states that,
in a neighborhood of m in M, every submanifold of M of dimension dim N, which
is transverse to Sm at m, is in a neighborhood of m a PoissonDirac submanifold
of M and is isomorphic, as a Poisson manifold, to a neighborhood of m in N.
Theorem 5.28. Let (M, ) be a Poisson manifold and let m M. The rank of at m
is denoted by 2r. Suppose that q1 , . . . , qr , p1 , . . . , pr , z1 , . . . , zs are splitting coordinates, defined on a neighborhood U of m in M, and centered at m. We denote by N0
the PoissonDirac submanifold of M, defined by
N0 := {m U | q1 (m ) = p1 (m ) = = qr (m ) = pr (m ) = 0} .
Let N1 M be an arbitrary s-dimensional submanifold of M, transverse at m to the
symplectic leaf Sm of which contains m. Then there exists a neighborhood V0 of m
in N0 and a neighborhood V1 of m in N1 , such that

144

5 Reduction

(1)
(2)

V1 is a PoissonDirac submanifold of M;
There exists a Poisson diffeomorphism between V0 and V1 , where V0 and V1
are both equipped with their reduced Poisson structure as PoissonDirac submanifolds of M.

Proof. Let q1 , . . . , qr , p1 , . . . , pr , z1 , . . . , zs be splitting coordinates, centered at m, defined on a neighborhood U of m in M. On U, the Poisson structure is given by

+  ,
pi
i=1 qi
r

(5.41)

where  = 1k<s k (z) z z is a Poisson structure on U, whose structure

k

functions k depend only on the variables z = (z1 , . . . , zs ) and vanish for z = 0.
These coordinates are adapted to the symplectic leaf Sm , since Sm is defined on U
by z = 0. Consider an arbitrary s-dimensional submanifold N1 of M, transverse at m
to the symplectic leaf Sm of , and of dimension s = dim N0 . Since N1 is of codimension 2r in M, N1 is in a neighborhood of m in M given as the intersection of 2r
hypersurfaces
(5.42)
H1 (q, p, z) = = H2r (q, p, z) = 0 .
Since N1 is transverse to Sm at m, these hypersurfaces are transverse to Sm at m
and their tangent spaces have Tm N1 as their common intersection. By the implicit
function theorem, applied to (5.42), there exist functions F1 , . . . , Fr , G1 , . . . , Gr , such
that N1 is, in a neighborhood of m, given by
qi = Fi (z1 , . . . , zs ) ,

pi = Gi (z1 , . . . , zs ) ,

for i = 1, . . . , r. Letting
qi := qi Fi (z1 , . . . , zs ) ,

pi := pi Gi (z1 , . . . , zs ) ,

it follows that (q1 , . . . , qr , p1 , . . . , pr , z1 , . . . , zs ) is in a neighborhood U  U of m

a coordinate system for M, adapted to both submanifolds N1 and Sm . Since 
vanishes at m,
  


  
qi , p j (m) = i, j ,
qi , q j (m) = pi , pj (m) = 0 ,
where { , } := and i, j stands for the Kronecker delta. As a consequence, the
matrix





qi , pj (m )
qi , qj (m )
i, j=1
i, j=1












pi , q j (m )
pi , p j (m )
i, j=1

m

i, j=1

in a neighborhood of m in M. It proves, in view of Propois invertible for every

sition 5.27, that some neighborhood V1 of m in N1 is a PoissonDirac submanifold
of M, which is the content of (1).

5.3 PoissonDirac Reduction

145

The proof of (2) uses some of the objects which were constructed in the first
part of the proof, namely the open neighborhood U  of m in M and the functions
F1 , G1 , . . . , Fr , Gr which are defined on U  . Consider the product manifold U  F,
which we equip with its product Poisson structure (the Poisson structure on F is
trivial because F is one-dimensional). The splitting coordinates which we have constructed on U  , plus the natural coordinate on F which we denote by , yield coordinates on U  F. We define on U  F the following 2r functions
Qi := qi Fi (z1 , . . . , zs ) and Pi := pi Gi (z1 , . . . , zs ) ,
where i = 1, . . . , r. For F, their common zero locus is denoted by N ,


N := m U  | Qi (m , ) = Pi (m , ) = 0 for 1  i  r .
Letting vary between 0 and 1 allows us to relate the PoissonDirac submanifolds N0 and N1 ; precisely, N0 = (N0 U  ) {0} and N1 = (N1 U  ) {1}, so
that N0 and N1 can be identified as Poisson manifolds with open neighborhoods
of m in N0 and in N1 respectively. We construct a Poisson vector field V on U  F,
whose time 1 flow yields a diffeomorphism between N0 and N1 , at least in a neighborhood of m{0}; under the above identification, this diffeomorphism is a Poisson
diffeomorphism between a neighborhood of m in N0 and a neighborhood of m in N1 ,
equipped with their reduced structure, because the reduced Poisson structure on a
PoissonDirac submanifold (of U  , or equivalently of U  F) is uniquely defined.
The construction of the Poisson vector field V with the stated property will therefore
prove (2).
The vector field V is chosen of the form V = + XH , where H is a function
which will be specified below. This choice ensures that V is a Poisson vector field
on U  F, since XH is a Hamiltonian vector field on U  . The Hamiltonian H is
chosen as
H :=

j=1

j=1

A j ( , z1 , . . . , zs ) Q j + B j ( , z1 , . . . , zs ) Pj ,

(5.43)

where the functions A j and B j are solutions to the linear system

r
r




Q
+
A
,
Q
B j Qi , Pj = Fi ,

j
i
j

j=1

j=1

i = 1, . . . , r .

r
r




P
+
A
,
Q
B j Pi , Pj = Gi ,

j
i
j

j=1

(5.44)

j=1

Since



Qi , Q j (m, ) = Pi , Pj (m, ) = 0 ,

Qi , Pj (m, ) = i, j ,

for all 1  i, j  r and for all F, this linear system has a unique solution, which is
defined on a neighborhood U  W of m [0, 1] in U  F, and which is smooth. Notice that since all coefficients in (5.44) are independent of the coordinates pi and qi ,

146

5 Reduction

the functions A j and B j depend only on z1 , . . . , zs and . Moreover, these functions

vanish at (m, 0) for all , since the functions Fi and Gi vanish at m. The integral
curve of V , starting from (m, 0) is therefore defined for all t W , being given by
t  (m,t). It follows that by eventually shrinking U  to a smaller neighborhood of m
and W to a smaller neighborhood of [0, 1], we may assume that the flow t of V is
well-defined on U  {0} for all t W .
It remains to be shown that the time 1 flow 1 of V sends U  {0} to a neighborhood of (m, 1) in N1 . Consider the submanifold N of U  W , defined by the
common zeros of the functions Qi and Pi ,


N := (m , ) U  W | Qi (m , ) = Pi (m , ) = 0 for 1  i  r .
The vector field V is tangent to N , since,
V [Qi ] (m , ) =

Qi 
(m , ) + XH [Qi ](m , ) = Fi (m ) Fi (m ) = 0 ,

and similarly V [Pi ] (m , ) = 0, for all (m , ) N and all i = 1, . . . , r. The time 1
flow of V maps U  {0} to a neighborhood of (m, 1) in U  {1}. Since it preserves N , it maps (N0 U  ) {0} to a neighborhood of (m, 1) in N1 {1}, as was
to be shown. 

It follows from Theorem 5.28 that all s-dimensional submanifolds which are transverse to the symplectic leaf which contains m, are isomorphic as Poisson manifolds
in a neighborhood of m, when they are equipped with their reduced Poisson structure.
We show in the following proposition that all s-dimensional submanifolds which
are transverse to a given symplectic leaf S of M are isomorphic as Poisson manifolds in a neighborhood of their intersection point with S , when they are equipped
with their reduced Poisson structure.
Proposition 5.29. Let (M, ) be a Poisson manifold and let S be a symplectic leaf
of (M, ). We denote the dimension of S by 2r and we let s := dim M 2r. Assume
that we are given:
(1)
(2)

Two points m, m which belong to S ;

Two s-dimensional submanifolds N and N  of M, which are transverse to S
at m and at m respectively.

Then there exist neighborhoods V and V  of m and m in N and N  respectively, such

that:
(1)
(2)

V and V  are PoissonDirac submanifolds of (M, );

Equipped with their reduced Poisson structure, V and V  are isomorphic as
Poisson manifolds.

Proof. Let m and m be two points of M which belong to the same symplectic leaf
S of (M, ). By definition, such points can be joined by a piecewise Hamiltonian

5.3 PoissonDirac Reduction

147

path. It is therefore sufficient to prove the proposition for points m and m which
can be joined by a Hamiltonian path. Assume therefore that U is an open subset
of M, that H is a function on U and that the flow t of XH is defined for t in a
neighborhood of [0, 1] and for all points of U, with in particular 1 (m) = m . Since
t is the flow of a Hamiltonian vector field, 1 is a Poisson diffeomorphism between a neighborhood U of m and a neighborhood 1 (U) of 1 (m) = m . Since
1 preserves the Poisson structure, it sends the symplectic leaf S through m to the
symplectic leaf S through 1 (m); moreover, since 1 is a diffeomorphism, it sends
every submanifold, transverse to S at m, to a submanifold transverse to S at m ,
and 1 realizes a Poisson diffeomorphism between them, when both are equipped
with the Poisson structure which they inherit from (M, ) as PoissonDirac submanifolds. Since we know from item (2) of Theorem 5.28 that the transverse Poisson
structure is independent of the chosen transversal through a given point, this shows
in addition that the transverse Poisson structure is independent of the chosen point

on a given symplectic leaf of (M, ). 
Theorem 5.28 and Proposition 5.29 motivate and justify the following definition.
Definition 5.30. Let S be a symplectic leaf of a Poisson manifold (M, ). Let N
be an arbitrary submanifold of M, transverse to S at some point m S , and let 
denote the reduced Poisson structure, which is defined on a neighborhood of m in N.
The germ of  at m is called the transverse Poisson structure to S .
We have seen two particular situations in which one constructs a (natural) representative of the transverse Poisson structure to a symplectic leaf S in a Poisson manifold (M, ). The first one is Weinsteins splitting theorem (Theorem 1.25),
which allows us to write in terms of splitting coordinates on a neighborhood of a
point m S as

+ k (z)

,
pi 1k<s
zk z
i=1 qi
r

(5.45)

where the functions k are (smooth or holomorphic) functions, which depend on

z = (z1 , . . . , zs ) only, and which vanish when z = 0; in this case, the second sum in
(5.45) is a Poisson structure, which is a representative for the transverse Poisson
structure to the symplectic leaf S , while the first sum in (5.45) yields the canonical
Poisson structure on the symplectic leaf S . This shows that the decomposition of
Poisson structures, which appears in Weinsteins splitting theorem, is unique. The
second situation is when one selects a submanifold N of M, which is transverse to
the symplectic leaf S ; in this case, Theorem 5.28 says that N is in a neighborhood V
of the intersection point {m} := S N a PoissonDirac submanifold of (M, ) and
the reduced Poisson structure on V is a representative for the transverse Poisson
structure to the symplectic leaf S .

148

5 Reduction

5.4 Poisson Structures and Group Actions

Poisson manifolds often come with symmetry groups which lead, in favorable cases,
to new Poisson manifolds. If a Lie group G acts on a Poisson manifold, preserving
the Poisson structure, then there are three natural constructions which lead to new
Poisson manifolds:
By Poisson reduction, the quotient M/G, assumed to be a manifold, inherits a
Poisson structure;
By PoissonDirac reduction, the set of fixed points of the action, assumed to be
a manifold, inherits a Poisson structure;
By Poisson reduction, the action yields a Poisson structure on certain quotients
of the fibers of the momentum map, assuming that the latter map exists.
Similarly, such new Poisson structures arise in the case of an affine Poisson variety,
when an algebraic group is acting. As indicated in the three items above, this section
is an application of the previous sections, in the particular case of a Poisson manifold
(or affine Poisson variety) upon which a group is acting.

5.4.1 Poisson Actions

There are two natural types of actions of a group on a Poisson manifold or on a
Poisson variety, as given in the following two definitions.
Definition 5.31. Let G be a group and let (M, ) be an affine Poisson variety or
a Poisson manifold. We say that an action : G M M preserves the Poisson
structure when, for every g G, the map g : M M, defined for all m M by
g (m) := (g, m), is a Poisson map.
Definition 5.32. Let G be a group acting on M, where M and G are either one of the
following:
(M, { , }) and G = (G, { , }G ) are affine Poisson varieties and G is an affine
algebraic group;
(M, { , }) and G = (G, { , }G ) are Poisson manifolds and G is a Lie group.
Then we say that the action is a Poisson action when the action map : G M M
is a Poisson map, where G M is equipped with the product Poisson structure.
When G M M is a Poisson action and the Poisson structure on G is trivial, then
the product bracket { , }GM at (g, m) G M reduces, in view of (2.12), to


{F , G }GM (g, m) = F g , G g (m) ,
so that a Poisson action is in this case precisely an action preserving the Poisson
structure. In general, however, a Poisson action does not preserve the Poisson structure.

5.4 Poisson Structures and Group Actions

149

5.4.2 Poisson Actions and Quotient Spaces

In this section, we show that a Poisson action G M M leads to a Poisson structure on the quotient space M/G and we give conditions on a G-invariant subvariety
N of M, which lead to a Poisson structure on N/G. The following proposition gives
sufficient conditions for M/G to inherit a Poisson structure from M and G.
Proposition 5.33. Let : G M M be a group action, where either one of the
following is satisfied:
(1)
(2)

(M, { , }) and (G, { , }G ) are affine Poisson varieties, with G being a reductive algebraic group;
(M, { , }) and (G, { , }G ) are Poisson manifolds, with G being a Lie group,
and the action is proper and locally free.

If is a Poisson action, then M/G carries a unique Poisson structure such that the
canonical projection p : M M/G is a Poisson map.
Proof. In the case of an affine Poisson variety, M/G is an affine variety. According
to Proposition 5.7, in which (1) is automatically satisfied, (M, M, M/G) is Poisson
reducible as soon as the G-invariant functions on M form a Lie subalgebra of F (M),
in formulas


F (M)G , F (M)G F (M)G .
(5.46)
We show that (5.46) is a consequence of the fact that is a Poisson action. To
do this, first notice that a function F F (M) belongs to F (M)G if and only if
F = p2 F where p2 : G M M is the projection onto the second component.
Thus, if F, G F (M)G , then the fact that is a Poisson map implies that

{F, G} = { F, G}GM = {p2 F, p2 G}GM = p2 {F, G} ,

(5.47)

where we used in the last step that p2 is a Poisson map (see Proposition 2.2). This
shows, in view of the above characterization of G-invariant functions, that {F, G}
F (M)G . Hence, F (M)G is indeed a Lie subalgebra of (M, { , }), which achieves
the proof for the case of affine Poisson varieties.
In the manifold case, M/G is a manifold since the action is proper and locally
free. Functions which are defined on open subsets of M are constant on the fibers
of p : M M/G if and only if they are G-invariant. Therefore, (M, M, M/G) is,
in view of Proposition 5.11, Poisson reducible if and only if the Poisson bracket
of every pair of G-invariant functions, defined on an arbitrary open subset of M,
is G-invariant. This is checked precisely as in (5.47), taking for F and G arbitrary
functions, which are defined on an open subset of M. 

In applications, one often considers the quotient of a G-invariant4 subvariety or
submanifold N of M and while N does not inherit a Poisson structure from M, the
4

Saying that N is G-invariant means that (g, n) N for every (g, n) G N.

150

5 Reduction

quotient N/G does. This is the content of the following generalization of Proposition 5.33, which is proved in exactly the same way as a direct application of Proposition 5.7 in the case of an affine Poisson variety, and of Proposition 5.11 in the case
of a Poisson manifold.
Proposition 5.34. Let : G M M be a group action and let N be a G-invariant
subset of M; denote by p : N N/G the quotient map. Suppose that either one of
the following is satisfied:
(1)
(2)

(M, { , }) and (G, { , }G ) are affine Poisson varieties, with G being a reductive algebraic group, and N is an affine subvariety of M;
(M, { , }) and (G, { , }G ) are Poisson manifolds, with G being a Lie group,
N is a submanifold of M and the action of G on N is proper and locally free.

Suppose that, in addition, the following conditions hold:

(1)
(2)

is a Poisson action;
For every function F, whose restriction to N is G-invariant, the Hamiltonian
vector field XF is tangent to N; it suffices that this property holds for F
F (M) in the affine variety case, but it is required to hold for F defined on
arbitrary open subsets in the manifold case.

Then N/G carries a unique Poisson structure { , }N/G such that for every open
subset V of N/G and for every pair of functions F, G F (V ), and for all n
p1 (V ),


G (n) = {F, G}
(p(n)) ,
F,
N/G

where F and G are arbitrary extensions of F p and G p to an arbitrary open

subset of M.

5.4.3 Fixed Point Sets as PoissonDirac Submanifolds

In this section we show that, under some general assumptions, if a group action on
a Poisson variety or manifold leaves the Poisson structure invariant, then the fixed
point set of the action is a PoissonDirac subvariety or submanifold. We do this in
the case of a finite or linear algebraic group, acting on an affine variety; see the end
of this section for the case of Lie groups acting on manifolds.
Let G be a finite group or linear algebraic group, acting on an affine variety M.
We write both g (m) and gm for the action of g G on m M, while the induced
action on F F (M) is denoted by g (F), as in (5.4). We denote the algebra of
invariant functions by F (M)G ,


F (M)G = F F (M) | g (F) = F for all g G ,
and we denote the fixed point set of by M G ,

5.4 Poisson Structures and Group Actions

151

M G := {m M | gm = m for all g G} .
In order to describe the algebraic structure of M G , consider for a fixed g G the
regular map
Lg : M M M
(5.48)
m  (m, gm) .
Then M G =


gG

Lg1 ( ), where is the diagonal of M M,

:= {(m, m) | m M} .
Thus, the group action leads to a natural ideal I (M G ) of F (M), consisting of
functions which vanish on M G , namely the ideal of F (M), generated by the functions Lg (I ), where I is the ideal of all regular functions which vanish on ; for
i = 1, 2, if we denote by pi : M M M the canonical projection on the i-th component, then I is the ideal of F (M M), generated by all functions p1 (F) p2 (F),
where F F (M). It follows that the ideal I (M G ) is generated by the set of all
functions of the form F g (F), where g G and F F (M). Notice that although
the algebraic subset which is defined by (the common zeros of the elements of)
I (M G ) coincides with M G , the latter ideal is in general neither prime nor reduced.
Proposition 5.35. Let G be a finite group or an algebraic group, acting on an affine
Poisson variety (M, { , }). If the group action preserves the Poisson structure, then
F (M)G is contained in the normalizer N (I (M G )) of I (M G ). As a consequence,
if
(5.49)
F (M)G + I (M G ) = F (M) ,
then I (M G ) is a PoissonDirac ideal of F (M).
Proof. Let F F (M)G be a G-invariant function. For all G F (M) and all g G,
we have




F, G g (G) = {F, G} g (F), g (G) = {F, G} g ({F, G}) ,
where we used in the last step that every map g is a morphism of Poisson algebras.
Since I (M G ) is generatedby all functions of the form G g (G), with g G and
G F (M), the inclusion F (M)G , I (M G ) I (M G ) follows, i.e., F (M)G is
contained in the normalizer of I (M G ). In view of (iii) in Definition 5.17, I (M G )

will be a PoissonDirac ideal of F (M) if F (M)G + I (M G ) = F (M). 
We consider two particular cases of the above proposition, which both lead to the
result that the fixed point set of the group action is a PoissonDirac subvariety. We
first consider the simpler case in which G is a finite group.
Proposition 5.36. Let G be a finite group, acting on an affine Poisson variety
(M, { , }). If the action preserves the Poisson structure, then the fixed point set
M G is a (not necessarily irreducible) PoissonDirac subvariety of (M, { , }). For
F, G F (M G ), their reduced bracket is given, at n M G , by

152

5 Reduction

{F, G}M G (n) =

1
|G|2 g

1 ,g2 G




(n) = 1 g (F),
g2 (G)
G (n)
g1 (F),
|G| gG

G F (M) are arbitrary extensions of F, G.

where F,
Proof. By averaging the action over the group, one constructs a linear projection
: F (M) F (M)G ; explicitly, (F) is given, for F F (M), by

(F) :=

1
g (F) ,
|G| gG

(5.50)

where |G| stands for the order of the group G. Since

F (F) =

1
(F g (F)) ,
|G| gG

it is an element of I (M G ), which shows that F (M)G + I (M G ) = F (M). In view

of Proposition 5.35, it follows that I (M G ) is a PoissonDirac ideal of F (M).
Since G is finite, the (dual) action of G on F (M) is completely reducible, so that
the ideal I (M G ) is the ideal of all regular functions, vanishing on M G , so that M G
is a (not necessarily irreducible) PoissonDirac subvariety. According to (5.33), the
G
G
PoissonDirac bracket

of two functions F, G F (M ) is given, at n M , by
G (n), where F and G are arbitrary G-invariant extensions of
{F, G}M G (n) = F,
F and G to M. Let F and G be arbitrary extensions of F and G to M. Clearly, the
coincide with F and G on M G , so we can take
and (G)
G-invariant functions (F)
to compute
and G := (G),
F := (F)


(n) = 1
(G)
{F, G}M G (n) = (F),
|G|2 g

1 ,g2 G



(n) ,
g2 (G)
g1 (F),

I (M G ), the latter line can also be written as

for all n M G . Since G (G)




G (n) = 1 g (F),
G (n) ,
{F, G}M G (n) = (F),
|G| gG
for all n M G . 

As a general principle in invariant theory, results which hold for the action of a
finite group, acting on an affine variety, can be extended to the action of a reductive
group, acting on an affine variety, by replacing the above averaging operator with
the Reynolds operator (see [190]). It leads to the following result.
Proposition 5.37. Let G be a reductive group, acting on an affine Poisson variety
(M, ). If the action preserves the Poisson structure, then the fixed point set M G is
a (not necessarily irreducible) PoissonDirac subvariety of (M, ).
For a differential geometric analog of the proposition, see [54, Th. 2.1].

5.4 Poisson Structures and Group Actions

153

5.4.4 Reduction with Respect to a Momentum Map

Let G be a Lie group, with Lie algebra g. Suppose that G is acting on a Poisson
manifold (M, ). It is natural to demand that the fundamental vector fields x, with
x g, are Hamiltonian. It leads to the following definition.
Definition 5.38. Let G be a Lie group acting on a Poisson manifold (M, ). The
action is said to be a Hamiltonian action if there exists a Lie algebra homomorphism

: g F (M)
x

(5.51)

such that the following diagram is commutative:

X1 (M)

(5.52)

F (M)
where the horizontal arrow is the map x  x, and where we recall that X is a
morphism of Lie algebras (see (5) of Proposition 1.4 and (1.7)). We call a comomentum map of the action. The dual map,

: M g
m  (m) ,

(5.53)

where (m) g is the linear map x  x (m), is said to be a momentum map of the
action.
We show in the following proposition that, under some assumptions, the orbit space
1 (0)/G inherits a Poisson structure from M.
Proposition 5.39. Let G be a connected Lie group and let (M, ) be a Poisson manifold. We assume that G acts locally freely and properly on M and that the action is
Hamiltonian. Let denote a momentum map of the action. If 0 is a regular value of
, then
(1)
(2)
(3)

1 (0) is an embedded submanifold of M, invariant under the action of G;

1 (0)/G is a manifold;
The triple (M, 1 (0), 1 (0)/G) is Poisson reducible.

The different spaces involved in the theorem are represented in the following diagram:

154

5 Reduction

1 (0)

(5.54)

1 (0)/G
Proof. Let us denote N := 1 (0). It is an (embedded) submanifold of M since 0 is
a regular value of . We claim that, for every x g, the vector field x istangent to N.
Indeed, N is precisely the zero locus of the vector space of functions y | y g ,


m M | y (m) = 0 ,

N=
yg

and this vector space is invariant for all vector fields x, since,


x [ y ] = X x [ y ] = x , y = [x,y] ,
where we have used in the last step that is a Lie algebra homomorphism. As
a corollary, since G is connected, N is G-invariant. The quotient space N/G is a
manifold because the action of G on M is locally free and proper. This proves (1)
and (2).
In order to prove (3), we check that the assumptions of Proposition 5.14 are
satisfied. The fibers of the canonical projection p : N N/G are connected, since G
is connected. Therefore, we only need to verify that (5.30) holds, i.e., that

n (Tn N) = Tn pn

(5.55)

for every n N, where we recall that pn is the fiber of p which passes through n.
Since 0 g is a regular value for the momentum map , the space Tn N is, for
every n N, given by
Tn N = {dn x | x g} .


Since n (dn x ) = X x n = xn , this means that

n (Tn N) = {xn | x g} = Tn pn ,
which proves (5.55), and hence that (M, 1 (0), 1 (0)/G) is Poisson reducible.


Remark 5.40. Let G be a reductive algebraic group, acting on an affine variety M.
Then one can define as in the case of a Lie group, acting on a manifold, the fundamental vector field x for all x g, the Lie algebra of G. If M is equipped with a Poisson structure, one can define the notion of a momentum map as in Definition 5.38.
The algebraic version of Proposition 5.39 takes then the following form: let G be a
reductive algebraic group, acting on an affine Poisson variety (M, ). If the action is
Hamiltonian with momentum map , then 1 (0) is G-invariant and 1 (0)/G is

5.5 Exercises

155

a Poisson variety with respect to a Poisson structure obtained by Poisson reduction

from the diagram (5.54). In order to prove this, one uses Proposition 5.7 instead of
Proposition 5.14.
Remark 5.41. Also, one can generalize Proposition 5.39 and obtain a Poisson structure on 1 ( )/G for every regular value g of , where G is the subgroup of G, defined in terms of the adjoint action Ad : G g g, by G :=


g G | Adg = . See [144] for this and for other generalizations.

5.5 Exercises
1. Let G be a Lie group, with Lie algebra g. For r 2 g, show that the following
are equivalent:

r is a Poisson structure on G;
(i)

(ii)
r is a Poisson structure on G;
(iii)

[[r, r]] = 0.

Show that, when these equivalent conditions are satisfied, the Poisson structures
r

and r are compatible. For r of the form r = x y, where x, y g, show that these
conditions are satisfied if and only if x and y span a Lie subalgebra of g.
2. Let M be a manifold on which a Lie group G acts. For x g, the Lie algebra
of G, denote by x the fundamental vector field, associated to x. Let r = ki=1 xi yi
2 g, satisfying [[r, r]] = 0 and consider the bivector field r := ki=1 xi yi on M.
a.
b.
c.

Show that r is a Poisson structure on M;

Prove that the action of (G,

r
r ) on (M, r) is a Poisson action;
Suppose that M is a vector space and the action of G on M is a representation.
Show that r is a quadratic Poisson structure (see Section 8.2).

3. Let M1 and M2 be Poisson manifolds and endow M1 M2 with the product Poisson bracket. Show that for every m1 M1 (respectively m2 M2 ), the submanifold
{m1 } M2 (respectively M1 {m2 }) is a PoissonDirac submanifold of M1 M2 .
4. Let M be a Poisson manifold, and let N be a PoissonDirac submanifold of M.
Suppose that V is a Poisson vector field on M, which is tangent to N at every point
of N. Show that the restriction of V to N is a Poisson vector field.
5. Let P and M be Poisson manifolds and let : P M be a submersive Poisson
map. Let N be a submanifold of M.
a.
b.

Show that if N is a coisotropic submanifold of M, then 1 (N) is a coisotropic

submanifold of P;
Show, by giving a counterexample, that if N is a PoissonDirac submanifold
of M, then 1 (N) need not be a PoissonDirac submanifold of P.

156

5 Reduction

6. We assume in this exercise that the reader is familiar with the notion of symplectic manifold (see Section 6.3). Let (M, ) be a symplectic manifold, and denote
by the canonical Poisson structure, associated to . Let N be a submanifold of M.
Show that the following are equivalent:
(i)
(ii)

N is a PoissonDirac submanifold of (M, );

The restriction of to N is non-degenerate.

Conclude that for symplectic manifolds the notions of symplectic submanifold and
PoissonDirac submanifold coincide.
7. We assume in this exercise that the reader is familiar with the LiePoisson structure on the dual of a Lie algebra (see Chapter 7). Let g be a finite-dimensional
Lie algebra and let g = g m be a vector space decomposition of g, where
g := {x g | adx = 0} denotes the centralizer of an element g . We consider
the affine subspace N := + m of g , which is isomorphic to g , via the affine
map , which is defined, for all N, by ( ) := ( )|g .

a.

b.

Show that, if m satisfies [g , m] m, then N is a PoissonDirac submanifold of

g , equipped with its LiePoisson structure, and the reduced Poisson structure
on N is isomorphic to the LiePoisson structure on g , via .
As an example, consider g = gld (F), let x g and let g be the linear map,
defined by (y) := Trace(xy), for all y g. Show that if x is diagonalizable, then
there exists a complementary subspace m of g in g, such that [g , m] m.

8. Let (M, { , }) be a Poisson manifold and let N be a submanifold of M. We

endow F (M)[ ]/ 2 with the structure of an F[ ]-algebra, defined by
F  G := FG + {F, G}
for all F, G F (M) (see Exercise 8 of Chapter 3, where this product is proven to
be associative). Suppose that

: F (M)[ ]/ 2 F (N)[ ]/ 2 F (N)[ ]/ 2

defines the structure of a left module over the F[ ]-algebra (F (M)[ ]/ 2 ,  ) on
F (N)[ ]/ 2 , satisfying (F, H) = F|N H (mod ) for every F F (M) and for
every H F (N). Let : F (M) F (N) F (N) be the bilinear map, given for
all F F (M) and H F (N) by

(F, H) F|N H 

(F, H) =
.


=0
a.

Show that satisfies the identity

{F, G}|N H = (F, G|N H) (FG, H) + F|N (G, H)

b.

for all F, G F (M) and H F (N);

Deduce from it that N is a coisotropic submanifold of M.

(5.56)

5.6 Notes

157

5.6 Notes
Lie groups and Lie algebras are standard tools in geometry and in physics; in turn,
the study of their structure and their representations is strongly inspired by ideas
which come from geometry and physics. A quick introduction to Lie groups is given
in Warner [198]; see Bump [29] for a more extensive treatment. For the theory of
Lie algebras, we refer to Humphreys [99]. A great introduction to both Lie groups
and Lie algebras and their representation theory is given in FultonHarris [80].
The starting point of reduction theory comes from the fact that integrals of motion
permit to eliminate degrees of freedom in Hamiltonian systems. One may cite here
Noethers theorem, which is the predecessor of the notion of momentum map and
the theory of Dirac constraints, which eventually led to the notion of PoissonDirac
reduction. The modern, geometrical development of these ideas first appears in the

seminal papers by SniatyckiTulczyjew

[184], Meyer [148] and MarsdenWeinstein
[146]. See KosmannSchwarzbach [114], Weinstein [199] and the introduction of
OrtegaRatiu [160] for more details on the history of the subject; in the latter introduction one also finds a detailed list of topics in the theory of moment maps and
reduction.
In our presentation of reduction, we have separated the Poisson reduction of
coisotropic submanifolds from the theory of reduction of PoissonDirac submanifolds, which are both particular cases of the so-called MarsdenRatiu reduction
procedure [144]. The notion of momentum map, presented here, has also been generalized in many different ways, see for example AlekseevMalkinMeinrenken [9]
for Lie group valued momentum mappings and Lu [133] for PoissonLie group valued momentum mappings. These generalizations and their associated reduction can
be nicely understood with the help of Lie groupoids, see Xu [208].
We have not discussed the geometry of the image of a momentum map (which is,
under some assumptions, a convex polytope). See Guillemin [91] and the references
therein.

Part II

Examples

Chapter 6

Constant Poisson Structures, Regular

and Symplectic Manifolds

Poissons original bracket on R2r , given for smooth functions F and G by


r 
F G G F
{F, G} :=
,

qi pi
i=1 qi pi

(6.1)

is of fundamental importance in classical mechanics, in quantum mechanics and in

other areas of mathematical physics. In fact, locally, the Poisson structure of every symplectic manifold of dimension 2r is of this form, and symplectic manifolds
appear as phase spaces of many mechanical systems. The rank of the Poisson structure defined by (6.1), is maximal at every point; if we replace maximality of the
rank by constancy of the rank (i.e., the rank is independent of the point) we arrive at
the notion of a regular Poisson structure. Locally the Poisson structure of a regular
Poisson manifold is also given by (6.1), but 2r denotes now the rank of the Poisson
structure, and not the dimension d of the manifold, which may be larger: there are
d 2r local coordinates which are absent in the formula for the bracket. Notice that
the Poisson bracket (6.1), applied to a pair of coordinate functions, always yields
a constant function: this will be the starting point of the algebraic definition of a
constant Poisson structure. In fact, the Darboux theorem (Theorem 1.26) shows that
regularity of the Poisson structure corresponds locally exactly to constancy of the
Poisson structure (in an appropriate coordinate chart).
Constant Poisson structures are introduced in Section 6.1, and they will be related to regular Poisson manifolds in Section 6.2. The particular class of symplectic
manifolds will be discussed in Section 6.3. Entire (excellent!) books have been written on symplectic manifolds, so we will restrict ourselves here to the most common
classes of examples of symplectic and regular Poisson manifolds, and our focus will
be on their properties from the Poisson point of view.
Unless stated otherwise, F is an arbitrary field of characteristic zero.

C. Laurent-Gengoux et al., Poisson Structures,

Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften 347,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-31090-4 6, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

161

162

6 Constant Poisson Structures, Regular and Symplectic Manifolds

6.1 Constant Poisson Structures

Poissons original bracket on R2r , defined by

r 
F G G F
{F, G} :=
,

qi pi
i=1 qi pi

(6.2)

has the property that the Poisson bracket {F, G} of two linear functions F and G is a
constant function on R2r . This property leads to the following definition, which will
cover a first class of basic examples of Poisson structures.
Definition 6.1. A Poisson structure on a finite-dimensional vector space V is
called a constant Poisson structure, if for each pair of linear functions F and G
on V , their Poisson bracket [F, G], also denoted by {F, G}, is a constant function
on V .
Let X = (xi j ) Matd (F) be an arbitrary skew-symmetric matrix, where d N . We
show that X defines a Poisson structure on Fd , i.e., a Poisson bracket on F (Fd ),
where we recall that, for a finite-dimensional F-vector space V , the notation F (V )
stands for the algebra of polynomial functions on V , in general, but may also be
chosen as the algebra of smooth functions on V , when F = R, or as the algebra
of holomorphic functions on V , when F = C. In order to construct this Poisson
structure, consider the skew-symmetric biderivation of F (Fd ), defined for all F, G
F (Fd ), by
d
F G
{F, G} := xi j
,
(6.3)
xi x j
i, j=1
d
where
each
 of
 the brack
 x1 ,. . . , xd are the standard coordinates on F . Since
xi , x j , xk = 0, where
ets xi , x j = xi j is a constant function, we have that
1  i, j, k  d, so that the Jacobi identity holds for every triple of coordinate functions (xi , x j , xk ) for F (Fd ). It implies that the Jacobi identity holds for all triples
of functions in F (Fd ) (see Proposition 1.36), so that (6.3) defines a Poisson structure on Fd , which we denote by . Clearly, is a constant Poisson structure and
every constant Poisson structure on Fd is of this form. Since every d-dimensional
vector space V can be identified with Fd , by choosing a basis of V , the matrix X
defines a Poisson structure on every d-dimensional vector space V , equipped with a
basis (equivalently, with a system of linear coordinates). Thus, the following proposition holds.

Proposition 6.2. Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space, with a fixed system

of linear coordinates (x1 , . . . , xd ). There is a one-to-one correspondence between
skew-symmetric matrices X Matd (F) and constant Poisson structures on V . It is
defined by assigning to X = (xi j ) Matd (F) the Poisson structure, defined for all
F, G F (V ) by
d
F G
{F, G} := xi j
.
(6.4)

xi x j
i, j=1

6.1 Constant Poisson Structures

163

Example
original bracket (6.2) corresponds to the skew-symmetric
 6.3. Poissons

0 1r
matrix
, where the standard coordinates on R2r are ordered as follows:
1r 0
q 1 , . . . , qr , p 1 , . . . , p r .
The matrix X in Proposition 6.2 is the Poisson matrix of with respect to the coordinates x1 , . . . , xd (see Section 1.2.2). Since the entries of X are constant, the rank
of is constant. According to the Darboux theorem (Theorem 1.26), if the rank of
a Poisson structure on a manifold is locally constant at a point m, then there exist
local coordinates around m in which the Poisson structure takes a canonical form
(so-called Darboux coordinates). We show that in the case of a constant Poisson
bracket on a d-dimensional vector space V , linear coordinates which are global Darboux coordinates can be constructed explicitly. Namely, since X is skew-symmetric,
there exists an invertible matrix A Matd (F) such that

0 1r 0

A XA =
1r 0 0 ,
0

0 0

where 2r is the rank of X and hence of the Poisson bracket (at every point). It
means that, in terms of new linear coordinates on V , defined in terms of x1 , . . . , xd
by
(q1 , . . . , qr , p1 , . . . , pr , z1 , . . . , zd2r ) := (x1 , . . . , xd )A
one obtains the following brackets

 



qi , p j = i, j ,
qi , q j = pi , p j = {qi , zk } = {pi , zk } = {zk , z } = 0 ,
where 1  i, j  r and 1  k,   d 2r. As a consequence, the d coordinates
q1 , . . . , qr , p1 , . . . , pr , z1 , . . . , zd2r are Darboux coordinates for . Thus, by simple
linear algebra, we can construct (global) Darboux coordinates for every constant
Poisson structure on V . In terms of these Darboux coordinates, the Hamiltonian
vector field XH which corresponds to H F (V ) takes the well known form
qi =

H
,
pi

pi =

H
,
qi

zk = 0 ,

where qi is a commonly used shorthand for XH [qi ] = {qi , H}, and similarly for the
other variables.
In order to obtain a more intrinsic formulation of the notion of a constant Poisson structure on a finite-dimensional vector space V , we consider the vector space
2V = V V , whose elements are called bivectors of V . A bivector b of V is often
viewed as a linear map, or as a bilinear form, on V . This is done as follows: writing
b = si=1 vi wi , where vi , wi V , we define1 the linear map b : V V , by
In terms of internal products, as recalled in Appendix A, b ( ) = b, which shows that b , as
given by (6.5), is well-defined.
1

164

6 Constant Poisson Structures, Regular and Symplectic Manifolds

s

b ( ) = ( , vi  wi  , wi  vi ) ,

(6.5)

i=1

for every V , and we define a skew-symmetric bilinear form b on V , by



s
, ) := , b ( ) = ( , vi   , wi   , vi   , wi ) ,
b(

(6.6)

i=1

for all , V , where  ,  denotes the canonical pairing between

 V  and V .

Both b and b are skew-symmetric, which means for the former that , b ( ) =


, b ( ) , for all , V . In terms of a basis (e1 , . . . , ed ) of V and the dual ba , e ) ei e j ,
sis (e1 , . . . , ed ) of V , the bivector b can be written as b = 1i< jd b(e
i
j

so that b can be recovered from b (and hence from b ).
To a bivector b V V one naturally associates a bivector field on V , by identifying all cotangent spaces to V with V , which can be done thanks to the affine
structure of V . If F F (V ) and m V then we can view dm F as an element of V ,
hence we can define a bivector field on V , by setting, for F, G F (V ) and m V ,

{F, G} (m) := b (dm F, dm G) ,

(6.7)

where b : V V F is the bilinear form, associated to b, as in (6.6). Equivalently,

we can view b under the same identification as a bilinear form b m on TmV , for
any m V , and the right-hand side of (6.7) can be written as b m (dm F, dm G), where
the pairing now takes place between 2 TmV (2 TmV ) and 2 TmV , rather than
between 2V (2V ) and 2V .
For linear functions F, G on V , we have that {F, G} is independent of m, i.e., is
constant; first, this implies that the bivector field defined by (6.7) satisfies the Jacobi
identity, so that it is a Poisson structure, and second that it is a constant Poisson
structure. For H F (M), the Hamiltonian vector field XH at m is given, as an
element of V , by
(XH )m = b (dm H) .
(6.8)
Writing b as b = si=1 vi wi , where vi , wi V , the formula for the Poisson bracket
can also be written as
s

{F, G} = (vi [F]wi [G] vi [G]wi [F]) .

(6.9)

i=1

The square brackets in this formula have the following meaning: for v V , v[] is the
unique derivation of F (V ) such that v[ ] =  , v for all linear functions on V .
Geometrically, we think of v[] as the directional derivative, defined by a vector v.
Equation (6.9) is a coordinate-free analog of (6.4).
The fact that every bivector on V defines a Poisson structure on V , motivates the
following definition.

6.2 Regular Poisson Manifolds

165

Definition 6.4. A Poisson vector space (V, b) is a finite-dimensional vector space V ,

equipped with a bivector b V V .
By the above, we have the following abstract version and amplification of Proposition 6.2.
Proposition 6.5. For every finite-dimensional vector space V , there is a one-to-one
correspondence between bivectors on V (making V into a Poisson vector space)
and constant Poisson structures on V . If b 2V is a bivector of rank 2r, then the
Poisson structure = { , } on V which corresponds to b, has rank 2r and V admits
a system of linear coordinates (q1 , . . . , qr , p1 , . . . , pr , z1 , . . . , zs ) in which the Poisson
structure is given by

r 
F G G F
{F, G} =
,

qi pi
i=1 qi pi
for all F, G F (V ).

6.2 Regular Poisson Manifolds

In the case of a Poisson manifold (M, ), there is no notion of linear functions on M,
so we cannot use Definition 6.1 as it stands, to define constant Poisson structures on
manifolds. Two natural generalizations of the latter definition are the following.
Definition 6.6. A Poisson structure on a connected manifold M is said to be a
constant Poisson structure if for every point m M,thereexists a coordinate chart
(U, x), centered at m, such that all Poisson brackets xi , x j are constant on U.
Definition 6.7. A Poisson structure on a manifold M is said to be a regular Poisson
structure if it has the same rank at every point m M. We say then that (M, ) is a
regular Poisson manifold.
Comparing the definitions, it is clear that every constant Poisson structure on a connected manifold is regular: taking around 
an arbitrary
point m M a coordinate

chart (U, x) such that all Poisson brackets xi , x j are constant on U, we see that
matrix
the rank of is constant on U, since it is given by the rank ofthe Poisson

of with respect to x, whose entries are the Poisson brackets xi , x j ; since M is
connected, it follows that the rank of takes the same value at every point of M,
i.e., is a regular Poisson structure. It is a fundamental fact that the converse is also
true, leading to the following proposition.
Proposition 6.8. Let (M, ) be a Poisson manifold, which is assumed to be connected. Then (M, ) is a regular Poisson manifold if and only if is a constant
Poisson structure.

166

6 Constant Poisson Structures, Regular and Symplectic Manifolds

Proof. Let (M, ) be a regular Poisson manifold and let m M. We need to show
thatthere 
exists a coordinate chart (U, x), centered at m, such that all Poisson brackets xi , x j are constant (functions) on U. Since, by assumption, the rank of is
constant at m, this is an immediate consequence of the Darboux theorem, which
we proved in Section 1.3.3 (Theorem 1.26). According to this theorem, if the rank
of a Poisson structure is constant (say, equal to 2r) in the neighborhood of a point
m M, then there exists in a neighborhood of m a coordinate chart (U, x), with
x = (q1 , . . . , qr , p1 , . . . , pr , z1 , . . . , zd2r ), centered at m, in which the Poisson structure takes the canonical form

 



qi , q j = pi , p j = {qi , zk } = {pi , zk } = {zk , z } = 0 ,
qi , p j = i, j ,
where 1  i, j  r and 1  k,   d 2r. In particular, all these Poisson brackets
are constant. The Darboux coordinates q1 , . . . , qr , p1 , . . . , pr , z1 , . . . , zd2r are often
referred to as canonical coordinates, especially in the physics literature.


The study of regular Poisson manifolds is in general much simpler than the study of
arbitrary Poisson manifolds. Being locally the product of a symplectic manifold and
Rs or Cs with the zero Poisson structure, their (local) study can often be reduced
to the case of symplectic manifolds. But sometimes, it is the regularity itself which
can be exploited, as we show in the following example.
Example 6.9. According to Proposition 1.21, the rank of a Poisson manifold (M, )
at a point m is equal to the dimension of the vector space of Hamiltonian vector
fields at that point, Rkm M = dim Hamm (M). Therefore, if the rank is constant,
the Hamiltonian vector fields define a distribution of rank Rk M. It is differentiable, because it is defined by smooth vector fields. According to Proposition 1.4,
[XF , XG ] = X{F,G} , so the distribution is integrable in the sense of Frobenius, so
through every point there passes a unique integral manifold of the distribution, by
Frobenius theorem. By definition, all Hamiltonian vector fields of (M, ) are tangent to this integral manifold, at each of its points. By Proposition 2.10, this integral
manifold carries a (unique) Poisson structure of maximal rank. In this way we have
recovered, by simple means, the symplectic foliation2 of a Poisson manifold, in the
regular case.

6.3 Symplectic Manifolds

The most important class of regular Poisson manifolds consists of the symplectic
manifolds (real or complex). We first consider the particular case of a symplectic
vector space.
2

In this case it is indeed a foliation, and not a singular foliation.

6.3 Symplectic Manifolds

167

6.3.1 Symplectic Vector Spaces

The skew-symmetric variant of an inner product space is a symplectic vector space.
Namely, let V be a finite-dimensional F-vector space and let Hom(V V, F)
be a skew-symmetric bilinear form on V . We say that is a symplectic structure
if has maximal rank, Rk = dimV . Then (V, ) is called a symplectic vector
space. If (V, ) is a symplectic vector space, then V is even-dimensional, since the
rank of every skew-symmetric bilinear form is even. Since the rank of a symplectic
structure is maximal, the linear map  , which is by definition , viewed3 as
an element of Hom(V,V ), is invertible. Its inverse (  )1 Hom(V ,V ) is skewsymmetric, hence is of the form  for some (unique) bivector 2V . It follows that every symplectic vector space (V, ) is in a natural way a Poisson vector
space, and hence, according to Proposition 6.5, V is equipped with a constant Poisson structure , called the canonical Poisson structure, associated to . Explicitly,
the Poisson bracket of F, G F (M) is computed at m M from  = (  )1
using (6.7) and (6.6), namely


{F, G} (m) = (dm F, dm G) = dm G,  (dm F)


= dm G, (  )1 (dm F)
= ((  )1 (dm F), (  )1 (dm G))

(6.10)

= ((XF )m , (XG )m ) ,
where we used in the last line that (XF )m =  (dm F) (see (6.8)). The latter definition of (XF )m is, in view of the definition of , equivalent to saying that (XF )m
is the unique element of TmV V such that

((XF )m , ) = dm F .

(6.11)

When is viewed as a (constant) differential two-form on V , the formula for the

Poisson bracket is also written as
{F, G} = (XF , XG ) ,

(6.12)

and Eq. (6.11) for the Hamiltonian vector field is shortened to

(XF , ) = dF .
The (constant) rank of equals the rank of  , which is dimV .
The above construction is easily reversed: if is a constant Poisson structure
on F (V ) of maximal rank, then it is the canonical Poisson structure of a symplectic
3 This can be done in two ways, which differ by a sign. Our convention is that  (v) = (v, ), for
v V.

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6 Constant Poisson Structures, Regular and Symplectic Manifolds

vector space (V, ), where Hom(V V, F). We leave this as an exercise to the
reader; a globalization of this statement will be worked out in the next section.

6.3.2 Symplectic Manifolds

Let M be a real or complex manifold (F = R or F = C). A (smooth or holomorphic)
differential two-form on M is called an almost symplectic structure if its restriction to each tangent space Tm M is non-degenerate, i.e., m is a symplectic structure on Tm M, for every m M, as defined in Section 6.3.1. Then (M, ) is called
an almost symplectic manifold. The globalization of (6.11) and (6.10) is naturally
given by
 1
dm F Tm M ,
(XF )m := m
(6.13)
{F, G} (m) := m ((XF )m , (XG )m ) ,
for m M and F, G F (M). In a compact form, these formulas are usually written as
(XF , ) = dF ,
(6.14)
{F, G} = (XF , XG ) .
As in the case of symplectic vector spaces, these definitions imply that
{F, G} = dF(XG ) = XG [F] ,

(6.15)

so that { , } defines a bivector field on V and XF , as defined by (6.14), is the

Hamiltonian vector field of F with respect to this bivector field. However, the Jacobi
identity does not need to hold. It holds if and only if is closed, d = 0, in which
case is called a symplectic structure and (M, ) is called a symplectic manifold.
This equivalence is shown in the following proposition.
Proposition 6.10. Let (M, ) be an almost symplectic manifold. Then , as defined
by (6.14), is a Poisson structure on M if and only if (M, ) is a symplectic manifold.
In particular, every symplectic manifold (M, ) carries a canonical Poisson structure , which makes (M, ) into a Poisson manifold; it is a regular Poisson structure
whose rank is equal to the dimension of M.
Proof. Let us first assume that is closed. Notice that one important consequence
of this assumption is that is conserved by the flow of every Hamiltonian vector
field. To see this, use Cartans formula (3.50) for the Lie derivative LV ,
LV = V d + dV

(6.16)

when V is a (locally) Hamiltonian vector field, V = XF , and use that XF = dF

and are closed; it yields LXF = 0, for every function F, defined on an open
subset of M. It implies that the following formula,

6.3 Symplectic Manifolds

169

[V1 ,V2 ] = LV1 V2 V2 LV1 ,

which is a special case of (2) in Proposition 3.11, simplifies for Hamiltonian vector
fields to
[XF ,XG ] = LXF XG = dXF XG = d ( (XF , XG )) = d {F, G} , (6.17)
where F and G are functions, defined on an open subset U of M. By the definition
of X , Eq. (6.17) means that [XF ,XG ] = X{F,G} . Non-degeneracy of allows
us to conclude that [XF , XG ] = X{F,G} . Applying this equation to an arbitrary
function H F (U), we find
XF XG [H] XG XF [H] + X{F,G} [H] = 0 ,
which is precisely the Jacobi identity, as follows from (6.15). Thus, we have shown
that if is closed, so that (M, ) is a symplectic manifold, then is a Poisson
structure on M.
Assume now that is an almost symplectic structure, and that the bivector
field , defined by (6.13), satisfies the Jacobi identity. Using the explicit formula (3.28) for computing the de Rham differential, we obtain, for a triple of Hamiltonian vector fields as above,
d (XF , XG , XH ) = XF [ (XG , XH )] + (XF , [XG , XH ]) +  (F, G, H)
= 2 ({{F, G} , H} + {{G, H} , F} + {{H, F} , G})
= 0.
We have used that
XF [ (XG , XH )] = {{G, H} , F} = (XF , [XG , XH ]) ,
as follows from (6.14), (6.15) and item (5) in Proposition 1.4. Since m is nondegenerate for every m M, we have that Tm M = Hamm ( ) for every m M; the
above computation therefore shows that d vanishes on every triple of vector fields,
i.e., that is closed, hence that (M, ) is a symplectic manifold.


Proposition 6.11. Suppose that (M, ) is a regular Poisson manifold, whose rank is
equal to the dimension of M. There exists on M a (unique) symplectic structure ,
whose canonical Poisson structure is .
Proof. We consider for m M the linear map m : T M T M, associated to . By
assumption, m is of maximal rank, hence m is an isomorphism for every m M.
It follows that we can use m to associate to each differential one-form on M, a vector field on M: given 1 (M), the corresponding vector field V is defined by its
value at m M as Vm := m (m ). One often uses the compact4 notation V :=  ( ).
4

Some authors, such as [125] go one step further and write  for  ( ).

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6 Constant Poisson Structures, Regular and Symplectic Manifolds

In particular, for local functions F and G on M, one has  (FdG) = FXG . Similarly, one uses the inverse of m to associate to each vector field on M a differential
one-form on M; in the compact notation, the differential one-form associated to
 1
V X1 (M) is 
(V ). We use m to define a non-degenerate
two
  differential
1
(V1 ), V2 .
form on M: for vector fields V1 and V2 , let (V1 , V2 ) := 
Then

 
1
(XF , XG ) := 
(XF ), XG = dF, XG  = {F, G} ,
for F, G F (M). It follows that (M, ) is an almost symplectic manifold whose
associated bivector field is . Since is a Poisson structure, Proposition 6.10 implies

that (M, ) is actually a symplectic manifold.

The main properties of symplectic manifolds are listed in the following proposition.
Proposition 6.12. Let (M, ) be a symplectic manifold of dimension d and let
denote its canonical Poisson structure.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

The dimension d of M is even;

M is an orientable manifold;
(M, ) is a unimodular Poisson manifold;
k (M), the
For every k N , with 0  k  d, the de Rham cohomology space HdR
k
(M)
Poisson cohomology space H (M) and the Poisson homology space Hdk
are isomorphic,
k

(M) Hk (M) Hdk

(M) .
HdR

Proof. Since every symplectic vector space is even-dimensional, every tangent

space of a symplectic manifold is even-dimensional, hence also the symplectic manifold itself. In order to prove (2), we assume that M is a real manifold (complex
manifolds are always orientable). Since is non-degenerate (at every point) the
differential d-form := d/2 is nowhere vanishing, hence it is a volume form and
M is orientable. The volume form is called the Liouville volume form of (M, ).
It is preserved by the flow of every Hamiltonian vector field XF , since
d/2

LXF = LXF d/2 = i1 LXF d/2i = 0 ,

i=1

where we have used in the last step that LXF = 0 (see the proof of Proposition 6.10). Thus, (M, ) is unimodular; see Section 4.4.4, where it is shown that
for a unimodular Poisson manifold, the Poisson cohomology spaces Hk (M) and the
(M) (with 0  k  d) are isomorphic vector spaces,
Poisson homology spaces Hdk
which proves part of (4).
In the case of a symplectic manifold we show that, in addition, the de Rham and
Poisson cohomology spaces are isomorphic. To do this, we consider the isomorphisms m : Tm M Tm M, which we used in the proof of Proposition 6.11. Notice

6.3 Symplectic Manifolds

171

that at every point m, the inverse of m is just m ; for a local section V of T M

 1
(i.e., vector field), the inverse of  is given by 
(V ) = (V , ). The natural


extension of to (M) yields, for every k with 0  k  d, a map

k  : k (M) k X1 (M) Xk (M) ,
which renders the following diagram commutative:

k (M)

k 

Xk (M)

k+1 (M)
k+1 

Xk+1 (M)

Indeed, for local functions F, G1 , . . . , Gk we have on the one hand that



k+1  d(F dG1 dGk ) =  (dF)  (dG1 )  (dGk )
= (1)k+1 XF XG1 XGk ,
while on the other hand


k k  (F dG1 dGk ) = k (F XG1 XGk )
= (1)k XF XG1 XGk ,
where we have used in the last step that XG1 , . . . , XGk are Poisson 1-cocycles. The
commutativity of the diagram implies that the Poisson complex (X (M), [ , ]S ) and
the de Rham complex ( (M), d) are isomorphic. In particular, they have the same
cohomology.


Remark 6.13. A map : M1 M2 between two symplectic manifolds (M1 , 1 )
and (M2 , 2 ) is called a symplectic map if 2 = 1 . Considering the Liouville
volume form on M1 , it is clear that dim M1  dim M2 and that is an immersion. In
particular, for every m M1 ,
Rk (m) 2 = dim M2  dim M1 = Rkm 1 .
The resulting inequality Rk (m) 2  Rkm 1 , is in sharp contrast with the inequality
Rk (m) 2  Rkm 1 , which is valid for a Poisson map (see Exercise 4 of Chapter 1). Thus, a symplectic map : M1 M2 between two symplectic manifolds
(M1 , 1 ) and (M2 , 2 ) is not necessarily a Poisson map, as a map : (M1 , 1 )
(M2 , 2 ), where i is the canonical Poisson structure, associated to i , for i = 1, 2. It
follows that the map, which associates to a symplectic manifold the corresponding
Poisson manifold, is not functorial.

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6 Constant Poisson Structures, Regular and Symplectic Manifolds

6.3.3 Symplectic Reduction

In this section, we specialize Poisson reduction, in particular Proposition 5.14, to
the case of a symplectic manifold. The main extra result is that the reduced Poisson
manifold is also a symplectic manifold.
Proposition 6.14. Let (M, ) be a symplectic manifold, N an (immersed or embedded) submanifold of M with inclusion map : N  M, and let p : N P be a
surjective submersion with connected fibers. If


n Tn N = Tn pn
(6.18)
for every n N, then N is a coisotropic submanifold of M, the triple (M, N, P) is
Poisson reducible and the reduced Poisson structure on P is regular and of maximal
rank, i.e., it is the canonical Poisson structure, associated to a symplectic structure
P on P. Also, = p P .
Proof. In view of Proposition 5.14, we know that (M, N, P) is Poisson reducible,
hence that P inherits a Poisson structure P from (M, ). In order to show that P
is of maximal rank (equal to the dimension of P) at every point of P, let n N
and suppose that F is a function, defined in a neighborhood of p(n) in P, such that
(XF ) p(n) = 0. Let F be an extension of F p to a neighborhood of n in M. According
to (5.27), dn p (XF )n = 0, so that


(XF )n Tn pn = n Tn N .
Since M is a symplectic manifold, this means that dn F Tn N, i.e., dn F|Tn N = 0,
so that dn (F p) = dn (F|N ) = 0. Since dn p is surjective (as p is a submersion), it
follows that d p(n) F = 0. This proves that P is of maximal rank at p(n). Since p is
surjective, this shows that P is of maximal rank at every point of P; it is therefore
the canonical Poisson structure, associated to a symplectic structure on P, which we
denote by P .
We show that = p P . To do this, let n N and let v, w be arbitrary elements
of Tn N, which we identify with elements of Tn M. Since n is invertible, (6.18) im

plies that n Tn pn = Tn N, so that we can write v as (XF )n , where F is defined in
a neighborhood of n in M and is constant on the fibers of p, so its restriction to N is
of the form F|N = F p, where F is a function, defined on a neighborhood of p(n)
in P. On the one hand,


 
w = p d p(n) F, w ,
(6.19)
( )n (v, w) = n ((XF )n , w) = dn F,
where we have used in the last step that w is tangent to N. On the other hand, using
(5.27) it follows that

6.3 Symplectic Manifolds

(p P )n (v, w) = (P ) p(n) (Tn p(XF )n , Tn p(w))



= (P ) p(n) ((XF ) p(n) , Tn p(w)) = d p(n) F, Tn p(w) .

173

(6.20)

Comparing (6.19) and (6.20) we see that ( )n = (p P )n for every n N, which

we needed to show.


Remark 6.15. The fact that the reduced Poisson structure on P is of maximal rank
(symplectic) can also be read off from its Poisson matrix. Recall from Remark 5.16
that in well-chosen coordinates on an open subset U of M, centered at a point n N,
the Poisson matrix of (M, ) is given by

A
B C
X = B D E
C E  F
and that the condition (6.18) implies that C|N = F|N = 0 (see the last line of Table 5.1). Recall also that the Poisson matrix of the reduced Poisson structure P is
given by the matrix A, defined by A |N = A p. Notice that, in the present case, E is
a square matrix, because the dimension t of the fibers of p : N P is equal to the
codimension of N in M, a consequence of condition (6.18), combined with the fact
that is of maximal rank. For every n N U,
 ) = (det E(n ))2 det A(p(n )) ,
det X(n ) = (det E(n ))2 det A(n
so that det A(p(n )) = 0. This gives an alternative proof of the fact that A, and
hence P , is of maximal rank at every point of P. Notice that the argument also
reproves (in the symplectic case) that Rk(E(n )) = t for every n N U (see again
the last line of Table 5.1).
Combining the above proposition with Proposition 5.39 leads to the following result.
Corollary 6.16. Let G be a connected Lie group and let (M, ) be a symplectic
manifold. We assume that G acts locally freely and properly on M and that the
action is Hamiltonian. If 0 is a regular value of its momentum map , then
(1)
(2)
(3)

1 (0) is an embedded submanifold of M, invariant under the action of G;

1 (0)/G is a manifold;
The triple (M, 1 (0), 1 (0)/G) is Poisson reducible.

The reduced Poisson structure on 1 (0)/G is regular and of maximal rank, i.e.,
it is the canonical Poisson structure, associated to a symplectic structure 0 on
1 (0)/G. Also, = p 0 , where p : 1 (0) 1 (0)/G is the quotient map.

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6 Constant Poisson Structures, Regular and Symplectic Manifolds

6.3.4 Quotients by Finite Groups of Symplectomorphisms

Let (V, ) be a symplectic C-vector space of dimension 2d. We denote by SP(V ) the
group of all linear symplectomorphisms of V , i.e., the group of all endomorphisms
of V which preserve . Recall from Section 6.3.1 that the symplectic two-form
leads to a (constant) Poisson structure of rank 2d on V , which we called the canonical Poisson of (V, ). Let G be a finite subgroup of SP(V ). The purpose of the
present section is to study the singular affine variety V /G, both as an affine variety
and as a Poisson variety. The case where the dimension of V is equal to 2 will be
studied in more detail in Section 9.2.4.
Let us specialize to the present setting what has been said at the very end of Section 5.1.2 about the quotient of an affine variety by a finite group. Since G is a finite
subgroup of SP(V ), it acts on V , and the quotient space V /G is an affine variety,
whose algebra of regular functions F (V /G) is naturally identified with the algebra
F (V )G of all G-invariant polynomials on V . The canonical projection p : V V /G
corresponds, dually, to the inclusion of algebras F (V /G) F (V )G  F (V ).
Moreover, since every linear symplectomorphism of (V, ) preserves the canonical Poisson structure of (V, ), the finite subgroup G SP(V ) acts by Poisson isomorphisms. As a consequence, according to the first item of Proposition 5.33, V /G
carries a unique Poisson structure with respect to which p : V V /G is a Poisson
map. This justifies the following definition.
Definition 6.17. Let (V, ) be a symplectic C-vector space and let G be a finite
subgroup of SP(V ). The unique Poisson structure { , }V /G on V /G with respect
to which the natural projection map p : V V /G is a Poisson map, is called the
quotient Poisson structure associated to G. The pair (V /G, { , }V /G ) is called the
quotient Poisson variety associated to G.
Since the quotient space V /G is, in general, singular, it makes no sense to ask
whether it is a symplectic manifold. However, the second item of the next proposition implies that V /G is as symplectic as it can be, i.e., { , }V /G is of maximal rank
at every non-singular point of V /G.
Proposition 6.18. Let (V, ) be a symplectic C-vector space of dimension 2d and
let G = {e} be a finite subgroup of SP(V ), the group of all symplectomorphisms
of V . Denote by p the natural projection map p : V V /G and by U the (nonempty) Zariski open subset of all x V for which the stabilizer Gx is trivial.
(1)
(2)

A point in V /G is a non-singular point if and only if it belongs to p(U);

The rank of { , }V /G is equal to 2d at every non-singular point of V /G.

As a consequence, the restriction of { , }V /G to p(U) is a holomorphic Poisson

structure, which is the canonical Poisson structure associated to a symplectic holomorphic two-form on p(U).
Proof. It is a classical result (valid for the action of an arbitrary finite group on a
vector space) that, for every x V , the point p(x) is a non-singular point of V /G

6.3 Symplectic Manifolds

175

if and only if its stabilizer Gx is a complex reflection group, i.e., a group generated
by elements for which the space of fixed points is a hyperplane (see [42]). But
the set of fixed points of a linear symplectomorphism cannot be a hyperplane. As
a consequence, in the present case, the point p(x) is non-singular if and only if
Gx = {e}. This proves (1).
The open subset U V is a G-invariant subset, the action of G on U is free
since the stabilizer of every point of U is by definition trivial and, according to Section 2.3.2, U is equipped with a holomorphic Poisson structure. This implies on the
one hand that the projection map p : U U/G = p(U) is a local biholomorphism
(when both sets are considered as holomorphic manifolds), and on the other hand,
since p is moreover a Poisson map between Poisson manifolds, that p preserves the
rank of the Poisson structure at each point, so that the rank of { , }V /G is 2d at every
point of p(U). Therefore, { , }V /G restricts to a regular holomorphic Poisson structure of maximal rank on p(U). According to Proposition 6.11, it is the canonical
Poisson structure, associated to a symplectic structure on the holomorphic manifold
p(U). This completes the proof of (2).


Remark 6.19. For every C , the map x  1 x leads to a regular map of V /G
to itself. Since x  1 x multiplies the canonical Poisson structure on V by 2 , this
induced automorphism also transforms the quotient Poisson structure { , }V /G into
2 { , }V /G . As a consequence, for every non-zero C , the Poisson varieties
(V /G, { , }V /G ) and (V /G, { , }V /G ) are isomorphic as Poisson varieties.
The case where the dimension of V is 2 will be studied in more detail in Section 9.2.4. We give here an immediate corollary of Proposition 6.18, which will
be useful then.
Corollary 6.20. Let V be a symplectic C-vector space of dimension 2 and let G =
{e} be a finite subgroup of SP(V ). Then the image of the origin o of V through the
canonical projection p : V V /G is the only point of V /G which is singular. It is
also the only point where the rank of the quotient Poisson structure is zero.
Proof. For a vector space V of dimension 2, the group SP(V ) coincides with the
group SL(V ) of all linear maps of determinant +1. Every element of a finite subgroup G of SL(V ) is of finite order, hence is diagonalizable. Clearly, a diagonalizable element of SL(V ), different from the unit, admits o V as its unique fixed
point, hence U = V \ {o}. Clearly, the rank of { , }V /G at p(o) is zero. According
to Proposition 6.18, the rank of { , }V /G is 2 at every other point of V /G.

6.3.5 Example 1: Cotangent Bundles

It is shown in Section 1.3.4 that every Poisson manifold admits a (singular) foliation
whose leaves carry a symplectic structure. Thus, the number of examples of symplectic manifolds is abundant. There are however two large classes of symplectic

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6 Constant Poisson Structures, Regular and Symplectic Manifolds

manifolds which need special attention: cotangent bundles and Kahler manifolds.
The first class, considered in this section, is of fundamental importance in classical
mechanics, see e.g. [1, 15] and [125].
The idea that cotangent bundles are symplectic manifolds comes from classical
mechanics: local coordinates on M and the corresponding momenta, which are linear coordinates on the fibers of : T M M yield canonical coordinates on phase
space. To make this precise, let us first show how to build natural local coordinates on T M from local coordinates on M. Suppose that x1 , . . . , xd are coordinates
on U M; it yields half of a system of coordinates on T U T M by letting
qi := xi . For the other half, let pi denote the function on T U, which is defined
by
 
 

,
(6.21)
pi (m ) := m ,
xi m
where m T U is in the fiber over m, i.e., (m ) = m. The functions pi and xi are
dual in the following sense: for m U and 1  i, j  d,
 



pi (dm x j ) = dm x j ,
= i, j .
xi m
On T M there is a natural differential one-form, called the Liouville form, which
can in terms of the above local coordinates be defined as
d

:= pi dqi .
i=1

More intrinsically, 1 (T M) is defined by




 , V  (m ) := m , Tm Vm ,

(6.22)

where m T M and V X1 (T M). The canonical pairing in this formula is between Tm M and Tm M: indeed, Tm : Tm (T M) Tm M. To check that , as defined
by (6.22), is given in terms of the above coordinates qi , pi by di=1 pi dqi , take an arbitrary vector field V = di=1 (i / qi + i / pi ) on T M and compare

 

d




 , V  (m ) = m , Tm Vm = m , i (m )
,
xi m
i=1
which was computed from (6.22), using qi = xi , with




d
d
d 

pi dqi , V (m ) = pi dqi , j q j + j p j (m )
i=1
i=1
j=1
d

p i ( m ) i ( m )

i=1

6.3 Symplectic Manifolds

177

 
 

,
i m m xi
m
i=1
d

which was computed from (6.21).

The canonical symplectic structure on T M is by definition the closed differential
two-form := d , which is locally given by di=1 dpi dqi , so that the coordinates qi
and pi are canonical coordinates. Notice that the differential two-form is actually
exact, making T M into an exact symplectic manifold.
To a function F F (M), respectively to a vector field V X1 (M), one can
respectively V , on T M by
associate a function F,
F := F ,

V (m ) := m , V (m)

for every m Tm M. The reader will easily verify that the canonical Poisson bracket
of satisfies the following formulas: if F1 , F2 F (M) and V1 , V2 X1 (M), then


F1 , F2 = 0,



V1 , V2 = [V
1 , V2 ] and



V1 , F1 = V
1 [F1 ] .

In fact, these formulas can be used to define (see [3, Ch. 2]).

6.3.6 Example 2: Kahler Manifolds

We now turn to a second class of examples, which is important from the point of
view of complex geometry. Let M be a complex manifold and let us denote the
underlying real manifold by MR . Suppose that ds2 is a Hermitian metric on M. This
means that, in terms of a system of local (holomorphic) coordinates z1 , . . . , zd ,
ds2 =

hi j dzi dz j ,

1i, jd

where (hi j ) is a positive definite Hermitian matrix. The imaginary part (up to a sign)
of such a metric is a non-degenerate differential 2-form on MR , given by

1
:=
hi j dzi dz j .
2 1i,
jd
One says that the metric ds2 is a Kahler metric if is closed, i.e., if is a symplectic
structure. Then (MR , ) is called a Kahler manifold and is called the associated
differential 2-form of the metric. Notice that the metric can be recovered from its
associated differential 2-form.
Two facts underlie the importance of Kahler manifolds. The first one is that the
complex projective space PN admits a Kahler metric. The second fact is that every

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6 Constant Poisson Structures, Regular and Symplectic Manifolds

submanifold of a Kahler manifold is itself a Kahler manifold. This means that every
non-singular complex projective variety has a Kahler structure.

6.4 Notes
The study of symplectic manifolds, initiated by its importance in classical mechanics, has become a subject of its own. Many books have symplectic manifolds as their
central theme, yet there are significant variations in how much the theory is connected to classical, and eventually quantum mechanics, as well as in the advanced
topics which are treated. For an excellent introduction, see Cannas da Silva [33],
where the example of Kahler manifolds is treated in detail. For an introduction to the
subject, largely motivated by classical mechanics, see Arnolds classical book [15].
Another classical book is the mechanics book [1] by Abraham and Marsden, where
symplectic geometry is used as a tool, rather than a subject of itself; in it, the utility
of symplectic structures is plain. The books [125] by LibermannMarle and [92]
by GuilleminSternberg, two books of opposite style, are great complements to the
above references.
All the above books treat additional topics. Group actions and the momentum
map are studied in varying detail in all of them; for this, the books of Audin [18]
and OrtegaRatiu [160] should also be consulted. Symplectic vector bundles and
contact manifolds are treated in LibermannMarle [125], symplectic homogeneous
spaces are an additional topic in GuilleminSternberg [92], the HamiltonJacobi
method and perturbation theory are discussed in both AbrahamMarsden [1] and
Arnold [15].

Chapter 7

Linear Poisson Structures and Lie Algebras

Together with symplectic manifolds, considered in the previous chapter, Lie algebras provide the first examples of Poisson manifolds. Namely, the dual g of a finitedimensional Lie algebra g admits a natural Poisson structure, called its LiePoisson
structure, which provides new insights and technical tools in the study of Lie algebras. For example, the coadjoint orbits in g are precisely the symplectic leaves
of the LiePoisson structure, showing in particular that coadjoint orbits are evendimensional.
LiePoisson structures are linear Poisson structures, in the sense that they are
Poisson structures on a vector space V , for which the Poisson bracket of every pair
of linear functions on V (elements of V ) is a linear function on V . Also, every linear
Poisson structure (on a finite-dimensional vector space) is a LiePoisson structure
and we have a functorial equivalence between linear Poisson structures and Lie
algebra structures.
In many cases, one considers the Poisson structure on the Lie algebra g itself,
rather than on g . This is usually done by identifying g with g , using a nondegenerate Ad-invariant symmetric bilinear form on g, which exists for example
for every semisimple Lie algebra. The coadjoint orbits are then identified with the
adjoint orbits and the Hamiltonian vector fields on g take a natural form, a so-called
Lax form.
The LiePoisson structure on g is introduced in Section 7.1, while the induced
Poisson structure on g is discussed in Section 7.2. The main properties of the Lie
Poisson structure are given in Section 7.3. A variant of LiePoisson structures,
namely affine (= linear + constant) Poisson structures and their Lie theoretical
interpretation is discussed in Section 7.4. We finish this chapter with a short introduction to the linearization of Poisson structures (in the neighborhood of a point
where the rank is zero).
Unless otherwise stated, F denotes an arbitrary field of characteristic zero.

C. Laurent-Gengoux et al., Poisson Structures,

Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften 347,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-31090-4 7, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

179

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7 Linear Poisson Structures and Lie Algebras

7.1 The LiePoisson Structure on g

Suppose that g is a finite-dimensional Lie algebra over F, with Lie bracket [ , ]. We
denote the dual vector space to g by g . We associate to each element1 e of g, a
linear function e : g F, defined by
e : g F
  , e := (e) .
In words, e is evaluation at e. Taking a basis (e1 , . . . , ed ) of g, we obtain a
system of linear coordinates (x1 , . . . , xd ) on g by letting xi := ei . We use it to
build the skew-symmetric matrix X = (xi j )1i, jd , whose elements are defined by
xi j := [ei , e j ] ; each entry of X is a function on g, which can be expressed as a linear
combination of the coordinates x1 , . . . , xd . Consider the skew-symmetric biderivation { , } of F[x1 , . . . , xd ], defined by setting, for F, G F[x1 , . . . , xd ],
{F, G} :=

i, j=1

xi j

F G
.
xi x j

(7.1)



It is the unique skew-symmetric biderivation of F[x1 , . . . , xd ] such that ei , ej =

[ei , e j ] , for all 1  i < j  d. By bilinearity of { , } and [ , ],

{e , f } = [e, f ] ,

(7.2)

for all e, f g. On the one hand, this implies that Definition (7.1) is independent
of the chosen basis (e1 , . . . , ed ). On the other hand, it yields, for all i, j, k with
1  i, j, k  d,
 

xi , x j , xk = [[ei , e j ], ek ] ,
 

so that the Jacobi identity for [ , ] implies that xi , x j , xk +  (i, j, k) = 0 for all
1  i < j < k  d. According to Proposition 1.8, this shows that { , } is a Poisson
structure on F[x1 , . . . , xd ]. Similarly, according to (iii) in Proposition 1.36, Eq. (7.1)
also defines a Poisson structure on the algebra of smooth functions on g , when
F = R, or on the algebra of holomorphic functions on g , when F = C; in either
case, it is the unique Poisson structure which satisfies (7.2). Thus, F (g ) inherits a
Poisson structure from the Lie bracket on g, irrespective of whether we take F (g )
to be the algebra of polynomial, smooth, or holomorphic functions on g .
An intrinsic formula for {F, G} can be written down in terms of the differentials
of F and G. Since the differential of F F (g ) at is a linear map d F : T g F,
and since T g is naturally isomorphic with g , we can think of d F as being an
element of (g ) , i.e., as an element of g, since g and its bidual are canonically
isomorphic (recall that g is finite-dimensional; the canonical isomorphism g (g )
1

We use in this section letters e and f to denote elements of a Lie algebra g, to reserve the letters
x, y, z for elements of the bidual (g ) . After identification of g with its bidual, the letters x, y, z
become elements of g, just like everywhere else in the book.

7.1 The LiePoisson Structure on g

181

is given, for e g, by e  e ). Thus, we can identify d F with an element of g,

which we will also denote by d F. With this notation, the differential of F F (g )
at g , is given by
d
F
( ) ei ,
(7.3)
d F =

i=1 xi
and (7.1), evaluated at g , can be written in the compact, coordinate-free form,


{F, G} ( ) = , [d F, d G] .
(7.4)
Definition 7.1. Let (g, [ , ]) be a finite-dimensional Lie algebra and let F (g ) denote the algebra of polynomial, smooth or holomorphic functions on g . The Poisson
structure on g , defined for F, G F (g ), at g by


{F, G} ( ) := , [d F, d G]
(7.5)
is called the LiePoisson structure on g , or the canonical Poisson structure on g .
As we will show in Proposition 7.3 below, LiePoisson structures are in one-toone correspondence with linear Poisson structures, where the latter are defined as
follows.
Definition 7.2. A Poisson structure { , } on a finite-dimensional vector space V is
called a linear Poisson structure if for each pair of linear functions and on V ,
their Poisson bracket { , } is a linear function on V .
Proposition 7.3. For every finite-dimensional vector space V , there is a natural oneto-one correspondence between linear Poisson structures on V and Lie algebra
structures on V .
Proof. As we have explained, when V = g is a finite-dimensional Lie algebra, its
dual vector space g carries a Poisson structure. If x, y are linear functions on g ,
then they are of the form x = e and y = f , where e, f g, and it follows from (7.2)
that their Poisson bracket is a linear function on g . This shows that the LiePoisson
structure on g is a linear Poisson structure. On the other hand, a linear Poisson
structure { , } can be restricted to linear functions on V and the restriction is a
Lie bracket on (V )  V . The LiePoisson structure on V , associated to this Lie
bracket, is the original Poisson bracket { , }, since both Poisson brackets coincide

for all linear functions on V .

Remark 7.4. For i = 1, 2, let (gi , [ , ]i ) be a Lie algebra whose LiePoisson structure
(on gi ) is denoted by { , }i . If : (g1 , [ , ]1 ) (g2 , [ , ]2 ) is a Lie algebra homomorphism, then the transpose map  : (g2 , { , }2 ) (g1 , { , }1 ) is a Poisson
map. It is easily checked that this leads to a contravariant functor from the category of finite-dimensional Lie algebras to the category of Poisson manifolds (affine
Poisson varieties if F is different from R and C).
It is often convenient to represent the LiePoisson structure by its Poisson matrix
(see Section 1.2.2). To do this, consider, as above, a basis (e1 , . . . , ed ) of g, which

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7 Linear Poisson Structures and Lie Algebras

leads to a system of linear coordinates (x1 , . . . , xd ) on g . Let us denote by ckij the

structure constants of the Lie algebra g in terms of the above basis:
d

[ei , e j ] =

ckij ek ,

1  i, j  d .

k=1



Then, the entries of the Poisson matrix ( xi , x j )1i, jd are given by



xi , x j = [ei , e j ] =

ckij xk .

k=1

In this notation, Eq. (7.1) for the Poisson structure takes the form
d

{F, G} :=

ckij xk

i, j,k=1

F G
.
xi x j

In tensorial terms, the algebra of polynomial functions on g is canonically isomorphic to Sg, the symmetric algebra of g, and the construction of the LiePoisson
structure on Sg can be given without passing via g , which has the advantage that its
construction does not require g to be finite-dimensional. Explicitly, a typical monomial z1 z2 . . . z p Sg is viewed as a polynomial function on g by setting, for g ,


(7.6)
(z1 z2 . . . z p )( ) := (z1 ) (z2 ) . . . (z p ) =  , z1   , z2  , z p .
For monomials of degree 1, the Poisson bracket { , } on Sg is just the usual Lie
bracket, {z, z } := [z, z ]. For monomials of higher degree, one uses the biderivation
property, which gives


z1 . . . z p , z1 . . . zq =

z1 . . . zk . . . z p z1 . . . z . . . zq

zk , z .

k=1 =1

From this formula, one easily gives a direct proof of the Jacobi identity for the
bracket { , } on Sg.

7.2 The LiePoisson Structure on g

Upon choosing an isomorphism between the finite-dimensional Lie algebra g and
its dual g , the LiePoisson structure on g can be transferred to a linear Poisson
structure on g. This is usually done by choosing a non-degenerate symmetric bilinear form  |  on g. Non-degeneracy of the bilinear form  |  means that the
linear map : g g , which sends x g to the linear form x |  : y  x | y, is an
isomorphism. Explicitly, is given by

7.2 The LiePoisson Structure on g

183

 (x), y = x | y =  (y), x ,

(7.7)

for all x, y g. The inverse map to is denoted by : g g. As in (7.7),

 , ( ) =  ( ) | ( ) =  , ( ) ,

(7.8)

for all , g . To a function on g , we can associate a function on g and vice versa,

simply by composing it (on the right) with or with . Similarly, every Poisson
structure on g can be transferred to g and vice versa. In particular, the LiePoisson
structure on g , introduced in Section 7.1, leads to a unique Poisson structure { , }g
on g with respect to which is an isomorphism of Poisson manifolds. We call { , }g
the LiePoisson structure on g with respect to  | .
Explicitly, let F, G F (g) and compute their LiePoisson bracket {F, G}g (with
respect to  | ) at a point x g by using (7.5) as follows.
{F, G}g (x) = {F , G } ( (x))



= (x), d (x) (F ), d (x) (G )
= x | [ (dx F), (dx G)] .

(7.9)

We have used that d (x) (F ), viewed as an element of g, is precisely (dx F). To

check the latter, first use the chain rule and the fact that is a linear map to find that
d (x) (F ) = dx F ,
so that, for every g ,


d (x) (F ), = dx F, ( ) =  , (dx F) ,
where we have used (7.8) in the last step. Equation (7.9) is usually written in the
following form,
{F, G}g (x) = x | [x F, x G] ,
(7.10)
where x F, the gradient of F at x (with respect to  | ) is defined, for F F (g)
and x g by
x F | y = dx F, y ,
(7.11)
for every y g, which is equivalent to saying that x F = (dx F). Since F is a
function on a vector space, (7.11) can also be written in the following form,
x F | y =

d
F(x + ty) ,
dt |t=0

(7.12)

which is the most useful form for explicit computation.

The LiePoisson structure on g is often restricted to a subspace of g which is
defined by a Lie ideal of g. If A is a subset of g, the orthogonal to A, with respect
to  | , is the subspace A g, defined as

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7 Linear Poisson Structures and Lie Algebras

A := {x g | y A, x | y = 0} .

(7.13)

Proposition 7.5. Let (g, [ , ]) be a finite-dimensional Lie algebra, equipped with a

non-degenerate, symmetric bilinear form  | , and suppose that h g is a Lie ideal
of g. Then its orthogonal, h , is a Poisson submanifold of g. For F, G F (h ),
their Poisson bracket {F, G}h is given, at x h , by


G (x) ,
{F, G}h (x) = F,
g

(7.14)

where F and G are arbitrary extensions of F and G to a neighborhood of x in g.

Proof. We first show that if h is a Lie ideal of g, then h is a Poisson submanifold
of g. Let x h and let G be an arbitrary function, defined in a neighborhood of x
in g. According to Proposition 2.12, we need to show that (XG )x Tx h  h . To
do this, let F be an arbitrary function, defined in a neighborhood of x in g, which is
constant on h . For such a function, we have that x F h; indeed, F(x +ty) = F(x)
for every y h and every t F, so that
x F | y =

d
F(x + ty) = 0 ,
dt |t=0

for every y h . Since  |  is non-degenerate, we may conclude that x F h.

Since h is a Lie ideal of g, we have for every x h that
(XG )x [F] = {F, G}g (x) = x | [x F, x G] = 0 .
This shows that XG is tangent to h at every point x h . Proposition 2.12 also

leads to the formula (7.14) for the Poisson structure { , }h on h .

We now show that the Hamiltonian vector fields XH on (g, { , }) can be written down in a simple form, if  |  is ad-invariant (i.e., when g is a quadratic Lie
algebra). Recall from Section 5.1.4 that this means that x | [y, z] = [x, y] | z for
all x, y, z g. Then we have that (7.10) can be written, for H = G, as
{F, H}g (x) = x F | [x H, x] = dx F, [x H, x] .
Comparing this to
{F, H}g (x) = (XH )x [F] = dx F, (XH )x  ,
we find that x := (XH )x , the Hamiltonian vector field XH at x, is given by the Lax
equation
x = [x H, x] .
(7.15)
Lax equations are very important in the theory of integrable systems, as one easily
shows that their flows are isospectral, hence admit many constants of motion (see
Section 12.2.5 below).

7.3 Properties of the LiePoisson Structure

185

Example 7.6. The basic example of a finite-dimensional quadratic Lie algebra is

given by the F-vector space g := gld (F) of d d matrices with coefficients in F.
The Lie bracket on g is the commutator [x, y] := xy yx. If Ei j denotes the d d
matrix with a 1 at position (i, j) and zeros elsewhere, then [Ei j , Ek ] = j,k Ei
i, Ek j , for all 1  i, j, k,   d. A natural symmetric bilinear form on g is given
by
 x | y:= Trace(xy). It is non-degenerate, thanks to the orthogonality relations
Ei j | Ek = j,k i, . Moreover, ad-invariance follows at once from the basic property Trace(xy) = Trace(yx) of the trace form. Thus, g is a quadratic Lie algebra. Let
on g which picks the entry at position (i, j) of a
us denote by i j the linear
 function

matrix: i j (x) := xi j = E ji | x . For all x, y g,

 
 
 

x i j | y = dx i j , y = i j , y = E ji | y ,
so that x i j = i j is independent of x and is given by i j = E ji . It follows that
the Poisson bracket of two such linear functions on g is given, at x g, by




 
i j , k g (x) = x | [E ji , Ek ] = x | i, E jk j,k Ei
= (i, k j j,k i )(x) ,


so that i j , k g = i, k j j,k i . Let us show that for every p N , the function
H p : g F, defined by H p (x) := 1p Trace x p , is a Casimir function for { , }g . For all
x, y g,




 

d
H p (x + ty) = Trace x p1 y = x p1 | y .
x H p | y =
dt |t=0

It follows that x H p = x p1 , which implies that [x H p , x] = 0, for every x g. In

view of (7.15), this means that the functions Hp are Casimir functions of { , }g .

7.3 Properties of the LiePoisson Structure

In this section we first study the symplectic foliation of a LiePoisson structure and
show how it is related to the coadjoint action. We then explain how the Poisson
cohomology of a LiePoisson structure is related to Lie algebra cohomology. In
Section 7.3.3, we relate the modular class of a LiePoisson structure to the modular
form of a Lie algebra.

7.3.1 The Symplectic Foliation: Coadjoint Orbits

We have seen in Section 1.3.3 that a Poisson manifold naturally decomposes into
symplectic manifolds. We now show that in the case of a LiePoisson structure

186

7 Linear Poisson Structures and Lie Algebras

on g , these symplectic manifolds are the coadjoint orbits of G in g , where G is

any connected Lie group whose Lie algebra is g; we also show that the Casimir
functions are the Ad -invariant functions. See Section 5.1.3 for the definition and
the basic properties of the coadjoint action and of Ad -invariant functions on g .
Proposition 7.7. Let (g, [ , ]) be a finite-dimensional Lie algebra and let G be an
arbitrary connected Lie group whose Lie algebra is g. The symplectic leaves of the
LiePoisson structure on g are the coadjoint orbits of G and the Casimir functions
are the Ad -invariant functions.
Proof. We first show that at each point g the vector space of all fundamental
vector fields of the coadjoint action of G on g at coincides with Ham (g , { , }),
the vector space of all Hamiltonian vector fields of the LiePoisson structure on g ,
at . To show it, rewrite (7.5) as



(XG ) [F] = , add G d F = add G , d F
to find that the Hamiltonian vector field XG is given, at g , by
(XG ) = add G .
For every x g, the linear function x , defined by x ( ) :=  , x for all g ,
satisfies d x = x , for every g . It follows that


Ham (g ) = add G | G F (g ) = {adx | x g} ,
as we needed to show. Since the coadjoint orbits of G are connected, this shows that
the leaves of the symplectic foliation of the LiePoisson structure on g are precisely
the coadjoint orbits. It follows that the Ad -invariant functions are precisely the
functions which are constant on every leaf of the symplectic foliation. According to
Proposition 1.31, they are the Casimir functions of the LiePoisson structure on g .

Suppose now, as in Section 7.2, that we have a non-degenerate symmetric bilinear form  |  on g, and let : g g be the resulting isomorphism (see (7.7)).
Since realizes an isomorphism between the LiePoisson structure on g and the
LiePoisson structure on g with respect to  | , Proposition 7.7 leads to the following result.
Proposition 7.8. Let (g, [ , ]) be a finite-dimensional quadratic Lie algebra, whose
bilinear form is denoted by  | . Let G be an arbitrary connected Lie group whose
Lie algebra is g. The symplectic leaves of the LiePoisson structure on g with respect
to  |  are the adjoint orbits of G and the Casimir functions are the Ad-invariant
functions.
The fact that the symplectic foliation of the dual of a Lie algebra is given by the
orbits of the coadjoint action shows that, even in the case of a linear Poisson struc-

7.3 Properties of the LiePoisson Structure

187

Fig. 7.1 For r  0 the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = r2 is a symplectic leaf of the LiePoisson structure
on (so3 (R)) .

ture, the symplectic foliation can be rather complicated. This is illustrated in the
following examples of (real) three-dimensional Lie algebras.
Example 7.9. We start with the LiePoisson structure of (so3 (R)) , which is defined
by the following brackets
[x, y] = z ,

[y, z] = x ,

[z, x] = y .

The Poisson matrix is given by

z y

z 0 x ,

y x 0
and C := x2 + y2 + z2 is a Casimir function. The rank of the Poisson structure is
two at every point, different from the origin o, and at such a point the differential of
the Casimir function C is non-zero. According to Proposition 1.32, the symplectic
leaves in R3 \ {o} are the connected components of the fibers of C, i.e., the spheres
x2 + y2 + z2 = r2 , with r = 0. Of course, {o} is itself a symplectic leaf, so the symplectic leaves are the concentric spheres x2 + y2 + z2 = r2 , with r R0 , where the
origin appears as a sphere of radius r = 0. See Fig. 7.1.
Example 7.10. We next consider the LiePoisson structure of (sl2 (R)) , where the
standard sl2 (R) brackets
[x, y] = z ,

[y, z] = 2y ,

[z, x] = 2x ,

lead to the following Poisson matrix

0 z 2x

z 0 2y .

2x 2y 0

188

7 Linear Poisson Structures and Lie Algebras

Fig. 7.2 Every point of the plane x = 0 is a symplectic leaf for the LiePoisson structure on the
dual of the Heisenberg algebra. The planes x = c, with c = 0, are the other symplectic leaves.

Clearly, C := 4xy + z2 is a Casimir function and the rank of the Poisson structure
is two at every point, except at the origin; also, the differential of C is non-zero,
except at the origin. As in the previous example, Proposition 1.32 implies that the
symplectic leaves are the connected components of the fibers of C, namely,
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

The one-sheeted hyperboloids 4xy + z2 = c, for c > 0;

The two components of the two-sheeted hyperboloids 4xy + z2 = c, for c < 0;
The two components of the cone z2 = 4xy minus the origin;
The origin.

Notice that the previous example and the present example are geometrically
very different, yet the underlying Lie algebras have the same complexification,
namely sl2 (C).
Example 7.11. Our third example is the Heisenberg algebra, with Lie brackets
[x, y] = 0 ,

[y, z] = x ,

The Poisson matrix is now given by

[z, x] = 0 .

0 0 0

0 0 x .

0 x 0
It is immediate that the Casimir functions are precisely the functions which are
independent of y and of z. The Poisson structure has now rank zero on the plane
x = 0, so that each point of this plane is a symplectic leaf; together, these points
form the zero locus of the Casimir function x. The other symplectic leaves are twodimensional, they are the planes x = c, with c R . See Fig. 7.2.
Example 7.12. In the fourth example we show that, for a linear Poisson structure
on R3 , non-trivial smooth Casimir functions may even not exist locally (at some
points). Take on R3 , with respect to the system of coordinates (x, y, z), the following
Poisson matrix,

0
0 x

0
(7.16)
0 y

.
x y 0

7.3 Properties of the LiePoisson Structure

189

Fig. 7.3 For the open book foliation, which is the symplectic foliation of the LiePoisson structure,
given by the Poisson matrix (7.16) the leaves are the points of the Z-axis and the half-planes,
obtained by removing the Z-axis from the planes passing through it.

On R3 , minus the plane x = 0, y/x is a Casimir function, while on R3 , minus the

plane y = 0, x/y is a Casimir function. The symplectic leaves of dimension 0 are
the points on the Z-axis, while the symplectic leaves of dimension 2 are the halfplanes, obtained by removing the Z-axis from all the planes which pass through the
Z-axis, as follows again from Proposition 1.32. This symplectic foliation is called
the open book foliation. Taking an arbitrary point on the Z-axis, it is clear that on no
neighborhood of it is there a non-constant Casimir function. See Fig. 7.3.
Example 7.13. We consider, in the last example, for a fixed C, the basic Lie
brackets
[x, y] = 0 , [y, z] = y , [z, x] = x ,
which lead to the following Poisson matrix for the corresponding LiePoisson structure on C3 ,

0 0 x

0 0 y .

x y

A holomorphic function F, defined on an open subset U C3 , is a Casimir function

for this Poisson structure if and only if

F
F
F
= x
y
=0,
z
x
y
on U. A solution of these equations is easily found, giving F = cxy + d, where
/ Q, then the level sets of F are not even
c and d are integration constants. If
algebraic varieties.

190

7 Linear Poisson Structures and Lie Algebras

7.3.2 The Cohomology of LiePoisson Structures

We show in this section that the Poisson cohomology of a LiePoisson structure
is naturally related to Lie algebra cohomology, leading under some conditions to
a fairly explicit description of it. Let g be a finite-dimensional Lie algebra, whose
LiePoisson structure (on g ) is denoted by or by { , }. The algebra of functions F (g ) which we consider can be taken indifferently as the algebra of polynomial, holomorphic or smooth functions.
For x g, we will denote as in Section 7.1, by x the element x, viewed as an
element of the bidual of g, i.e., x is the linear function on g , defined by x ,  :=
 , x for all g . Consider the map g X1 (g ), which associates to x g the
Hamiltonian vector field of x with respect to the LiePoisson structure. It is a Lie
algebra homomorphism, since
X[x,y] = X{x ,y } = [Xx , Xy ] ,
for all x, y g. Equivalently, the assignment g F (g ) F (g ) given by (x, F) 
Xx [F] = {x , F} defines a representation of g on F (g ). We can therefore consider HL (g, F (g )), the F (g )-valued Lie algebra cohomology of g. Recall from
Section 4.1.1 that for every q N, the space of F (g )-valued q-cochains of g is
given by
Cq (g; F (g )) = Hom(q g, F (g )) ,
while the differential is given, for all c Cq (g; F (g )) and all x0 , . . . , xq g, by

Lq (c)(x0 , . . . , xq ) =

(1)i

i=0

xi , c(x0 , . . . , xi , . . . , xq )

(7.17)



(1)i+ j c [xi , x j ] , x0 , . . . , xi , . . . , xj , . . . , xq .

0i< jq

We show in the following proposition that, for every q N, the cohomology space
HLq (g, F (g )) is canonically isomorphic to the q-th Poisson cohomology space
of (g , ).
Proposition 7.14. Let g be a finite-dimensional Lie algebra. The dual g of g is
equipped with its algebra F (g ) of polynomial, holomorphic or smooth functions.
The LiePoisson bracket on F (g ) is denoted by . For every q N there is a
canonical isomorphism
HLq (g, F (g ))  Hq (g ) .
Proof. We show that the F (g )-valued Lie algebra cohomology complex of g is
isomorphic to the Poisson cohomology complex of (g , ). Let Q be a Poisson qcochain of (F (g ), ), i.e., Q Xq (g ). We associate to Q the element q (Q)
Cq (g; F (g )) = Hom(q g, F (g )), defined by

q (Q) :

q g
F (g )
x1 xq  Q[x1 , . . . , xq ] .

(7.18)

7.3 Properties of the LiePoisson Structure

191

It is easy to see that for every q N the resulting linear map q : Xq (g )

Hom(q g, F (g )) is anisomorphism. Moreover, a direct comparison of (4.4)
and (7.17), using xi , xj = [xi , x j ] , shows that the following diagram is commutative.
q

Xq (g )
Xq+1 (g )
q+1

Hom(q g, F (g ))

q
L

Hom(q+1 g, F (g ))

The isomorphisms (q )qN therefore induce isomorphisms in cohomology.

For a representation ( ,V ) of g, recall that V g stands for the space of all ginvariant elements, i.e., elements v V such that (x, v) = 0 for every x g. Recall
also that we denote by HL (g) the trivial Lie algebra cohomology (see Example 4.2).
Since V g is a subrepresentation of V , on which g acts trivially, we have linear maps
HLq (g) V g HLq (g,V g ) HLq (g,V ) ,

(7.19)

where the first map is an isomorphism, but the second map is in general neither
injective nor surjective. In the case of the above representation of g on F (g ), it
leads for every q N to the linear map
q : HLq (g) Cas(g ) Hq (g ) ,

(7.20)

since the invariant elements of F (g ) are the functions F F (g ) such that

{x , F} = 0 for every x g, i.e., the Casimir functions of (g , ). Recall from Proposition 7.7 that these functions are the Ad -invariant functions. For a semi-simple Lie
algebra, a non-trivial property on its Lie algebra cohomology (with coefficients in a
finite-dimensional representation) implies that q is an isomorphism, for every q N,
as we show in the following proposition.
Proposition 7.15. Let g be a semi-simple Lie algebra. We denote by F (g ) the algebra of polynomial functions on g and by Cas(g ) F (g ) the subalgebra of
polynomial Casimir functions. For every q N, the map q , given by (7.20), is an
isomorphism:
q : HLq (g) Cas(g )  Hq (g ) .
Proof. We denote by Fk (g ) the vector space of homogeneous polynomials of degree k on g , where k N. It is a subrepresentation of F (g ), and
F (g ) =

Fk (g ) ,

kN

which implies that the F (g )-valued Lie algebra cohomology of g decomposes as

a direct sum,
 q
HL (g, Fk (g )) ,
HLq (g, F (g )) =
kN

192

7 Linear Poisson Structures and Lie Algebras

for every q N. Since the LiePoisson structure on g is linear, a function F

F (g ) is a Casimir function if and only if for every k N its homogeneous component of degree k is a Casimir function. Setting Cask (g ) := Cas(g ) Fk (g ), it
follows that
 q
HLq (g) Cas(g ) =
HL (g) Cask (g ) ,
kN

for every q N. Moreover, for every q, k N, the linear map q restricts to yield a
map
q,k : HLq (g) Cask (g ) HLq (g, Fk (g )) .
Now, according to [95, Th. 11], for every finite-dimensional representation V of a
semi-simple Lie algebra g, the natural linear map HLq (g) V g HLq (g,V ) described
in (7.19) is bijective for every q N. In particular, for every k N, q,k is an isomorphism, which, in turn, implies that q is an isomorphism, as was to be shown.

7.3.3 The Modular Class of a LiePoisson Structure

The modular form of a finite-dimensional Lie algebra g is the linear form g on g,
defined for x g by
g (x) := Trace(adx ) .
A Lie algebra is said to be unimodular when its modular form vanishes. For x, y g,

g ([x, y]) = Trace(ad[x,y] ) = Trace([adx , ady ]) = 0 ,

(7.21)

so that g vanishes on [g, g]. Every Lie algebra which satisfies [g, g] = g is therefore
unimodular; in particular, if g is semi-simple, then g is unimodular. If g is nilpotent,
then g is unimodular, since adx is nilpotent, hence traceless, for every x g. For
a different reason, quadratic Lie algebras are unimodular as well. However, solvable Lie algebras are not unimodular in general, for instance, the two-dimensional
Lie algebra defined, on a basis (e, f ) of g by [e, f ] := f , is not unimodular, since
Trace(ade ) = 1.
In the following proposition, we relate the modular form g of g with the modular
vector field of the Poisson manifold (g , ), where stands for the canonical Lie
Poisson structure on g . The volume form which we choose on g is any translation
invariant volume form (see Remark 4.13). is a constant vector field on g , hence
corresponds in a canonical way to an element of g .
Proposition 7.16. Let g be a finite-dimensional Lie algebra. Interpreted as an element of g , the modular vector field of (g , ) with respect to any translation invariant volume form is, up to a sign the modular form of g.
Proof. Let (e1 , . . . , ed ) be a basis of g and let (1 , . . . , d ) be the dual basis of g .
We use the functions x1 = e1 , . . . , xd = ed as linear coordinates on g . According

7.4 Affine Poisson Structures

193

to (4.22), the divergence of the LiePoisson structure on g is given by

Div( ) =





xi , x j
= [ei , e j ] , j
.
xi 1i, jd
xi
1i, jd x j

Since = Div( ) (see Proposition 4.17), it follows that





(x) = [ei , e j ] , j xi = j , [x, e j ] = Trace(adx ) ,
1i, jd

1 jd

for every x = di=1 xi ei g. This shows that = g .

7.4 Affine Poisson Structures

We now turn to a combination of constant and linear Poisson structures, which we
call affine Poisson structures.
Definition 7.17. A Poisson structure { , } on a finite-dimensional vector space V is
called an affine Poisson structure if, for every pair of affine functions F and G on V ,
their Poisson bracket {F, G} is an affine function on V .
Equivalently, for every pair of linear functions F and G on V , their Poisson bracket
{F, G} is an affine function on V .
Proposition 7.18. For every finite-dimensional vector space V , there is a one-toone correspondence between affine Poisson structures on V and pairs of compatible
Poisson structures (0 , 1 ) on V , where 0 is a constant Poisson structure and 1 is
a linear Poisson structure.
Proof. Suppose that is a skew-symmetric biderivation of F (V ) such that for every
pair of linear functions F and G on V , one has that [F, G] is an affine function on V .
For such functions, let 0 [F, G] and 1 [F, G] denote the constant, respectively linear
parts of [F, G]. We view 0 and 1 as bilinear maps on V and we extend them to
biderivations of F (V ), still denoted by 0 and 1 , so that = 0 + 1 . According to
Chapter 6, 0 is a constant Poisson structure. In terms of the Schouten bracket [ , ]S ,
one has that is a Poisson structure if and only if [ , ]S = 0, which is equivalent
to the vanishing of [ , ]S [F, G, H] for all linear functions F, G and H on V . Since
[0 , 0 ]S = 0, because 0 is a Poisson structure, we have that
[ , ]S [F, G, H] = [1 , 1 ]S [F, G, H] + 2 [0 , 1 ]S [F, G, H] .
In view of (3.37), the first term in this expression is a linear function on V , while the
second term is a constant function on V . Thus, [ , ]S = 0 if and only if [1 , 1 ]S = 0
(i.e., 1 is a linear Poisson structure) and [0 , 1 ]S = 0 (i.e., 0 and 1 are compatible). It follows that the map, which sends an affine Poisson structure to its constant

and linear parts (0 , 1 ), yields the announced one-to-one correspondence.

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7 Linear Poisson Structures and Lie Algebras

In view of Proposition 7.18, it is natural to look for a Lie algebraic interpretation of

affine Poisson structures. Indeed, if is an affine Poisson structure on V , then V
is the dual of a Lie algebra V and 0 , restricted to V , is a skew-symmetric bilinear
form on V .
Proposition 7.19. For every finite-dimensional vector space V , there is a one-to-one
correspondence between affine Poisson structures on V and pairs ([ , ], c) where
[ , ] is a Lie algebra structure on V and c is a 2-cocycle in the trivial Lie algebra
cohomology of (V, [ , ]).
Proof. According to Proposition 7.18, we need to show that there is a one-toone correspondence between pairs (0 , 1 ) of compatible Poisson structures on V ,
where 0 is constant and 1 is linear, and pairs ([ , ], c), where [ , ] is a Lie algebra
structure on V and c is a 2-cocycle in the trivial Lie algebra cohomology of (V, [ , ]).
Let (0 , 1 ) be a pair of Poisson structures on V , where 0 is constant and 1 is linear. Let [ , ] be the Lie algebra structure on V , defined2 by [v, w] := 1 [v , w ], for
all v, w V , and let c(v, w) := 0 [v , w ], which defines a linear map c : V V F.
We show that 0 and 1 are compatible if and only if c is a 2-cocycle in the trivial
Lie algebra cohomology of g := V ; since the Poisson structures 0 and 1 can be
reconstructed from the pair ([ , ], c), this will prove the proposition. We have for
all u, v, w V = g,
[0 , 1 ]S (u , v , w ) = 0 [1 [u , v ], w ]+  (u, v, w)
= c([u, v] , w)+  (u, v, w)
= L2 (c)(u, v, w) ,
see Example 4.2, in particular formula (4.2) for the Lie algebra coboundary operator L , in the case of a trivial representation. It follows that [0 , 1 ]S = 0 if and only

if c is a Lie 2-cocycle, L2 (c) = 0.

In view of the above proposition, affine Poisson structures are also called modified
canonical Poisson structures or modified LiePoisson structures.
If g is semisimple, then HL2 (g) is trivial (see Lemma 4.1), so that, if c is a Lie 2cocycle, then c is a Lie 2-coboundary, c = L1 (c ), written out, c(xi , x j ) = c ([x j , xi ])
and we see that the affine Poisson structure, corresponding to ([ , ], c), is nothing but
the LiePoisson structure associated to [ , ], with xi replaced by xi +c (xi ), i.e., both
Poisson structures are the same up to an affine change of variables (a translation).
Affine Poisson structures are, in general, also closely related to LiePoisson
structures in a different way. Namely, given a Lie algebra (g, [ , ]) and a Lie 2cocycle c, as in Proposition 7.19, we consider on g F the Lie bracket
[(x, a), (y, b)]c := ([x, y] , c(x, y)) .

(7.22)

For every (xi , ai ) g F, where i = 1, 2, 3, one has that

As in the case of Lie algebras, if v V , then v denotes its image under the canonical isomorphism V  (V ) .
2

7.4 Affine Poisson Structures

195

[[(x1 , a1 ), (x2 , a2 )]c , (x3 , a3 )]c = [([x1 , x2 ] , c(x1 , x2 )), (x3 , a3 )]c
= ([[x1 , x2 ] , x3 ] , c([x1 , x2 ] , x3 )) ,
so that the Jacobi identity for [ , ] and the cocycle condition for c imply the Jacobi
identity for [ , ]c , i.e., (g F, [ , ]c ) is a Lie algebra. In the following proposition we
show that the LiePoisson structure { , }c on (g F) , restricted to a hyperplane,
is isomorphic to the affine Poisson structure { , } on g, defined by the 2-cocycle c.
Proposition 7.20. Let (g, [ , ]) be a finite-dimensional Lie algebra and let c be a 2cocycle in the trivial Lie algebra cohomology of g. Denote the LiePoisson structure
on (g F) , associated to (g F, [ , ]c ), by { , }c , and denote by { , } the affine
Poisson structure on g , with constant term c.
(1)
(2)
(3)

The linear function 1 : (g F) F, defined by  (0, 1), is a Casimir

function of { , }c ;
The hyperplane N := { (g F) | (0, 1) = 1} is a Poisson submanifold
of (g F) ;
The isomorphism : N g , defined for N by  (, 0), is a Poisson
isomorphism between (N, { , }c ) and (g , { , }).

Proof. We first show that 1 is a Casimir function of { , }c . Notice that 1 = (0, 1),
as an element of g F. For ( , a) g F, it follows that d( ,a) 1 = 1 = (0, 1),
which belongs to the center of [ , ]c (see (7.22)). It follows that for every function
F on (g F) ,


{F, 1 }c ( , a) = ( , a), [d( ,a) F, (0, 1)]c = 0 .
This shows (1). Since the hyperplane N, as defined in (2), is a level set of the
Casimir function 1 , it is a Poisson submanifold of (g F) , which yields (2).
It is clear that is an isomorphism between the affine space N and the vector space g . In order to prove that is a Poisson morphism, it is sufficient to
prove that {x , y }c = {x , y } , for every x, y g, where, as above,
stars stand for the corresponding linear functions on g . By a slight abuse of notation, we will also consider x as a linear function on (g F) , where we put
x ( ) := (x, 0), for all (g F) . With this abuse of notation, x = x ,
and {x , y } = [x, y] + c(x, y). For {x , y }c , which is now written
as {x , y }c , let N and compute



{x , y }c ( ) = , d x , d y c =  , [(x, 0), (y, 0)]c 
=  , ([x, y], c(x, y)) = [x, y] ( ) + c(x, y) ,

which is {x , y } , evaluated at . This shows that is a Poisson morphism;

since is an isomorphism, it is a Poisson isomorphism, which is the content of (3).

As we have shown earlier in this section, every affine Poisson structure which is
constructed by using a Lie 2-cocycle which is a coboundary, is isomorphic to the

196

7 Linear Poisson Structures and Lie Algebras

original LiePoisson structure, by an affine change of variables, which implies that

both Poisson manifolds have the same symplectic foliation, up to a translation. We
show in the following example that when the Lie 2-cocycle is not a coboundary,
these symplectic foliations may be quite different.
Example 7.21. Consider on R3 the linear and affine Poisson structures 1 and ,
whose Poisson matrices are given by

0 0 x
0
1 x

0 0
and 1 0
.
y
y

x y 0
x y 0
The underlying Lie algebra of both Poisson structures is defined by the brackets
[x, y] = 0, and [y, z] = y and [z, x] = x. The corresponding Lie 2-cocycle is given by
c(x, y) = 1 and c(x, z) = c(y, z) = 0. Notice that is a regular Poisson structure,
of rank two, while the rank of 1 vanishes at the origin. Clearly, xy is a Casimir
function of 1 , while xy + z is a Casimir function of . The symplectic leaves of 1
are the points on the Z-axis, the two half-planes obtained by removing the Z-axis
from the plane x = 0, the two half-planes obtained by removing the Z-axis from
the plane y = 0, and the connected components of the hyperbolic cylinders xy = c,
with c R . For the affine Poisson structure , the symplectic leaves are the parallel
hyperboloids xy + z = c, with c R.

7.5 The Linearization of Poisson Structures

According to Weinsteins splitting theorem (Theorem 1.25), every Poisson manifold
(M, ) is, in the neighborhood of each of its points, isomorphic to the product of a
symplectic manifold and a Poisson manifold whose Poisson structure vanishes at
a point. According to Darbouxs theorem (Theorem 1.26), the symplectic Poisson
structure can be written in a canonical form in well-chosen coordinates. For Poisson
structures which vanish at a point m, there is no canonical form; we will explain
in this section that, under some conditions, such a Poisson structure is isomorphic
in a neighborhood of m to a linear Poisson structure, which is canonically associated to the Poisson structure at m. This linear Poisson structure is introduced in the
following proposition.
Proposition 7.22. Let (M, ) be a real or complex Poisson manifold, and suppose
that m M is a point at which vanishes. There exists a unique linear Poisson
structure { , }1 = 1 on Tm M, such that, for every neighborhood U of m in M and
for all F, G F (U),
{dm F, dm G}1 = dm {F, G} ,
(7.23)
where the elements dm F, dm G and dm {F, G} of Tm M are viewed as (linear) functions
on Tm M.

7.5 The Linearization of Poisson Structures

197

Suppose that : (M, ) (M  ,  ) is a Poisson map, where (M  ,  ) is also a

Poisson manifold. Then  vanishes at (m) and dm : (Tm M, 1 ) (T (m) M  , 1 )
is a Poisson map, where the linear Poisson structure 1 on T (m) M  is defined as
in (7.23).
We call the linear Poisson structure 1 on Tm M the linearized Poisson structure of
at m.
Proof. Every linear function on Tm M is an element of Tm M, and is therefore of the
form dm F for some function F, defined in a neighborhood of m in M. Since a Poisson
structure on a vector space (here Tm M) is uniquely determined by its value on linear
functions, it follows that there exists at most one Poisson structure 1 on Tm M,
satisfying (7.23). In order to establish the existence of this Poisson structure, we
use (7.23); namely for , Tm M, which we view as linear functions on Tm M, we
define { , }1 := dm {F, G}, where F and G are arbitrary local functions, whose
differentials at m are and respectively. In order to show that dm {F, G} does not
depend on the choice of F and G, we use a system of local coordinates (x1 , . . . , xd ),
centered at m: writing
d
F G
{F, G} := xi j
,
(7.24)
xi x j
i, j=1


where xi j := xi , x j for all 1  i, j  d, the assumption that vanishes at m amounts
to xi j (m) = 0 for all i, j, so that the differential of both sides of (7.24) at m is given
by
d
F
G
(m)
(m) dm xi j .
dm {F, G} =
xj
i, j=1 xi
This gives the required independence of the chosen functions F and G, since
   
 


F

= ,
,
(m) = dm F,
xi
xi m
xi m
and similarly for the partial derivatives of G at m. The Jacobi identity for the Poisson
structure implies the Jacobi identity for 1 since it follows at once from (7.23) that
{ , { , }1 }1 = dm {F, {G, H}} ,
where F, G and H are arbitrary functions, defined in a neighborhood of m, whose
differentials at m are , and , respectively. This shows that there exists a (unique)
Poisson structure 1 on Tm M, satisfying (7.23) for all open subsets U of M which
contain m and for all F, G F (U).
Suppose now that (M, ) and (M  ,  ) are two Poisson manifolds and that :
M M  is a Poisson map. If m = 0, then  (m) = 0 and we can consider the
linearized Poisson structures at Tm M and at T (m) M  ; we denote them by { , }1
and { , }1 respectively. We show that dm : (Tm M, { , }1 ) (T (m) M  , { , }1 ) is
a Poisson map. To do this, it suffices to show that for all linear functions L1 , L2

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7 Linear Poisson Structures and Lie Algebras

on T (m) M  ,

{L1 , L2 }1 dm = {L1 dm , L2 dm }1 .

(7.25)

Given such functions L1 and L2 , there exist functions F and G, defined on a neighborhood of (m) in M  , such that d (m) F = L1 and d (m) G = L2 . Since is a
Poisson map, {F, G} = {F , G } , which we differentiate at m, giving
d (m) {F, G} dm = dm {F , G } .
Written in terms of the linearized Poisson structures, this becomes


d (m) F, d (m) G


1

dm = {dm (F ), dm (G )}1


= d (m) F dm , d (m) G dm 1 ,

which is (7.25), since L1 = d (m) F and L2 = d (m) G.

Definition 7.23. Let (M, ) be a Poisson manifold, suppose that m is a point of M
at which vanishes and denote the linearized Poisson structure of at m by 1 . We
say that is linearizable at m, if there exists a Poisson diffeomorphism , between
a neighborhood of m in (M, ) and of the origin o in (Tm M, 1 ), with (m) = o.
Example 7.24. Let m be a point of a Poisson manifold (M, ). Suppose that vanishes at m and that the linearized Poisson structure of at m is the trivial Poisson
structure. Then is linearizable at m if and only if is zero in a neighborhood of m.
Example 7.25. If is a linear Poisson structure on a finite-dimensional vector
space V (over R or C), then is linearizable at the origin o. In fact, the canonical isomorphism V  ToV is a Poisson isomorphism, where V is equipped with
and where ToV is equipped with the linearized Poisson structure of at o.
Example 7.26. Let = { , } be a non-trivial Poisson structure on a finite-dimensional vector space V , such that for every pair of linear functions on V , their Poisson
bracket is either zero or it is a homogeneous function of degree k  2 (in the language of Section 8.1, is a homogeneous Poisson structure of degree k). Then
vanishes at the origin o V and the linearized Poisson structure { , }1 is trivial,
since for all linear functions F, G on V ,
{do F, do G}1 = do {F, G} = 0 ,
because {F, G} is either zero or is homogeneous of degree k  2. Since is nontrivial and is homogeneous, there is no neighborhood of o on which is the trivial
Poisson bracket. It follows from Example 7.24 that is not linearizable at o.
Example 7.27. Let F be a smooth or holomorphic function, defined on a neighborhood U of the origin o of F2 . We assume that F vanishes at o, but that the restriction
of F to every neighborhood of o is different from zero. Consider the Poisson structure on U, defined in terms of the standard coordinates x, y of F2 by {x, y} = F. We
claim that is linearizable at o if and only if do F = 0.

7.5 The Linearization of Poisson Structures

199

Let us prove the claim. First, if do F = 0, then {do x, do y}1 = do F = 0, so that the
linearized Poisson structure is trivial; in view of Example 7.24, is in this case not
linearizable at o. Assume now that do F = 0 and consider the vector field
V :=

F
F

,
x y y x

which does not vanish at o. By the straightening theorem (Theorem B.7), there exists
a function G, defined in a neighborhood of o, such that V [G] = 1. Since

F G F G

= V [G] = 1 ,
x y
y x
we have on the one hand that do F and do G are linearly independent, and on the other
hand that {F, G} = F. Thus, (F, G) is a system of coordinates on a neighborhood
of o and is linear in terms of these coordinates. According to Example 7.25, is
linearizable at o.
Remark 7.28. For i = 1, 2, let (Mi , i ) be a Poisson manifold, whose Poisson structure vanishes at mi Mi . Let : M1 M2 be an isomorphism of Poisson manifolds
with (m1 ) = m2 . Then the tangent map Tm : Tm1 M1 Tm2 M2 is an isomorphism
of Poisson manifolds, where both tangent spaces are equipped with the linearized
Poisson structures of 1 and 2 .
In particular, if two finite-dimensional vector spaces V1 and V2 , equipped with a
linear Poisson structure, are isomorphic as Poisson manifolds via a map which
sends the origin o of V1 to the origin of V2 , then the linear map do : V1  ToV1
ToV2  V2 is a Poisson isomorphism. In other words, if there exists (in the neighborhood of the origin) a Poisson isomorphism between two linear Poisson structures,
then a linear Poisson isomorphism between them also exists.
The condition that a Poisson structure which vanishes at m M is linearizable
at m can be expressed as the existence of a neighborhood U of m in M and of a
diffeomorphism between U and a neighborhood of the origin o in Tm M, with
(m) = o, such that
{ , } = { , }1 ,
(U) the ideal of F (U), consisting
for all , Tm M. Denoting for  N by Im
of all functions which vanish, together with all their partial derivatives up to order ,
at the point m, leads to the following weaker notion of linearizability.
(+1)

Definition 7.29. Let (M, ) be a Poisson manifold, and suppose that m M is a

point at which vanishes. Then is said to be linearizable at m up to order  N
if there exists a neighborhood U of m in M and a diffeomorphism between U and
a neighborhood of the origin o in Tm M, with (m) = o, such that
(+1)

{ , } { , }1 Im
for all , Tm M.

(U) ,

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7 Linear Poisson Structures and Lie Algebras

Example 7.30. It is clear from the definition that every Poisson structure which is
linearizable at a point is at that point linearizable up to order , for all  N .
However, the converse is not true, in general. To show this, we define a (smooth)
2
Poisson structure on R2 by {x, y} := f (x), where f (x) := ex for x = 0 and
f (0) := 0. The fact that f vanishes at 0, together with all its derivatives at 0, implies
(+1)
(R2 ), for all  N, where o denotes the origin of R2 . It follows
that {x, y} Io
on the one hand that the linearized Poisson structure at o is trivial, and on the other
hand that is linearizable up to order , for all  N . However, the Poisson structure is not linearizable at o, since there is no neighborhood of o on which is
zero.
In order to clarify and compare the different notions of linearizability at a point m
in a Poisson manifold (M, ), we consider a coordinate
 chart
 (U, x) centered at m,
we define, for 1  i, j, k  d, the constants ckij := x xi , x j (m) and we consider
k
the following four statements.


 d
(2)
xi , x j ckij xk Im (U) ,

(7.26)

k=1

xi , x j


yi , y j =

ckij xk ,

(7.27)

k=1
d

ckij yk ,

(7.28)

k=1


 d
(+1)
yi , y j ckij yk Im
(V ) .

(7.29)

k=1

The inclusion (7.26) holds for all 1  i, j  d if and only if vanishes at m. In this
case, the linearized Poisson structure 1 at m is given by (7.27), where x1 , . . . , xd are
the linear coordinates on Tm M, defined by xi := dm xi , for i = 1, . . . , d. Still assuming
that vanishes at m, there exists a coordinate chart (V, y) for M, centered at m M,
such that (7.28) (respectively (7.29)) holds for all 1  i, j  d, if and only if is
linearizable at m (respectively is linearizable at m up to order ).
According to Proposition 7.3, there is a one-to-one correspondence between linear Poisson structures on Tm M and Lie algebra brackets on Tm M. It follows that there
corresponds to the linearized Poisson structure at m (where m is a point at which
vanishes) a Lie algebra structure [ , ] on Tm M. It satisfies, by construction,
[dm F, dm G] = {dm F, dm G}1 = dm {F, G} ,
for all functions F and G, defined on an arbitrary neighborhood of m in M. The
structure of this Lie algebra is a key element in Conns linearization results, which
we formulate in the following theorem.

7.5 The Linearization of Poisson Structures

201

Theorem 7.31 (Conns linearization theorem). Let (M, ) be a Poisson manifold,

and let m M be a point at which vanishes. Let [ , ] denote the Lie bracket
on Tm M, associated to the linearized Poisson structure at m.
(1)
(2)
(3)

In the holomorphic case, if (Tm M, [ , ]) is a semi-simple complex Lie algebra,

then is linearizable at m;
In the real case, if (Tm M, [ , ]) is a compact semi-simple Lie algebra, then
is linearizable at m;
In both cases, if (Tm M, [ , ]) is a semi-simple Lie algebra, then is linearizable at m up to order , for all  N .

Proof. We do not prove Conns results (1) and (2), as the proof is long and rather
technical (see [45, 46]); instead, we prove the analogous (but easier to prove) result (3). We do this by recursion on . Every Poisson structure which vanishes at m
is linearizable up to order 1, so that the statement holds true for  = 1. Assume
now that is linearizable up to order . According to Definition 7.29, there exists a
neighborhood U of m in M and a diffeomorphism  between U and a neighborhood
of the origin o in Tm M, with  (m) = o, such that
(+1)

{x  , y  } [x, y]  Im

(U) ,

(7.30)

for all x, y Tm M; we write here, and in the rest of the proof, the elements of
Tm M with latin letters x, y, z, because we view Tm M = g as a Lie algebra. For
x g, we write Fx as a shorthand for the element x  of F (U) and we denote
(+1)
(+2)
(U) and I  := Im
(U). Notice that I /I  is finite-dimensional,
I := Im

because I /I is isomorphic to the space of homogeneous polynomials of degree
 + 1 in dim M variables. With these notations, (7.30) can be written as


Fx , Fy F[x,y] I .
(7.31)
Since vanishes at m, we have that {I , F (U)} I and {I  , F (U)} I  . It
follows that we can define a map

: g (I /I  ) I /I 
(x, p(F))  x p(F) := p({Fx , F}) ,

(7.32)

where p : I I /I  denotes the canonical projection. We claim that is a (finitedimensional) representation of g. To prove this, we need to show that for all x, y g
and for every F I ,
[x, y] p(F) = x (y p(F)) y (x p(F)) .
On the one hand, (7.31) and the inclusion {I , I } I  imply that
 



[x, y] p(F) = p( F[x,y] , F ) = p( Fx , Fy , F ) ,
while, on the other hand,

(7.33)

202

7 Linear Poisson Structures and Lie Algebras


 


x (y p(F)) y (x p(F)) = p( Fx , Fy , F ) p( Fy , {Fx , F} ) ,
so that (7.33) is a consequence of the Jacobi identity for . Since g is semi-simple
and I /I  is finite-dimensional, the cohomology space HL2 (g; I /I  ) is trivial (for
a proof, see [102, Th. III.13]; Lie algebra cohomology is recalled in Section 4.1.1),
so every Lie 2-cocycle is a Lie 2-coboundary. The Lie 2-cocycle c which we consider is constructed from (7.31):
c : gg I
/I  
(x, y)  p( Fx , Fy F[x,y] ) .

(7.34)

We have that c is a Lie 2-cocycle, which means that for all x, y, z g,

x c(y, z) + c(x, [y, z])+  (x, y, z) = 0,
because, using (7.31),

 
x c(y, z) + c(x, [y, z]) = p( Fx , Fy , Fz ) p(F[x,[y,z]] ) .
Since HL2 (g; I /I  ) is trivial, there exists a linear map b : g I /I  , such that c
is the coboundary of b,
c(x, y) = x by y bx b[x,y]

(7.35)

for all x, y g. For every x g, let Fx := Fx bx , where the linear map b : g I is

an arbitrary lift of b. We claim that
  

Fx , Fy F[x,y]
I ,
(7.36)
for all x, y g. Since
   
 
 
 

Fx , Fy = Fx , Fy Fx , by bx , Fy + bx , by ,


(2+1)
(+2)
and since bx , by is an element of Im
(U) Im
(U) = I  , as   1, (7.36)
amounts to saying that


 


Fx , Fy F[x,y] + b[x,y] Fx , by bx , Fy ,
(7.37)
which is an element of I , belongs to the kernel of p. According to the definition
of c, the image of (7.37) under p is given by



p Fx , Fy F[x,y] + p(b[x,y] ) x p(by ) + y p(bx )
= c(x, y) + b[x,y] x by + y bx ,
which is zero in view of (7.35). This proves (7.36). Since x  Fx is a linear map,
there exists a map +1 from U to a neighborhood of o in Tm M, such that Fx =
x +1 , for every x g. Since dm = dm+1 , there exists a neighborhood U  U

7.6 Notes

203

of m in M on which +1 is a diffeomorphism. In terms of +1 , (7.36) is written as

(+2)

{x +1 , y +1 } [x, y] +1 Im

(U  ) ,

(7.38)

for all x, y g, which means that is linearizable up to order  + 1 at m.

Remark 7.32. It is clear from the above proof that the open subsets on which the
diffeomorphisms  are defined form a sequence which decreases with , and that
the intersection of all these open subsets may be reduced to a point. Notice that,
even if this intersection is not reduced to a point, the Poisson structure may not be
linearizable at m (see Example 7.30).

7.6 Notes
The fact that LiePoisson structures are in one-to-one correspondence with Lie algebra structures is implicit in Lies works, in which one also finds the relation to the
coadjoint representation of the adjoint group of the Lie algebra. In the first half of
the twentieth century, the theory of Lie algebras and Lie groups became a subject of
its own, with focus on applications to theoretical physics and differential geometry.
The cited observations of Lie were rediscovered and reinforced in the works of Kirillov [105, 106], Kostant [117] and Souriau [185], who clearly exhibit the symplectic
structure on the coadjoint orbits which is inherited from the LiePoisson structure;
this structure is nowadays known as the KostantKirillovSouriau symplectic structure. For general information about Lie algebras and their representation theory, we
refer to Jacobson [102] or to the first chapter of Bourbaki [27].
Exactly as Lie algebra structures are in one-to-one correspondence with linear
Poisson structures, Lie algebroids are in one-to-one correspondence with fiberwise
linear Poisson structures [64], i.e., Poisson structures on a vector bundle which have
the property that the bracket of any two fiberwise linear functions is a fiberwise
linear function, while the bracket of a fiberwise linear function with a basic function
is a basic function. See [53] for an introduction to Lie algebroids.
The linearization problem was first posed and studied by Weinstein [199]. The
main results, which give conditions under which a Poisson structure is linearizable,
were obtained by Conn [45, 46]; a geometrical proof of these results is given in [52].
See DufourZung [63] for a detailed account on the linearization problem.

Chapter 8

Higher Degree Poisson Structures

Constant and linear Poisson structures, studied in the previous two chapters, are
particular cases of a bigger class of Poisson structures, namely the (weight) homogeneous Poisson structures on a finite-dimensional vector space V : constant and
linear Poisson structures are the homogeneous Poisson structures of degree zero and
one, respectively. Like in the constant or linear case, (weight) homogeneous Poisson
structures are easier to study than general Poisson structures. For example, homogeneity of a Poisson structure permits one to split the determination of its Poisson
cohomology into its homogeneous parts. Also, weight homogeneous Poisson structures turn out to be useful for studying general Poisson structures. We will see an
example of this in Section 9.1.3 of the next chapter, when classifying Poisson structures on F2 , with a simple singularity.
Among distinguished classes of weight homogeneous Poisson structures, one
finds besides constant and linear Poisson structures quadratic Poisson structures (i.e., homogeneous Poisson structures of degree two), rank 2 Poisson structures
which arise from NambuPoisson structures and the transverse Poisson structures
to adjoint orbits in a semi-simple Lie algebra.
Section 8.1 is devoted to the study of general properties of (weight) homogeneous Poisson structures, while we study in Section 8.2 a few special properties and
characterizations of quadratic Poisson structures: their multiplicativity, their modular class and the decomposition of a quadratic Poisson structure, using a related
unimodular Poisson structure. In Section 8.3 we define the notion of a Nambu
Poisson structure and we explain the construction which leads to a large class of
(weight homogeneous) rank 2 Poisson structures. Finally, Section 8.4 deals with the
transverse Poisson structure to a nilpotent orbit in a semi-simple Lie algebra.
Unless otherwise stated, F denotes an arbitrary field of characteristic zero.

C. Laurent-Gengoux et al., Poisson Structures,

Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften 347,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-31090-4 8, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

205

206

8 Higher Degree Poisson Structures

8.1 Polynomial and (Weight) Homogeneous Poisson Structures

In this section, we define and study polynomial Poisson structures on a vector space,
with special emphasis on homogeneous and weight homogeneous Poisson structures.
Throughout the section, we consider Poisson structures and, more generally, multivector fields on a finite-dimensional vector space V , which is equipped with its algebra of functions, denoted by F (V ). If F is an arbitrary field, this algebra is the algebra of polynomial functions on V ; however, if F = R (respectively F = C), F (V )
may stand either for the algebra of smooth (respectively holomorphic) or polynomial functions on V , depending on the context. It is clear that, in either case, F (V )
contains all polynomial functions on V . For p N, the corresponding space of pvector fields on V (skew-symmetric p-derivations of F (V )) is denoted by X p (V ).
The origin of V will be denoted by o.

8.1.1 Polynomial Poisson Structures

Let V be a vector field on a finite-dimensional vector space V . Then, V is said to
be a polynomial vector field on V if, for every polynomial function F on V , V [F]
is a polynomial function on V . More generally, a p-vector field P on V (p N ) is
said to be a polynomial p-vector field on V if P[F1 , . . . , Fp ] is a polynomial function
on V , for all polynomial functions F1 , . . . , Fp on V . In the case of Poisson structures
on V , this leads to the following definition.
Definition 8.1. A Poisson structure on a finite-dimensional vector space V is said
to be a polynomial Poisson structure if for all polynomial functions F and G on V ,
their Poisson bracket {F, G} is a polynomial function on V .
In terms of arbitrary linear coordinates x1 , . . . , xd of V , every p-vector field P on V
can be written as
P=

1i1 <<i p d

P[xi1 , . . . , xi p ]

,
x i1
xi p

(8.1)

so that P is a polynomial p-vector field if and only if P[xi1 , . . . , xi p ] is a polynomial

function, for all 1  i1 < < i p  d. In this case, the maximum of the degrees of
all P[xi1 , . . . , xi p ] is called the degree of P. In particular, every polynomial Poisson
structure on V is of the form

1i< jd

xi j

,
xi x j



where, for every 1  i < j  d, the function xi j := xi , x j is a polynomial function
on V , and the degree of is the maximum of the degrees of the polynomials xi j .

8.1 Polynomial and (Weight) Homogeneous Poisson Structures

207

Example 8.2. Constant Poisson structures (see Chapter 6) are polynomial Poisson
structures of degree zero, while linear and affine Poisson structures (see Chapter 7)
are polynomial Poisson structures of degree one.
It is clear that when F (V ) is the algebra of polynomial functions on V , then all
Poisson structures on V are polynomial Poisson structures on V .

8.1.2 Homogeneous Poisson Structures

Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space. A function F F (V ) is said to be
homogeneous if there exists an integer r N, such that for every F and for
every v V , we have
F( v) = r F(v) .
(8.2)
The integer r, which is unique if F = 0, is then called the degree of F, denoted deg(F). If F is expressed in terms of a system of linear coordinates (x1 , . . . , xd )
for V , which we write as F = F(x1 , . . . , xd ), then condition (8.2) is equivalent to the
fact that
F( x1 , . . . , xd ) = r F(x1 , . . . , xd ) ,
(8.3)
for every F. A homogeneous function of degree zero is constant, since the condition F( v) = F(v) for all F and v V implies that F(v) = F(0) for every v V .
The following proposition states that smooth or holomorphic functions which are
homogeneous, are polynomial functions.
Proposition 8.3. Let V be a finite-dimensional real (respectively complex) vector
space. If F is a smooth (respectively holomorphic) function on V and F is homogeneous of degree r, then F is a polynomial function on V , whose degree is r.
Proof. Let F F (V ) be a smooth or holomorphic function on V , satisfying (8.2)
for every F and every v V . By differentiating, for a fixed , both sides of
this equation in the direction of a vector u V , we obtain that, for every u V , the
directional derivative of F along the vector u is a homogeneous function of degree
r 1. By iterating this procedure, we obtain that the directional derivatives of F of
order r are all homogeneous of degree 0, i.e., are constant functions. This implies
that F is a polynomial function on V , of degree less than or equal to r. Then, because
of equation (8.2), we can conclude that the degree of F is r. 

According to Proposition 8.3, the notions of homogeneous function and homogeneous polynomial function do not have to be distinguished and the notion of
degree coincides with the usual notion of degree of a polynomial.
A (smooth or holomorphic) vector field V on a finite-dimensional vector space V
is said to be a homogeneous vector field on V if, for every F F (V ) which is homogeneous, the function V [F] F (V ) is also homogeneous. More generally, a
(smooth or holomorphic) p-vector field P X p (V ) is said to be homogeneous if,

208

8 Higher Degree Poisson Structures

for all F1 , . . . , Fp F (V ) which are homogeneous, the function P[F1 , . . . , Fp ] is homogeneous. Since every polynomial function is the sum of homogeneous functions,
Proposition 8.3 implies that every homogeneous p-vector field on V is a polynomial
p-vector field on V .
In the following proposition, we give a few characterizations of homogeneous
multivector fields. For one of them, we use the Euler vector field on V , which is
denoted by E and is defined as the unique vector field on V which acts as the identity
on all linear functions on V ; in terms of linear coordinates x1 , . . . , xd on V , it is
given by

+ + xd
.
(8.4)
E = x1
x1
xd
Clearly, E is a homogeneous vector field on V . Notice that, by differentiating (8.3)
with respect to , at = 1, we obtain that a function F on V is homogeneous of
degree r N if and only if
E [F] = LE F = r F .

(8.5)

This formula is called the Euler formula.

Proposition 8.4. Let P be a non-zero p-vector field on a finite-dimensional vector
space V , where p N. The following conditions on P are equivalent.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

(iv)

P is homogeneous;
There exists an integer r N, such that for all linear functions F1 , . . . , Fp on V ,
one has that P[F1 , . . . , Fp ] is zero, or is a homogeneous function of degree r;
There exists an integer r N, such that for all homogeneous functions
F1 , . . . , Fp on V , one has that P[F1 , . . . , Fp ] is zero, or is a homogeneous function of degree deg(F1 ) + + deg(Fp ) + r p;
There exists an integer r N, such that LE P = (r p)P.

The integer r, which appears in (ii)(iv) is the same and is called 1 the degree of P,
denoted deg(P), while r p is called the weight of P, denoted (P).
Proof. Let P be a non-zero p-vector field, P X p (V ). We assume that p  1, since
the proposition is clear for p = 0. Condition (ii) implies obviously condition (i), in
view of (8.1). We only show that (i) implies (ii) for p = 1, since the generalization of
the proof to arbitrary p  1 will be clear. Thus, we assume that P is a homogeneous
vector field, and we consider two linear functions F and G on V , satisfying P[F] = 0
and P[G] = 0. For a generic t F the polynomial P[(1 t)F + tG] is non-zero and
homogeneous, with a degree r which is independent of t; in particular, since P[F]
and P[G] are different from zero, they have the same degree r, which proves (ii).
The equivalence between conditions (ii) and (iii) follows immediately from the fact
that a p-vector field P is a derivation in each of its arguments. Finally, let F1 , . . . , Fp
be homogeneous elements of F (V ) and let r N. Using (3.7) and (8.5), we have
1

In order that the formulas which involve the degree or weight are valid also for the zero p-vector
field, we adopt the convention that both the degree and weight of the zero p-vector field are .

8.1 Polynomial and (Weight) Homogeneous Poisson Structures

209

(LE P (r p) P) [F1 , . . . , Fp ]
p

= E [P[F1 , . . . , Fp ]] P[F1 , . . . , E [F ], . . . , Fp ] (r p) P[F1 , . . . , Fp ]

=1

= E [P[F1 , . . . , Fp ]]

deg(F ) (r p)

P[F1 , . . . , Fp ] .

=1

Using (8.5), we conclude that there exists r N such that LE P = (r p) P if and

only if there exists r N such that the following holds: for all homogeneous elements F1 , . . . , Fp of F (V ), we have that P[F1 , . . . , Fp ] is zero, or is homogeneous of
p
deg(F ) (r p). This shows the equivalence (iii) (iv). 

degree =1
As a corollary, every polynomial p-vector field P on V can be written uniquely
as a finite sum of homogeneous p-vector fields on V , whose degrees are pairwise
different.
Notice that, according to (iii) of Proposition 8.4, if F1 , . . . , Fp F (V ) and
P X p (V ) are homogeneous, then the polynomial P[F1 , . . . , Fp ] is either zero, or
is homogeneous of degree
deg (P[F1 , . . . , Fp ]) = deg(F1 ) + + deg(Fp ) + deg(P) p ,

(8.6)

which, in terms of weights, becomes

(P[F1 , . . . , Fp ]) = (F1 ) + + (Fp ) + (P) .

(8.7)

Since LE E = [E , E ] = 0, the Euler vector field is weight homogeneous of degree

one, i.e., of weight zero.
Specializing the definition of homogeneous bivector fields to Poisson structures
on V , we obtain the following definition.
Definition 8.5. Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space. A Poisson structure
on V is said to be homogeneous if for all F, G F (V ), which are homogeneous,
their Poisson bracket {F, G} F (V ) is also homogeneous.
According to Proposition 1.35, every Poisson structure on V can be written in the
following form:

= xi j

xj
i
1i< jd
according to Proposition
 8.4, it is homogeneous (of degree r) if and only if all the

functions xi j := xi , x j are homogeneous of the same degree r; in this case, LE =
(r 2) .
Example 8.6. Let be a Poisson structure on a finite-dimensional vector space V .
Then is homogeneous of degree zero (equivalently, of weight 2) if and only if
is a constant Poisson structure. Also, is homogeneous of degree one (equivalently,
of weight 1) if and only if is a linear Poisson structure.

210

8 Higher Degree Poisson Structures

Example 8.7. Consider the bivector field := V1 V2 , where V1 and V2 are two
homogeneous vector fields on a finite-dimensional vector space V . Then is homogeneous of weight (V1 ) + (V2 ), because
LE ( ) = LE (V1 ) V2 + V1 LE (V2 ) = ( (V1 ) + (V2 )) V1 V2 .
Since

[ , ]S = [V1 V2 , V1 V2 ]S = 2 V1 V2 [V1 , V2 ] ,

we have that is a (homogeneous) Poisson structure on V if and only if the vector fields V1 , V2 , [V1 , V2 ] are linearly dependent at all points of V . This condition is
automatically satisfied when V1 is the Euler vector field E and V2 = V is an arbitrary homogeneous vector field, since then [E , V ] = LE V = (V ) V , which is
a multiple of V . The Poisson structure E V is homogeneous of weight (V ),
since (E ) = 0.
To finish this section, we give a proposition whose main content is that an isomorphism between two homogeneous Poisson structures on a vector space can always
be realized by a linear isomorphism.
Proposition 8.8. Let 1 and 2 be two homogeneous Poisson structures on a finitedimensional vector space V . Then the following are equivalent:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

There exists a Poisson isomorphism L : (V, 1 ) (V, 2 ) which is a linear

map;
There exists a Poisson isomorphism : (V, 1 ) (V, 2 ) with (o) = o;
There exists a Poisson isomorphism : (U1 , 1 ) (U2 , 2 ) with (o) = o,
where U1 ,U2 are neighborhoods of the origin o in V .

Proof. The implications (i) = (ii) = (iii) are clear. Assume now that (iii) holds,
and let : (U1 , 1 ) (U2 , 2 ) be a Poisson isomorphism with (o) = o. We are
going to prove that the differential L = do of at the origin is a linear Poisson
isomorphism between (V, 1 ) and (V, 2 ). This can be done by comparing the Taylor
expansions at o of both sides of the following identity, which is valid for all functions
F, G F (V2 )
{F, G}2 = {F , G }1
where { , }1 = 1 and { , }2 = 2 are the Poisson brackets corresponding to 1
and 2 . Since 1 and 2 are homogeneous of degree k, the Taylor expansions at
the origin o of both sides of this equality vanish for degrees 0, . . . , k 1, while the
components of degree k are equal to {do F, do G}2 L and {do F L, do G L}1 respectively. Since every linear function on V is the differential at the origin of a function
in F (V ), we obtain that for all linear functions F  , G F (V ),
  


F , G 2 L = F  L, G L 1
which, in turn, implies that L is a Poisson map. Moreover, since L = do is invertible, L is in fact a Poisson isomorphism. 


8.1 Polynomial and (Weight) Homogeneous Poisson Structures

211

We will use the above proposition in Section 9.2.3, when we classify the set of
all quadratic Poisson structures on C3 .

8.1.3 Weight Homogeneous Poisson Structures

Many known examples of (non-homogeneous) Poisson structures on a vector space
Fd become homogeneous Poisson structures upon assigning specific (positive integer) weights to the natural coordinates x1 , . . . , xd on Fd . This means that many properties and techniques of homogeneous Poisson structures carry over to this more
general class of Poisson structures, which we will call weight homogeneous Poisson structures.
We first introduce the notion of weight homogeneity for functions and for multivector fields on Fd . A d-tuple of integers := (1 , . . . , d ) will be called a weight
vector (for Fd ); unless otherwise stated, we will always assume that all integers i
are positive. Generalizing (8.3), a function F on Fd is called weight homogeneous
with respect to if there exists an integer r N, such that
F( 1 x1 , . . . , d xd ) = r F(x1 , . . . , xd ) ,

(8.8)

for all F. In this case, the integer r, which is unique if F = 0, is called the weight
of F and is denoted by (F). It is easy to see that, if F, G F (Fd ) are weight
homogeneous with respect to , then their product FG is also weight homogeneous
with respect to , of weight (FG) = (F) + (G).
Remark 8.9. It is clear that a function F on Fd is homogeneous if and only if it is
weight homogeneous with respect to = (1, . . . , 1), and in this case, the weight
of F is equal to the degree of F.
Taking F := xi in (8.8), we see that each coordinate function xi , with 1  i  d is
weight homogeneous of weight i , so that we often refer to i as being the weight
of xi .
Similarly to the case of homogeneous functions (see Proposition 8.3), we show
in the following proposition that a smooth or holomorphic function which is weight
homogeneous, is a polynomial function.
Proposition 8.10. If F is a smooth function on Rd (respectively a holomorphic function on Cd ) and F is weight homogeneous with respect to some weight vector, then F
is a polynomial function.
Proof. Let = (1 , . . . , d ) be a weight vector for Fd (F = R or F = C) and assume
that F F (Fd ) satisfies (8.8), for all F. Let us consider s N , such that, for all
1  j1 , . . . , js  d, we have that j1 + + js > r. By differentiating both sides of
equation (8.3) with respect to xi1 , . . . , xis , for all 1  i1 , . . . , is  d, we obtain that all
s
functions xi ...F xi have negative weight, hence are zero on Fd . This implies that F
1

is necessarily a polynomial function on Fd .




212

8 Higher Degree Poisson Structures

A p-vector field P on Fd is said to be weight homogeneous (with respect to ),

if for all F1 , . . . , Fp F (Fd ), which are weight homogeneous with respect to ,
the function P[F1 , . . . , Fp ] F (Fd ) is weight homogeneous with respect to . One
shows, as in the case of homogeneous multivector fields, that a weight homogeneous
multivector field on Fd is a polynomial multivector field.
Remark 8.11. It is clear that a multivector field on Fd is homogeneous if and only if
it is weight homogeneous with respect to = (1, . . . , 1).
We will give a few characterizations of the weight homogeneity of a multivector
field, which generalize the characterizations of the homogeneity of a multivector
field, given in Proposition 8.4. To do this, we introduce the weighted Euler vector
field E on Fd , which is defined by
E := 1 x1

+ + d xd
.
x1
xd

(8.9)

Notice that the weighted Euler vector field E is weight homogeneous with respect to . It is clear from (8.8) that a function F on Fd is weight homogeneous of
weight r if and only if
(8.10)
E [F] = LE F = r F .
This formula, which generalizes the classical Euler formula (8.5), is called the
weighted Euler formula.
Proposition 8.12. Let = (1 , . . . , d ) be a weight vector for Fd and let P be a
non-zero p-vector field on Fd , where p N. The following conditions on P are
equivalent.
(i)
(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

P is weight homogeneous with respect to ;

There exists an integer r Z, such that for all 1  i1 < < i p  d, the
function P[xi1 , . . . , xi p ] is zero, or is weight homogeneous of weight r + i1 +
+ i p ;
There exists an integer r Z, such that for all weight homogeneous elements
F1 , . . . , Fp of F (Fd ), one has that P[F1 , . . . , Fp ] is zero, or is weight homogeneous of weight r + (F1 ) + + (Fp );
There exists an integer r Z, such that LE P = rP.

The (possibly negative) integer r, which appears in (ii)(iv) is the same and is
called 2 the weight of P, denoted (P).
Proof. Since the proof is very similar to the proof of Proposition 8.4, we will not
repeat it here; we only focus on the implication (i)(ii), which requires some extra
explanation. Suppose that V is a vector field on Fd and that for some 1  i < j  d
the functions V [xi ] and V [x j ] are different from zero. We claim that if V is weight
2 In order that the formulas which involve the weight are valid also for the zero p-vector field, we
adopt, as for homogeneous multivector fields, the convention that both the degree and weight of
the zero p-vector field are .

8.2 Quadratic Poisson Structures

213

homogeneous, then the integers (V [xi ]) i and (V [x j ])  j are equal. In or

der to prove this property, we consider for t F the function V (1 t)xi j + txj i ,

which is weight homogeneous, because (1 t)xi j + txj i and V are weight homo 
 

geneous. As in the proof of Proposition 8.4, it follows that V xi j and V xj i

j 1

have the same weight. Since V [xi j ] = j xi

we have that

V [xi ] and V [xj i ] = i xj i 1 V [x j ],

i ( j 1) + (V [xi ]) = j (i 1) + (V [x j ]) ,

and hence (V [xi ]) i = (V [x j ]) j , which is what we wanted to show. 
It follows, as in the case of homogeneous multivector fields, that every polynomial p-vector field P X p (Fd ) can be written in a unique way as a finite sum of
weight homogeneous p-vector fields, whose weights are pairwise different. Also, if
P X p (Fd ) and F1 , . . . , Fp F (F d ) are weight homogeneous, then the polynomial
P[F1 , . . . , Fp ] is weight homogeneous, of weight

(P[F1 , . . . , Fp ]) = (P) + (F1 ) + + (Fp ) .

(8.11)

Since LE E = [E , E ] = 0, the weighted Euler vector field is weight homogeneous of weight zero.
Finally, we specialize the definition of weight homogeneity to the case of Poisson
structures.
Definition 8.13. A Poisson structure on Fd is said to be weight homogeneous if for
all F, G F (Fd ) which are weight homogeneous with respect to , their Poisson
bracket {F, G} is weight homogeneous with respect to .
Writing a Poisson structure on Fd in the form

xi j

1i< jd

,
xi x j

it follows that is weight homogeneous(of weight

( )) with respect to if and

only if each one of the functions xi j := xi , x j is a weight homogeneous polynomial, of weight ( ) + i + j ; this is also equivalent to the equality
LE [ ] = ( ) .

8.2 Quadratic Poisson Structures

A bivector field on a finite-dimensional vector space V is said to be quadratic, if it is
homogeneous of degree 2. A quadratic Poisson structure on V is a Poisson bivector

214

8 Higher Degree Poisson Structures

field on V which is quadratic. In terms of an arbitrary system of linear coordinates

(x1 , . . . , xd ) on V , every quadratic Poisson structure takes the form

xi j

1i< jd

,
xi x j

(8.12)



where all xi j := xi , x j , with 1  i < j  d, are homogeneous polynomial functions
of degree 2 on V . Notice that a Poisson structure on V is quadratic if and only if the
Poisson bracket of every pair of linear functions on V is a homogeneous polynomial
function of degree 2 on V .
To start with, we give two important classes of quadratic Poisson structures.
Example 8.14. Let A = (ai j ) Matd (F) be an arbitrary skew-symmetric d d matrix. A quadratic bivector field = { , } is defined on Fd by setting

:=

1i< jd

ai j xi x j

.
xi x j

(8.13)

A direct computation from (8.13) gives, for all 1  i < j < k  d,

 

xi , x j , xk +  (i, j, k) = ai j (aik + a jk ) xi x j xk +  (i, j, k) ,
which is zero since A is skew-symmetric. This proves the Jacobi identity for every
triple of coordinate functions, which shows, in view of Proposition 1.36, that the
bivector field is a Poisson structure on Fd . A quadratic Poisson structure of the
form (8.13) is called a diagonal Poisson structure.
Notice that the rank of this Poisson structure is equal to the rank of the matrix A.
More precisely, for every m Fd , the rank of at m is equal to the rank of the
matrix, obtained by removing from the matrix A the k-th line and the k-th column
for all k for which xk (m) = 0.
Example 8.15. If V is a linear vector field on a finite-dimensional vector space V ,
then E V is a quadratic bivector field, where E is the Euler vector field (8.4). Since
[E V , E V ]S = 2 E V [E , V ] = 0 ,
the bivector field E V is a quadratic Poisson structure. It is a particular case of the
class of homogeneous Poisson structures, constructed in Example 8.7.
In the following proposition, we give two characterizations of quadratic Poisson
structures. We recall from Section 1.3.2 that, by definition, a vector field V on (V, )
is a Poisson vector field if the Lie derivative of with respect to V is zero.
Proposition 8.16. For a Poisson structure on a finite-dimensional vector space V ,
the following conditions are equivalent:
(i)
(ii)

The Poisson structure is quadratic;

The Euler vector field E is a Poisson vector field;

8.2 Quadratic Poisson Structures

(iii)

215

For every a F , the scalar multiplication by a is a Poisson automorphism

of V .

Proof. The equivalence between (i) and (ii) is a particular case of the equivalence
between (i) and (iv) in Proposition 8.4 with p = 2. Let = { , } be a Poisson
structure on V . The multiplication by a F is a Poisson map if and only if
{F, G} (av) = {aF, aG} (v) = a2 {F, G} (v) ,
for all linear functions F, G V and all v V , which is equivalent to saying that
{F, G} is a homogeneous polynomial function of degree 2, for all F, G V . By
Proposition 8.4, the latter means that is quadratic. This shows that (i) and (iii) are
equivalent. 

The projective space P(V ), which is the variety of 1-dimensional subspaces of V ,
is naturally identified with the quotient space (V \{o})/F of the free action of F
by scalar multiplication. By Propositions 5.33 and 8.16, if is a quadratic Poisson structure on V , then P(V ) admits a (unique) Poisson structure, such that the
canonical projection map V \ {o} P(V ) is a Poisson map.

8.2.1 Multiplicative Poisson Structures

Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space and let : V V V be a bilinear map.
We refer in this section to as a product on V , even if we do not demand that
is associative. We say that is a product with unit, if V admits an element e, such
that (v, e) = v = (e, v) for all v V . A Poisson structure on V is said to be
multiplicative with respect to if : V V V is a Poisson map, where V V is
endowed with the product Poisson structure.
We show in this section that Poisson structures, which are multiplicative with
respect to a product with unit, are quadratic. We will do this by using the following
elementary lemma.
Lemma 8.17. The only polynomial p in one variable, satisfying
p(ab) = a2 p(b) + b2 p(a) ,

(8.14)

for all a, b F, is the zero polynomial.

Proof. Let p be a polynomial which satisfies (8.14), for all a, b F. The degree r of
p is at most 2, because (a, b) p(ab) is a polynomial function (in two variables)
of total degree 2r, while the total degree of a2 p(b) + b2 p(a) is at most r + 2. But
(8.14) implies that p(0) = p(1) = p(1) = 0, so that p is the zero polynomial. 

We now establish the link between multiplicative and quadratic Poisson structures.

216

8 Higher Degree Poisson Structures

Proposition 8.18. Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space and let : V V V

be a product with unit. Every polynomial Poisson structure on V which is multiplicative with respect to , is quadratic.
Proof. Let be a polynomial Poisson structure on V , which is multiplicative. In
view of (2.12), multiplicativity of { , } = implies that, for all F, G F (V ), and
all v, w V :
{F, G} ( (v, w)) = {F Rw , G Rw } (v) + {F Lv , G Lv } (w) ,

(8.15)

where Rw : V V and Lv : V V are the endomorphisms of V , defined for u V

by Rw (u) := (u, w) and Lv (u) := (v, u) respectively. By bilinearity of , for every
a F and v V , the equalities (v, ae) = av = (ae, v) hold, as well as the dual
equalities F Rae = aF = F Lae , valid for all linear functions F on V and all a F.
Let F, G be two linear functions on V . For all a, b F, (8.15) specializes to


{F, G} (abe) = {F, G} (ae, be) = a2 {F, G} (be) + b2 {F, G} (ae) .
(8.16)
The map p : F F, defined for all a F by p(a) := {F, G} (ae), is a polynomial
function, since is a polynomial Poisson structure, and (8.16) states that p satisfies
condition (8.14) of Lemma 8.17. Therefore, {F, G} (ae) = 0 for all a F. Specializing (8.15), we obtain therefore that
{F, G} (av) = {F, G} ( (v, ae)) = a2 {F, G} (v) ,
for all a F and v V . This shows that {F, G} is a homogeneous polynomial of degree 2. Since this holds for all linear functions F and G on V , the Poisson structure
is quadratic. 

Proposition 8.18 takes in the smooth or holomorphic context the following form.
Proposition 8.19. Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space over R or over C and
let : V V V be a product with unit. Every smooth or holomorphic Poisson
structure on V , multiplicative with respect to , is quadratic.
Proof. The proof of the proposition goes along the same lines as the proof of Proposition 8.18; the only difference is that one needs to reprove Lemma 8.17 in that
context, namely, to prove that there exists no non-zero smooth or holomorphic function p satisfying (8.14). Deriving condition (8.14) three times with respect to a,
yields that if p satisfies (8.14) for all a, b F, it also satisfies bp (ab) = p (a), for
all a, b F. Plugging b = 0 in it, we obtain that p (a) = 0 for all a F, and therefore that p is a polynomial. According to Lemma 8.17, p is the zero polynomial.


Remark 8.20. It is clear that the only differentiability condition which we use on
the function p in Proposition 8.19 is that p is of class C3 in a neighborhood of o
in V . Therefore, Proposition 8.19 can be easily generalized to multiplicative bivector

8.2 Quadratic Poisson Structures

217

fields of class Ck , with k  3, where for k N , we call bivector field of class Ck on

Rd every bi-differential operator of the form

1i< jd

xi j

,
xi x j

where all the functions xi j are of class Ck on Rd . Notice that, if is of class Ck on

Rd (with k N ), then for every pair of smooth functions (F, G) on V , the bracket
{F, G} is a function of class Ck , so one can still consider the Jacobi identity for
smooth functions and define Poisson structures of class Ck , with k N , by saying
that a bivector field on Rd is a Poisson structure of class Ck if satisfies the Jacobi
identity for all triples of smooth functions F, G, H on V .
For Poisson structures of class C2 , it can be shown that Proposition 8.19 still
holds, but for Poisson structures of class C1 this is not the case (in general), as is
shown in the following example.
Example 8.21. On R2 we consider the product (with unit) which corresponds
to the natural product on R[h]/h2 , via the vector space isomorphism, defined by
(a1 , a2 ) a1 + ha2 . Explicitly, is given by

((a1 , a2 ), (b1 , b2 )) = (a1 b1 , a1 b2 + a2 b1 ) ,

and the unit for is (1, 0). It follows that x1 = y1 z1 and x2 = y1 z2 + z1 y2 ,
where (x1 , x2 ), respectively (y1 , y2 , z1 , z2 ), are the natural systems of coordinates
on R2 , respectively on R2 R2  R4 .
A Poisson structure of class C1 on R2 is defined by {x1 , x2 } := x12 ln(|x1 |). We
denote the product Poisson structure on R4 = R2 R2 by  . In order to show that
is multiplicative with respect to , notice that {x1 , x2 } = {x1 , x2 } , which
follows from
{x1 , x2 } = (x12 ln(|x1 |)) = (y1 z1 )2 ln(|y1 z1 |)
and
{x1 , x2 } = {y1 z1 , y1 z2 + z1 y2 }
= z21 {y1 , y2 } + y21 {z1 , z2 }
= z21 y21 ln(|y1 |) + y21 z21 ln(|z1 |) .
However, is not quadratic.
Example 8.22. Let V := Matd (F) the vector space of square matrices of size d. For
1  i, j  d, we consider on V the linear function, defined for all x = (xi j )di, j=1 V
by i j (x) := xi j . These functions provide a set of linear coordinates on V . For i and j
as above, let i, j := 1 if i > j and i, j := 1 if i < j and i, j := 0 if i = j. Then the
brackets, defined for 1  i, j, k,   d, by

218

8 Higher Degree Poisson Structures


i j , k := (i,k + j, )i k j

define a multiplicative quadratic Poisson structure on V . This can be checked by

direct computation; see Example 11.14 below for a more conceptual proof.

8.2.2 The Modular Vector Field of a Quadratic Poisson Structure

On a finite-dimensional vector space V , which is equipped with a Poisson structure,
there is a vector field, which is naturally associated to the Poisson structure: the
modular vector field, with respect to an arbitrary translation invariant volume form
on V . Recall from (4.24) that the modular vector field of a Poisson structure
on V is, up to a sign, the divergence Div( ) of , i.e., = Div( ). As a first
application, we have, in view of the explicit formula (4.22) for the divergence of a
bivector field, that the modular vector field is homogeneous of degree r 1, if the
Poisson structure is homogeneous of degree r; in the particular case of quadratic
Poisson structures, this leads to the following proposition.
Proposition 8.23. Let be an arbitrary translation invariant volume form on a
finite-dimensional vector space V . The modular vector field of every quadratic Poisson structure on V , with respect to , is a linear vector field on V .
In the study of quadratic Poisson structures, the modular vector field plays a particular role, which we now underline, and which will lead in Section 9.2.3 to a
classification of all quadratic Poisson structures on C3 .
Example 8.24. We compute the modular vector field of the diagonal Poisson
structure on Fd , introduced in Example 8.14 with respect to the translation invariant volume form = dx1 dxd . By using the formula = Div( ) and the
explicit expression of the divergence of a bivector field (4.22), we obtain


d
d

= 2 ai j xi
.
(8.17)

xi
i=1 j=1
Example 8.25. Let V be a d-dimensional vector space and let V be a linear vector
field on V . As we have seen in Example 8.15, := E V is a quadratic Poisson
structure on V . In order to compute its divergence, notice that Div(E ) = d, which
follows from (4.21), and that [E , V ] = 0, because the weight of a linear vector field
is 0. Substituted in equation (4.23) for the divergence of a wedge product, one finds
Div(E V ) = Div(V ) E d V ,

(8.18)

so that the modular vector field of the Poisson structure = E V is =

d V Div(V ) E .
We show in the following proposition that every quadratic Poisson structure can
be decomposed as a sum of two compatible quadratic Poisson structures: one of the

8.2 Quadratic Poisson Structures

219

terms involves only the modular vector field of , while the other term is unimodular. This decomposition is very useful, as we will see in Section 9.2.3.
We first recall two more facts from Section 4.4.3, namely that, given a volume
form on V , the star operator  is the family of isomorphisms
 : Xq (V ) dq (V ) ,
defined for Q Xq (V ) by  Q = Q as in (4.19), and that Div is defined in terms of
the de Rham differential d by
Div = 1 d  .
Since = Div( ), it follows that is unimodular if and only if the differential
(d 2)-form  is closed.
Proposition 8.26. Let V be a d-dimensional vector space and let be a translation
invariant volume form on V . Every quadratic Poisson structure on V decomposes
as follows
1
= 1 + E ,
d
where is the modular vector field of with respect to , and where is a closed
differential (d 2)-form which satisfies L = 0. Also, 1 has the following
properties: it is a quadratic unimodular Poisson structure, compatible with , and
it satisfies L (1 ) = 0.
Proof. Since is a linear vector field, E is a quadratic Poisson structure (see
Example 8.15). This Poisson structure is compatible with , since
[E , ]S = (LE ) E (L ) = 0 ,
where we have used in the last step that both E and are Poisson vector fields
(with respect to ). The modular vector field  of the Poisson structure  :=
E is given by

 = Div(E ) = d Div( ) E = d ,

(8.19)

where we have used (8.18), together with the fact that Div( ) = 0, which holds
because is itself the divergence of a bivector field. Since the quadratic Poisson
structures and  = E are compatible, and since their modular vector fields
are proportional (see (8.19)), there exists a linear combination of and E
which is a unimodular Poisson structure: R := d1 E is a Poisson structure
on V which is quadratic, compatible with and unimodular.
Let us denote by the differential (d 2)-form on V , defined by :=  R = R .
It is a closed form since R is unimodular. It remains to be checked that L R = 0
and that L = 0. First, we have that L = 0 (since is a Poisson vector
field), and we also have that L (E ) = 0 (since the vector fields E and
commute). We therefore have L R = 0. It follows from this, upon using (2) of

220

8 Higher Degree Poisson Structures

Proposition 3.11, that

L = L (R ) = R (L ) + [ ,R]S = 0 ,
where we used in the last step that [ , R]S = L R = 0 and that L =
Div( ) = 0 (see (4.20)). This finishes the proof of the announced properties
of and of R = 1 . 

The quadratic Poisson structures whose modular vector field satisfies a genericity
assumption, stated below, are diagonal, when expressed in a system of well-chosen
coordinates. We devote the end of this section to explain and to prove this. First, we
introduce the required notions. Let V be a linear vector field on a d-dimensional
vector space V . Since V sends linear functions on V (elements of V ) to linear
functions on V , we can restrict V to V , which yields an endomorphism V (1) of V ,
V (1) : V V
F V [F] .

(8.20)

Definition 8.27. Let V be a linear vector field on a finite-dimensional vector space V . We say that V is diagonalizable if the endomorphism V (1) of V is diagonalizable. In this case, the eigenvalues, respectively eigenvectors of V (1) are called
eigenvalues, respectively eigenvectors of V .
It is clear that, if (x1 , . . . , xd ) is a basis of eigenvectors of a diagonalizable linear
vector field V , with corresponding eigenvalues a1 , . . . , ad F, then (x1 , . . . , xd ) is
a system of linear coordinates on V , and that V takes, in these coordinates, the
following form:
d

.
(8.21)
V = ai xi

xi
i=1
It is also clear that, conversely, every vector field on V , which is of the form (8.21)
is a diagonalizable linear vector field.
Comparing (8.17) and (8.21), we see that the modular vector field of every diagonal quadratic Poisson structure is diagonalizable. As we will see, the converse is
almost true: up to a technical assumption on the eigenvalues of the modular vector
field, a quadratic Poisson structure is diagonal (in some system of linear coordinates)
if its modular vector field is diagonalizable. It motivates the following definition of
a diagonalizable Poisson structure.
Definition 8.28. A quadratic Poisson structure on a finite-dimensional vector
space V is said to be diagonalizable, if there exist linear coordinates x1 , . . . , xd on V
in terms of which is diagonal, i.e.,

1i< jd

ai j xi x j

,
xi x j

(8.22)

where (ai j ) Matd (F) is a skew-symmetric matrix. The system of linear coordinates
(x1 , . . . , xd ) is then said to be log-canonical for .

8.2 Quadratic Poisson Structures

221

The above-mentioned converse, which yields a sufficient condition for the diagonalizability of a quadratic Poisson structure is given in the following proposition.
Proposition 8.29. Let be a quadratic Poisson structure on a d-dimensional vector
space V . Suppose that
(1)
(2)

The modular vector field of is diagonalizable, with eigenvalues a1 , . . . ,

ad , which
 belong to F;
sums ai + a j with 1  i  j  d are all different.
The d+1
2

Then is a diagonalizable Poisson structure on V . Moreover, every system of linear

coordinates on V , consisting of eigenvectors of , is log-canonical for .
Proof. Since the modular vector field is linear, it restricts to a linear endomor(2)
phism of the space A2 of all homogeneous polynomial functions of degree 2
on V ,
(2)
: A2 A2
F [F] .
Suppose that is diagonalizable and let x1 , . . . , xd be independent eigenvectors
of  , with
eigenvalues a1 , . . . , ad . We use x1 , . . . , xd as linear coordinates on V .
polynomial functions {xi x j | 1  i  j  d} form a basis of A2 , and
The d+1
2
(2)

each one of them is an eigenvector of , because is a derivation: xi x j is an

(2)
eigenvector of , corresponding to the eigenvalue ai + a j , for all 1  i  j  d.



sums ai + a j | 1  i  j  d are all different (which
If we assume that the d+1
2
(2)

is assumption (2)), then all eigenvalues of are different, hence the eigenspace
(2)
decomposition of A2 with respect to is given by
A2 =

Cxi x j .

(8.23)

1i jd

We show that this implies that is diagonalizable. To do this, we use that the modular vector field is a Poisson vector field: writing { , } for and specializing

[{F, G}] = { [F], G} + {F, [G]} ,

to F = xi and G = x j , where 1  i, j  d, we obtain that
 
 




[ xi , x j ] = [xi ], x j + xi , [x j ] = (ai + a j ) xi , x j .


(2)
Therefore, xi , x j is zero or it is an eigenvector of with respect to the eigenvalue ai +a j . Inview of the eigenspace decomposition (8.23), it follows, in either
case, that xi , x j  is proportional to xi x j , i.e., there exists a unique constant ai j F,
such that xi , x j = ai j xi x j . By construction, ai j = a ji , and is of the diagonal

form (8.22) in the system of coordinates (x1 , . . . , xd ). 

222

8 Higher Degree Poisson Structures

8.3 NambuPoisson Structures

Let V be a d-dimensional vector space, equipped with linear coordinates x1 , . . . , xd
and denote the algebra of functions on V by F (V ), as before. Let , 1 , . . . , d2
be d 1 functions on V and define, for F, G F (V ), a function on V by

 F



 x1
 (F, G, 1 , . . . , d2 ) 



{F, G} := 
=  ...

(x1 , . . . , xd )
 F


xd

G 1

x1 x1
..
.
G 1

xd xd

d2
x1
..
.
d2
xd

(8.24)

It leads to a map F (V ) F (V ) F (V ), which is a skew-symmetric biderivation

of F (V ) and which, up to a non-zero constant, does not depend on the chosen linear
coordinates x1 , . . . , xd , since (8.24) can also be written as
{F, G} =

dF dG d1 dd2
.
dx1 dx2 dxd

(8.25)

Moreover, it defines a Poisson structure on V , a fact which we will prove in this section. When the functions 1 , . . . , d2 are polynomial or weight homogeneous, then
so is the corresponding Poisson structure. In order to prove that { , } defines a Poisson structure on V , we briefly introduce the notion of a NambuPoisson structure,
which generalizes the notion of a Poisson structure.
Definition 8.30. For q  2, a q-vector field { , . . . , } on a finite-dimensional vector
space V is called a NambuPoisson structure of order q on V if it satisfies the socalled fundamental identity:
{F1 , . . . , Fq1 , {G1 , . . . , Gq }} =
q

{G1 , . . . , Gi1 , {F1 , . . . , Fq1 , Gi }, Gi+1 , . . . , Gq } ,

(8.26)

i=1

for all functions F1 , . . . , Fq1 , G1 , . . . , Gq F (V ).

Remark 8.31. The definition is easily generalized to arbitrary (real or complex) manifolds by demanding that the q-vector field satisfies the fundamental identity for local functions, which yields the notion of a NambuPoisson manifold. Replacing the
algebra of functions F (V ) by an arbitrary commutative associative algebra, leads
to the abstract notion of a NambuPoisson algebra, which generalizes the notion of
a Poisson algebra, as given in Definition 1.1.
Example 8.32. Specializing Definition 8.30 to the case of q = 2, we find that a
NambuPoisson structure of order 2 is a bivector field { , } which satisfies
{F, {G1 , G2 }} = {{F, G1 } , G2 } + {G1 , {F, G2 }} ,

8.3 NambuPoisson Structures

223

for all F, G1 , G2 F (V ), which is precisely the Jacobi identity for { , }. Therefore,

a NambuPoisson structure of order 2 is the same as a Poisson structure. In this
sense, NambuPoisson structures are a generalization of Poisson structures.
Given a NambuPoisson structure { , . . . , } of order q  2 on V , one can associate
to q 1 elements F1 , . . . , Fq1 of F (V ), a vector field XF1 ,...,Fq1 on V by defining,
for G F (V ):
XF1 ,...,Fq1 [G] := {G, F1 , . . . , Fq1 } .
It is called the Hamiltonian vector field associated to F1 , . . . , Fq1 . The fundamental
identity (8.26) says that all Hamiltonian vector fields XF1 ,...,Fq1 are derivations of
(F (V ), { , . . . , }).
We show in the following proposition how NambuPoisson structures of order q 1 can be constructed from NambuPoisson structures of order q.
Proposition 8.33. Let { , . . . , } be a NambuPoisson structure of order q  3 on a
finite-dimensional vector space V . Given H F (V ), define a (q 1)-vector field
on V by
{ , . . . , }H := { , . . . , , H} .
Then { , . . . , }H is a NambuPoisson structure of order q 1 on V .
Proof. The fundamental identity (8.26) for { , . . . , }H takes the form
{F1 , . . . , Fq2 , {G1 , . . . , Gq1 }H }H =
q1

{G1 , . . . , Gi1 , {F1 , . . . , Fq2 , Gi }H , Gi+1 , . . . , Gq1 }H ,

(8.27)

i=1

for all F1 , . . . , Fq2 , G1 , . . . , Gq1 F (V ). To prove (8.27), substitute Fq1 = H and

Gq = H in the fundamental identity (8.26), to find
{F1 , . . . , Fq2 , H, {G1 , . . . , Gq1 , H}} =
q1

{G1 , . . . , Gi1 , {F1 , . . . , Fq2 , H, Gi }, Gi+1 , . . . , Gq1 , H}

(8.28)

i=1

+ {G1 , . . . , Gq1 , {F1 , . . . , Fq2 , H, H}} ,

which is precisely (8.27), since the skew-symmetry of { , . . . , } implies that the last
term in (8.28) is equal to zero. 

We show in the following proposition that for d-vector fields on a d-dimensional
vector space V , the fundamental identity is automatically satisfied.
Proposition 8.34. Let V be a d-dimensional vector space, with d  2. Every dvector field on V is a NambuPoisson structure of order d on V .
Proof. Let { , . . . , } be a d-vector field on V . We need to prove that { , . . . , } satisfies the fundamental identity (8.26). To do this, we consider the multilinear map
N : F (V )2d1 F (V ), which is defined by

224

8 Higher Degree Poisson Structures

N (F1 , . . . , Fd1 , G1 , . . . , Gd )
:= {F1 , . . . , Fd1 , {G1 , . . . , Gd }}
d

{G1 , . . . , Gi1 , {F1 , . . . , Fd1 , Gi } , Gi+1 , . . . , Gd } ,

i=1

for F1 , . . . , Fd1 , G1 , . . . , Gd F (V ). Obviously, the vanishing of N is equivalent to

the fundamental identity (8.26) for { , . . . , }. Moreover, since for all F1 , . . . , Fd1
F (V ), the map
F (V )d F (V )
(G1 , . . . , Gd ) N (F1 , . . . , Fd1 , G1 , . . . , Gd )

(8.29)

is a skew-symmetric d-derivation of F (V ), as is easily checked directly from the

definition of N , the vanishing of N is equivalent to
N (F1 , . . . , Fd1 , x1 , . . . , xd ) = 0 ,

(8.30)

for all F1 , . . . , Fd1 F (V ), where (x1 , . . . , xd ) is an arbitrary system of linear coordinates on V . If we denote := {x1 , . . . , xd }, then the d-vector field { , . . . , } can
be written, according to (8.1), as

,
x1
xd

{ , . . . , } =

(8.31)

so that (8.30), which we need to prove, takes the form

{F1 , . . . , Fd1 , } =

xi {F1 , . . . , Fd1 , xi } .

i=1

In order to prove (8.32) we compute its left-hand side from (8.31):


 F1


 x1
 .
{F1 , . . . , Fd1 , } =  ..
 F
 1


xd

Fd1
x1
..
.
Fd1
xd

x1
..
.

xd

dF1 dFd1 d
dx1 dxd


d dF1 dFd1
= (1)d1
dx1 dxd


i dxd
d d Ci dx1 dx
= (1)d1
dx1 dxd
i=1
=

(8.32)

8.3 NambuPoisson Structures

225
d

= (1)di
i=1

where

Ci
,
xi




,...,
,...,
Ci := (dF1 dFd1 )
x1
xi
xd




= (dF1 dFd1 dxi )

,...,
,...,
,
x1
xi
xd xi



di
,...,
= (1) (dF1 dFd1 dxi )
x1
xd
= (1)di {F1 , . . . , Fd1 , xi } .

We thus have obtained (8.32), so that { , . . . , } satisfies the fundamental identity

and is a NambuPoisson structure on V . 

Combining Propositions 8.33 and 8.34, we find the following proposition, which
yields the Poisson structures of rank 2, which we introduced in (8.24).
Proposition 8.35. Let V be a d-dimensional vector space and let , 1 , . . . , d2
F (V ) be d 1 functions on V . A Poisson structure is defined on V by


 (F, G, 1 , . . . , d2 ) 
,
{F, G} := 
(8.33)

(x1 , . . . , xd )
for all F, G F (V ), where (x1 , . . . , xd ) is an arbitrary system of linear coordinates
on V . The given functions 1 , . . . , d2 are Casimir functions for and the rank
of is 2 at all points of V , except at the zeros of and at the points m V where
dm 1 , . . . , dm d2 are linearly dependent (in those points the rank is zero).
Proof. Repeated use of Proposition 8.33 on the d-vector field (NambuPoisson
structure of order d) { , . . . , } := x x on V , yields a NambuPoisson
1
d
structure of order 2, which is given by


 (F, G, 1 , . . . , d2 ) 
.

{F, G} := {F, G, 1 , . . . , d2 } = 
(8.34)

(x1 , . . . , xd )
Since is a NambuPoisson structure of order 2, it is a Poisson structure (see Example 8.32). The skew-symmetry of { , . . . , } implies that {F, i } = 0 for all F F (V )
and 1  i  d 2, so that each one of 1 , . . . , d2 is a Casimir function of .
If m V with (m) = 0 or dm 1 dm d2 = 0, then it is easy to see from (8.25)
that {F, G} (m) = 0 for all F, G F (V ), so that the Poisson structure vanishes at m.
Suppose now that m is a point of V for which (m) = 0 and dm 1 dm d2 = 0.
Then
there exist i, j such that dm xi dm x j dm 1 dm d2 = 0, so that


xi , x j (m) = 0. This shows that Rkm  2; since we have d 2 independent
Casimir functions at m, the rank is at most 2 at m, so it is precisely 2. 


226

8 Higher Degree Poisson Structures

It follows at once from Eq. (8.33) that, if the functions , 1 , . . . , d2 are polynomial functions on V , then the Poisson structure is a polynomial Poisson structure on V . If, moreover, for some fixed weights 1 , . . . , d of the linear coordinates
x1 , . . . , xd on V , the functions , 1 , . . . , d2 are weight homogeneous, then it also
follows from this formula that the Poisson structure is a weight homogeneous
Poisson structure on V , of weight
d2

i=1

i=1

( ) = ( ) + (i ) i .

Remark 8.36. In the case of a d-dimensional manifold M, every d-vector field on M

defines a NambuPoisson structure of order d and hence, upon fixing d 2 functions
1 , . . . , d2 on M, a Poisson structure of rank two on M (assuming that there is at
least one point where the differentials of these functions are independent). In local
coordinates x1 , . . . , xd , a d-vector field { , . . . , } takes the form
{ , . . . , } =

,
x1
xd

and the formula for the Poisson structure is given by



 (F, G, 1 , . . . , d2 ) 
,

{F, G} := 

(x1 , . . . , xd )
so it is in local coordinates formally given by the same expression as in (8.33).
A coordinate-free description of the Poisson structure can be given when M is an
orientable manifold, so that there exists a volume form on M. Then a Nambu
Poisson structure { , . . . , } of order d is defined on M by letting
{F1 , . . . , Fd } :=

dF1 dFd
,

for all (local) functions F1 , . . . , Fd on M. In particular, if we fix d 1 functions

, 1 , . . . , d2 on M and a volume form , then a Poisson structure on M is
defined by
dF dG d1 dd2
{F, G} :=
,

for all (local) functions F, G on M. The functions 1 , . . . , d2 are Casimir functions

of and the rank of is two at all points of M, except at the zeros of and at
the points where the differentials of the latter Casimir functions are dependent. In
this case, a simple proof of the fact that is a Poisson structure can be given by
extending, at points where the rank is two, the Casimir functions 1 , . . . , d2 to a
system of local coordinates.

8.4 Transverse Poisson Structures to Adjoint Orbits

227

8.4 Transverse Poisson Structures to Adjoint Orbits

In this section, we show that, in terms of a system of natural coordinates which we
will construct, the transverse Poisson structure to a nilpotent orbit in a semi-simple
Lie algebra is weight homogeneous (of weight 2).

8.4.1 S-triples in Semi-Simple Lie Algebras

In this section, we recall a few facts which we will use about complex semi-simple
Lie algebra (see [99, 190] for details and proofs). Let (g, [ , ]) be a semi-simple Lie
algebra over F = C; we denote the algebra of polynomial functions or of holomorphic functions on g by F (g). The Killing form of g is the symmetric bilinear form
on g, defined for all x, y g by
x | y := Trace (adx ady ) ,
where we recall that adx : g g is the linear map, defined by adx z := [x, z], for
all z g. For a subspace n of g, the orthogonal complement of n in g with respect to
the Killing form is denoted by n . For x g, we denote g(x) := {y g | [x, y] = 0},
the centralizer of x in g. An element x g is said to be nilpotent if the endomorphism
adx of g is nilpotent, i.e., if there exists a k N, such that adkx = 0. According to the
JacobsonMorozov theorem, if e g is nilpotent, then there exist h, f g such that
[h, e] = 2e ,

[h, f ] = 2 f ,

[e, f ] = h .

(8.35)

Every non-zero triple (h, e, f ), satisfying (8.35), is called an S-triple of g. In view

of (8.35), the vectors h, e and f generate a Lie subalgebra of g, isomorphic to sl2 (C),
which we denote by s. It leads to two decompositions of g:
(1) A decomposition of g into eigenspaces relative to adh , making g into a graded
Lie algebra. Since each eigenvalue of adh is an integer, we have
g=

gi ,

iZ

where gi is the eigenspace of adh which corresponds to the eigenvalue i. For example, e g2 and f g2 . For x gi and y g j , we have an inclusion adx ady (gk )
gi+ j+k , for every k, so that


gi | g j = 0 if i + j = 0 .
(8.36)
(2) A decomposition of g as an s-module:
g=

j=1

Vn j ,

(8.37)

228

8 Higher Degree Poisson Structures

where each Vn j is a simple s-module, with adh -eigenvalues (also called adh -weights)
n j , n j 2, n j 4, . . . , n j , so that dimVn j = n j + 1. It follows that
s

n j = dim g s .

(8.38)

j=1

Moreover, s = dim g(e), since the centralizer g(e) of e is generated by the vectors of
highest adh -weight of each Vn j .

8.4.2 Weights Associated to an S-Triple

We show in this section that every S-triple (h, e, f ) of g leads to a system of linear
coordinates on g, centered at e, such that the LiePoisson structure on g is weight
homogeneous with respect to some weight vector , which has a natural Lie algebraic interpretation: up to a shift of 2, it consists of the weights of g as an s-module.
For every t C , choose a complex number t such that exp(t ) = t. Such a
choice cannot be made in such a way that t depends in a continuous way on t, but
that will be irrelevant for what follows. We denote the adjoint group of g by G and
we consider the map
: C G
t exp(t h) .
For a fixed t, the map Ad (t) : g g is well-defined (independent of the choice made
for t ) and it acts on each of the eigenspaces gi of adh as a homothecy with ratio t i ,
Ad (t) x = t i x ,

(8.39)

for all x in gi . Indeed, for all t C and x gi ,

Ad (t) x = Adexp (t h) x = exp(adt h )x = exp(t adh )x

(it )k x = exp(it )x = t i x ;

k=0

also, replacing in this computation t by t + 2 n 1, where n Z, clearly leads

to the same result, which shows that the above choice of t is irrelevant. It follows
that t Ad (t) is a (linear) action of C on g. Since e g2 , the action of C on g,
defined for t C and for y g by t y := t 2 Ad (t) y, fixes e; the action is known
as Slodowys action. Let us denote for x g by Fx the affine function on g, defined
by
Fx (z) := z e | x ,
for all z g. We consider a basis (x1 , . . . , xd ) of g, where each xk belongs to some
eigenspace gik , and we denote the function Fxk which corresponds to xk simply by Fk .
For k = 1, . . . , d, the functions Fk define linear coordinates on g, centered at e. For

8.4 Transverse Poisson Structures to Adjoint Orbits

229

x gi , (8.39) and Ad-invariance of the Killing form imply that



(t Fx ) (z) = t 1 z e | x = t 2 Ad (t 1 ) (z e) | x




= t 2 z e | Ad (t) x = t 2 z e |t i x = t i2 Fx (z) .
We claim that, if we define for x gi the weight (Fx ) of Fx to be equal to i + 2,
then the LiePoisson structure { , }g , which is an affine Poisson structure in terms
of the coordinates F1 , . . . , Fd , is weight homogeneous of degree 2 with respect to
the weight vector ( (F1 ), . . . , (Fd )) = (i1 + 2, . . . , id + 2). To prove this, first recall
from Section 7.2 that the LiePoisson structure { , }g on g is given, for F, G
F (g), by
{F, G}g (z) = z | [z F, z G] ,
(8.40)
where we recall from (7.11) that z F, the gradient of F at z (with respect to  | )
is defined, for F F (g) and z g by
z F | u = dz F, u ,
for all u g. Since z Fx = x, for all x, z g, we have, for all x, y, z g,


Fx , Fy g (z) = z | [x, y] = F[x,y] (z) + e | [x, y] .

(8.41)

If x gi and y g j , with i + j = 2, then (8.36) implies that e | [x, y] = 0, so that



( Fx , Fy g ) (Fx ) (Fy ) = (F[x,y] ) (Fx ) (Fy )
= i + j + 2 (i + 2) ( j + 2) = 2 .
This result extends to the case i + j = 2, since then (F[x,y] ) = i + j + 2 = 0, which
is the weight of the constant function e | [x, y], and then ({Fx , Fy }g ) (Fx )
(Fy ) = (i + 2) ( j + 2) = 2. This shows, according to (8.11), that the Lie
Poisson structure on g is weight homogeneous of degree 2 with respect to the
weight vector (i1 + 2, . . . , id + 2). Notice that this weight vector contains, in general,
both positive and negative integers.

8.4.3 Transverse Poisson Structures to Nilpotent Orbits

In this section we consider the transverse Poisson structure to a nilpotent orbit O
in a semi-simple Lie algebra g. Such an orbit is by definition the orbit G e of a
nilpotent element e g under the adjoint action of G (the adjoint group of g) on g;
in this case, all elements of O are nilpotent. Since O is a symplectic leaf of the
LiePoisson structure on g (see Section 7.3.1), the transverse Poisson structure at
e O is independent of the chosen point on the orbit; we speak of the transverse
structure to the orbit. Recall from Theorem 5.28 that the transverse Poisson struc-

230

8 Higher Degree Poisson Structures

ture at e is the reduced Poisson structure on an arbitrary PoissonDirac manifold

which is transversal to the symplectic leaf O at e. We show in the following proposition that, in terms of coordinates which we will construct, the transverse Poisson
structure to a nilpotent orbit is polynomial and weight homogeneous of weight 2,
just like the LiePoisson structure on g. Recall from Section 8.4.2 that the weight
homogeneity of the LiePoisson structure on g was determined by the choice of an
S-triple (h, e, f ) of g which contains e, that this S-triple generates a Lie subalgebra
s of g, isomorphic to sl2 (C) and that up to a shift of 2, the weight vector consists of
the weights of g, as an s-module.
Proposition 8.37. Let O = G e be a nilpotent orbit in a semi-simple Lie algebra
g and let (h, e, f ) be an S-triple of g which contains e. If n is a complementary
subspace to g(e) in g, which is adh -invariant, [h, n] n, then
(1)
(2)
(3)

N := e + n is transverse to O at e;
N is a PoissonDirac submanifold of g;
The transverse Poisson structure on N is a polynomial Poisson structure which
is weight homogeneous of weight 2, with respect to the weight vector (n1 +
2, . . . , ns + 2).

The integers n1 , . . . , ns are the highest weights of g as an s-module, where s denotes

the Lie subalgebra of g, generated by h, e and f .
Proof. First, let us point out that an adh -invariant complementary subspace n to g(e)
exists, because the centralizer g(e) is generated by the highest weight vectors of
each Vn j in the decomposition (8.37) of g. Also, it is clear that
Te g = Te O Te N ,
since under the natural isomorphism Te g  g, the subspace Te O = Te (G e) corresponds to adg e = g(e) and Te N corresponds to n . In particular, N is transverse
to O at e, which is (1).
In order to show (2) and (3), we use a natural basis of g = g(e) n. As we already
pointed out, the centralizer g(e) of e in g admits a basis (x1 , . . . , xs ), consisting of the
highest weight vectors of Vn1 , . . . ,Vns in the decomposition (8.37) of g; recall also
that the adh -weight of x j is n j . Since n, which has dimension 2r := dim O, is adh invariant, we can also choose a basis (xs+1 , . . . , xs+2r ) for n, where each vector xs+
is an eigenvector of adh ; we denote the adh -weight of xs+ by  , where 1    2r.
The basis (x1 , . . . , xs+2r ) of g leads to linear coordinates F1 , . . . , Fs+2r on g, centered
at e, defined by Fk (z) := z e | xk , for k = 1, . . . , s + 2r and z g. Since z Fk = xk
for k = 1, . . . , s + 2r, it follows from (8.40) that the Poisson matrix of { , }g at z g
is given by





A(z) B(z)
,
=
Fi , Fj g (z)
B(z) D(z)
1i, js+2r
where

8.4 Transverse Poisson Structures to Adjoint Orbits

231



Ai j (z) = z | [xi , x j ]

1  i, j  s ;

Bim (z) = z | [xi , xs+m ]

1  i  s,

Dm (z) = z | [xs+ , xs+m ]

1  , m  2r .

1  m  2r ;

At e, both matrices A and B vanish, so the rank of D(e) is the rank of { , }g at e,

which equals dim O = 2r. It follows that D(e) is invertible and hence that D(z) is invertible for z in a neighborhood V N of e in g. According to Proposition 5.27, V is
a PoissonDirac submanifold of g and the Poisson matrix XN of the reduced Poisson
structure { , }N is given, for n N, by
XN (n) = A(n) + B(n)D(n)1 B(n) .

(8.42)

The functions F1 , . . . , Fs , restricted to N, will be denoted by q1 , . . . , qs ; they yield

linear coordinates (centered at e) for N and all other functions Fk vanish on N, so
that N can also be defined as the submanifold defined by Fs+1 = = Fs+2r = 0.
Since the weight of Fi is ni + 2, we define the weight of qi to be (qi ) := ni + 2, for
i = 1, . . . , s. Notice that these weights are all positive.
We prove that the determinant of D is a non-zero constant function on N, which
shows that the transverse Poisson structure { , }N is polynomial, in view of (8.42).
Since the restriction of the polynomial function det(D) on g to N is obtained by
setting Fs+1 = = Fs+2r = 0 and since the remaining coordinates q1 , . . . , qs have
positive weight, it suffices to show that the restriction of det(D) to N is a weight
homogeneous function of weight 0. A typical term of det(D) is, up to a sign, of
the form D1,1 . . . D2r,2r , where {1 , . . . , 2r } = {1, . . . , 2r}, so that its weight is
given by
2r

2r

2r

=1

=1

=1

(D, ) = ( +  + 2) = 2 ( + 1) .

2r
=1 

+ si=1 ni

is the sum of all adh -weights, it is zero, which yields in

Since
combination with (8.38)
2r

=1

i=1

( + 1) = 2r ni = 2r (dim g s) = 0 .

This shows that every term of det(D), restricted to N, is of weight zero, hence det(D)
is constant; since det(D(e)) = 0, this constant is different from zero and the transverse Poisson structure is polynomial.
To finish, we show that the Poisson structure { , }N is weight homogeneous of
weight 2 with respect to = (n1 + 2, . . . , ns + 2). According to (8.42) we need to
show that for all 1  i, j  s the functions Ai j and (BD1 B )i j are weight homogeneous of degree (qi ) + (q j ) 2 = ni + n j + 2. For Ai j this is clear, since A is part
of the Poisson matrix of the LiePoisson structure on g, which we have seen to be
weight homogeneous of weight 2. Similarly, we have that (Bim ) = ni + m + 2.
Since
1
(Bim D1
m B j ) = ni + n j + m +  + 4 + (Dm ) ,

232

8 Higher Degree Poisson Structures

it means that we need to show that

(D1
m ) = m  2 .
1 is of the form
A typical term of the element D1
m of the inverse matrix D
where D = D1 1 . . . D2r1 2r1 , with

(8.43)
D
det(D) ,

{1 , . . . , 2r1 } = {1, . . . , 2r} \ {} and {1 , . . . , 2r1 } = {1, . . . , 2r} \ {m} .

Since det(D) has weight zero, we need to show that D has weight m  2,
which is done in precisely the same way as the above proof that det(D) has weight
zero. This gives us (8.43). 


8.5 Notes
For higher order Poisson structures, starting with quadratic Poisson structures, there
is no general theory and there is no immediate interpretation, as there is in the
case of constant Poisson structures (in terms of bivectors) and in the case of linear Poisson structures (in terms of Lie brackets). For a few subclasses of quadratic
Poisson structures there is, however, a quite general theory and an interpretation.
Namely, multiplicative quadratic Poisson structures are closely related to Poisson
Lie groups: the datum of a skew-symmetric r-matrix on an associative algebra leads
to multiplicative quadratic Poisson structure, which makes the set of invertible elements into a PoissonLie group; see Section 11.1.6 for details. It also leads to a
cubic Poisson structure, whose virtue seems at this point still very mysterious. Poisson structures coming from r-matrices or R-matrices are the subject of Chapter 10;
see Section 10.3.
See DufourZung [63] for an extensive account on NambuPoisson structures.
Transverse Poisson structures to general adjoint orbits in a semi-simple Lie algebra, with special emphasis to transverse Poisson structures to subregular orbits, are
studied in DamianouSabourinVanhaecke [56].

Chapter 9

Poisson Structures in Dimensions Two and Three

Low-dimensional Poisson manifolds are often used as toy models, to obtain a better
understanding of the theory of Poisson manifolds, as well as to illustrate their unexpected complexity. In the two-dimensional case, for example, describing all Poisson
structures on the affine space F2 is deceivingly simple, because the Jacobi identity is
satisfied for all bivector fields; however, their local classification is non-trivial, and
has up to now only been accomplished under quite strong regularity assumptions
on the singular locus of the Poisson structure, which can be identified with the zero
locus of a local function on the manifold. As a result, the study of Poisson structures
in two dimensions already takes us to the non-trivial singularity theory of functions
of two variables!
Dimension three is the smallest dimension in which the Jacobi identity for a
bivector field is not always satisfied. In this dimension, the Jacobi identity can be
stated as an integrability condition of a distribution, which eventually leads to the
symplectic foliation, or as the integrability condition of a differential one-form, dual
to the Poisson structure with respect to a volume form (assuming that the manifold
is orientable). Despite the extra complexity which comes from the extra dimension,
Poisson structures in dimension three have one key property in common with Poisson structures in dimension two: their rank is equal to two (except when the Poisson
structure is trivial). Many results about three-dimensional Poisson manifolds are essentially true because the Poisson structure is of rank two. A key example of such a
result is the characterization of a regular Poisson structure of rank two in terms of
its symplectic foliation.
Poisson structures in dimensions two and three are presented in different sections
(Sections 9.1 and 9.2). In both cases, we pay special attention to the global/local and
geometrical/algebraic aspects of these Poisson structures and we prove at the end of
each section a (partial) classification result.
Unless otherwise stated, F is an arbitrary field of characteristic zero.

C. Laurent-Gengoux et al., Poisson Structures,

Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften 347,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-31090-4 9, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

233

234

9 Poisson Structures in Dimensions Two and Three

9.1 Poisson Structures in Dimension Two

In this section, we study Poisson structures on manifolds or affine varieties of dimension two. Since a Poisson structure is a bivector field or a biderivation, the smallest
dimension which one can consider for studying non-trivial Poisson structures is dimension two. In this case, the Jacobi identity is always satisfied, so that every bivector field or skew-symmetric biderivation is a Poisson structure. We present Poisson
structures in dimension two first from the global point of view, then from the local
point of view and finally we discuss their formal classification.

9.1.1 Global Point of View

First of all, let M be a manifold (real or complex, depending on whether F = R
or F = C) of dimension two and let F (M) be the algebra of smooth or holomorphic
functions on M. According to Proposition 3.5, every bivector field on M is a Poisson structure because [ , ]S is a trivector field on M, hence is zero. We conclude
that the space of all Poisson structures on M coincides with the vector space X2 (M)
of all bivector fields on M. In particular, two Poisson structures on M are always
compatible (see Section 3.3.2). For every point m of M, the rank of at m is zero or
two. Discarding the case of the trivial Poisson structure, it follows that the singular
locus of (M, ) coincides with the set of points of M where vanishes.
Next, let us consider a complex affine surface M Cd of dimension two,
equipped with its algebra F (M) = C[x1 , . . . , xd ]/I of regular functions. We show
that every skew-symmetric biderivation of F (M) is a Poisson structure of M.
To do this, we prove that every skew-symmetric triderivation of F (M) is zero;
since [ , ]S is a skew-symmetric triderivation of F (M), it follows that is a Poisson structure on M. Let us denote by M sm the set of all smooth points of M. Let P
be a skew-symmetric triderivation on M and suppose that P is different from zero at
some point m M. Since P can be written as
P=

1i< j<kd

Pi jk

,
xi x j xk

where Pi jk := P[xi , x j , xk ], this means that Pi jk (m) = 0, for some i, j, k. It follows

that P is different from zero in a neighborhood of m in M. Since M sm is dense
in M, this means that P is non-zero in the neighborhood of some smooth point of M.
However, as we have seen in Section 2.3.2, the set of smooth points of M carries
a natural structure of a complex manifold, and every skew-symmetric triderivation
of F (M) corresponds on it to a trivector field. Since M sm is a two-dimensional
manifold, every trivector field on M sm is zero, hence P is zero on M sm , and we
arrive at a contradiction. This shows that P vanishes at every point of M, hence
that every skew-symmetric biderivation of F (M) is a Poisson structure on M. As
in the case of two-dimensional Poisson manifolds, the rank of can only take the

9.1 Poisson Structures in Dimension Two

235

Fig. 9.1 The singular locus of the Poisson structure =

curve defined by = 0.

y is the zero locus of , i.e., the

values zero and two at the points of M, and the singular locus of (M, ) coincides
with the set of points where vanishes (assuming that is non-trivial).
Finally, consider F2 , with standard coordinates (x, y), equipped with its algebra
of functions F (F2 ); recall that F (F2 ) denotes the algebra of polynomial functions
on F2 if F is an arbitrary field, but can also be the algebra of smooth or holomorphic
functions on F2 if F = R or F = C. Every skew-symmetric biderivation on F (F2 )
or bivector field on F2 (i.e., every Poisson structure on F2 ) is of the form

,
x y

where F (F2 ) ,

(9.1)

and by the above, every such is a Poisson structure on F2 . Hence, there is a oneto-one correspondence between the following three objects: the algebra F (F2 ) of
all functions on F2 , the vector space X2 (F2 ) of all bivector fields on F2 and the set
of all Poisson structures on F2 . The singular locus of coincides with the zero locus
of , which is the curve { = 0} F2 . See Fig. 9.1.

9.1.2 Local Point of View

Let M be a (real or complex) manifold of dimension two and let F (M) denote its
algebra of smooth or holomorphic functions. Let (U, (x, y)) be a coordinate chart
of M. According to (1.23), every bivector field on U can be written as

,
x y

where = [x, y] F (U) .

(9.2)

We have seen in Section 9.1.1 that every bivector field on U is a Poisson structure.
The rank of is two at all points m U where (m) = 0 and is zero at all other
points of U.

236

9 Poisson Structures in Dimensions Two and Three

Let us show that, although the Jacobi identity is trivially satisfied in dimension
two, and although all Poisson structures in dimension two are locally given by the
simple formula (9.2), two Poisson structures in dimension two may, both from the
algebraic and geometric points of view, be very different in the neighborhood of
their singularities.
To illustrate this, let (M, ) be a two-dimensional Poisson manifold and let m be
an arbitrary point of M. We write in a neighborhood of m in M as

,
x y

where x, y are local coordinates, vanishing at m, and where := [x, y]. We distinguish the following three cases:
(1) If (m) = 0, which means that the rank of at m is two, then there exists,
according to Weinsteins splitting theorem (Theorem 1.25), a coordinate neighborhood U of m in M, with coordinates x, y, centered at m, such that, on U,

.
x y

(2) If (m) = 0 but dm = 0, Example 7.27 tells us that is linearizable at m,

i.e., there exists a coordinate chart for M, still denoted by (U, (x, y)) and centered
at m, such that

.
=x
x y
(3) If (m) = 0 and dm = 0, then the zero locus of the function has a singularity at m. Let us consider the case of quadratic Poisson structures on C2 . Two
examples are given by

1 := (x2 y2 )

x y

and 2 := x2

.
x y

Since the singular locus of 1 consists of the pair of lines y = x, while the singular
locus of 2 consists of the (double) line x2 = 0, it is clear that these Poisson structures are (even locally, in the neighborhood of a point of their singular locus) not
isomorphic. This simple example illustrates the fact that there are at least as many
non-isomorphic Poisson structures on the plane, as there are non-isomorphic algebraic curves in the plane. In fact there are more. In order to see this, consider the
following two Poisson structures:

1 := (x2 y2 )

,
x y

and 3 := 2(x2 y2 )

.
x y

Since they are proportional, they have the same zero locus, but they are not isomorphic as Poisson structures, a fact which can easily be checked by using Proposition 8.8.

9.1 Poisson Structures in Dimension Two

237

As we will see in the next section, there is a partial local classification of Poisson
structures on C2 (or R2 ), under the strong hypothesis that the singular locus of the
Poisson structure admits a simple singularity (at the origin).

9.1.3 Classification in Dimension Two

In this section, we consider the classification problem for Poisson structures in dimension two. Since the Jacobi identity is trivially satisfied in dimension two, the
classification amounts to the simpler problem of classifying bivector fields in dimension two, yet only partial results are known. The classification theorem which
we will present below has the following restrictions:
(1)
(2)
(3)

The Poisson structures and the coordinate transformations which are considered are formal;
The Poisson structures which are considered, are assumed to have a singular
locus which admits a simple singularity at the origin;
The ground field is C.

As is made explicit in the notes at the end of the chapter, some of these restrictions
can be weakened.
We first give an overview of the results and the ideas which will be presented in
this section; full proofs will be given in Subsections A, B, C and D below. We begin
by giving the definition of a formal Poisson structure on C2 .
Definition 9.1. A formal Poisson structure on C2 is a Poisson bracket on the algebra
of all formal power series in two variables C[[x, y]].
As we show in Subsection 9.1.3.1, every formal Poisson structure on C2 is of the
form x y , with C[[x, y]], and every such biderivation is a formal Poisson
structure on C2 .
By definition, a formal coordinate transformation of C2 is an algebra isomorphism : C[[x, y]] C[[x, y]] such that the formal power series (x) and (y) have
no constant term. Two formal power series , C[[x, y]] are said to be equivalent
if there exists a formal coordinate transformation of C2 , such that ( ) = . The
following formal version of the inverse function theorem holds: if is an algebra
homomorphism such that the formal power series (x) and (y) have no constant
term and whose Jacobian

(x) (x)
x
y

Jac := det
(y) (y)
x
y
is invertible, i.e., its constant term is different from zero, then is a formal coordinate transformation.

238

9 Poisson Structures in Dimensions Two and Three

Let be a formal coordinate transformation of C2 . Given a formal Poisson structure on C2 , there exists a unique formal Poisson structure on C2 , denoted ,
such that : C[[x, y]] C[[x, y]]

: (C[[x, y]], ) (C[[x, y]], )

is a morphism (hence isomorphism) of Poisson algebras. Explicitly, is given
by
( ) [ , ] := 1 ( [ ( ), ( )]) ,
for all , C[[x, y]]. Since

= ( )[x, y]

,
x y

it follows that, if we write in the form = x y , then takes the form

= 1 ( Jac( ))

.
x y

(9.3)

It leads to the notion of equivalence of formal Poisson structures (on C2 ).

Definition 9.2. Two formal Poisson structures 1 and 2 on C2 are said to be formally isomorphic if there exists a formal coordinate transformation of C2 , such
that 2 = 1 .
We consider formal Poisson structures on C2 , with a simple singularity at the origin,
i.e., formal Poisson structures of the form x y , where C[[x, y]] is a formal
power series, without constant term, which admits a simple singularity at the origin
(see Subsection 9.1.3.1 below for a precise definition of this notion). According to
a theorem by Arnold, such a formal power series is equivalent to a weight homogeneous polynomial C[x, y] (see Theorem 9.7 below). Combined with (9.3),
this implies that every formal Poisson structure on C2 is formally isomorphic to a
Poisson structure of the form

,
(9.4)

x y
where C[x, y] is a weight homogeneous polynomial and C[[x, y]] is a formal power series whose constant term is different from zero. The next step in the
classification is the following proposition, which states that the formal power series in (9.4) can be replaced, modulo a non-zero additive constant, by a weight
homogeneous polynomial.
Proposition 9.3. Let = x y be a formal Poisson structure on C2 , where
C[x, y] is a non-constant polynomial, which is weight homogeneous with respect
to the weight vector = (1 , 2 ), and C[[x, y]] is a formal power series, with
constant term 1. Then is formally isomorphic to a Poisson structure of the form

9.1 Poisson Structures in Dimension Two

239

,
x y

(1 + )

where C[x, y] is a weight homogeneous polynomial of weight ( ) 1 2 .

See Subsection 9.1.3.3 below for a proof of this proposition. It follows that a Poisson
structure which admits a simple singularity at the origin is formally isomorphic, up
to a non-zero multiplicative constant, to a Poisson structure of the form

,
x y

(1 + )

where is one of the weight homogeneous polynomials which appear in Arnolds

classification theorem of formal power series with a simple singularity (Theorem 9.7) and C[x, y] is an arbitrary weight homogeneous polynomial of weight
( ) 1 2 . For each in Arnolds list, one easily determines all possibilities for , which leads to the following classification theorem of formal Poisson
structures on C2 , which admit a simple singularity at the origin.
Theorem 9.4. Let = x y be a formal Poisson structure on C2 , where
C[[x, y]] is a formal power series, which has a simple singularity at the origin. Then, up to a non-zero multiplicative constant, is formally isomorphic to a
Poisson structure of the form x y , where C[x, y] is one the polynomials
which appear in the third column of the following table.

Type

x2 + y2k+1

A2k

k1

A2k1

k1

D2k

k2

D2k+1

k2



x2 + y2k 1 + yk1



x2 y + y2k1 1 + x + yk1
 2

x y + y2k (1 + x)

E7

x 3 + y4
 3


x + xy3 1 + y2

E8

x 3 + y5

E6

Remark 9.5. The Poisson structures which appear in the classification theorem are
not claimed to be all non-isomorphic. Special care has to be taken with respect to the
phrase up to a non-zero multiplicative constant, which appears in its statement. In
general, a formal Poisson structure on C2 is formally isomorphic to every Poisson
structure of the form , with C , but there are exceptions. We already gave
in Section 9.1.2 an example of two proportional quadratic Poisson structures which
are non-isomorphic. In order to make a more general statement, let be a weight
homogeneous polynomial of C[x, y], with respect to the weight vector (1 , 2 ) and

240

9 Poisson Structures in Dimensions Two and Three

of weight ( ). Let us consider the Poisson structure on C2 corresponding to ,

namely := x y . Define, for arbitrary a C , the formal coordinate transformation of C2 , which amounts to rescaling x and y as follows:

a (x) := a1 x,

a (y) := a2 y .

According to (8.8) and (9.3), we have

(a ) = a1 +2 ( )

.
x y

This formula permits us to conclude that, if ( ) = 1 + 2 , then every Poisson

structure of the form , with C is formally isomorphic to . However, if
( ) = 1 + 2 , then each of the formal coordinate transformations a acts trivially on ; in fact, as can be checked by using Proposition 8.8, the homogeneous
Poisson structures and are, for = 1, non-isomorphic.

9.1.3.1 A Formal Power Series and Simple Singularities

In this subsection, we recall some basic notions about formal power series (in two
variables) and we introduce some concepts which are needed to state the theorem of
Arnold about the classification of formal power series with a simple singularity.
A formal power series C[[x, y]] can be written in a unique way as =
i, jN i j xi y j , so the datum of a family (i j )i, jN in C is equivalent to the datum
of a formal power series in C[[x, y]]. This elementary fact is important when dealing with the question whether certain operations yield well-defined power series: a
formal power series is well-defined if for every i, j N the coefficient ai j is welldefined. For example, the product of two power series is well-defined, because each
term of the product is given by a finite sum. Similarly, if C[[x, y]] is a formal
power series without constant term, then
exp( ) :=

i
iN i!

is a well-defined power series. A formal power series C[[x, y]] can be evaluated
at (x, y) = (0, 0), which yields the constant term of the series, denoted (0, 0), but
can in general not be evaluated at other values of x, y. With the standard addition and
product of power series, it is clear that C[[x, y]] forms an associative algebra, whose
invertible elements are the series for which (0, 0) = 0.
We define the order of a formal power series C[[x, y]] as the minimum of
the total degrees of each of its terms, denoted ord( ). When we are in a weight
homogeneous context, we will also consider the order of a power series with
respect to a weight vector = (1 , 2 ), where 1 and 2 are the weights of the

9.1 Poisson Structures in Dimension Two

241

variables x and y (see Section 8.1.3). Then ord ( ), the order of with respect to
, is by definition the minimum of the weights of each of the terms of .
As we said previously, a formal coordinate transformation of C2 is an algebra isomorphism : C[[x, y]] C[[x, y]] so that the constant terms of (x) and of (y) are
zero. Also, recall that two formal power series , C[[x, y]] are said to be equivalent if there exists a formal coordinate transformation of C2 such that ( ) = .
Notice that if and are two equivalent formal series of C[[x, y]], they have the
same constant term.
Definition 9.6. A formal power series C[[x, y]] satisfying (0, 0) = 0 is said to
have a simple singularity at the origin, if a small enough neighborhood of (for the
Whitney topology, see [17]) intersects only a finite number of orbits associated to
the equivalence of formal power series.
We are now able to state Arnolds classification in the case of formal power series in
C[[x, y]], with a simple singularity. The names of the singularity types are borrowed
from the classification theory of simple Lie algebras; see [147] for an explanation.
Theorem 9.7 (Arnolds theorem). Let C[[x, y]] be a formal power series without constant term, which has a simple singularity at (0, 0). Then is equivalent to
one of the weight homogeneous polynomials which appear in the third column of
the following table.
Type

Ak

k1

x2 + yk+1

Dk

k4

x2 y + yk1

E6

x 3 + y4

E7

x3 + xy3

E8

x 3 + y5

9.1.3.2 B Formal Poisson Structures on C2

We have defined a formal Poisson structure on C2 as a Poisson bracket on the algebra C[[x, y]] of formal power series in two variables. Since a Poisson bracket is
in particular a skew-symmetric biderivation, we first study the algebra of skewsymmetric multi-derivations of C[[x, y]]. As we will see, the results are very similar
to the case of the algebra of polynomial or holomorphic functions on C2 .
The formal partial derivatives x and y clearly yield derivations of C[[x, y]].
Also, their wedge,

yields a skew-symmetric biderivation of this algebra.

More general examples are constructed by taking x + y , respectively x y ,

242

9 Poisson Structures in Dimensions Two and Three

where , C[[x, y]] are arbitrary. We show in the following proposition that there
are no other skew-symmetric k-derivations of C[[x, y]] (k  1).
Proposition 9.8. The spaces of skew-symmetric multi-derivations of C[[x, y]] are
given by

+
| , C[[x, y]] ,
X1 C[[x, y]] =
x
y

| C[[x, y]] ,
X2 C[[x, y]] =
x y


k
X C[[x, y]] = {0}, for all k  3 .
Proof. Let us prove this proposition for the case of the derivations of C[[x, y]],
the case of the skew-symmetric biderivations and skew-symmetric k-derivations
of C[[x, y]] (for k  3) being analogous. To do that, we first point out that every derivation W of C[[x, y]] satisfies the following property: if C[[x, y]], then
ord(W [ ]) is either (i.e. W [ ] = 0) or ord(W [ ])  ord( ) 1. This can be
done easily by recursion on ord( ), first in the particular case where C[[x]]
or C[[y]], and secondly for an arbitrary C[[x, y]], using the fact that every
C[[x, y]], with ord( )  1, can be written in at least one of the following two
forms:

= x1 + 2 , with 1 C[[x, y]], ord(1 ) = ord( ) 1 and 2 C[[y]] ;

= y1 + 2 , with 1 C[[x, y]], ord(1 ) = ord( ) 1 and 2 C[[x]] .

Now, let V X1 (C[[x, y]]) and consider the formal power series := V [x] and
:= V [y]. We prove that V = x + y , by showing that W := V x y
is zero. First, W is a derivation of C[[x, y]] and W [x] = W [y] = 0, hence W vanishes
on every polynomial in C[x, y]. Let now C[[x, y]] be an arbitrary formal power
series. Suppose that W [ ] = 0 and let s := ord(W [ ]). We decompose the formal
power series as follows: = s + s , where s C[x, y] is a polynomial of total
degree at most s + 1 and s C[[x, y]] is a formal power series of order at least s + 2.
Since W vanishes on all polynomials, W [ ] = W [s ] + W [s ] = W [s ], so that
ord(W [ ]) = ord(W [s ])  ord(s ) 1  s + 1 = ord(W [ ]) + 1 ,
which is impossible. Therefore, W [ ] = 0 for all formal power series and the

equality V = x + y follows. 
It follows from Proposition 9.8 that every formal Poisson structure on C2 is of
the form:

,
(9.5)
=
x y
for some formal power series C[[x, y]]. Moreover, X3 (C[[x, y]]) = {0}, so that
the Schouten bracket of every skew-symmetric biderivation of C[[x, y]] with itself

9.1 Poisson Structures in Dimension Two

243

is zero, which implies that every such biderivation defines a formal Poisson structure on C2 . Thus, there is a one-to-one correspondence between the following three
objects: the algebra C[[x, y]] of all formal power series in two variables, the vector
space X2 (C[[x, y]]) of all skew-symmetric biderivations of C[[x, y]] and the set of
all formal Poisson structures on C2 . Notice that the series in (9.5) is given by
= [x, y], so that a formal Poisson structure on C2 is completely determined by
its value on the variables x and y. Given the above one-to-one correspondence, it is
natural to transport the property that a function has a simple singularity, to the case
of a formal Poisson structure on C2 .
Definition 9.9. Let = x y be a formal Poisson structure of C2 , satisfying
(0, 0) = 0. If admits a simple singularity at the origin, then is said to admit a
simple singularity at the origin.
To finish this subsection, we introduce a certain class of formal coordinate transformations of C2 , which are constructed from derivations of C[[x, y]]. Let V be a
derivation of C[[x, y]] and assume that for every C[[x, y]] the series V [ ] is either zero or of order larger than the order of , with respect to a weight vector .
For every k  1 and for every C[[x, y]], the formal power series V k [ ] is either
zero or of order at least k + ord ( ). Therefore, for every i, j N, the coefficient
of xi y j in the infinite sum
exp (V ) ( ) :=

k! V k [ ]

kN

is determined by a finite number of terms, and we have a well-defined map

exp (V ) : C[[x, y]] C[[x, y]] .
Clearly, the formal power series exp (V ) (x) and exp (V ) (y) vanish at the origin. We show that exp (V ) is an algebra homomorphism; i.e., that exp(V )( ) =
exp(V )( ) exp(V )( ), for all , C[[x, y]]. Since V is a derivation of C[[x, y]],
we have for all , C[[x, y]],
 
i
V ik ( ) V k ( ) ,
V ( ) =
k
k=0
i

so that
 
i
1 i
1 i
V ik ( ) V k ( )
exp(V )( ) = V ( ) =
k
i!
i!
iN
iN k=0
i

(i k)! k! V ik ( ) V k ( )

iN k=0

j,kN

1
V j ( ) V k ( ) = exp(V )( ) exp(V )( ) .
j! k!

244

9 Poisson Structures in Dimensions Two and Three

The equality which is proven in the above computation is an equality of formal

power series (for a given and ); since at every step, each term of the series is
determined by a finite number of terms, the above manipulations of infinite sums
are valid. Since the Jacobian of exp(V ) equals 1 at (0, 0), exp(V ) defines a formal
coordinate transformation of C2 .
An important class of derivations V which satisfy the above property, consists of
the derivations E , where is a formal power series without constant term and
is a weight vector. In this case, we have for every non-constant formal power series
that ord ( E [ ]) = ord ( ) + ord ( ), so that exp( E ) is a formal coordinate
transformation of C2 . Fixing a formal power series without constant term, we will
refer to the family (exp (t E ))tC as the formal flow of the derivation E . For
fixed t, the formal coordinate transformation exp (t E ) of C2 is called the formal
flow of E at t.

9.1.3.3 C Proof of Proposition 9.3

The aim of this subsection is to prove Proposition 9.3. Throughout the subsection,
= (1 , 2 ) is a fixed weight vector; weight homogeneity of a polynomial and the
order of a formal power series are to be understood as being with respect to . As
before, E denotes the weighted Euler derivation and we denote | | := 1 + 2 .
We start with three technical lemmas.
Lemma 9.10. Let = x y be a formal Poisson structure on C2 , where
is a (non-zero) weight homogeneous polynomial and is a formal power series,
satisfying (0, 0) = 1. Let C[[x, y]] be a formal power series without constant
term and let (t )tC denote the formal flow of E . For every t C, the polynomial
C[x, y] divides the skew-symmetric biderivation (t ) .
Proof. According to (9.3), (t ) = x y , where C[[x, y]] is given by

= t1 ( Jac t ) = t1 ( Jac t ) t1 ( ) .

(9.6)

It therefore suffices to show that divides t1 ( ) for every t C. To do this, we

will show that there exists a one-parameter family (t )tC of formal power series in
C[[x, y]], such that
t1 ( ) = t ,
and such that moreover each coefficient of the power series t depends polynomially
on t C. Suppose that (t )tC is a one-parameter family of formal power series in
C[[x, y]], which satisfies 0 = 1 and t (0, 0) = 0, for every t C. Then we have the
following equivalences:

t1 ( ) = t t = t ( ) ,

9.1 Poisson Structures in Dimension Two

245

1
is a formal power series in C[[x, y]] (depending on t), since
t (t )
t (t )(0, 0) = t (0, 0) = 0 for all t. Our problem is therefore reduced to constructing
a one-parameter family (t )tC of formal power series in C[[x, y]], such that t ( ) =
t , such that each coefficient of the power series t depends polynomially on t, and
such that 0 = 1 and t (0, 0) = 0 for all t C. Under the latter hypothesis on t , we
have the following equivalences:1


1
t = t ( )
t ( ) = 0
t
t
1
2 t ( ) + t ( E [ ]) = 0
t
t
 
t
1
E [ ] = t

t
 
t
,
( ) = t1
t
where t :=

where we have used in the second equivalence that (t )tC is the formal flow of
E , and the weighted Euler formula (8.10) in the last equivalence. Our problem is
thereby reduced to solving the linear differential equation

t = ( )t ( )t ,
with initial condition 0 = 1. As in calculus,

t := exp ( )

t

(9.7)

( )d

is the unique solution. It is for each t a well-defined formal power series (since the
formal power series

t

( )d does not have a constant term) whose coefficients

depend polynomially on t, and it satisfies t (0, 0) = 1, for all t C. This proves the
announced existence of the family (t )tC , and hence of the family (t )tC , which

proves that divides (t ) , for all t. 
Lemma 9.11. Let =
write as

be a formal Poisson structure on C2 and let us

= s0 +| | + + sr +| | + ,

where s0 < s1 < < sr Z and where s0 +| | , . . . , sr +| | are the first r + 1

non-zero weight homogeneous terms of the formal power series , of weight
s0 + | |, . . . , sr + | | and is a formal power series in C[[x, y]] of order at least
1 For a family (F )
t tC of power series
 in C[[x, y]], whose coefficients are polynomial functions
of t, we denote by Ft , respectively by 0t F d , the formal power series obtained by differentiating,
respectively integrating, each coefficient with respect to t.

246

9 Poisson Structures in Dimensions Two and Three

sr + | | + 1. Assume that there exists a weight homogeneous derivation V =

V1 x + V2 y of C[[x, y]], such that

LV

s0 +| |

x y


= sr +| |

.
x y

(9.8)

Let be a formal coordinate transformation of C2 , defined by := exp(V ). Then

= x y , where is of the form

= s0 +| | + + sr1 +| | + ,

(9.9)

with C[[x, y]] and of order at least sr + | | + 1. Stated briefly, eliminates the
term sr +| | without modifying the terms of lower weight.
Proof. Let = x y and suppose that there exists a weight homogeneous
derivation V , satisfying (9.8), where s0 +| | and sr +| | are the parts of of weight
s0 + | |, respectively of weight sr + | |. Then V1 and V2 are weight homogeneous
polynomials of weight (V1 ) = sr s0 + 1 and (V2 ) = sr s0 + 2 . It implies
that := exp(V ) is a well-defined formal coordinate transformation of C2 ; explicitly, (x) and (y) are of the form

(x) = x + V1 + V1 ,
(9.10)
(y) = y + V2 + V2 ,

where Vi is a formal power series in C[[x, y]] with ord Vi > sr s0 + i for i =
1, 2, so that



V1
V2
=
= sr s0 ,

x
y




V1
V2
> sr s0 , ord
> sr s0 ,
ord
x
y


and





 1 + V1 + V1

x
x
Jac = 
 V2 V2

 x + x






.


V2 V2 
1+
+
y
y 

V1 V1
+
y
y

It follows that the terms of Jac , whose weights are at most sr +| |, are precisely
the following:

s0 +| | , . . . , sr1 +| | , sr +| | +

V1
V2
s0 +| | +

.
x
y s0 +| |

9.1 Poisson Structures in Dimension Two

247

Let be the formal power series, defined by = x y . We denote its term

of weight i by i . According to (9.3), ( ) = Jac , with of the form (9.10).
The terms of ( ), and hence of , of weight i, smaller than sr + | |, coincide with
the corresponding terms of Jac . Specifically, all are zero except for

s0 +| | = s0 +| | , . . . , sr1 +| | = sr1 +| | .

(9.11)

It follows that the term of weight sr + | | of ( ) is given by





sr +| | + V s0 +| | = sr +| | + V s0 +| | .
Equating these terms with the terms of weight sr + | | in Jac , we obtain




V1 V2
+
(9.12)
sr +| | +
s0 +| | = sr +| | + V s0 +| | .
x
y
Recall that V satisfies (9.8). Applied to x and y, this condition means that




V1 V2
V s0 +| |
+
s0 +| | = sr +| | ,
x
y
which leads, according to equation (9.12), to sr +| | = 0. Combined with (9.11),

this shows that is indeed of the desired form (9.9). 
The following lemma is an analog of Eulers weighted formula for bivector fields
on C2 .
Lemma 9.12. Let C[x, y] be a polynomial and let = x y be a Poisson
structure on C2 . If and are weight homogeneous with respect to some weight
vector = (1 , 2 ), then
L E = ( ( ) | | ( )) .
Proof. Under the stated assumptions on and , we need to show that


L E [x, y] = ( ( ) | | ( )) .
Using several times the weighted Euler formula (8.10), we compute


L E [x, y] = E [ ] [ E [x], y] [x, E (y)]
= ( ) 1 [ x, y] 2 [x, y]



= ( ( ) 1 2 ) 1 x
+ 2 y

x
y
= ( ( ) | | ( )) ,
which yields the desired result. 

Using the above three lemmas, we prove Proposition 9.3.

(9.13)

248

9 Poisson Structures in Dimensions Two and Three

Proof (of Proposition 9.3). Let = x y be a formal Poisson structure on C2 ,

where C[x, y] and C[[x, y]] are as stated. Since verifies (0, 0) = 1, we
can write = 1 + s + s , where s C[x, y] is a weight homogeneous polynomial
of weight s and s C[[x, y]] is a formal power series of order at least s + 1. Let
us first show that s can be assumed to be at least equal to ( ) | |. Assume that
s < ( ) | | and consider the Lie derivative



= ( ( ) | | s) s
,
Ls E
x y
x y
which follows easily from Lemma 9.12. Letting V := s E /( ( ) | | s),
we have that (9.8) is satisfied, with r := 1 and s0 +| | := and sr +| | := s .
We can therefore apply Lemma 9.11, which shows that is formally isomorphic
to ( + ) x y , where is a formal power series, of order at least ( ) + s + 1.
The formal coordinate transformation (9.10) is in this case of the form exp V ,
with V a polynomial times the weighted Euler vector field. Therefore, Lemma 9.10
applies, showing that ( + ) x y is a multiple of . In conclusion, is for-

mally isomorphic to (1 + s ) x y , where s is a formal power series of order

at least s + 1. A repeated use of this procedure shows that is formally isomorphic
to (1 + ) x y , where is a formal power series of order at least ( ) | |.
Let us now show that, using the same technique, the formal power series in
(1 + ) x y can be replaced by its terms of weight ( ) | |. To do this,
let us write = + + , where is a weight homogeneous polynomial of
weight ( ) | |, where is a weight homogeneous polynomial of weight at
least ( ) | | + 1, and where is a formal power series, with ord > ( ).
We first show how to remove the term from , without changing . Setting
r := 2 and s0 +| | := and s2 +| | := it is verified, as above, that the vector
field V := E /( ( ) | | ( )) satisfies (9.8), so Lemma 9.11 applies again,
showing as above that is formally isomorphic to (1 + + ) x y , where
has weight ( ) | | and the order of is at least ( ) | |.
Repeating this procedure, we can make the order of arbitrarily large. To make
disappear, the procedure needs to be repeated an infinite number of times, i.e.,
we need to consider the algebra homomorphism : C[[x, y]] C[[x, y]] which
is obtained as the composition of an infinite number of the above formal coordinate transformations. However, at each step, the coordinate transformation is of the
form (9.10), with V1 and V2 of higher order than the V1 and V2 which were used in
the previous step, each term in (x) and in (y) will only depend on a finite number of the formal coordinate transformations. Therefore, is formally isomorphic

to (1 + ) x y . 

9.1 Poisson Structures in Dimension Two

249

9.1.3.4 D Proof of the Classification Theorem

We are finally ready to give the proof of the classification theorem of formal Poisson
structures on C2 , which admit a simple singularity.
Proof (of Theorem 9.4). Let = x y be a formal Poisson structure on C2 ,
where C[[x, y]] is a formal power series, which has a simple singularity at the
origin. According to Arnolds theorem (Theorem 9.7) there exists a formal coordinate transformation , such that 1 ( ) = , where is a weight homogeneous
polynomial, with respect to some weight vector = (1 , 2 ). According to (9.3),
= x y , where C[[x, y]] is a formal power series, with (0, 0) = 0.
Using Proposition 9.3, we can conclude that, up to a constant, is isomorphic to
(1 + ) x y , where is one of the weight homogeneous polynomials which
appear in Theorem 9.7 and where is a weight homogeneous polynomial of weight
( ) | |. It suffices now to consider in the list of weight homogeneous polynomials of Theorem 9.7 and construct the most general weight homogeneous polynomial C[x, y] of weight ( ) | |, which amounts to finding all monomials
xi y j , with i, j N satisfying

1 i + 2 j = ( ) 1 2 .
The result is displayed in Table 9.1.

(9.14)

Table 9.1 The different types of formal simple singularities which appear in Theorem 9.7, with
the corresponding weight vector = (1 , 2 ), the integers 1 and 2 being the weights of the
variables x and y. For each type, equation (9.14) and the monomials corresponding to the solutions
of this equation are given.
Type
A2k

(1 , 2 )

Equation (9.14)

k  1 x2 + y2k+1 (2k + 1, 2) (2k + 1)i + 2 j = 2k 1

A2k1 k  1
D2k

x2 + y2k

(k, 1)

k  2 x2 y + y2k1 (k 1, 1)

D2k+1 k  2

x2 y + y2k

xi y j

ki + j = k 1

yk1

(k 1)i + j = k 1

x, yk1

(2k 1, 2) (2k 1)i + 2 j = 2k 1

E6

x 3 + y4

(4, 3)

4i + 3 j = 5

E7

x3 + xy3

(3, 2)

3i + 2 j = 4

y2

E8

x 3 + y5

(5, 3)

5i + 3 j = 7

250

9 Poisson Structures in Dimensions Two and Three

9.2 Poisson Structures in Dimension Three

We now consider Poisson structures on manifolds of dimension three. In the twodimensional case, we have seen that every bivector field is a Poisson structure,
because the Jacobi identity is trivially satisfied. This is not the case in dimension
three. However, like in the two-dimensional case, the rank of a bivector field, in
particular of a Poisson structure, is at most two (hence zero or two), at every point.
Section 9.2.1 is devoted to Poisson structures on F3 , while Section 9.2.2 enlarges
the discussion to real or complex manifolds of dimension three. Quadratic Poisson
structures on C3 will be classified in Section 9.2.3. In Section 9.2.4, we will consider
singular Poisson surfaces in C3 .

9.2.1 Poisson Structures on F3

In this section, we study Poisson structures on the affine space F3 , which is equipped
with its algebra of functions, denoted by F (F3 ). If F is an arbitrary field, this algebra is the algebra of polynomial functions on F3 ; however, if F = R (respectively
F = C), then F (F3 ) may stand either for the algebra of smooth (respectively holomorphic) or polynomial functions on F3 , depending on the context. The standard
coordinates on F3 are denoted by (x, y, z). Every bivector field on F3 decomposes as

+ P2
+ P3
,
(9.15)
= P1
y z
z x
x y
where P1 := {y, z}, P2 := {z, x} and P3 := {x, y}. It follows from item (iii) in Proposition 1.16 that this bivector field satisfies the Jacobi identity, and is therefore a
Poisson structure on F3 , if and only if
{x, {y, z}} + {y, {z, x}} + {z, {x, y}} = 0 ,
which is equivalent to






P3 P2
P1 P3
P2 P1

+ P2

+ P3

=0.
P1
y
z
z
x
x
y

(9.16)

Condition (9.16) can be compactly restated in vector notation. To do this, define a

vector field P on F3 by P := (P1 , P2 , P3 ), and denote by  | the standard inner

3
product on F and by curl the curl operator. Then (9.16) can be rewritten as



P | curl P = 0 .
(9.17)
Condition (9.17) provides an elementary way to produce examples and to establish
results about Poisson structures on F3 by using well-known properties of vector
analysis. For instance, recall the classical identity

9.2 Poisson Structures in Dimension Three

251

curl P = curl P + grad P ,

(9.18)

which is valid for every function F (F3 ) and for every vector field P on F3 ; in
this formula, stands for the vector product in F3 and grad is the gradient operator.
We use (9.18) to prove the following proposition.
Proposition 9.13. Let be a Poisson structure on F3 . For every function
F (F3 ), the bivector field is a Poisson structure on F3 .

Proof. We denote, as above, by P the vector field on F3 , associated to , so that P

is the vector field associated to . One computes, with the help of (9.18),






P | curl P = 2 P | curl P + P | grad P .
By (9.17), the assumption that is a Poisson structure gives the vanishing of the
first term on the right-hand side of this equation, while the vanishing of the second
term follows from the identity A | B A = 0, valid for all A, B F3 . This shows

that condition (9.17) is satisfied for P , so that the bivector field is a Poisson

structure on F3 . 
Another classical identity which involves the curl operator is
curl grad = 0 ,
valid for every function F (F3 ). It implies, in view of (9.17), that when the

vector field P , associated to a bivector field , is the gradient of a function, P =

grad , then is a Poisson structure. Substituted in (9.15), this means that

:=

x y z y z x z x y

(9.19)

is a Poisson structure on F3 , for every function F (F3 ). Let = dx dy dz

denote the standard volume form on F3 . Then it is clear from (9.19) that and d
are related by
(9.20)
= d ,
which yields an alternative definition for . Also, this Poisson bracket comes from
a standard NambuPoisson structure of order 3 on F3 , upon using the function ,
as described in Proposition 8.35. Therefore, the Poisson bracket {F, G} of two
arbitrary functions F, G F (F3 ) can also be written as
{F, G} =

dF dG d
.
dx dy dz

In particular, is a Casimir function for . Proposition 9.13 implies the following

statement.
Proposition 9.14. Let F (F3 ) be an arbitrary function on F3 and consider the
bivector field on F3 , defined by (9.19). For every function F (F3 ), the bivector field is a Poisson structure on F3 and it admits as a Casimir function.

252

9 Poisson Structures in Dimensions Two and Three

This proposition motivates the next theorem. By a slight abuse of terminology, we

call Casimir function of a bivector field = { , } (not assumed to be a Poisson
structure) every function F (F3 ) such that {F, } = 0 for all F F (F3 ).
Proposition 9.15. Let be a bivector field on F3 and suppose that admits a
Casimir function .
(1)
(2)

If the differential of is different from zero in a dense subset of F3 , then is

a Poisson structure on F3 ;
If the bivector field is a polynomial Poisson structure, and if the Casimir
function is a polynomial function for which the partial derivatives x , y

and z are relatively prime, then there exists a polynomial function

F (F3 ), such that = , where is the Poisson structure defined in (9.19).

Proof. The bivector field is a Poisson structure on F3 if and only if the Schouten
bracket [ , ]S is zero. Since
1
[ , ]S [F, G, H] = {{F, G} , H} + {{G, H} , F} + {{H, F} , G} ,
2
for all functions F, G, H F (F3 ), we have that, if is a Casimir function of , then
[ , ]S [F, G, ] = 0, for all F, G F (F3 ). Let us show that this implies that, if is a
Casimir function of and d is non-zero on a dense subset of F3 , then [ , ]S = 0,
so that is a Poisson structure on F3 . Since [ , ]S is a trivector field on F3 , it can
be written as

,
(9.21)
[ , ]S =
x y z
where F (F3 ). Plugging F := x and G := y in [ , ]S [F, G, ] = 0 we obtain,
in view of (9.21), z = 0. Similarly, one obtains x = y = 0, by plugging
in the two other pairs of variables. Since, by assumption, d is non-zero on a dense
subset of F3 , it follows that = 0 on F3 , hence that the trivector field [ , ]S is zero
on F3 . This proves (1).
We next prove (2). We assume that is a polynomial Poisson structure on F3 and
we define polynomial functions P1 , P2 , P3 F (F3 ) by

= P1

+ P2
+ P3
.
y z
z x
x y

Suppose that is a polynomial Casimir function of . We apply the equation

{F, } = 0, which is valid for all F F (F3 ), successively to F := x, F := y and
F := z. It gives the following relations between the functions P1 , P2 and P3 :
P2

= P3
,
z
y

P3

= P1
,
x
z

P1

= P2
.
y
x

(9.22)

9.2 Poisson Structures in Dimension Three

253

x , y , z are relatively prime, and let Q

denote the greatest common divisor of x and y . Then it follows from the third
equation in (9.22) that there exists  F (F3 ), such that

Let us assume that the partial derivatives

QP1 = 

and QP2 = 

.
y

(9.23)

In view of the first (or the second) equality in (9.22), this implies that
QP3 = 

.
z

(9.24)

Since Q and z are relatively prime, Q divides  . Define by Q =  . We obtain

in view of (9.23) and (9.24):
P1 =
This proves (2).

,
x

P2 =

and

P3 =

.
z

Remark 9.16. When is a non-constant weight homogeneous polynomial which is

square-free, then the partial derivatives x , y , z are relatively prime, so that the
assumptions about in item (2) of Proposition 9.15 are satisfied. Let us prove this
claim. If is weight homogeneous of weight ( ) = 0, it satisfies the weighted
Euler formula (8.10),

( ) = 1 x

+ 2 y
+ 3 z
,
x
y
z

(9.25)

where 1 , 2 and 3 are the weights of the variables x, y and z. Suppose that Q
F (F3 ) is a non-constant irreducible polynomial function which divides the partial
derivatives x , y and z . It follows from (9.25) that Q divides . Since Q is nonconstant, at least one of the partial derivatives

Q Q
x , y

and

Q
z ,

say

Q
x ,

is different

x ,

its square Q2
from zero. Since the irreducible polynomial Q divides and
also divides , so that is not square-free. Therefore, if is non-constant, weight
homogeneous and square-free, then x , y and z are relatively prime.
We finish this section with an example of Poisson structure on F3 which is not
of the form , and which in fact does not admit Casimir functions defined on F3 ,
except constant functions. Consider the bivector field on F3 , defined by



.
:= x + y
x
y
z
Note that it appeared already in Example 7.12. The associatedvector field is given

by P : (y, x, 0), whose curl is (0, 0, 2), so that P | curl P = 0, which means,

254

9 Poisson Structures in Dimensions Two and Three

in view of (9.17), that is a Poisson structure on F3 . A function F (M) is a

Casimir function for if and only if

= 0 and x
+y
=0.
z
x
y
The first equation means that does not depend on the variable z, while the second
one implies, in view of the Euler formula (8.5), that is homogeneous of degree 0
in the two remaining variables. According to Proposition 8.3, every homogeneous
function of degree zero is constant, so every Casimir function of is constant. It
follows from Proposition 9.14 that is not of the form , with , F (F3 ).

9.2.2 Poisson Manifolds of Dimension Three

We now turn to Poisson structures on three-dimensional manifolds. Since the rank
of a Poisson structure is an even number, smaller than or equal to the dimension of
the manifold, the rank of every Poisson structure on a three-dimensional manifold
is equal to two (except when the trivial Poisson structure is considered, in which
case the rank is zero). Many properties of such Poisson structures hold true because
their rank is two, rather than because the dimension of the manifold is three. We
will therefore, in Subsection 9.2.2.1, first study the properties of rank two Poisson
structures on manifolds of arbitrary dimension.

9.2.2.1 A Poisson Structures of Rank Two

Let be a bivector field on a manifold M. For every m M, we consider the associated linear map m : Tm M Tm M. As in the case of Poisson structures, the rank
of m , which is always even, is called the rank of at m, and is said to be a
bivector field of rank two if the rank of is at most two at all points of M and is
two at least one point of M. We denote by M(2) the open subset of M of points at
which the rank of is two. If is a bivector field of rank two on M, then the subset
{m (Tm M) | m M(2) } of the tangent bundle is a distribution of rank two on M(2) .
We show in the following proposition that the Jacobi identity for is equivalent to
the involutivity of this distribution.
Proposition 9.17. Let = { , } be a bivector field of rank two on a manifold M,
and let M(2) M denote the open subset of points at which the rank of is two.
(1)

Let U be an open subset of M and let F and G be functions on U. Then, on U,

we have
{F, G} = XF XG ;
(9.26)

(2)

The bivector field is a Poisson structure on M if and only if the distribution

{m (Tm M) | m M(2) } on M(2) is involutive.

9.2 Poisson Structures in Dimension Three

255

Proof. Suppose that is a bivector field of rank two on M. Let F and G be arbitrary
functions, defined on a non-empty open subset U of M. Let m be an arbitrary point
of U. We show that
{F, G} (m) m = (XF )m (XG )m .

(9.27)

Suppose first that the tangent vectors (XF )m and (XG )m are proportional, say
(XG )m = a (XF )m for some a F. Then the right-hand side of (9.27) vanishes
at m, while
{F, G} (m) = (XG )m [F] = a(XF )m [F] = a {F, F} (m) = 0 ,
so the left-hand side of (9.27) also vanishes at m. Thus, equation (9.27) is satisfied.
Assume now that the tangent vectors (XF )m and (XG )m are not proportional.
Since the rank of at m is two, these tangent vectors span m (Tm M), so that for
every function H, defined on a neighborhood of m M, there exist a, b F such
that
(9.28)
(XH )m = a (XF )m + b (XG )m .
Applying (9.28) to F yields
(XH )m [F] = a (XF )m [F] + b (XG )m [F] = b {F, G} (m) ,
and we obtain that {F, H} (m) = b {F, G} (m). Similarly, applying (9.28) to G yields
{G, H} (m) = a {F, G} (m). Substituted in (9.28), we obtain
{F, G} (m)(XH )m = {F, H} (m)(XG )m {G, H} (m)(XF )m .
Since H is arbitrary, this proves (9.27) also when (XF )m and (XG )m are not proportional, thereby proving (1).
We now prove (2). If is a Poisson structure of rank 2 on M, then {m (Tm M) |
m M(2) }, the distribution on M(2) , defined by all Hamiltonian vector fields, is
involutive because [XF , XG ] = X{F,G} for all functions F and G. Conversely, let
be a bivector field of rank two on M and assume that the distribution {m (Tm M) |
m M(2) } is involutive. Let m be a point of M. If m is zero, then the Schouten
bracket [ , ]S , evaluated at m, vanishes as well. If m is different from zero, so that
m M(2) , then there exist functions F, G, defined in a neighborhood U of m, such
XF
that {F, G} = 0 on U. According to (1), = V XG on U, where V := {F,G}
.A
direct computation, with the help of the graded Leibniz identity (3.42), gives
1
[ , ]S = V [V , XG ] XG .
2
Since XG and V are tangent to the distribution {m (Tm M) | m M(2) }, assumed to
be involutive, the bracket [V , XG ] is also tangent to the latter distribution. Hence,
([ , ]S )m 3 m (Tm M), for every m M(2) . But the latter space is zero, since

256

9 Poisson Structures in Dimensions Two and Three

m (Tm M) is a two-dimensional vector space. In conclusion, the Schouten bracket

of with itself vanishes at every point in M, so that is a Poisson structure. 
As a corollary, we obtain the following analog of Proposition 9.13.
Proposition 9.18. Let be a Poisson structure of rank two on a manifold M. For
every function F (M), the bivector field is a Poisson structure.
Proof. A proof can be given by picking local coordinates and using Proposition 9.13. We give a more geometrical proof. Consider the open subsets M(2) and
 of M consisting of all points where the rank of , respectively of , is two. It
M(2)
 M

is clear that M(2)
(2) and that for every point m M(2) , the vector spaces
( )m (Tm M) and m (Tm M)
 defined by the latter vector spaces is involutive,
coincide. The distribution on M(2)
 defined by
in view of item (2) in Proposition 9.17. Hence, the distribution on M(2)
the former is also involutive, which in view of the same proposition, implies that
is a Poisson structure on M. 

If in Proposition 9.18 the function is nowhere vanishing, the vector spaces

( )m (Tm M) and m (Tm M) coincide for all m M, so that both Poisson structures
have the same symplectic foliation. For regular Poisson structures of rank 2, the
following inverse statement holds.
Proposition 9.19. Let 1 and 2 be two regular Poisson structures of rank 2 on
a manifold M. If 1 and 2 have the same symplectic leaves, then there exists a
(unique) nowhere vanishing function F (M), such that 1 = 2 .
Proof. Suppose that 1 and 2 are Poisson structures which have the same symplectic leaves. For m M, denote by Sm their common symplectic leaf through m.
If both Poisson structures are regular of rank 2, then on the one hand, Tm Sm is a
two-dimensional vector space, so that 2 Tm Sm is one-dimensional, while on the
other hand both (1 )m and (2 )m are non-zero elements of 2 Tm Sm , so there exists
a unique (m) F , such that 1 (m) = (m)2 (m). Thus, under the above assumptions, there exists a nowhere vanishing function on M, such that 1 = 2 ; since
is given locally as the quotient of two non-vanishing functions, belongs to F (M).



9.2.2.2 B Poisson Manifolds of Dimension Three and One-Forms

Let M be a real orientable manifold of dimension three and let be a volume form on M. Recall from (4.19) that there is a natural F (M)-linear isomorphism  : Xk (M)  3k (M), defined for Q Xk (M) by
 Q := Q .

9.2 Poisson Structures in Dimension Three

257

In particular, to a bivector field on M corresponds a differential one-form :=

 = i on M. In this subsection we wish to express the properties of , for example the condition that be a Poisson structure on M, in terms of the differential
one-form . Of course, this differential one-form depends on the chosen volume
form: replacing by F , with F a nowhere vanishing function, amounts to replacing by F .
Proposition 9.20. Let M be a real orientable manifold of dimension three. Suppose
that is a bivector field on M.
(1)

Let be an arbitrary volume form on M, and let := . Then is a Poisson

structure on M if and only if

d = 0 .

(2)

(9.29)

In this case, for every m M at which the rank of is two, the kernel of m is
the tangent space of the symplectic leaf of through m;
The bivector field is a unimodular Poisson structure if and only if there
exists a volume form on M, such that the differential one-form := is
closed.

Proof. Recall from Cartans formula (3.38) that if P and Q are two multivector fields
on M, then
[[P , d] , Q ] = [P,Q]S .
Specializing to P := and Q := , and applied to the volume form , it yields
2 d = [ , ]S .

(9.30)

Multiplied by the volume form , and expressed in terms of , (9.30) becomes

2( d ) = ([ , ]S ) .

(9.31)

Now, for every bivector field P and for every differential 2-form , the fact that is
a top form implies that2
(P ) = P .
(9.32)
In particular, ( d ) = d = d , so that (9.31) gives eventually:


2 d = [ , ]S .
As a consequence, d = 0 if and only if [ , ]S = 0, i.e., if and only if is a
Poisson structure on M. This proves the first part of item (1).
Let us prove the second part of (1), i.e., that if the rank of at m is two, then
the spaces Ker(m ) and Tm Sm coincide, where Sm is the symplectic leaf of ,
passing through m. Since both vector spaces are two-dimensional, it suffices to show
2

In the actual case where the dimension of M is 3, a simple proof of (9.32) can be given by taking
local coordinates in which = dx dy dz.

258

9 Poisson Structures in Dimensions Two and Three

the inclusion Tm Sm Ker m . The tangent space at m to Sm is spanned by the

Hamiltonian vector fields XF at m, where F is an arbitrarily function, defined in a
neighborhood of m. Now,

(XF ) = ( ) (XF ) = ( XF ) ,
and XF = 0 because the rank of is 2 (see (9.26)), so that (XF )m Ker m for
every m M and for every function F, defined in a neighborhood of m in M. This
completes the proof of (1).
We now prove (2). Recall from (4.24) that the modular vector field of with
respect to a given volume form , can be expressed in terms of the divergence of
as = Div( ). According to the definition of Div (see (4.18)) and the definition
:= , we have that
 =  Div( ) = d  = d = d ,
so that = 0 if and only if is closed. Since a Poisson structure is unimodular if
and only if there exists a volume form with respect to which the modular vector
field is zero, this means that is unimodular if and only if there exists a volume

form such that := is closed. This shows (2). 

9.2.3 Quadratic Poisson Structures on F3

In this section, we present a classification of quadratic Poisson structures on the
affine space C3 . Recall from Proposition 8.8 that two quadratic Poisson structures
on F3 are isomorphic if and only if there exists a linear isomorphism of F3 , which
sends one of the quadratic Poisson structures to the other one. As before, we denote
the standard coordinates on F3 by x, y, z, and we denote by the standard volume
form
:= dx dy dz .
Recall from Section 8.2.2 that the modular vector field, with respect to , of a
quadratic Poisson structure is a linear vector field (Proposition 8.23), and recall
from Proposition 4.17 that its divergence with respect to is zero.
Specializing and adapting Proposition 8.26 to the three-dimensional case, yields
the next proposition. By definition, a cubic polynomial function on Fd is a homogeneous polynomial function of degree three on Fd .
Proposition 9.21. There is a one-to-one correspondence between quadratic Poisson
structures on F3 and pairs ( , ), with a linear vector field on F3 , and a cubic
polynomial function on F3 , satisfying
Div( ) = 0

and

[ ] = 0 .

(9.33)

This correspondence assigns to such a pair ( , ) the Poisson structure, defined by

9.2 Poisson Structures in Dimension Three

1
, := E ,
3

259

(9.34)

where E is the Euler vector field, and is the Poisson structure defined in (9.19).
Proof. To start with, let us show that, given a linear vector field on F3 and a cubic
function on F3 , which satisfy (9.33), the bivector field , defined by (9.34) is
a Poisson structure. First, both E and are Poisson structures according to
Example 8.15 and Proposition 9.14 respectively. As a consequence,





2
2
2
, , , S = , E S = LE + L E .
3
3
3
It suffices to prove that both of the remaining terms vanish. For the first term, by
Proposition 8.4, the Lie derivative with respect to the Euler vector field of every
quadratic Poisson structure is zero, so that LE = 0. The vanishing of the second term follows at once by applying the following identity, valid for every vector
field V on F3 ,
(9.35)
LV = Div(V ) + V [ ]
to V := , upon using (9.33). We prove the identity (9.35) by showing that
LV = Div(V ) + V [ ] .

(9.36)

First, by item (2) in Proposition 3.11 and by (4.20), the left-hand side of (9.36) is
given by
LV = [V , ] = LV + LV = LV + Div(V ) .
S

(9.37)

Therefore, it remains to be shown that LV = V [ ] , which means, in view

of (9.20), that LV d = d(V [ ]); but this is clear since LV and d commute. This
proves (9.35), and hence that the bivector field , defined by (9.34) is a Poisson
structure.
Next, we show that the assignment ( , )  , , defined by (9.34), is surjective. Let be a quadratic Poisson bracket, and let denote its modular vector field.
Proposition 8.26 implies that there exists a closed differential one-form such that:
1
= 1 E .
3
By the algebraic Poincare lemma, there exists a function such that d = ; since
is a quadratic differential one-form, can be chosen (in a unique way) to be a
cubic function. In view of (9.20), we have 1 = 1 d = . Hence, is given
as in (9.34). We still have to check that the pair ( , ) satisfies (9.33). According to
Proposition 4.17, the divergence of the modular vector field is zero. According
to Proposition 8.26, we have that L = 0, so that d( [ ]) = 0. Since [ ] is
a cubic function, this implies [ ] = 0.

260

9 Poisson Structures in Dimensions Two and Three

We are left with the task of showing that the assignment, defined by (9.34) is
injective. Since the divergence of vanishes and according to Example 8.25,


1
1
Div( , ) = Div E = Div( ) E = ,
3
3
so that we can recover as the modular vector field of , . Since the cubic polynomial can also be uniquely recovered from , both and can be uniquely
recovered from , , which proves injectivity, hence bijectivity of the assignment,
defined by (9.34). This completes the proof. 

Proposition 9.21 leads to an explicit description of the family of all quadratic
Poisson structures on F3 , as given in the following theorem.
Theorem 9.22. Let be a quadratic Poisson structure on C3 . There exist linear
coordinates on C3 in which takes the form
1
= E ,
3
where ( , ) corresponds to one of the types IVII in Table 9.2, where is the
Poisson structure

:=

,
x y z y z x z x y

and where E is the Euler vector field on C3 .

In order to prove this theorem, we first establish, in the following lemma, the list
of all divergence-free linear vector fields on C3 . Recall that in this section the divergence is always taken with respect to the standard volume form = dx dy dz
on C3 .
Lemma 9.23. Let be a divergence-free linear vector field on C3 . There exist linear coordinates x, y, z on C3 such that takes one of the forms, given in the second
column of Table 9.3.
Proof. Recall from Section 8.2 that linear vector fields on a finite-dimensional vector space V are in one-to-one correspondence with endomorphisms of the dual vector space V : more precisely, to a linear vector field on V corresponds, as in
(8.20), the endomorphism V (1) of V defined by

(1) : V V
F  [F] .
If we write in terms of linear coordinates x1 , . . . , xd on V as

i, j=1

ai j xi

,
xj

(9.38)

9.2 Poisson Structures in Dimension Three

261

Table 9.2 Up to linear isomorphism, every quadratic Poisson structure on C3 is of the form , ,
where and are given in the second and third columns.

Type

Parameters

a1 x x + a2 y y + a3 z z

bxyz

a1 , a2 , a3 C
all ai different
a1 + a2 + a3 = 0;
bC

II

ax x + ay y 2az z

z G(x, y)

a C
G quadratic function

III

ax x ay y

bxyz + cz3

a C ; b, c C

IV

ax x + (ay + x) y 2az z

bx2 z

a C ; b C

x y + y z

bx3 + cx(y2 2xz)

b, c C

VI

x z

G(x, y)

G cubic function

VII

G(x, y, z)

G cubic function

then A := (ai j ) Matd (C) is the matrix of (1) in terms of the basis (x1 , . . . , xd )
for V . Using the classical formula (4.21) for the divergence of a vector field, we
find
d
d

(ai j xi ) = aii ,
Div( ) =
i, j=1 x j
i=1
so that the divergence of is a constant function, whose value is the trace of the
endomorphism (1) . In particular, a linear vector field on C3 is divergence-free
if and only if the corresponding endomorphism (1) of C3 is traceless. There are
seven types of such endomorphisms:

If all eigenvalues of (1) are different, then there are two possibilities, according
to whether one or zero of these eigenvalues are zero, leading to types I and III
in Table 9.3;

262

9 Poisson Structures in Dimensions Two and Three

Table 9.3 There are, up to isomorphism, seven types of traceless endomorphisms of C3 . For each
type, its matrix takes in terms of a well-chosen basis the form indicated in the second column of the
table. The range of the parameters which appear in the matrices is indicated in the third column.

Type

Matrix

Parameters

diag(a1 , a2 , a3 )

a1 , a2 , a3 C
all ai different
a1 + a2 + a3 = 0

II

diag(a, a, 2a)

a C

III

diag(a, a, 0)

a C

a1 0

0 a 0
0 0 2a

a C

IV

010

0 0 1
000

001

0 0 0
000

VI

VII

If (1) has precisely two different eigenvalues, then they are both different from
zero, leading to types II or IV, according to whether (1) is diagonalizable or
not;
If all eigenvalues of (1) are equal, then they are all zero, so that (1) is a
nilpotent endomorphism. This leads to three types, the types VVII.

The conditions on the parameters in Table 9.3 are chosen such that every traceless

endomorphism of C3 appears exactly once in the table. 
It is clear that the matrices which are given in the second column of Table 9.3 correspond to the linear vector fields on C3 , listed in the second column of Table 9.2.
Combining Proposition 9.21 and Lemma 9.23 leads to the announced classification of the set of quadratic Poisson structures on C3 .

9.2 Poisson Structures in Dimension Three

263

Proof (of Theorem 9.22). Let be a quadratic Poisson structure on C3 . According

to Proposition 9.21, there exists a pair ( , ), with a divergence-free linear vector
field on C3 , and a cubic polynomial function on C3 , satisfying [ ] = 0, such that
is of the form (9.34). According to Lemma 9.23, there exist linear coordinates
x, y, z on C3 in which takes the form corresponding to one of the types IVII in
Table 9.3. It therefore suffices to determine for each of these types the vector space
of all cubic functions F (C3 ), satisfying [ ] = 0. It is easy to see, by direct
computation, that for each line of the table, the given function satisfies indeed
[ ] = 0. Let us show that if is of one of the types IV, there are no other such
(for of the other types VI and VII this is obvious).
For the types IIII, is the weighted Euler operator, with (not necessarily integral) weight vector (a1 , a2 , a3 ) with a1 + a2 + a3 = 0 for type I, with weight vector
(a, a, 2a) for type II and weight vector (a, a, 0) for type III. Therefore, for each
of these types, the vector space of all polynomials annihilated by is spanned by
all monomials F satisfying [F] = 0. Taking a cubic monomial F = x1 y2 z3 ,
this leads for type I to the equation 1 a1 + 2 a2 + 3 a3 = 0, which has (1, 1, 1) as
its unique solution, under the constraint 1 + 2 + 3 = 3 (because deg(F) = 3),
with all ai C being different. This leads to the monomial F = xyz. Similarly, the
equation [F] = 0 leads for type II to the equation a(1 + 2 ) 2a3 = 0, under
the constraint 1 + 2 + 3 = 3, which has as solution all triples (1 , 2 , 1), with
1 + 2 = 2, corresponding to all monomials of the form zG(x, y), where G is a
quadratic polynomial. Similarly, for type III, one looks for all triples (1 , 2 , 3 ),
satisfying 1 2 = 0, which has (1, 1, 1) and (0, 0, 3) as its only solutions under
the constraint 1 + 2 + 3 = 3; it corresponds to the monomials xyz and z3 .
For of type IV, one computes easily the images under of the 10 monomials
x1 y2 z3 , with 1 + 2 + 3 = 3, by using the fact that is the sum of the weighted
Euler operator (with weights (a, a, 2a)) and the operator x y . One sees that, besides for (x2 z) (which is zero), these images are linearly independent, proving
that the kernel of (restricted to the space of cubic polynomials) is spanned by
x2 z. Similarly, for of type V, one easily checks that the images of the eight cubic
monomials x1 y2 z3 , with (1 , 2 , 3 ) = (3, 0, 0) and (1 , 2 , 3 ) = (2, 0, 1) are
linearly independent. The kernel of is therefore two-dimensional, and is spanned

by x3 and x(y2 2xz). 

9.2.4 Poisson Surfaces in C3 and Du Val Singularities

We have seen two different ways of constructing (singular) Poisson surfaces.
(1)

(2)

Let G be a finite subgroup of SL2 (C). The standard action of G on C2 induces

on the quotient surface C2 /G a Poisson structure { , }C2 /G , making it into a
(singular) Poisson surface (see Section 6.3.4).
Let be an irreducible polynomial in three variables. The Poisson structure
= { , } on C3 , introduced in (9.19), given by

264

9 Poisson Structures in Dimensions Two and Three

:=

,
x y z y z x z x y

(9.39)

admits as a Casimir, hence the singular affine surface C3 , given by

= 0, is a (singular) Poisson surface.
The purpose of the present section is to show how these two constructions are related. Namely, we will show that every Poisson surface C2 /G of the first type is
also of the second type , for a polynomial which will be given explicitly (for
each G).
Before doing this, let us recall a few facts about the classification of finite subgroups of SL2 (C) (see [183] for proofs and details). Consider the list of subgroups
Ak , for k  1, Dk for k  4, or E6 , E7 , E8 , whose generators are given in Table 9.4.
Table 9.4 Every finite subgroup of SL2 (C) is conjugated to precisely one
of the subgroups,
given

in terms of generators in the second column of the table, where := e

2 1
5

k1

k4

2 1
k+1

1
k

2 1
k+1

Dk

and := e

Generators of G SL2 (C)

Type of G

Ak

2 1
8

0
e

1
k

0
1

and

1 0

7 7

generators of D4 and 12

E6

0
generators of E6 and

0 7

E7

E8

3 0

and
2
0

1
2 3

4
1
+

4
1

Up to conjugation, every subgroup G of SL2 (C) is conjugated to one of these subgroups A1 , A2 , . . . , E8 . We then say that G is of type A1 , A2 , . . . , E8 . The quotient surface C2 /G is singular at the image in C2 /G of the origin o of C2 , and at

9.2 Poisson Structures in Dimension Three

265

no other point; a singularity obtained in this way is called a Du Val singularity or

Kleinian singularity, depending on the reference. It is a classical result [183, 188]
that the affine variety C2 /G is, as an affine variety, isomorphic to , where is
the polynomial, depending on the type of G, which appears in the second column of
Table 9.5.
Table 9.5 For each of the finite subgroups G of SL2 (C), the quotient surface C2 /G is the zero
locus of a weight homogeneous polynomial, given in the second column of the table. The third
column indicates the weight vector with respect to which each of these polynomials is weight
homogeneous.

Weights

x2 + y2 zk+1

(k + 1, k + 1, 2)

Type of G
Ak

k1

Dk

k  4 x2 + y2 z + zk1 (k 1, k 2, 2)
E6

x 2 + y 3 + z4

(6, 4, 3)

E7

x2 + y3 + yz3

(9, 6, 4)

E8

x 2 + y 3 + z5

(15, 10, 6)

Note that this means that, for each group G which appears in the table, the algebra
of G-invariant polynomials is an algebra with three weight homogeneous generators
P1 , P2 , P3 , and that every polynomial R C[X,Y, Z], satisfying R(P1 , P2 , P3 ) = 0, is a
multiple of . The isomorphism C2 /G  is induced by the map C2 C3 , given
by (P1 , P2 , P3 ), as expressed in the following commutative diagram:
C2

(P1 ,P2 ,P3 )

C2 /G

C3

(9.40)

Recall from Section 5.1.2 that F (C2 )G  F (C2 /G) (since G is a finite group). On
the other hand, since is the affine surface of C3 , defined by the polynomial ,
its algebra of functions F ( ) is given by C[x, y, z]/ . It follows that we have an
algebra isomorphism
F (C2 )G  C[x, y, z]/ .
(9.41)
We show in the following proposition that the isomorphism C2 /G  is actually an isomorphism of Poisson varieties.
Proposition 9.24. Let G be a finite subgroup of SL2 (C) and let { , }C2 /G denote
the Poisson structure on C2 /G, induced by the action of G on C2 . The Poisson sur-

266

9 Poisson Structures in Dimensions Two and Three

face (C2 /G, { , }C2 /G ) is isomorphic, as a Poisson variety, to the Poisson surface
( , { , } ), where is the polynomial, associated to G, as indicated in Table 9.5.
Proof. Consider the isomorphism : C2 /G , given in (9.40). We show that
is a Poisson isomorphism, with respect to the stated Poisson structures (up to
a constant). According to Corollary 6.20, C2 /G has a unique singular point, the
point p(o), where o is the origin of C2 . Since the origin of C3 is clearly a singular
point of , it follows that it is the image of p(o) under and that it is the only
singular point of (the latter fact can also easily be verified by direct computation).
According to the latter corollary, the Poisson structure { , }C2 /G on C2 /G has rank
two at every point of C2 /G, except for the singular point p(o), where its rank is
zero. The Poisson matrix of { , } is given, in terms of the generators x, y and z
of F ( ) as

z
y

0
z
x

0
y
x
The rank of this matrix is two, except at the point(s) of for which

= 0, i.e., at the singular points of . Since the origin of is its only singular
point, the rank of { , } is two at all points, except at the singular point of (where
the rank is zero).
Using the isomorphism : C2 /G , we can transport the Poisson structure
{ , }C2 /G on C2 /G to a Poisson structure on , which we denote by { , } . On the
smooth surface \ {p(o)} both Poisson structures { , } and { , } are of rank 2,
hence according to Proposition 9.19 there exists a nowhere vanishing holomorphic
function on \ {p(o)} such that { , } = { , } . For arbitrary F, G F ( )
such that {F, G} = 0, we have that

{F, G}
{F, G}

so that is actually a rational function on . Since its divisor of zeros and its divisor of poles are both discrete (they contain at most the point p(o)), is constant.
This implies that ( , { , } ) and (C2 /G, { , }C2 /G ) are isomorphic Poisson varieties for some C . In view of Remark 6.19, this constant can be chosen
equal to 1. 

9.3 Notes

267

9.3 Notes
The classification in dimension two given in this chapter follows Monnier [150, 152],
a variant of Arnolds proof [16]. In these references, the proof is more general than
the proof given here, since the case when R is taken as the ground field is also
considered, and with some extra work it is shown that the classification is actually
non-formal, i.e., the formal coordinate transformations can be realized by smooth
(or analytic) local coordinate transformations, when the given Poisson structure is
smooth (or analytic). The question of having a global rather than a local classification in the context of varieties or manifolds remains a real challenge; for an
important contribution in this direction, see [173], in which a classification of topologically stable Poisson structures on real surfaces is given.
The classification of quadratic Poisson structures in dimension three, detailed in
Section 9.2.3 above, has been obtained independently by DufourHaraki [60] and
LiuXu [129]. For the relation between Poisson structures and differential forms, in
the presence of a volume form, see [88].

Chapter 10

R-Brackets and r-Brackets

The theory of integrable systems gave birth to interesting constructions, which yield
new Poisson structures on a given (finite-dimensional) Lie algebra g, upon using
some extra structure on the Lie algebra, roughly speaking a matrix. There are two
distinct formalisms for doing this, depending on whether this matrix is viewed as
a linear map R : g g, in which case R is called an R-matrix, or as an element
r g g, in which case r is called an r-matrix. In their basic form, the new Poisson
structures are LiePoisson structures, so it will be assumed that the reader is familiar
with the basic theory of LiePoisson structures, as developed in Chapter 7.
For a given linear map R : g g, which satisfies a condition which will be explained in detail, a new Lie bracket on g is defined by letting [x, y]R := 12 ([Rx, y] +
[x, Ry]), for all x, y g. The new Lie bracket on g leads to a Poisson structure on g ,
which is referred to as an R-bracket on g . Upon identifying g with g , which is usually done by using a non-degenerate symmetric bilinear form, the R-bracket on g
becomes a LiePoisson structure on g.
A tensor r g g can be viewed as a zero-chain on g, with values in g g, so
its coboundary L0 (r) : g g g admits as transpose a linear map r : g g g .
When r satisfies a condition, which will also be explained in detail, r defines a Lie
algebra structure on g , hence leads directly to a LiePoisson bracket on g, i.e., no
identification of g with g is needed to define this LiePoisson structure on g. This
LiePoisson bracket is called an r-bracket.
Section 10.1 is devoted to the construction of the R-bracket on g and on g , with
special emphasis on the main example, which comes from Lie algebra splittings. In
Section 10.2, we discuss the case of r-brackets and we show how R-brackets and
r-brackets are related. The construction of higher degree brackets, from an R-matrix
or r-matrix, is given in Section 10.3. For the connection with PoissonLie groups,
we refer to Chapter 11.
In this chapter, F is an arbitrary field of characteristic zero, g is a finitedimensional Lie algebra over F and F (g) denotes the algebra of polynomial functions on g, but it may also be taken as the algebra of smooth, respectively holomorphic, functions on g, when F = R, respectively when F = C.
C. Laurent-Gengoux et al., Poisson Structures,
Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften 347,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-31090-4 10, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

269

270

10 R-Brackets and r-Brackets

10.1 Linear R-Brackets

As we have seen in Chapter 7, a Lie algebra structure on a finite-dimensional vector
space leads to a Poisson structure on its dual vector space. We consider in this section Lie algebras which are equipped with a second Lie algebra structure, obtained
from the original one by using an R-matrix, as explained below. In this case, the dual
vector space comes equipped with a second LiePoisson structure, whose properties are in general quite different from the properties of the original LiePoisson
structure.

10.1.1 R-Matrices and the YangBaxter Equation

We first give the general definition of an R-matrix and discuss its relation with the
YangBaxter equation.
Definition 10.1. Let (g, [ , ]) be a Lie algebra and let R : g g be a linear map. If
the skew-symmetric bilinear map [ , ]R : g g g, defined for x, y g by
[x, y]R :=

1
([Rx, y] + [x, Ry]) ,
2

(10.1)

defines a Lie bracket on g, then R is called an R-matrix for g. Then g, equipped with
the two Lie algebra structures [ , ] and [ , ]R , is called a double Lie algebra.
The standard terminology R-matrix and the notation Rx instead of R(x) are used
because one often thinks of R (and also x) as being a matrix.
We show in the following proposition that the conditions which express that a
linear map R : g g is an R-matrix for g, can be rewritten in a symmetric form,
using a bilinear map on g, which depends quadratically on R.
Proposition 10.2. Let (g, [ , ]) be a Lie algebra. A linear map R : g g is an Rmatrix for g if and only if
x, y, z g :

[BR (x, y) , z] +  (x, y, z) = 0 ,

(10.2)

where BR Hom(g g, g) is defined, for x, y g, by

BR (x, y) := [Rx, Ry] R ([Rx, y] + [x, Ry]) .
Proof. For x, y, z g, we have
4 [[x, y]R , z]R +  (x, y, z)
= 2 [[Rx, y] + [x, Ry] , z]R +  (x, y, z)
= [R ([Rx, y] + [x, Ry]) , z] + [[Rx, y] + [x, Ry] , Rz] +  (x, y, z)
= [R ([Rx, y] + [x, Ry]) , z] + [[Ry, z] , Rx] + [[z, Rx] , Ry] +  (x, y, z)

(10.3)

10.1 Linear R-Brackets

271

= [R ([Rx, y] + [x, Ry]) [Rx, Ry] , z] +  (x, y, z) ,

where we have used the Jacobi identity for [ , ] in the last step. This shows that the

Jacobi identity for [ , ]R is equivalent to (10.2). 
It follows from the proposition that, if there exists a constant c F such that
BR (x, y) = c [x, y] for all x, y g, then R is an R-matrix for g. Given c F, the
equation
x, y g : BR (x, y) = c [x, y] ,
(10.4)
viewed as an equation in R, is called the modified YangBaxter equation. When g is
a complex (respectively real) Lie algebra and c
= 0, then a rescaling of R in (10.4)
yields c = 1 (respectively c = 1). When c = 0, one speaks of the YangBaxter
equation. Sometimes one adds the adjective classical, to distinguish these equations
from the quantum YangBaxter equation. We warn the reader that the terminology YangBaxter equation, with or without adjectives, is used for many equations
which are closely related to, but not equivalent to, the above YangBaxter equation
(see [108]).
Given a Lie algebra (g, [ , ]), a linear map T : g g is called an intertwining
operator of g if T [x, y] = [T x, y] = [x, Ty], for all x, y g, where we have written T x
as a shorthand for T (x). An intertwining operator of g can be used to construct a
new R-matrix for g, starting from a given R-matrix for g, as given in the following
proposition.
Proposition 10.3. Let (g, [ , ]) be a Lie algebra and let R be an R-matrix for g. If
T : g g is an intertwining operator of g, then the linear map R T is an R-matrix
for g.
Proof. Suppose that R is an R-matrix for g and that T is an intertwining operator
of g. According to Proposition 10.2, we need to show that
[BR (T x, Ty) , z] +  (x, y, z) = 0 ,

(10.5)

for all x, y, z g, where we have used that BRT (x, y) = BR (T x, Ty), which is valid
because T is an intertwining operator of g. If T is invertible, then (10.5) is equivalent to
(10.6)
T [BR (T x, Ty) , z] +  (x, y, z) = 0 ,
which holds for all x, y, z g, because T is an intertwining operator of g and in view
of (10.2). If T is not invertible, pick an arbitrary F and replace in (10.6) T by
T + 1g . The identity
(T + 1g ) [BR (T x + x, Ty + y) , z] +  (x, y, z) = 0

(10.7)

holds because T + 1g is also an intertwining operator. Since (10.7) is a cubic polynomial in and since it holds for all F, all of its coefficients as a polynomial
in are equal to zero. This gives the following equations:

272

10 R-Brackets and r-Brackets

[BR (x, y), z] +  (x, y, z) = 0 ,

[BR (T x, y) + BR (x, Ty), z] + T [BR (x, y), z] +  (x, y, z) = 0 ,
[BR (T x, Ty), z] + T ([BR (T x, y) + BR (x, Ty), z])+  (x, y, z) = 0 ,
T [BR (T x, Ty), z] +  (x, y, z) = 0 .
In view of the first line, the second line becomes
[BR (T x, y) + BR (x, Ty), z] +  (x, y, z) = 0 ;
next, substituting this in the third line yields (10.5).

If T is an intertwining operator of g and R is a solution of the YangBaxter equation, then the R-matrix R T is also a solution of the YangBaxter equation, since
BRT (x, y) = BR (T x, Ty) for all x, y g. However, the corresponding property for
solutions of the modified YangBaxter equation does not hold in general.

10.1.2 R-Matrices and Lie Algebra Splittings

The main, and historically first, example of an R-matrix comes from a Lie algebra
splitting. If (g, [ , ]) is a Lie algebra and g is written as a vector space direct sum
g = g+ g of two Lie subalgebras g+ and g of g, then g+ g is called a Lie
algebra splitting. It leads to two projections P+ : g g+ and P : g g . For
x g, we abbreviate P+ (x) to x+ and P (x) to x . A Lie algebra splitting leads to
an R-matrix for g, as described by the following proposition.
Proposition 10.4. Let (g, [ , ]) be a Lie algebra and let g = g+ g be a Lie algebra
splitting, with corresponding projections P : g g . The involutive endomorphism
R := P+ P of g is a solution of the modified YangBaxter equation (10.4), with
c = 1, namely
[Rx, Ry] R ([Rx, y] + [x, Ry]) = [x, y] ,
(10.8)
for all x, y g. In particular, R is an R-matrix for g.
Proof. Let g = g+ g be a Lie algebra splitting and let R := P+ P be the difference of the corresponding projection maps. For x, y g, we have
[Rx, Ry] + [x, y] = 2([x+ , y+ ] + [x , y ]) ,
while
R([Rx, y] + [x, Ry]) = R(2 [x+ , y+ ] 2 [x , y ]) = 2([x+ , y+ ] + [x , y ]) ,
where we have used in the last step that g+ and g are Lie subalgebras of g. This
proves that R satisfies (10.8). 

10.1 Linear R-Brackets

273

Notice that, when R = P+ P comes from a Lie algebra splitting, then an alternative formula for the R-bracket [ , ]R is given, for x, y g, by
[x, y]R = [x+ , y+ ] [x , y ] .

(10.9)

This elementary fact has important consequences, as we will see in the next section. Notice that (10.9) can be used to give an elementary direct proof of the Jacobi
identity for [ , ]R , without using Propositions 10.2 and 10.4.
Remark 10.5. More generally, suppose that g = g+ g0 g is a vector space
decomposition of a Lie algebra g, where g+ and g are Lie subalgebras, g0 is
abelian and is contained in the normalizer of g+ and of g , i.e., [g0 , g ] g . Let
R End(g) be defined for x g by Rx := x+ x , where x+ , x0 and x stand for
the projections of x on g+ , g0 and g respectively. Then one finds, as in the proof of
Proposition 10.4, that
[Rx, Ry] + [x, y] = 2 [x+ , y+ ] + 2 [x , y ] + [x0 , y] + [x, y0 ]
= R([Rx, y] + [x, Ry]) ,
for all x, y g. It follows that, as in the case of a Lie algebra splitting, R is a solution
of the modified YangBaxter equation (10.4), with c = 1.

10.1.3 Linear R-Brackets on g and on g

If we assume that the Lie algebra (g, [ , ]) is finite-dimensional, every R-matrix for g
leads to a LiePoisson structure on g , called an R-bracket; the trivial case R = 1g
is usually excluded, because it corresponds to the canonical LiePoisson structure
on g . According to (7.5), it is given for all F, G F (g ) at g by
 
 
{F, G}R ( ) := , d F, d G R

 


1  
, R d F , d G + d F, R d G
,
=
2
where we recall that d F is viewed in this formula as an element of g, under the
canonical isomorphism between g and its bidual. Also,  ,  stands for the canonical
pairing between g and g. When R = P+ P comes from a Lie algebra splitting
g = g+ g , this formula can, according to (10.9), also be written as


 
  

 
 
{F, G}R ( ) = , d F + , d G + , d F , d G . (10.10)
Upon using, as in Section 7.2, a non-degenerate symmetric bilinear form  |  on g,
we can transfer the R-bracket to g, which leads according to (7.10) for a general
R-matrix R to

274

10 R-Brackets and r-Brackets

{F, G}R,g (x) =

1
x | [R (x F) , x G] + [x F, R (x G)] ,
2

for F, G F (g) and x g. When R comes from a Lie algebra splitting g = g+ g ,

this bracket becomes
  

 
{F, G}R,g (x) = x | (x F)+ , (x G)+ x | (x F) , (x G) , (10.11)
for F, G F (g) and x g.
An important property of the latter R-bracket is that it restricts to two natural

subspaces of g, namely the orthogonal complement g

+ of g+ , respectively g of g ,
with respect to  |  (see (7.13)). It is given in the following proposition.
Proposition 10.6. Let (g, [ , ]) be a finite-dimensional Lie algebra, equipped with
a non-degenerate symmetric bilinear form  | , and let R be the R-matrix for g,
associated with a Lie algebra splitting g = g+ g . Then the orthogonal comple
ments g
+ and g are Poisson submanifolds of (g, { , }R,g ). Anexplicit formula for

the restricted Poisson bracket on g

is given, for F, G F g at x g , by


 
 
{F, G} (x) = x | x F + , x G + ,
(10.12)
where F and G are arbitrary extensions of F and G to g. An analogous formula
holds for the restricted Poisson bracket on g
+.
Proof. It is clear from formula (10.9) for the R-bracket which comes from a Lie
algebra splitting that [g+ , g]R g+ and that [g , g]R g . Therefore, g+ and g
are both Lie ideals of (g, [ , ]R ) and we may conclude, according to Proposition 7.5,

that g
+ and g are both Poisson submanifolds of (g, { , }R,g ). Equation (10.12)
follows at once upon combining Eqs. (7.14) and (10.11). 

We finish this section by giving two simple, but important, examples of R-brackets.
Example 10.7. Consider the Lie algebra splitting of g := gld (F), given by
g = d d< = g+ g ,
where g+ := d (respectively g := d< ) denotes the Lie algebra of upper triangular matrices (respectively of strictly lower triangular matrices). Letting x | y :=
 < 
= d , the vector space of all lower triangular
Trace(xy), we have that g
= d
matrices in g. If F is a linear function on g, then x F = F is independent of x g
and it follows from (7.12) that it is given by F | y = F(y), for all y g. Denoting
by xi j the linear function which picks the element (i, j) of a matrix, it follows that
xi j = E ji , the matrix whose only non-zero entry is a 1 at position ( j, i). According
to (10.12), the Poisson bracket on d is therefore given by




xi j , xk (x) = x | [E ji , Ek ] ,
where j  i and   k.

10.2 Linear r-Brackets

275

This example is easily generalized to arbitrary semi-simple Lie algebras: upon

choosing a Cartan subalgebra h, such a Lie algebra g can be decomposed as
g = n h n+ , where each one of the four subspaces n and b := n h is
a Lie subalgebra of g. Thus, g = b+ n is a Lie algebra splitting. With respect to
the Killing form, n
= b and we have on the latter vector space a linear Poisson
structure.
Example 10.8. Another natural Lie algebra splitting of gld (F) is given by gld (F) =
d g , where g stands for the Lie subalgebra of skew-symmetric matrices. Using again x | y := Trace(xy), we have that g
is the vector space of all symmetric
d d matrices, which inherits a Poisson structure from the Lie algebra splitting.

10.2 Linear r-Brackets

In the previous section, we have seen that a linear map R : g g leads, under certain
conditions, to a new LiePoisson structure on g , and hence on g, when g and
g have been identified. In the present section, we describe a similar construction,
starting from an element r g g, which gives, under certain conditions, directly a
LiePoisson structure on g.

10.2.1 Coboundary Lie Bialgebras and r-Matrices

Let r be an element of g g, where (g, [ , ]) is a finite-dimensional Lie algebra.
In this section, we explain how there is naturally associated with r a linear map
g g g, whose transpose defines, under some conditions, a Lie algebra structure
[ , ]r : g g g . To do this, we need a natural representation of g on the tensor
algebra T g of g and we need to make explicit the Lie algebra cohomology of g,
with values in this representation; see Section A.1 in Appendix A and Section 4.1.1
for the basic definitions of tensor algebra, respectively of Lie algebra cohomology.
A natural representation of a Lie algebra g on its tensor algebra T g is obtained
by extending, for every x g, the linear map adx : g g to a (graded) derivation (of
degree zero) of T g. Explicitly, for a monomial y1 y2 y p T g,
p

adx (y1 y2 y p ) := y1 [x, yi ] y p .

(10.13)

i=1

The Jacobi identity for [ , ] implies that the linear map ad : g T g T g, defined
by (10.13), is a representation of g on T g. Combined with the natural projection
map T g g, we obtain the adjoint representation of g on g which, as we have
seen in Section 5.1.3, can be written in terms of the algebraic Schouten bracket:
adx Y = [[x,Y ]] for all x g and all Y g. Elements Y of T g or of g for which

276

10 R-Brackets and r-Brackets

adx Y = 0, for all x g, are called ad-invariant; for example, elements of degree one
are ad-invariant if and only if they belong to the center of g.
It is clear from (10.13) that adx can be restricted to g g, which yields a representation of g on g g. It allows us to consider, for p N, the vector space
C p (g) := Hom( p g, g g), of skew-symmetric p-linear maps on g, with values in
the representation space g g. According to Section 4.1.1, C (g) carries a coboundary operator L : C (g) C+1 (g). Applied to r g g  C0 (g), we obtain a linear
map r := L0 (r) : g g g, which is given by

r (x) = adx r ,
for all x g. The transpose to r is a linear map r : g g  (g g) g , which
we view as a bilinear map g g g , still denoted by r . Explicitly,


r ( , ), x = ( )(adx r)
(10.14)
for all x g and , g . We will be interested in the case in which the bilinear
map r defines a Lie algebra structure on g .
Definition 10.9. Let (g, [ , ]) be a finite-dimensional Lie algebra. A bivector r
g g is called an r-matrix for g if the transpose r of r = L0 (r) : g g g is a
Lie bracket on g . In this case, r leads to a Lie bracket on g , denoted by [ , ]r , and
defined by1
[ , ]r , x :=  , adx r
(10.15)
for all , g and x g. This bracket is called the Lie bracket, associated with r,
and (g, [ , ], [ , ]r ) is called a coboundary Lie bialgebra.
As the terminology suggests, coboundary Lie bialgebras are a particular case of
Lie bialgebras, but we will only consider this more general class when we discuss
PoissonLie groups, see Chapter 11.
We will give necessary and sufficient conditions on r gg so that (g, [ , ], [ , ]r )
is a coboundary Lie bialgebra. Our proof will be based on the following proposition.
Proposition 10.10. Let : V V V be a linear map, where V is a finitedimensional vector space. Denote by : V +1V the extension of to a
graded derivation of V of degree 1 and let  : V V V denote the transpose map to . Then  satisfies the Jacobi identity (so that  defines a Lie algebra
structure on V ) if and only if = 0.
Proof. Recall from Section A.5 in Appendix A, in particular Example A.3, that
extends uniquely to a derivation of V of degree 1, where the derivation property
means that
1 We use here and below the natural pairing  ,  between p g and p g, introduced in (5.10).
When p = 2, it is given, for all 1 , 2 g and for all x1 , x2 g, by 1 2 , x1 x2  =
1 (x1 )2 (x2 ) 1 (x2 )2 (x1 ).

10.2 Linear r-Brackets

277

(X Y ) = (X) Y + (1) p X (Y ) ,

(10.16)

V .

and Y
It follows from (10.16) that = 0 if and only if
for X
( (v)) = 0 for all v V . Now, for all , , V ,
pV



() 
( (v)), = (v),  ( ) +  ( , , )




= v,   ( ) +  ( , , ) ,
so that = 0 if and only if  satisfies the Jacobi identity. Step () requires a
proof. Let X 2V , which we suppose to be of the form X = v w, with v, w V
(in general, an element of 2V is a linear combination of such monomials). In view
of the graded derivation property (10.16) we have, for all , , V , that


(X),
=  (v) w (w) v, 
=  (v),  w,   (w),  v,  +  ( , , )




= v,  ( ) w,  w,  ( ) v,  +  ( , , )


= v w,  ( ) +  ( , , )


= X,  ( ) +  ( , , ) .
This proves ().

We are now ready to give necessary and sufficient conditions on r, implying that
(g, [ , ], [ , ]r ) is a coboundary Lie bialgebra. They will be expressed in terms of
the algebraic Schouten bracket [[ , ]] on g (see Section 3.3.3). We denote for s
g g by s+ (respectively s ) its symmetric (respectively skew-symmetric) part. For
example, if x, y g, then (x y) = x y, viewed as an element of 2 g.
Proposition 10.11. Let (g, [ , ]) be a finite-dimensional Lie algebra and let r be an
element of g g. Then r is an r-matrix for g if and only if r satisfies the following
two conditions:
(1)
(2)

r+ is ad-invariant;
[[r , r ]] is ad-invariant.

In this case, the Lie bracket associated with r is given by


[ , ]r , x = , adx r ,

(10.17)

for all , g and x g.

Proof. Let , g and let x g. Then


r ( , ) + r ( , ), x = ( )(adx r) + ( )(adx r) = 2( )(adx r+ ) ,
(10.18)

278

10 R-Brackets and r-Brackets

where we have used that (adx r) = adx r ; to verify the latter, write r as a sum of
elements of the form y z z y. It follows from (10.18) that r is skew-symmetric
if and only if r+ is ad-invariant.
Suppose now that r+ is ad-invariant. Then r (x) = adx r = adx r = r (x) for
all x g, so that r depends only on a := r . Thus we are given a skew-symmetric
element a g g and we wish to prove that the Jacobi identity for a is equivalent
to the ad-invariance of [[a, a]]. In view of Proposition 10.10, it suffices to show that
the ad-invariance of [[a, a]] is equivalent to a a = 0 (on g; equivalently, on g).
Combining (10.13) and (3.46), we find that

a (x) = adx a = [[x, a]] = [[a, x]] ,

for all x g. Since a and [[a, ]] are both graded derivations of degree 1 of g, it
follows that a (X) = [[a, X]], for all X g. Therefore, a a = 0 if and only if
[[a, [[a, x]]]] = 0, for all x g. In view of the graded Jacobi identity for [[ , ]],
[[x, [[a, a]]]] + [[a, [[a, x]]]] [[a, [[x, a]]]] = 0 ,
so that [[a, [[a, x]]]] = 0, for all x g, is equivalent to [[x, [[a, a]]]] = 0, for all x g,
which is precisely the ad-invariance of [[a, a]]. 

The simplest way to satisfy both conditions in Proposition 10.11 is to demand that
r is skew-symmetric and satisfies [[r, r]] = 0.

10.2.2 Linear r-Brackets on g

Suppose that r g g is an r-matrix for a finite-dimensional Lie algebra (g, [ , ]).
Recall from Definition 10.9 and Proposition 10.11 that this means that the bilinear
map, defined for x g and , g by


[ , ]r , x :=  , adx r = , adx r ,
(10.19)
defines a Lie algebra structure on g . Then g inherits a linear Poisson structure { , }r
from [ , ]r , since g  (g ) is then the dual of a Lie algebra. According to (7.4), the
Poisson bracket of two functions F, G F (g) is given by


{F, G}r (x) = [dx F, dx G]r , x = dx F dx G, adx r ,
(10.20)
for all x g. This leads to the following proposition.
Proposition 10.12. Let (g, [ , ]) be a finite-dimensional Lie algebra and let r be an
r-matrix for g. Let (e1 , . . . , ed ) be a basis for g and let (1 , . . . , d ) be the dual basis.
The Poisson matrix of { , }r at x g, with respect to the coordinates 1 , . . . , d , is
the matrix of adx r in the basis (e1 , . . . , ed ).

10.2 Linear r-Brackets

279

Proof. By definition, the matrix of adx r g g in the basis (e1 , . . . , ed ) is the

skew-symmetric matrix (ai j )1i, jd , defined by
adx r =

ai j ei e j .

1i< jd

Combined with (10.20), this means that the coefficients of the matrix can be computed by



ai j = i j , adx r = i , j r (x) ,
as was to be shown. 


A compact formula for the collection of Poisson brackets i , j r can be given
when g is the Lie algebra of an associative algebra (or is a subalgebra of such a Lie
algebra2 ). To show this, let us assume that we have an associative product on g and
that [x, y] = xy yx for all x, y g. Then


adx r = [[x, r ]] = 1 x + x 1, r ,
where the latter bracket stands for the commutator in g g. Then




, r (x) = 1 x + x 1, r ,

(10.21)

where the left-hand side is the bivector, defined by





, r (x) :=
i , j r (x) ei e j .
1i< jd

In this formula, (e1 , . . . , ed ) is a basis of g and (1 , . . . , d ) is its dual basis. Equation (10.21) is known as the first Russian formula.
The first Russian formula is very useful for explicit computations, in particular
when g is realized as a Lie subalgebra of glN (F)  MatN (F). Then this formula
can be thought of as an equality of matrices of size N 2 . Indeed, there is a standard
algebra isomorphism between MatN (F) MatN (F) and MatN 2 (F); to describe it,
we use the classical elementary matrices Ei j , whose only non-zero entry is a 1 at
position (i, j), but we use the convention that numbering starts from zero, in order
to simplify the formula. Then the N 2 elements Ei j with 0  i, j < N form a basis
of MatN (F) and the N 4 elements Ei j Ek , with 0  i, j, k,  < N are a basis of
MatN (F) MatN (F). The isomorphism MatN (F) MatN (F) MatN 2 (F) is given
by mapping Ei j Ek to EiN+k, jN+ . It is an isomorphism of associative algebras,
since
(Ei j Ek )(Ei j Ek  ) = j,i ,k Ei j Ek ,
while
2

EiN+k, jN+ Ei N+k , j N+ = j,i ,k EiN+k, j N+ .

Since g is finite-dimensional, g is isomorphic to a subalgebra of glN (F), for some N, which is the
Lie algebra of the associative algebra Matn (F) of square matrices of size N.

280

10 R-Brackets and r-Brackets

10.2.3 From r-Matrices to R-Matrices

In this section, we show how R-matrices and r-matrices on a finite-dimensional
quadratic Lie algebra g are related. Denoting the bilinear form of g by  | , we
have an isomorphism : g g , defined by  (x), y := x | y, for all x, y g. This
leads also to an isomorphism

1g : g g g g  End(g) ,
which allows us to associate with every element of g g a linear map g g. We
recall that, for a given linear map R : g g, we denote its adjoint with respect to
 |  by R . In formulas, this means that
Rx | y = x | R y ,
for all x, y g. If R = R (respectively R = R), then R is said to be symmetric
(respectively skew-symmetric). Obviously, R can be decomposed uniquely as R =
R+ + R , where R+ is symmetric and R is skew-symmetric.
Proposition 10.13. Let (g, [ , ]) be a finite-dimensional quadratic Lie algebra and
let : g g be the isomorphism which is induced by the bilinear form on g. Let
r g g and R g g  End(g) be two elements related to each other by
R = 4( 1g )(r)

(10.22)

(or, equivalently, r = 14 ( 1 1g )(R)). Then, R is a skew-symmetric R-matrix for g

if and only if r is a skew-symmetric r-matrix for g. In this case, : (g, [ , ]R )
(g , [ , ]r ) is a Lie algebra isomorphism, where [ , ]R is the Lie bracket on g, associated with R, and [ , ]r the Lie bracket on g , associated with r.
Proof. We decompose r = s t , which we write in this proof as s t in
order to simplify the formulas: in the sequel of the proof, a sum over is implicit
in all formulas which contain . Using this notation, it follows from (10.22) that
Rx = 4 s | xt for x g. It implies that R x = 4 t | x s and hence that r is skewsymmetric if and only if R = R, i.e., R is also skew-symmetric. Let us suppose
that R (and hence r) is skew-symmetric. We show that

([x, y]R ) = [ (x), (y)]r ,

(10.23)

for all x, y g, which is, in view of the definition (10.1) of [ , ]R , equivalent to

showing that, for all x, y, z g,
1
[Rx, y] + [x, Ry] | z = [ (x), (y)]r , z .
2

(10.24)

With the above formulas for R, the left-hand side in (10.24) can be written as

10.2 Linear r-Brackets

281

2 s | x [t , y] + t | y [s , x] | z = 2(s | x [t , y] | z + t | y [s , x] | z) ,

(10.25)
while the right-hand side in (10.24) is given, in view of (10.19), by


[ (x), (y)]r , z = (x) (y), adz r
=  (x) (y), [z, s ] t + s [z,t ]
= x | [z, s ] y |t  + x | s  y | [z,t ]
y | [z, s ] x |t  y | s  x | [z,t ] ,
which is the same as (10.25), because  |  is ad-invariant and r is skew-symmetric.
This proves (10.23), which yields at the same time that [ , ]R is a Lie bracket if and
only if [ , ]r is a Lie bracket, and that is then an isomorphism of Lie algebras. This
completes the proof, since saying that [ , ]R (respectively [ , ]r ) is a Lie bracket is
tantamount to saying that R is an R-matrix (respectively r is an r-matrix). 

We leave it as an exercise for the reader to check that, under the assumptions of
Proposition 10.13, the operator BR , defined in (10.3), is expressible in terms of the
bracket [[r , r ]], defined in (3.46), as


z | BR (x, y) = (x) (y) (z), [[r , r ]] ,
for all x, y, z g. It implies that [[r , r ]] = 0 if and only if BR (x, y) = 0 for all x, y g,
i.e., if and only if R is a solution of the YangBaxter equation.
Example 10.14. Let (g, [ , ]) be a finite-dimensional Lie algebra, equipped with a
non-degenerate symmetric bilinear form  | . Suppose that g = g+ g is a Lie
algebra splitting, where each of the factors is isotropic: g+ | g+  = g | g  = {0} .
Let R be the linear endomorphism of g, given by R := P+ P , where P+ and P are
the projections onto g+ and g respectively. According to Proposition 10.4, R is an
R-matrix. For x g, we denote x+ := P+ (x) and x := P (x). Then the Lie bracket
associated with R is given, for all x, y g, by
[x, y]R = [x+ , y+ ] [x , y ] .
Since g+ and g are isotropic, R is skew-symmetric. Let (1 , . . . , d ) be a basis
a (unique) basis (e1 , . . . , ed ) of g which is dual to it with respect
of g+ . There exists

to  | , i.e., ei | j = i, j for i, j = 1, . . . , d; indeed, both g+ and g are isotropic
and  |  is non-degenerate. The endomorphism R can be described, for all x g, by
d

i=1

i=1

R(x) = ei | x i i | x ei ,
so that R = di=1 (ei ) i di=1 (i ) ei , as an element of g g. It follows that
the r-matrix r := 14 ( 1 1g )(R), associated with R, is given by

282

10 R-Brackets and r-Brackets

r=

1 d
e i i .
2 i=1

(10.26)

Example 10.15. The above example can be easily generalized to the case of a decomposition g = g+ g0 g , as in Remark 10.5. It is assumed, as in the cited
remark, that g+ and g are Lie subalgebras of g and that g0 is abelian and is contained in the normalizer of g+ and of g . Moreover, it is assumed that g comes
equipped with a non-degenerate symmetric bilinear form  |  with respect to which
both g+ and g are isotropic and orthogonal to g0 . Recall that the endomorphism R
of g, defined for x g by Rx := x+ x , where x+ , x0 and x stand for the projections of x on g+ , g0 and g respectively, is a solution of the modified YangBaxter
equation (10.4), with c = 1. In view of the above assumptions,
Rx | y = x+ x | y = x+ | y  x | y+  = x | y y+  = x | Ry ,
for all x, y g, so that R is skew-symmetric. Let (1 , . . . , d ) be a basis of g+ . There
exists in view of the above assumptions a (unique) basis (e1 , . . . , ed ) of g which
is dual to it with respect to  | ; a basis of g0 is not needed in the formulas which
follow. As in the previous example, R and the corresponding r are explicitly given by
R=

i=1

i=1

(ei ) i (i ) ei ,

1 d
r = e i i .
2 i=1
Example 10.16. Starting from a particular case of Example 10.15, we construct an
R-matrix for sud and we compute the corresponding r-matrix. We consider sld (C)
decomposed as sld (C) = g+ g0 g , where g+ (respectively g ) consists of the
strictly upper (respectively lower) triangular matrices in sld (C) and g0 consists of
the diagonal matrices in sld (C). Viewed as a real vector space, sld (C) contains


sud := x sld (C) | x = x
as a Lie subalgebra. Consider on sld (C) the R-matrixassociated to the above decomposition, given in Example 10.15 and let R := 2 1R, which is an R-matrix
for sld (C), because R is a multiple of R. Notice that R leaves sud invariant, since

 = 0, which in turns yields 1Rx+ 1(Rx) = 0.

x+x = 0 implies that x+ +x
It follows that R can be restricted to sud and is an R-matrix for sud . We consider the symmetric bilinear form on sud , given by (x, y)  x | y := (Trace(xy)).
It is non-degenerate, hence induces an isomorphism between sud and its dual,
and R is skew-symmetric with respect to  | . Define, for all 1  i < j  d,
the skew-symmetric matrices Ai j := 12 (Ei j E ji ), the symmetric matrices Si j :=

1 (Ei j
2

+ E ji ) and the diagonal matrices Hi := 1

(Eii Ei+1,i+1 ). These matri2
ces form a basis of sud , with the set of all Si j and Ak forming an orthogonal set,

10.3 R-Brackets and r-Brackets of Higher Degree

283




with Si j | Si j = Ai j | Ai j = 1. The restriction of R to sud vanishes on diagonal
matrices, and satisfies
R (Ai j ) = 2Si j and R (Si j ) = 2Ai j ,
so that it is given by
R = 2

(Si j ) Ai j 2

1i< jd

(Ai j ) Si j .

1i< jd

As a consequence, the corresponding r-matrix r is given by

r =

Si j Ai j .

1i< jd

10.3 R-Brackets and r-Brackets of Higher Degree

In this section we show that, under some assumptions, an R-matrix leads not only
to a linear Poisson structure (see Section 10.1), but also to a quadratic and a cubic
Poisson structure. For each of these Poisson structures, the finite-dimensional Lie
algebra g, which underlies the construction, is assumed to be the Lie algebra of an
associative algebra: we suppose that we have an associative product on g and the Lie
bracket on g is defined, for all x, y g, by [x, y] := xy yx. It is moreover assumed
that g comes equipped with a non-degenerate symmetric bilinear map  | , which
satisfies, for all x, y, z g,
xy | z = x | yz .
(10.27)
Notice that this property implies that  |  is ad-invariant.
Example 10.17. The key example which the reader should keep in mind is that of
g := gld (F), which is the Lie algebra of Matd (F), the associative algebra of d d
matrices with coefficients in F. The symmetric bilinear form  | , which is defined
by x | y := Trace(xy), for all x, y g, satisfies (10.27).
We start with the construction of the quadratic R-bracket.
Proposition 10.18. Let (g, [ , ]) be a finite-dimensional Lie algebra, associated
with an associative algebra, equipped with a non-degenerate symmetric bilinear
map  | , which satisfies xy | z = x | yz, for all x, y, z g. Let R : g g be an arbitrary linear map. If R and R are solutions of the modified YangBaxter equation
(10.4), with the same constant, then the bivector field on g, defined for F, G F (g)
and x g by
{F, G}Q
R (x) :=

1
2

[x, x F] | R(x x G + x G x)

12 [x, x G] | R(x x F + x F x) ,

(10.28)

284

10 R-Brackets and r-Brackets

is a quadratic Poisson structure on g. If H is an Ad-invariant function on g, then its

Hamiltonian vector field with respect to this Poisson structure is given by
x = [R(x x H), x] .

(10.29)

Proof. It is clear that { , }Q

R , as defined by (10.28), is a quadratic skew-symmetric
biderivation of F (g), i.e., it defines a bivector field on g. We need to show that
{ , }Q
R satisfies the Jacobi identity, which amounts to verifying that, if F1 , F2 and F3
are linear functions on g, then for all x g,

Q
{F1 , F2 }Q
,
F
(x)+  (1, 2, 3) = 0 .
3
R
R

(10.30)

In order to organize this verification, it is useful to write R = R+ + R , where R+

is symmetric and R is skew-symmetric. Since (10.28) depends linearly on R, we
have that { , }Q
R = { , }+ + { , } , where { , }+ and { , } are the bivector fields,
defined as in (10.28), but using R instead of R. Since R+ = R+ and R = R ,
these two bivector fields can be written as
{F, G}+ (x) = R+ (x x F) | x G x R+ (x F x) | x x G ,
{F, G} (x) = R (x F x) | x G x R (x x F) | x x G ,

(10.31)

for all F, G F (g). For the linear functions Fi (i = 1, 2, 3), their gradient x Fi g is
independent of x; we therefore simply denote x Fi by fi . When computing (10.30),
we will need x {F1 , F2 }+ and x {F1 , F2 } . Since {F1 , F2 }+ and {F1 , F2 } depend
quadratically on x, these gradients are easily computed from (10.31), giving
x {F1 , F2 }+ = R+ (x f1 ) f2 + f1 R+ ( f2 x) f2 R+ ( f1 x) R+ (x f2 ) f1 ,
x {F1 , F2 } = R ( f1 x) f2 R ( f2 x) f1 + f1 R (x f2 ) f2 R (x f1 ) .

(10.32)

Using in two subsequent steps that R is skew-symmetric and then that R satisfies
the modified YangBaxter equation, we compute


{F1 , F2 } , F3 (x)+  (1, 2, 3)
= [R (x f1 ), R (x f2 )] | x f3  [R ( f1 x), R ( f2 x)] | f3 x +  (1, 2, 3)



= BR (x f1 , x f2 ) | x f3 BR ( f1 x, f2 x) | f3 x
= c [x f1 , x f2 ] | x f3  + c [ f1 x, f2 x] | f3 x
= 0,
which shows that { , } is a (quadratic) Poisson structure. In particular, when
we write (10.30) in terms of R+ and R , only three terms survive: the Jacobiator
of { , }+ ,

10.3 R-Brackets and r-Brackets of Higher Degree

285



{F1 , F2 }+ , F3 + +  (1, 2, 3)
= [R+ ( f1 x), R+ ( f2 x)] | x f3  [R+ (x f1 ), R+ (x f2 )] | f3 x +  (1, 2, 3) ,
(10.33)
and the following two other terms:




{F1 , F2 }+ , F3 + {F1 , F2 } , F3 + +  (1, 2, 3)




(10.34)
= 2 R+ [x f1 , x f2 ]R | f3 x 2 R+ [ f1 x, f2 x]R | x f3 +  (1, 2, 3) ,
where the Lie bracket [ , ]R is defined as in (10.1), using R instead of R: for
x, y g,
1
[x, y]R := ([R x, y] + [x, R y]) .
2
Clearly, (10.33) and (10.34) sum up to zero (which yields (10.30)), if
1
R+ : (g, [ , ]R ) (g, [ , ])
2
is a homomorphism of Lie algebras. Written out, this means that it suffices to prove
that
[R+ x, R+ y] R+ [R x, y] R+ [x, R y] = 0 ,
(10.35)
for all x, y g. We define a linear map BR : g g g by requiring that for all
x, y, z g,
BR (x, y) | z = x | BR (y, z) .
(10.36)
Explicitly, BR is given, for x, y g, by
BR (x, y) = R [Rx, y] R [x, R y] [Rx, R y] .
Notice that
BR (y, x) BR (x, y)
= 2([R+ x, R+ y] [R x, R y] R [R x, y] R [x, R y]) ,
so that

1
1
BR (x, y) + BR (y, x) BR (x, y)
2
2
= [R+ x, R+ y] R+ [R x, y] R+ [x, R y] ,

(10.37)

which is the left-hand side of (10.35). Since R is a solution of the modified Yang
Baxter equation (with constant c), we have that BR (x, y) = c [x, y], for all x, y g.
But R is also a solution of the modified YangBaxter equation (with the same constant c) which, combined with (10.36) yields that BR (x, y) = c [x, y], for all x, y g.
Substituted in (10.37), this yields (10.35). Thus, (10.33) and (10.34) sum up to zero,
which proves (10.30), hence { , }Q
R is a (quadratic) Poisson structure.

286

10 R-Brackets and r-Brackets

Finally, let H be an Ad-invariant function on g. We show that its Hamiltonian

vector field is given by the Lax equation (10.29). To do this, recall from Section 5.1.4 that the Ad-invariance of H implies that [x H, x] = 0 for all x g, hence
that 12 (xx H + x Hx) = xx H. Therefore, if F F (g) and x g, then
1
[x, x F] | R(x x H + x H x)
2
= [x, x F] | R(x x H) = x F | [R(x x H), x]
= dx F, [R(x x H), x] ,

dx F, (XH )x  = {F, H}Q

R (x) =

which proves (10.29).

If, in addition to the hypotheses of Proposition 10.18, R is assumed to be skewsymmetric, then the formula (10.28) for the quadratic bracket takes the simpler form
{F, G}Q
R (x) = R(x F x) | x G x R(x x F) | x x G ,

(10.38)

for all F, G F (g). In the particular case where R comes from an r-matrix r g g,
as explained in Section 10.2.3, this formula takes a particularly simple form. In
order to establish it, we decompose r = s t and use, as in the proof of
Proposition 10.13, the convention that a sum over is implicit in all formulas which
contain . Recall that with this notation,
Rx | y = 4 s | x t | y ,

(10.39)

for all x, y g. For F, G F (g), the bracket (10.38) can be rewritten, using (10.39),
as
{F, G}Q
R (x) = 4 s | x F x t | x G x 4 s | x x F t | x x G
= 4 x F | xs  x G | xt  4 x F | s x x G |t x
= 4 dx F, xs  dx G, xt  4 dx F, s x dx G,t x
= 2 dx F dx G, xs xt s x t x
= 2 dx F dx G, [x x, s t ]



= 2 dx F dx G, x x, r .
We choose a basis (e1 , . . . , ed ) of g, with dual basis (1 , . . . , d ) of g . Then
Q
Q




i , j R (x) = 2 i j , [x x, r ] , so that i , j R (x) is twice the coefficient
of ei e j in [x x, r ]. It follows that, if we define


Q
r

(x) :=

1i< jd

i , j

Q
R

(x) ei e j ,

then we find the following compact formula


Q


, r (x) = 2 x x, r ,

(10.40)

10.3 R-Brackets and r-Brackets of Higher Degree

287

which is known as the second Russian formula. As in the case of the first Russian
formula, this formula can be thought of in terms of matrices in MatN 2 (F), upon using
the standard algebra isomorphism between MatN (F) MatN (F) and MatN 2 (F).
For the cubic R-bracket, the context is the same as in the case of the quadratic
R-bracket, but the assumptions are weaker.
Proposition 10.19. Let (g, [ , ]) be a finite-dimensional Lie algebra, associated
with an associative algebra, equipped with a non-degenerate symmetric bilinear
map  | , which satisfies xy | z = x | yz, for all x, y, z g. Suppose that R : g g
is a linear map, which is a solution of the modified YangBaxter equation (10.4).
The bivector field on g, defined for F, G F (g) and x g by
{F, G}CR (x) := [x, x F] | R(x x G x) [x, x G] | R(x x F x) ,

(10.41)

is a cubic Poisson structure on g. If H is an Ad-invariant function on g, then its

Hamiltonian vector field with respect to this Poisson structure is given by
x = [R(xx H x), x] .
Proof. The proposition can be proved in the same way as in the case of the quadratic
R-bracket (Proposition 10.18). Actually, the proof of the Jacobi identity for { , }CR
requires less computation, as one does not need to split up R into its symmetric
and skew-symmetric parts and as the formula for the cubic bracket (10.41) has only
half as many terms as the formula for the quadratic bracket (10.28). For linear functions F1 , F2 , F3 F (g), whose gradients (at any point) are denoted by f1 , f2 , f3 , first
compute from (10.41) that at x g one has
x {F1 , F2 }CR = R [x, f1 ] x f2 + f2 xR [x, f1 ] + [ f1 , R(x f2 x)] ( f1 f2 ) ,
which yields, with some extra work,


C
{F1 , F2 }CR , F3 +  (1, 2, 3)
R

 




= x, x {F1 , F2 }CR | R(x f3 x) [x, f3 ] | R xx {F1 , F2 }CR x

+  (1, 2, 3)
= [x, f1 ] | BR (x f2 x, x f3 x) +  (1, 2, 3)
= c [x, f1 ] | [x f2 x, x f3 x] +  (1, 2, 3)
= 0.

This completes the proof.

To finish this section, we show how the linear, quadratic and cubic R-brackets are
related. The Lie algebra g is, as above, the Lie algebra of an associative algebra,
with unit e. On g, we can therefore consider the vector fields V0 , V1 and V2 , given at
all x g by

288

10 R-Brackets and r-Brackets

(V0 )x := e ,

(V1 )x := x ,

(V2 )x := x2 .

For a linear function F on g, this means that

(V0 )x [F] = F(e) ,

(V1 )x [F] = F(x) ,

(V2 )x [F] = F(x2 ) .

for every x g. In particular, V1 is the Euler vector field, which was defined in
Section 8.1.2. For i = 0, 1, 2, we write Li for the Lie derivative with respect to Vi .
Proposition 10.20. Let (g, [ , ]) be the Lie algebra of an associative algebra, with
unit e, which is equipped with a non-degenerate symmetric bilinear map  | , which
satisfies xy | z = x | yz, for all x, y, z g. Let R be a solution of the modified Yang
Baxter equation, with constant c F, and suppose that its skew-symmetric part R
is also a solution of the modified YangBaxter equation, with the same constant c.
Then the linear, quadratic and cubic Poisson structures on g, associated with R,
C
namely { , }R,g , { , }Q
R and { , }R , are related by Lie derivatives, as indicated in
the following commutative diagram:
{ , }R,g

L2

{ , }Q
R

L2

L1

L0

{ , }CR
L1

{ , }R,g

1L
2 0

{ , }Q
R

1L
2 0

L2

0
(10.42)

{ , }CR

Moreover, for a fixed such R, the three Poisson structures { , }R,g , { , }Q

R and
C
{ , }R are compatible.
Proof. Since V1 is the Euler vector field, the Lie derivatives of the linear, quadratic
and cubic structures with respect to V1 give a multiple of these Poisson structures, up
to a constant, which is respectively 1, 0 and 1 (see Proposition 8.4). This yields the
two vertical arrows in the diagram. For each of the Lie derivatives L0 and L2 , the
computation is very similar, so we will only do it for one of them, namely we show
that L2 { , }R,g = { , }Q
R . Let F1 , F2 be linear functions on g and let f 1 := F1
and f2 := F2 , as before. According to the formula (3.7) for the Lie derivative of a
biderivation (p = 2), we need to show that


{F1 , F2 }Q
(10.43)
R = V2 {F1 , F2 }R,g + {V2 [F1 ], F2 }R,g + {F1 , V2 [F2 ]}R,g .
To do this, first notice that for a linear function F on g, one has x F | y

 = F(y),
independently of x g (so we write f for x F) and V2 [F](x) = F(x2 ) = f | x2 . It
follows that, for all x, y g,
x (V2 [F]) | y =

d
F((x + ty)2 ) = F(xy) + F(yx) = x f + f x | y .
dt |t=0

10.4 Notes

289

Therefore, for all linear functions F on g, we have

x (V2 [F]) = x f + f x .
One computes similarly that x (V1 [F]) = f and that x (V0 [F]) = 0, but these formulas are only needed for the verification of the other cases. Since {F1 , F2 }R,g is a
linear function on g, the right-hand side of (10.43), evaluated at x, is given by


x2 | [ f1 , f2 ]R + x | [x (V2 [F1 ]), f2 ]R  + x | [ f1 , x (V2 [F2 ])]R 


= x2 | [ f1 , f2 ]R + x | [x f1 + f1 x, f2 ]R  + x | [ f1 , x f2 + f2 x]R 
1
1
= [x, f1 ] | R(x f2 + f2 x) [x, f2 ] | R(x f1 + f1 x) ,
2
2
which is precisely {F1 , F2 }Q
R (see (10.28)).
The compatibility of the three Poisson structures follows easily from the relations
in the diagram (10.42) and the properties of the Schouten bracket. Recall from Section 3.3 that, in terms of the Schouten bracket, two Poisson structures and  are
compatible if [ ,  ]S = 0, while the Lie derivative with respect to a vector field V
is expressed as LV = [V , ]S . Clearly, [LV , ]S = [[V , ]S , ]S = 0, since [, ]S
is a coboundary operator (since is a Poisson structure, see Section 4.1.2). Thus,
Q
on the one hand, { , }R,g and { , }Q
R are compatible, on the other hand, { , }R and
{ , }CR are compatible. In order to see that3 { , }R,g and { , }CR are also compatible,
let us denote the three Poisson structures by R , RQ and RC and compute, using the
graded Jacobi identity for the Schouten bracket (Proposition 3.7),
 
 



R , RC S = R , V2 , RQ
= V2 , RQ , R
RQ , [R , V2 ]S = 0 ,
S S

S S

where we used in the last step that RQ and R are compatible, and that [V2 , R ]S =

RQ (which is a Poisson structure!). 

10.4 Notes
R-matrices and r-matrices have their origins in the theory of integrable systems,
but also play a fundamental role in the theory of quantum groups. They first appeared in the contexts of the AdlerKostantSymes theorem, exhibiting the Lie algebraic structures which underlie the integrability of both the Toda lattices and the
Kortewegde Vries equation, see Adler [2].
The term quantum group is a generic name which is used for several types
of non-commutative algebras, usually Hopf algebras, i.e., algebras (rather than
groups!) endowed with an algebra structure on the dual. Quantum groups are in
3

In general, the notion is compatible with is not transitive.

290

10 R-Brackets and r-Brackets

general constructed from solutions of the quantum YangBaxter equation, just as

PoissonLie groups are constructed from solutions of the modified classical Yang
Baxter equation. These constructions are related, since a solution of the Yang
Baxter equation admits an r-matrix as its first order term, while PoissonLie groups
appear as limits of quantum groups. For the theory of quantum groups, we refer to
the classical books of Kassel [103] or Majid [142].
The notion of an r-matrix has been generalized to the general context of Lie
algebroids. The resulting object is called a (classical) dynamical r-matrix; it depends
on parameters, turning some of the conditions which it has to satisfy into differential
equations. See EtingofVarchenko [69, 70] and LiuXu [130].

Chapter 11

PoissonLie Groups

A PoissonLie group (G, ) is a Lie group G which is equipped with a Poisson

structure . The Poisson structure is demanded to be compatible with the group
structure, in the sense that one requires the product map G G G to be a morphism of Poisson manifolds, where G G is equipped with the product Poisson
structure.
To a Lie group G there corresponds a Lie algebra g, which is the tangent space
to G at e, where the Lie bracket [ , ]g on g is inherited from the Lie bracket on the
space of (left-invariant) vector fields on G. If, in addition, G comes equipped with a
Poisson structure, the Lie algebra g inherits the structure of a Lie coalgebra, which
amounts to a Lie algebra structure [ , ]g on the dual vector space g . In the case
of a PoissonLie group (G, ), the fact that the multiplication in G and the Poisson
structure on G are compatible, implies a compatibility between the two Lie brackets
[ , ]g and [ , ]g : the transpose to [ , ]g is a derivation of the Lie bracket [ , ]g .
Formalizing this property leads to the notion of a Lie bialgebra.
Thus, to every PoissonLie group, there corresponds a Lie bialgebra. Moreover,
to every homomorphism of PoissonLie groups there naturally corresponds a homomorphism of Lie bialgebras, hence the correspondence between PoissonLie groups
and Lie bialgebras is functorial. Most importantly, the converse also holds. As we
know from Lies third theorem, every finite-dimensional Lie algebra is the Lie algebra of some Lie group, which can be chosen to be connected and simply connected.
This Lie group can be made into a PoissonLie group if the Lie algebra is a Lie
bialgebra.
PoissonLie groups are introduced in Section 11.1, while their infinitesimal
analogs, Lie bialgebras, are introduced in Section 11.2. The above correspondence
between Lie bialgebras and PoissonLie groups is discussed in Section 11.3. Using dressing actions, we study the symplectic leaves of PoissonLie groups in Section 11.4.
All Lie groups in this chapter are real (F = R) or complex (F = C).

C. Laurent-Gengoux et al., Poisson Structures,

Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften 347,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-31090-4 11, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

291

292

11 PoissonLie Groups

11.1 Multiplicative Poisson Structures and PoissonLie Groups

A Poisson structure on a Lie group G makes G into a Poisson manifold. For reasons
which will be given later in this chapter, one demands the following compatibility
relation between the Poisson structure on G and the group structure of G.
Definition 11.1. A Poisson structure on a (real or complex) Lie group G is said
to be multiplicative if the product map : G G G is a Poisson map, where
G G is endowed with the product Poisson structure. The pair (G, ) is then called
a PoissonLie group.
A map : G H between two PoissonLie groups (G, ) and (H,  ) is called
a PoissonLie group homomorphism if it is both a Poisson map and a group homomorphism.

11.1.1 The Condition of Multiplicativity

We give in the following proposition two useful characterizations of the multiplicativity of a Poisson structure on a Lie group. Recall that for g G the maps of left
and right translation Lg and Rg in G are defined by Lg (h) := gh and Rg (h) := hg, for
all h G.
Proposition 11.2. Let G be a Lie group. For a Poisson structure on G, the following three conditions are equivalent:
(i)
(ii)

is multiplicative;
For all g, h G:
gh = 2 (Tg Rh ) g + 2 (Th Lg ) h ;

(iii)

(11.1)

The map : G 2 g, which is defined for all g G by

(g) := 2 (Tg Rg1 ) g ,

(11.2)

is a cocycle of G, with respect to the adjoint representation of G on 2 g, i.e.,

(gh) = (g) + Adg (h) ,

(11.3)

for all g, h G.
Proof. We first prove that (i) and (ii) are equivalent, which amounts to proving that
: G G G is a Poisson map if and only if (11.1) holds for all g, h G. Let us
denote the product Poisson structure on G G by ; according to (2.11), the value
of at (g, h) G G is given by the bivector

(g,h) = 2 (Tg h ) g + 2 (Th g ) h ,

(11.4)

11.1 Multiplicative Poisson Structures and PoissonLie Groups

293

where h and g are the inclusions of G into G G given by h : g  (g, h) and

g : h  (g, h) respectively. According to (1.32), is a Poisson map if and only if

gh = 2 (T(g,h) ) (g,h) ,

(11.5)

for all g, h G. According to (11.4), and using the identities h = Rh and

g = Lg , the right-hand side of (11.5) is given by
2 (T(g,h) ) (g,h) = 2 (T(g,h) ) (2 (Tg h ) g ) + 2 (T(g,h) ) (2 (Th g ) h )
= 2 (Tg ( h )) g + 2 (Th ( g )) h
= 2 (Tg Rh ) g + 2 (Th Lg ) h ,
which is precisely the right-hand side of (11.1). This proves that (i) and (ii) are
equivalent.
In order to show that (ii) and (iii) are equivalent, we fix g, h G and we apply
the isomorphism 2 (Tgh R(gh)1 ) to both sides of (11.1), giving
2 (Tgh R(gh)1 ) gh
= 2 (Tgh R(gh)1 ) 2 (Tg Rh ) g + 2 (Tgh R(gh)1 ) 2 (Th Lg ) h ,
and we show that the latter equation is, term by term, equation (11.3). For the first
two terms, this follows from the definition of and from the identity
R(gh)1 Rh = Rg1 , namely
2 (Tgh R(gh)1 ) gh = (gh) ,
2 (Tgh R(gh)1 )(2 (Tg Rh ) g ) = 2 (Tg Rg1 ) g = (g) .
For the third and final term, recall that the map Cg is conjugation by g, so that
Cg = Rg1 Lg , leading to the identity R(gh)1 Lg = Cg Rh1 , which in turn yields
2 (Tgh R(gh)1 )(2 (Th Lg ) h ) = 2 (Th (R(gh)1 Lg )) h
= 2 (Th (Cg Rh1 )) h = 2 (TeCg )(2 (Th Rh1 ) h )
= Adg (h) ,
where we have used in the last step that (TeCg )(x) = Adg x for all x g and g G.
This proves that condition (11.1) is equivalent to condition (11.3).

In item (iii) of Proposition 11.2, we used the term cocycle, which is borrowed from
the terminology used when introducing the concept of cohomology for Lie groups.
We will not develop Lie group cohomology in this book, we rather restrict ourselves
to giving the general definition of a cocycle of a group (strictly speaking a 1-cocycle)
and proving the one result on group cocycles which we will use.

294

11 PoissonLie Groups

Definition 11.3. Let : G V V be a representation of a Lie group G on a finitedimensional vector space V . A cocycle of G in V is a smooth (or holomorphic)
function : G V , satisfying

(gh) = (g) + (g, (h)) ,

(11.6)

for all g, h G.
Proposition 11.4. Let G be a connected Lie group, let : G V V be a representation of G on a finite-dimensional vector space V and let W V be a G-invariant
subspace. Suppose that : G V is a cocycle of G in V .
(1)
(2)

If Te (x) = 0 for all x g, then = 0;

If Te (x) W for all x g, then (g) W for all g G.

Proof. The tangent map of the cocycle relation (11.6) with respect to the variable h
at the point h = e is given by
Tg Te Lg = g Te ,
so that the vanishing of Te implies the vanishing of Tg Te Lg , and therefore
of Tg , for all g G. Since G is assumed to be connected, this implies that is
a constant function. Since (e) = 0, as follows from (11.6), vanishes at each
point, which shows (1). If W is a G-invariant subspace, then we have an induced
representation G V /W V /W and induces a cocycle of G in V /W . In view
of (1), the latter cocycle is zero as soon as its tangent map at e is zero, i.e., as soon

as Te (x) W for all x g, which proves (2).

See [181] for more information on group cohomology.

11.1.2 Basic Properties of PoissonLie Groups

We start with an interesting feature of PoissonLie groups. Let (G, ) be a Poisson
Lie group with Lie algebra g. The Poisson structure vanishes at the unit e of G,
hence leads to a linear Poisson structure on g, i.e., a Lie bracket on g . This structure
will play a mayor role in the sequel of this chapter.
Proposition 11.5. Let (G, ) be a PoissonLie group.
(1)
(2)

(3)

vanishes at e;
The linearized Poisson structure of at e is the linear Poisson structure 1 on
g = Te G, whose value at x g is given by (1 )x = Te (x), where : G 2 g
is the cocycle, defined as in (11.2);
The inverse map inv : G G is an anti-Poisson map.

Proof. Substituting e for g and h in (11.1) amounts to e = e + e , hence e = 0,

which yields (1). According to Proposition 7.22, g = Te G inherits from = { , }

11.1 Multiplicative Poisson Structures and PoissonLie Groups

295

a linear Poisson structure 1 = { , }1 . For functions F, G on g, defined in a neighborhood of the origin o g, the linearized Poisson bracket {F, G}1 and the original
Poisson bracket {F, G} are, according to Proposition 7.22, related for every x g
by1
de {F, G} , x = {de F, de G}1 (x) = de F de G, (1 )x ,
(11.7)
where de F, de G and de {F, G} are viewed as (linear) functions on g = Te G, and (1 )x
is identified with an element of 2 g. Alternatively, in terms of the map : G 2 g
defined in (11.2), the Poisson bracket {F, G} at g G can be written as
 


{F, G} (g) = dg F dg G, g = dg F dg G, 2 (Te Rg ) (g) ,
which yields, upon putting g := exp(tx) and taking the derivative with respect to t
at t = 0,
de {F, G} , x = de F de G, Te (x) ,
(11.8)
where we have used that (e) = 0. Comparing (11.7) with (11.8) leads to the desired
equality
(1 )x = Te (x) ,
(11.9)
proving (2). To say that inv is an anti-Poisson map means that inv : (G, )
(G, ) is a Poisson map: for every g G, 2 (Tg inv) g = g1 . To prove that
the latter holds, let g G, substitute g1 for h in (11.1), and use e = 0, to find that
0 = 2 (Tg Rg1 ) g + 2 (Tg1 Lg ) g1 .
Combined with Tg inv = Te Lg1 Tg Rg1 (see (5.2)), this leads to
2 (Tg inv) g = 2 (Te Lg1 )(2 (Tg Rg1 ) g )
= 2 (Te Lg1 )(2 (Tg1 Lg ) g1 )
= 2 (Tg1 (Lg1 Lg )) g1
= g1 ,
which proves that inv is an anti-Poisson map.

Comparing Definitions 5.32 and 11.1, we see that a Poisson structure on a Lie
group G is multiplicative if and only if left translation L : G G G is a Poisson
action. We show in the following corollary of Proposition 11.2 that this condition
does not imply, in general, that the map Lg (left translation by a given element g G)
is, for every g G, a Poisson map.
Proposition 11.6. Let (G, ) be a PoissonLie group. For every g G, the following
conditions are equivalent:
(i)
(ii)
1

g = 0;
The map Lg : G G, left translation by g, is a Poisson map;

We use here and below the natural pairing  , between p g and p g, introduced in (5.10).

296

(iii)

11 PoissonLie Groups

The map Rg : G G, right translation by g, is a Poisson map.

Proof. For g G, left translation by g is a Poisson map if and only if, for all h G,

gh = 2 (Th Lg ) h .

(11.10)

In view of (11.1), which says that is multiplicative, (11.10) is tantamount to

2 (Tg Rh ) g = 0, which is equivalent to g = 0, because the linear map Tg Rh is
an isomorphism. This proves the equivalence of (i) and (ii). The proof of the equivalence of (i) and (iii) is similar.

11.1.3 PoissonLie Subgroups

We consider in this section the notion of a PoissonLie subgroup of a PoissonLie
group (G, ). Recall that a Lie subgroup of G need not be a closed subset of G and
that there is associated to a map : G 2 g, defined for g G by (g) :=
2 (Tg Rg1 ) g .
Proposition 11.7. Let (G, ) be a PoissonLie group. For a Lie subgroup H of G,
with Lie algebra h, the following conditions are equivalent:
(i)
(ii)

H is a Poisson submanifold of (G, );

For every h H, the bivector (h) belongs to 2 h.

Under these conditions, the pair (H,  ) is a PoissonLie group, where  denotes
the restriction of to H. One then says that H is a PoissonLie subgroup of G.
When H is connected, the conditions (i) and (ii) are also equivalent to the following
condition:
(iii)

For every x h, the bivector Te (x) belongs to 2 h.

Proof. In view of Proposition 2.12, H is a Poisson submanifold of G if and only if

h 2 Th H for every h H. Since 2 Th H = 2 (Te Rh ) (2 h), the equivalence of (i)
and (ii) follows.
Suppose that H is a Poisson submanifold of G and consider the product map
on H. It is the restriction of the product map on G to H, hence it is a Poisson map.
It follows that H itself is also a PoissonLie group.
Suppose now that H is connected. It is clear that (ii) implies (iii). Let us show
the inverse implication. Since : G 2 g is a cocycle for the adjoint representation of G in 2 g, its restriction to H is a cocycle for the adjoint representation of H in 2 g, which admits 2 h 2 g as an H-invariant subspace. By assumption, Te (x) 2 h for all x h. According to Proposition 11.4, this implies

that (h) 2 h for all h H, which is condition (ii).

We show in the following proposition that the datum of a PoissonLie group and of a
PoissonLie subgroup leads, under a topological assumption, to a Poisson structure
on the (left) quotient space.

11.1 Multiplicative Poisson Structures and PoissonLie Groups

297

Proposition 11.8. Let (G, ) be a PoissonLie group and let (H,  ) be a Poisson
Lie subgroup of G. Suppose that H is a closed subgroup of G, so that the left coset
space H \G is a smooth manifold. There exists a unique Poisson structure on H \G,
such that the canonical projection p : G H\G is a Poisson map. Moreover, the
right action of G on H\G is a (right) Poisson action.
Proof. Consider the left action of H on G which is the restriction of the product
map on G. Since H is a Poisson submanifold of G, the product H G is a Poisson
submanifold of G G, hence the left action of H on G is a Poisson action. Since
the quotient space of this action is precisely H\G, according to Proposition 5.33,
the quotient space H\G inherits a unique Poisson structure from (G, ) such that
the canonical projection p : G H\G is a Poisson map. Since the product map
: G G G is a Poisson map, the induced map (H\G) G (H\G) is also a
Poisson map, hence the (right) action of G on H\G is a Poisson action.

11.1.4 Linear Multiplicative Poisson Structures

Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space (over R or C). Addition of vectors in V
defines a group structure on V which makes V into an abelian Lie group. Using
Proposition 11.2, we characterize multiplicative Poisson structures on V as linear
Poisson structures on V .
Proposition 11.9. Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space. A Poisson structure
on the Lie group (V, +) is multiplicative if and only if it is a linear Poisson structure.
Proof. Recall that a Poisson structure = { , } on V is linear if and only if the
Poisson bracket of every pair of linear functions on V is a linear function on V (see
Section 7.1). By continuity, a real smooth (or complex holomorphic) function H
on V , which satisfies
H(v + w) = H(v) + H(w) ,
for all v, w V , is a linear function on V . Therefore, is a linear Poisson structure
on V , if and only if
{F, G} (v + w) = {F, G} (v) + {F, G} (w) ,

(11.11)

for all v, w V and for all linear functions F, G V . We have on the one hand that
{F, G} (v + w) = dv+w F dv+w G, v+w

(11.12)

and on the other hand, since F and F Rw differ by a constant (namely F(w)), that
{F, G} (v) = dv F dv G, v
= dv (F Rw ) dv (G Rw ), v


= dv+w F dv+w G, 2 (Tv Rw ) v .

(11.13)

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11 PoissonLie Groups

Substituting (11.12) and (11.13) in (11.11) we conclude that is a linear Poisson

structure on V if and only if

v+w = 2 (Tv Rw ) v + 2 (Tw Lv ) w ,

for all v, w V . Since the latter condition is precisely condition (ii) in Proposition 11.2, this shows that is linear if and only if is multiplicative.

Since the dual of a finite-dimensional Lie algebra admits a canonical linear Poisson structure (the LiePoisson structure), it follows from the above proposition that
the dual of a finite-dimensional Lie algebra is in a canonical way a PoissonLie
group.

11.1.5 Coboundary PoissonLie Groups

An important class of PoissonLie groups are those constructed out of r-matrices.
Recall from Proposition 10.11 that if g is a Lie algebra and r is an r-matrix for g,
then its skew-symmetric part a := r 2 g is such that [[a, a]] is ad-invariant. We
show in the following proposition that this condition admits a natural connection
with PoissonLie groups. Recall from Section 5.1 that if G is a Lie group with

Lie algebra g, we denote for x g by

x (respectively
x ) the right-invariant (respectively left-invariant) vector field on G, whose value at e is x, and similarly for
elements X g.
Proposition 11.10. Let G be a Lie group with Lie algebra (g, [ , ]) and let a 2 g.

On G we consider the bivector field , defined by :=

a
a . The pair (G, ) is
a PoissonLie group if and only if [[a, a]] is an Ad-invariant element. In particular,
if G is connected, then (G, ) is a PoissonLie group if and only if a is an r-matrix.
Proof. It follows immediately from Proposition 5.2 that the Schouten bracket of

:=
a
a with itself is given by

a
a ,
a
a ]S
[ , ]S = [

= [ a , a ]S [ a ,
a ]S [
a ,
a ]S + [
a ,
a ]S

= [ a , a ]S + [ a , a ]S

= [[a, a]] [[a, a]] .
In view of item (3) in Proposition 5.3, we can conclude that , as defined above, is
a Poisson structure on G if and only if [[a, a]] is Ad-invariant. It remains to be shown
that is moreover multiplicative. The map : G 2 g associated with as in
item (iii) in Proposition 11.2 (i.e. defined, for all g G, by (g) := 2 (Tg Rg1 ) g )
is given by
(g) = Adg a a ,
(11.14)

11.1 Multiplicative Poisson Structures and PoissonLie Groups

299

as one computes using the following description of the bivector field

a
a at a
point g G:
g = 2 (Te Lg )a 2 (Te Rg )a .
For every g, h G, we can therefore check that

(gh) = Adgh a a = Adgh a Adg a + Adg a a = (g) + Adg (h) , (11.15)

which, in view of the equivalence of items (i) and (iii) in Proposition 11.2, implies
that is multiplicative. Therefore, (G, ) is a PoissonLie group if and only if
[[a, a]] is Ad-invariant. If G is connected, then this is, according to Proposition 5.3,
equivalent to [[a, a]] being ad-invariant, i.e., to a being an r-matrix.

The previous proposition leads to the following definition.

Definition 11.11. A PoissonLie group (G, ) is said to be a coboundary Poisson

a
a for some element a 2 g.
Lie group if is of the form =
For a given coboundary PoissonLie group (G, ) there may exist two different

a1
a1 and =
a2
a2 . However, in such a
elements a1 , a2 2 g such that =
case, we have

a
1 a2 = a 1 a2
so that a1 and a2 differ by an Ad-invariant element in 2 g. Therefore, for a
given coboundary PoissonLie group, the element in 2 g which appears in Definition 11.11 is defined only up to addition of an Ad-invariant element in 2 g.
Remark 11.12. The expression (11.14) of in terms of a, namely that (g) =
Adg a a for all g G, has the following cohomological interpretation: it says that
is a 1-coboundary (in fact, of a) for the chain complex which underlies the group
cohomology of G with coefficients in 2 g. It explains the terminology coboundary
PoissonLie group, introduced above. Also, since every 1-coboundary is a cocycle,
the cohomological interpretation of yields an alternative proof of (11.15), which
shows that is a cocycle.

11.1.6 Multiplicative Poisson Structures on Vector Spaces

In this section, we explain how the notion of a multiplicative Poisson structure on
a Lie group G is related to the notion of a multiplicative Poisson structure on a
finite-dimensional vector space V , equipped with a product , a notion which was
introduced in Section 8.2.1. For the present discussion, we will assume that the
product is associative and admits a unit e; we will therefore refer to (V, ) as an
associative algebra with unit. An element v V is said to be invertible if it admits a
right inverse, i.e., there exists w V such that (v, w) = e.
Proposition 11.13. Let (V, ) be a finite-dimensional associative algebra with unit,
and let Vinv denote the set of all invertible elements in V .

300

11 PoissonLie Groups

(1)

Vinv is a (non-empty) Zariski open subset of V and the restriction of to Vinv

defines the structure of a Lie group on Vinv , whose Lie algebra is isomorphic
to V , with Lie bracket given by [x, y] = (x, y) (y, x) for all x, y V ;
If is a multiplicative Poisson structure on (V, ), in the sense of Section 8.2.1, then the restriction  of to Vinv is a multiplicative Poisson structure on the Lie group Vinv , making (Vinv ,  ) into a PoissonLie group;
Let a 2V be a skew-symmetric r-matrix for V . The quadratic bivector
field on V , whose value at x V is given by

(2)

(3)

x := 2 [x x, a]

(11.16)

is a multiplicative Poisson structure on V . The PoissonLie group (Vinv ,  ),

where  denotes the restriction of to Vinv , is the coboundary PoissonLie

a
a )).
group (Vinv , 2(
Proof. Since is assumed to be associative, the invertible elements are precisely the
elements v V for which the linear map Lv : V V , defined by Lv (w) := (v, w),
is an isomorphism, i.e.,
Vinv = {v V | det Lv = 0} .
Since is a bilinear map, v  Lv is a linear map, and hence v  det Lv is a polynomial function on V (it is homogeneous of degree dimV ). It follows that Vinv is a
Zariski open subset of V ; it is non-empty since it contains the unit e of . Defining
Rv : V V by Rv (w) := (w, v), we have that Rv is an isomorphism if and only if Lv
is an isomorphism. Indeed, if Lv is an isomorphism, so that there exists w V with
(v, w) = e, then we have, in view of the associativity of ,

( (w, v), w) = (w, (v, w)) = w ,

so that Ker Rv = {0}, i.e., Rv is an isomorphism (recall that V is finite-dimensional).
Therefore, the invertible elements of (V, ) form a group, with e as unit. As an
open subset of V , the group (Vinv , ) inherits a manifold structure from V ; since
is a bilinear map, it restricts to a smooth map  on Vinv , hence (Vinv ,  ) is a Lie
group. For x, y V  TeV , we need to show that their Lie bracket [x, y] is given by
(x, y) (y, x). Under the canonical isomorphism V  TeV we have, by definition,

[x, y] = [
x ,
y ]e and ( (x, y) (y, x))e = (x, y) (y, x). It therefore suffices to
show that

(11.17)
[
x ,
y ] = (x, y) (y, x) .
Let F : V F be a linear function. For v V we have that
F(v + t (v, x)) F(v)

x [F](v) = xe [F Lv ] = lim
= F( (v, x)),
t0
t

so that
x [F] = F Rx . It follows that

11.1 Multiplicative Poisson Structures and PoissonLie Groups

301

[
x ,
y ] [F] =
x [
y [F]]
y [
x [F]]
= F (Ry Rx Rx Ry )
= F R (x,y) (y,x)

= ( (x, y) (y, x))[F],

for all linear functions F on V , leading to (11.17). This shows (1).
Let be a multiplicative Poisson structure on (V, ). Recall from Section 8.2.1
that this means that the product map is a Poisson map. Since Vinv is an open subset
of V , the restriction  of to Vinv is a Poisson structure and the restriction  of
to Vinv , i.e., the product map of the Lie group (Vinv ,  ), is a Poisson map. This shows
that (Vinv ,  ) is a PoissonLie group, which is the content of (2).
Let a be a skew-symmetric r-matrix for V , which is the Lie algebra of the

a
a ) is
connected Lie group (Vinv , ). According to Proposition 11.10, (Vinv ,
a coboundary PoissonLie group. We show that the quadratic bivector field2
on V , defined by (11.16), takes at every point of Vinv the same value as the bivec

tor field 2(
a
a ). To do this, we identify all tangent spaces to V with V , so that
the derivative of left translation by x Vinv is the linear map Te Lx : V V , given
for z V by Te Lx (z) = xz, since Lx is a linear map. Thus, the left-invariant vector

z x = xz. Similarly
z x = zx. It follows that,
field
z of z V is given at x Vinv , by
2
for a bivector z1 z2 V ,


z1 z2 x = xz1 xz2 ,
z1 z2 x = z1 x z2 x ,
for all x Vinv , in particular

a x
a x = (x x)a a(x x) = [x x, a] .

(11.18)

a
a ) have the same value at every point
This shows our claim. Since and 2(
of Vinv , the restriction of to Vinv is multiplicative, hence itself is multiplicative,
showing (3).

Example 11.14. We show that the bivector field on V = Matd (F), which we discussed in Example 8.22 is associated with an r-matrix, which proves that it is a multiplicative Poisson structure. Let V be equipped with the non-degenerate ad-invariant
bilinear form x | y = Trace(xy). We denote the elementary matrices of V by Ei j ,
and we introduce

 linear coordinates i j on V by defining, for a matrix x Matd (F),
i j (x) := E ji | x , so that i j (x) = xi j , when x is written as (xi j )1i, jd . An arbitrary
matrix can be decomposed as the sum of a strictly upper triangular, a diagonal, and
a strictly lower triangular matrix: this decomposition satisfies the requirements of
Example 10.15 so that
1
(11.19)
r :=
Eab Eba
2 1a<bd
We know from Section 10.3, in particular from the second Russian formula (10.40), that is a
Poisson structure, but this fact is not used in the proof.

302

11 PoissonLie Groups

is an r-matrix on the Lie algebra Matd (F). With the help of this r-matrix, a Poisson structure on Matd (F) can be constructed as in Proposition 11.13. Let us express the coefficients of the Poisson matrix of with respect to the linear coordinates i j . For all i, j, k,  = 1, . . . , d, and all x Matd (F), we find using the explicit
formula (11.19) for r and (11.18) for the corresponding Poisson structure,




i j , k r (x) = 2 i j kl , [x x, r]


= i j k , [x x, Eab Eba ]
a<b



i j k , xEab xEba Eab x Eba x

a<b

( j,b ,a j,a ,b i,a k,b + i,b k,a ) i (x)k j (x)

a<b

= ( j, + i,k ) i (x)k j (x) ,

where i, j is 1 if i > j, is 1 if i < j and is 0 if i = j. It is the quadratic Poisson
structure which we met in Example 8.22.

11.2 Lie Bialgebras

In this section, we consider Lie algebra structures on a finite-dimensional vector
space g, on its dual vector space g and on their product d := g g . We will often
view g and g as subspaces of d, via the natural identifications g  g {0} and
g  {0} g . By a slight abuse of notation, (x, 0) and (0, ) are often abbreviated
to x and . We will make a notational distinction between the three Lie brackets
which will be considered: we will write [ , ]g , [ , ]g , and [ , ]d for the Lie bracket
on g, on g and on d respectively. We will however use the same notation ad for the
coadjoint actions of g on g and of g on g. In view of the definition of the coadjoint
action (see Section 5.1.3),






, [x, y]g = adx , y and
[ , ]g , x = , ad x ,
(11.20)
for all x, y g and for all , g .
We will find it often convenient to view the Lie algebra structure [ , ]g on g as
a structure on g. This is done by taking the transpose of [ , ]g : g g g , which
can be considered as a linear map : g g g. Precisely, is defined by


 , (x) = [ , ]g , x ,
(11.21)
for all x g, and for all , g . We will use the natural bilinear form  | d on d,
defined for all x, y g and for all , g by

11.2 Lie Bialgebras

303

(x, ) | (y, ) d :=  , y +  , x .

(11.22)

It is clear that  | d is symmetric and non-degenerate.

11.2.1 Lie Bialgebras

The following proposition will justify the definition of a Lie bialgebra.
Proposition 11.15. Let g be a finite-dimensional vector space. Suppose that [ , ]g
and [ , ]g are Lie brackets on g and g respectively. On d := g g , consider the
non-degenerate symmetric bilinear form  | d , given by (11.22). Then the following
conditions are equivalent:
(i)

(ii)

There exists a Lie bracket on d, with respect to which  | d is ad-invariant,

such that the natural inclusions g  d and g  d are Lie algebra homomorphisms;
The skew-symmetric bilinear map [ , ]d : d d d given, for all x, y g and
for all , g , by
[(x, ), (y, )]d := ([x, y]g +ad yad x, [ , ]g +adx ady ) , (11.23)

(iii)

satisfies the Jacobi identity;

The transpose : g 2 g of the Lie bracket [ , ]g : 2 g g , defined by
(11.21), satisfies for x, y g the derivation property


[x, y]g = [[ (x), y]] + [[x, (y)]] .
(11.24)

If any of these three equivalent conditions is satisfied, the Lie bracket on d, which
satisfies the conditions demanded in (i), is unique and is given by (11.23); moreover,
it makes (d,  | d ) into a quadratic Lie algebra.
The proof of this proposition will make use of the following lemma.
Lemma 11.16. Let g be a finite-dimensional vector space, equipped with Lie brackets [ , ]g and [ , ]g on g, respectively on g . The skew-symmetric bilinear map
[ , ]d : d d d, defined in (11.23), has the following properties:
(1)

For all d1 , d2 , d3 d:
d1 | [d2 , d3 ]d d = [d1 , d2 ]d | d3 d ;

(2)

(11.25)

[ , ]d satisfies the Jacobi identity if and only if for all x, y g  d, and for all
, g  d:
[x, y]d | [ , ]d d + [y, ]d | [x, ]d d + [ , x]d | [y, ]d d = 0 .

(11.26)

Proof. Let di = (xi , i ), for i = 1, 2, 3. In view of the definition of [ , ]d , of  | d

and of the coadjoint actions of g on g and of g on g,

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11 PoissonLie Groups

d1 | [d2 , d3 ]d d = 1 , [x2 , x3 ]g



+ [1 , 2 ]g , x3 +  (1, 2, 3) .

Since the latter expression is invariant with respect to a cyclic permutation of the
indices 1, 2, 3, it follows that
d1 | [d2 , d3 ]d d = d3 | [d1 , d2 ]d d = [d1 , d2 ]d | d3 d ,
which proves (1). Let denote the 4-linear map from d to itself, defined for all
d1 , . . . , d4 d by

(d1 , d2 , d3 , d4 ) := Jd (d1 , d2 , d3 ) | d4 d ,
where Jd is the Jacobiator of [ , ]d , i.e., Jd is given, for all d1 , d2 , d3 d, by
Jd (d1 , d2 , d3 ) := [[d1 , d2 ]d , d3 ]d + [[d2 , d3 ]d , d1 ]d + [[d3 , d1 ]d , d2 ]d .

(11.27)

Since Jd = 0 if and only if [ , ]d satisfies the Jacobi identity, and since  | d is

non-degenerate, = 0 if and only if [ , ]d satisfies the Jacobi identity.
In order to prove (2), we therefore only need to show that (11.26) holds for all
x, y g and all , g , if and only if = 0. Since Jd (d1 , d2 , d3 ) = 0 when
d1 , d2 , d3 all belong to g or all belong to g , we have that (d1 , d2 , d3 , d4 ) = 0 when
d1 , d2 , d3 all belong to g or all belong to g , whatever the value of d4 d. The
skew-symmetry of Jd , combined with (11.25), implies that is skew-symmetric.
Therefore, (d1 , d2 , d3 , d4 ) = 0 as soon as at least three of the di all belong to g,
or all belong to g . It follows, since is 4-linear, that = 0 if and only if
(d1 , d2 , d3 , d4 ) = 0, whenever two of the di belong to g and the two other belong
to g ; but that is, in view of (11.25), precisely the condition that (11.26) holds for

all x, y g and all , g . This establishes the proof of (2).

We are now ready to give the proof of Proposition 11.15.
Proof. We first prove that (i) and (ii) are equivalent. Suppose first that (ii) is satisfied. Then the Lie bracket, defined by the explicit formula (11.23) has in view
of (1) in Lemma 11.16 the properties announced in (i). Suppose next that there exists a Lie bracket [ , ] on d, with the properties announced in item (i). We show that
[ , ] = [ , ]d , i.e., [ , ] is given by the explicit formula (11.23). In view of (i), [ , ]
and [ , ]d agree when both arguments are taken either from g or from g , so we only
need to show that
(11.28)
[x, ] = ( ad x, adx ) ,
for all x g and all g . For (z, ) g g , we have in view of (11.25), combined
with the properties of [ , ], assumed in (i), that
[x, ] | (z, ) d = [(x, 0), (0, )] | (z, 0) + (0, ) d




=
[z, x]g , 0 | (0, ) + 0, [ , ]g | (x, 0)
d
d



= , [z, x]g + [ , ]g , x

11.2 Lie Bialgebras

305



= ( ad x, adx ) | (z, ) d .
Since  | d is non-degenerate, this shows (11.28), hence that if there exists a Lie
bracket on d, satisfying (i), then it is given by (11.23). In particular, it shows that (i)
and (ii) are equivalent.
We now prove the equivalence of items (ii) and (iii). In view of item (2) of
Lemma 11.16, we need to show that (11.26) holds for all x, y g, and for all
, g , if and only if (11.24) holds for all x, y g. We claim that, to do this,
it suffices to show that the following formulas hold, for all x, y g, and for all
, g :


 
(11.29)
 , [[ (x), y]] = ady , ad x ady , ad x .
Indeed, using (11.21 ), (11.29) and the definitions of [ , ]d and  | d , we find that


, ([x, y]g ) [[ (x), y]] [[x, (y)]]



 
= [ , ]g , [x, y]g ady , ad x + ady , ad x

 

+ adx , ad y adx , ad y
= [x, y]d | [ , ]d d + [y, ]d | [x, ]d d + [ , x]d | [y, ]d d ,
for all x, y g, and for all , g . In order to show (11.29), use (5.13) and the
derivation property of the coadjoint action of g on 2 g :

 

 , [[ (x), y]] = , ady (x) = ady ( ), (x)


= ady + ady , (x)





= ady , g + , ady g , x

 

= ady , ad x ady , ad x .
This proves (11.29) and hence also the equivalence of (ii) and (iii).

Proposition 11.15 motivates the following definition.

Definition 11.17. Let g be a finite-dimensional vector space, let [ , ]g be a Lie
bracket on g and let [ , ]g be a Lie bracket on g . The triple (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) is
said to be a Lie bialgebra if it satisfies any one of the equivalent conditions given
in Proposition 11.15. In this case, the Lie algebra (d, [ , ]d ), where [ , ]d is the Lie
bracket on d := g g , given in (11.23), is called the double of the Lie bialgebra
(g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ).
Suppose that (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) and (h, [ , ]h , [ , ]h ) are two (finite-dimensional)
Lie bialgebras. A linear map : g h is called a homomorphism of Lie bialgebras
if both : (g, [ , ]g ) (h, [ , ]h ) and its transpose  : (h , [ , ]h ) (g , [ , ]g )
are Lie algebra homomorphisms.

306

11 PoissonLie Groups

Example 11.18. Let (g, [ , ]g ) be a finite-dimensional Lie algebra. When g is

equipped with the trivial Lie bracket ([ , ]g := 0), then the triple (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) is
a Lie biagebra, since item (iii) in Proposition 11.15 is trivially satisfied when = 0.
Dually, let V be any finite-dimensional vector space, whose dual vector space V is
equipped with a Lie bracket [ , ]V . Making V in a trivial way into a Lie algebra by
putting [ , ]V := 0, the triple (V, [ , ]V , [ , ]V ) is a Lie bialgebra.
Example 11.19. Let g be a vector space of dimension two and let [ , ]g and [ , ]g
be Lie brackets on g and on g respectively. The triple (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) is a Lie bialgebra. In view of Example 11.18, this is clear when at least one of the Lie brackets
[ , ]g or [ , ]g is the trivial bracket. Suppose therefore that none of these brackets is
trivial and denote by V , respectively W the image of the maps [ , ]g : 2 g g
and [ , ]g : 2 g g . Both V and W are one-dimensional because g is twodimensional. If W is the annihilator of V , i.e., W,V = 0, there exists a basis (x, y)
of g in which
[x, y]g = x and [x , y ]g = y ,
where (x , y ) is the basis of g which is dual to (x, y). Then (x) = 0 and (y) =
x y and one sees that condition (iii) in Proposition 11.15 is satisfied. Otherwise,
there exists a basis (x, y) of g in which
[x, y]g = x

and

[x , y ]g = x ,

(11.30)

for some F . In this case (x) = x y and (y) = 0, so that we arrive at the
same conclusion.
Remark 11.20. For every , F and every Lie bialgebra (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ), the
triple (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) is a Lie bialgebra. It is clear that it is isomorphic to the
original one if = F , under the isomorphism 1g : g g. However, in general,
it is not the case when = , even if both and are different from 0. For instance,
for two different values of the parameter , the Lie bialgebra structures described
by (11.30) are not isomorphic.

11.2.2 Lie Sub-bialgebras

The notion of a homomorphism of Lie bialgebras, given in Definition 11.17, leads
naturally to the notion of a Lie sub-bialgebra.
Definition 11.21. Let (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) be a finite-dimensional Lie bialgebra. A subspace h of g is called a Lie sub-bialgebra if h admits the structure of a Lie bialgebra,
such that the inclusion h  g is a homomorphism of Lie bialgebras.
It is clear that the Lie bialgebra structure on a Lie subalgebra is completely determined by the Lie bialgebra structure on the ambient Lie bialgebra. The fact that the
transpose of the inclusion map h  g needs to be a Lie algebra homomorphism,
admits a natural reformulation, which leads to the following proposition.

11.2 Lie Bialgebras

307

Proposition 11.22. Let (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) be a finite-dimensional Lie bialgebra. A

subspace h of g is a Lie sub-bialgebra of (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) if and only if the following
two conditions are satisfied:
(1)
(2)

The vector space h is a Lie subalgebra of (g, [ , ]g );

The annihilator h of h is a Lie ideal of (g , [ , ]g ).

Proof. For h a subspace of g, let : h  g denote the inclusion map, with transpose
 : g h . If a Lie sub-bialgebra structure on h exists, making the inclusion map
into a homomorphism of Lie bialgebras, then the Lie bracket on h is the restriction
of the Lie bracket on g (and condition (1) is satisfied); also,  : g h is a Lie
algebra homomorphism, so that its kernel h is a Lie ideal of g (and condition (2)
is satisfied).
Conversely, if the two conditions are satisfied, the Lie brackets on g and on g
induce Lie brackets on h (by restriction) and on h (by taking the quotient with
respect to h ), hence equip h and h with two Lie brackets [ , ]h and [ , ]h . Since
the transpose  of [ , ]h is the restriction of to h, item (iii) in Proposition 11.15
implies that these brackets define a Lie bialgebra structure on h. By construction,
is a homomorphism of Lie bialgebras.

11.2.3 Duality for Lie Bialgebras

We now come to the notion of duality for Lie bialgebras.
Proposition 11.23. Let (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) be a Lie bialgebra, where g is a finitedimensional vector space. The triple (g , [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) is a Lie bialgebra, called the
dual of the Lie bialgebra (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ). The natural isomorphism S : g g
g g, given for all (x, ) g g by S(x, ) := ( , x) is a Lie algebra isomorphism
of the doubles of these two Lie bialgebras.
Proof. In item (i) in Proposition 11.15, the Lie algebras (g, [ , ]g ) and (g , [ , ]g )
play a symmetric role, hence the first part of the proposition is clear. The isomorphism S : g g g g which sends (x, ) to ( , x) is then clearly a Lie algebra isomorphism between the doubles of the Lie bialgebras (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) and
(g , [ , ]g , [ , ]g ), which is the second part of the proposition. Notice that S arises
as the composition of the isomorphism g g  (g g ) , induced by  | d , with
the natural isomorphism (g g )  g g.

It is clear that the dual of the dual of a (finite-dimensional) Lie bialgebra is just the
Lie bialgebra itself. It is also obvious from Definition 11.17 that the transpose of a
homomorphism of Lie bialgebras is a Lie bialgebra homomorphism between their
dual Lie bialgebras. We leave it as an exercise to the reader to show that, if h is a
Lie sub-bialgebra of g, then there exists a (unique) Lie bialgebra structure on the
quotient space g /h such that the projection map g g /h is a Lie bialgebra
homomorphism.

308

11 PoissonLie Groups

11.2.4 Coboundary Lie Bialgebras and r-Matrices

In Section 10.2.1, the notion of a coboundary Lie bialgebra was introduced. As
the terminology suggests, coboundary Lie bialgebras are Lie bialgebras, as we will
see in the next proposition. Recall that, given (g, [ , ]g ) a Lie algebra, an element
r g g is a called an r-matrix when the transpose of the map : x  adx r, which
is a linear map g g g , defines a Lie bracket on g . Recall also that the Lie
bracket on g which is associated to an r-matrix r is denoted by [ , ]r and is explicitly
given by (10.15). The corresponding triple (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]r ) was called a coboundary
Lie bialgebra in Definition 10.9.
Proposition 11.24. Let (g, [ , ]g ) be a Lie algebra, and let r g g be an r-matrix
of g. Then the coboundary Lie bialgebra (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]r ) is a Lie bialgebra.
Proof. Consider the coboundary Lie bialgebra (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]r ), where r is an rmatrix of g. Since both [ , ]g and [ , ]r are Lie brackets, we only need to verify
that condition (iii) in Proposition 11.15 holds, where we recall from (11.21) that
: g g g is the linear map, defined by
 , (x) = [ , ]r , x ,
for all x g and all , g . According to (10.17),


[ , ]r , x = , adx r ,
so that (x) = adx r , where r denotes the skew-symmetric part of r. Using the
fact that ad is a Lie algebra representation of g (on g g),

([x, y]g ) = ad[x,y]g r = adx ady r ady adx r = adx (y) ady (x)
for all x, y g. This proves that condition (iii) in Proposition 11.15 holds, hence that
(g, [ , ]g , [ , ]r ) is a Lie bialgebra.

Not every Lie bialgebra is a coboundary Lie bialgebra. When the Lie algebra g is
abelian, recall from Example 11.18 that (g , [ , ]g = 0, [ , ]g ) is a Lie bialgebra for
every Lie bracket [ , ]g on g . Such a Lie bialgebra cannot be a coboundary Lie
bialgebra, unless [ , ]g is trivial.
We show in the following proposition that the double of a Lie bialgebra is a
coboundary Lie bialgebra. Thus we can embed every Lie bialgebra in a coboundary
Lie bialgebra, a fact which will be useful when we prove, in the next section, that
every Lie bialgebra is the Lie bialgebra of a PoissonLie group.
Proposition 11.25. Let (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) be a finite-dimensional Lie bialgebra. On
its double (d, [ , ]d ), there exists a skew-symmetric r-matrix a 2 d, with corresponding Lie bracket [ , ]a on d , such that (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) is a Lie sub-bialgebra
of (d, [ , ]d , [ , ]a ). In terms of a pair of dual bases (e1 , . . . , ed ) and (1 , . . . , d ) for
g and for g respectively, a is given by a = 12 di=1 ei i .

11.2 Lie Bialgebras

309

Proof. There is a natural Lie algebra splitting of d, given by d = g g, where g and

g have been identified with Lie subalgebras of d via g  g {0} and g  {0} g .
The corresponding R-matrix of d is given by R(x, ) = x, for (x, ) d. It
is skew-symmetric because both g and g are isotropic subspaces of d with respect to the bilinear form  | d (see (11.22)). Using the isomorphism between d
and its dual d , induced by  | d , the R-matrix becomes an element a g g,
which is according to Proposition 10.13 a skew-symmetric r-matrix, whose associated Lie bracket [ , ]a makes (d, [ , ]d , [ , ]a ) into a (coboundary) Lie bialgebra.
As we have seen in Example 10.14, a is given in terms of dual bases (e1 , . . . , ed )
and (1 , . . . , d ) for g and for g respectively, by a = 12 di=1 ei i . We show that
(d, [ , ]d , [ , ]a ) contains (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) as a Lie sub-bialgebra. The natural inclusion : g  g {0} d is, by definition of the bracket on d, a Lie algebra homomorphism (g, [ , ]g ) (d, [ , ]d ). Under the natural identification between d and
g g, the transpose  to is given by  ( , x) = , for ( , x) g g. Therefore,
showing that  is also a Lie algebra homomorphism, amounts to showing that


[( , y), ( , z)]a , (x, 0) = [ , ]g , x ,
for all ( , y), ( , z) g g and for all x g. This is done by explicitly computing
the left-hand side of the latter equation, namely
[( , y), ( , z)]a , (x, 0)


d
1
=
( , y) ( , z), ad(x,0) ei i
2
i=1
1 d
( , y) ( , z), [(x, 0), (ei , 0)]d (0, i ) + (ei , 0) [(x, 0), (0, i )]d
2 i=1

1 d 
= ( , y) ( , z), ([x, ei ]g , 0) (0, i ) + (ei , 0) ( adi x, adx i )
2 i=1




1 d

= , [x, ei ]g i , z , [x, ei ]g i , y
2 i=1







1 d 
 , ei adx i , z , adi x  , ei adx i , y , adi x

2 i=1





1 d 
 , ei , adi x  , ei , adi x

2 i=1


= [ , ]g , x .
=

It follows that  is a Lie algebra homomorphism, so that is a Lie bialgebra homomorphism.

Proposition 11.26. Let (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) be a Lie bialgebra. If (g, [ , ]g ) is semisimple, then (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) is a coboundary Lie bialgebra.

310

11 PoissonLie Groups

Proof. Condition (iii) in Proposition 11.15 means that the map : g 2 g is a 1cocycle in the complex computing the cohomology of the Lie algebra g with values
on 2 g, which is acted upon by adjoint action. According to Whiteheads lemma
(Lemma 4.1), is a coboundary, which, in the present case means that (x) = adx a
for some a 2 g. Since is the transpose of a Lie algebra bracket, a is a (skew

symmetric) r-matrix, hence (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) is a coboundary Lie bialgebra.

11.2.5 Manin Triples

Making abstraction of the structure of the double d := g g of a Lie bialgebra
(g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) leads to the notion of a Manin triple, defined as follows.
Definition 11.27. Let (E, [ , ]) be a finite-dimensional quadratic Lie algebra, whose
bilinear form is denoted by  | . Let V and W be vector subspaces of E. The triple3
((E, [ , ],  | ),V,W ) is said to be a Manin triple if
(1)
(2)
(3)

E = V W ;
V and W are Lie subalgebras of E;
V and W are isotropic with respect to  | .

We show in the following proposition that there is a natural one-to-one correspondence between Manin triples and Lie bialgebras.
Proposition 11.28.
(1)

(2)

Let (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) be a finite-dimensional Lie bialgebra. Define d := g g ,

the double Lie algebra, with Lie bracket [ , ]d and with bilinear form  | d
given by (11.23) and (11.22) respectively. The triple ((d, [ , ]d ,  | d ), g, g )
is a Manin triple.
Conversely, let ((E, [ , ]E ,  | E ),V,W ) be a Manin triple, where E is assumed to be finite-dimensional. Denote by [ , ]V and [ , ]W the restriction
of [ , ]E to V and W respectively, and by ([ , ]W ) the Lie algebra bracket
on V obtained by transporting [ , ]W under the isomorphism : V  W ,
induced by  | E . Then (V, [ , ]V , ([ , ]W )) is a Lie bialgebra.

Proof. Let (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) be a finite-dimensional Lie bialgebra, with double

d := g g . Identify, as before, g and g as Lie subalgebras of d, via the natural
identifications g  g {0} and g  {0} g , so that d = g g . Clearly, both g
and g are isotropic with respect to  | d , so that ((d, [ , ]d ,  | d ), g, g ) is a Manin
triple. For the converse, let ((E, [ , ]E ,  | E ),V,W ) be a Manin triple, with E finitedimensional. Then  | E induces an isomorphism between V and W , so we obtain
a Lie algebra structure on V and on V . In view of (i) in Proposition 11.15 and because (E,  | E ) is quadratic, (V, [ , ]V , ([ , ]W )) is a Lie bialgebra. It is easily
verified that both constructions are inverse to each other.

The triple is usually simply written as (E,V,W ).

11.2 Lie Bialgebras

311

Notice that, inverting the roles of V and W in a Manin triple, corresponds at the
bialgebra level to taking the dual.
Example 11.29. We construct a natural Manin triple which corresponds to Example 10.15. Thus, we assume that (g, [ , ]) is a finite-dimensional Lie algebra and
that g = g+ g0 g is a Lie algebra decomposition, where g+ and g are Lie
subalgebras of g and that g0 is abelian and is contained in the normalizer of g+
and in the normalizer of g . Moreover, it is assumed that g comes equipped with
a non-degenerate symmetric bilinear form  | with respect to which both g+ and
g are isotropic and orthogonal to g0 . Recall that the endomorphism R of g, defined for x g by Rx := x+ x , where x+ , x0 and x stand for the projections
of x on g+ , g0 and g respectively, is a skew-symmetric solution to the modified
YangBaxter equation (10.4), with c = 1, hence leads to a skew-symmetric r-matrix
for g, making (g, [ , ], [ , ]r ) into a Lie bialgebra. Let E := g g, equipped with
the product Lie bracket, denoted by [ , ] , and with the ad-invariant symmetric nondegenerate bilinear form  |  , which is defined, for all x1 , x2 , y2 , y2 g, by
(x1 , y1 ) | (x2 , y2 )  := x1 | x2 y1 | y2 .

(11.31)

Let be the subspace of E, defined by := {(x, x) | x g} and let W denote the

subspace of E, defined by
W := {(x + z, y z) | x g+ , y g and z g0 } .
It is clear that E = W . Moreover, the assumed properties on the factors of g
imply at once that and W are both subalgebras of E and are both isotropic with
respect to  |  . It follows that (E, ,W ) is a Manin triple. In order to show that this
Manin triple corresponds to the coboundary Lie bialgebra (g, [ , ], [ , ]r ) we need to
show that the restriction of [ , ] to , respectively to W , yields the Lie brackets [ , ]
and [ , ]r upon identifying and g, respectively W and g ; the former identification
is done by the diagonal map, which maps x g to (x, x) g g. It is clear that
[ , ] , restricted to , coincides under this identification with [ , ]. Consider the map
: W g, defined for (x + z, y z) W by (x + z, y z) := x y + 2z. It is
the transpose of the isomorphism g W , induced by  |  , composed with the
isomorphism g g, induced by  | . We claim that, under , the Lie algebra
structure on W corresponds to the R-bracket [ , ]R on g, showing our claim, since the
r-bracket on g corresponds to the R-bracket on g under the isomorphism induced
by  | . This follows from the following computation, where we use that both g+
and g are Lie subalgebras of g, that g0 is contained in the normalizer of g+ and
in the normalizer of g , and that g0 is abelian: for all (x + z, y z) W and (x +
z , y z ) W :


(x + z, y z), (x + z , y z ) R


= x y + 2z, x y + 2z R


1 
= ( x + y, x y + 2z + x y + 2z, x + y )
2

312

11 PoissonLie Groups

    

= x, x y, y + x, z + z, x + y, z + z, y



= x + z, x + z y z, y z



= ( x + z, x + z , y z, y z )


= ( (x + z, y z), (x + z , y z ) ) .
Notice that, considering the particular case of g0 = {0}, the constructed Manin triple
corresponds to the case of a Lie algebra splitting (see Example 10.14).
Example 11.30. We also construct the Manin triple which corresponds to Example 10.16. To do this, we consider the complex Lie algebra sld (C) as a quadratic
Lie algebra over R, equipped
with the bilinear form, defined for x, y sld (C) by

x | y := Trace(xy) . We consider two Lie subalgebras: t+ , the space of upper
triangular matrices admitting only real coefficients on the diagonal, and sud . We
have that sld (C) = sud t+ . For all x, y sud ,


Trace(xy) = Trace(xy) = Trace x y = Trace(yx) = Trace(xy) ,

so that x | y = (Trace(xy)) = 0. This shows that sud is isotropic with respect
to  | . For every x, y t+ , it is clear that xy t+ , hence Trace(xy) has vanishing imaginary part and t+ is also isotropic with respect to  | . It follows that
(sld (C), sud , t+ ) is a Manin triple. We show that it is the Manin triple corresponding to the Lie bialgebra discussed in Example 10.16. To do this, recall from the latter
example that we consider on sud the non-degenerate symmetric bilinear form  | ,
defined for x, y sud by x | y := (Trace(xy)). Let : t+ sud be the composition of the isomorphisms t+  sud  sud , wherethe first one is induced by  |
and the second one by  | . Explicitly, (x) = 21 (x + x ), for x t+ , as is computed from x | y =  (x) | y , for all y sud . For x, y t+ , one checks by direct
computation that ([x, y]) = [ (x), (y)]R , which confirms that the Lie bialgebra,
associated to the above Manin triple, is the one from Example 10.16.
We have seen in Proposition 11.25 that the double of a Lie bialgebra is also a Lie
bialgebra. We construct in the following proposition the Manin triple of this double
Lie bialgebra in terms of the Manin triple of the original bialgebra.
Proposition 11.31. Let ((E, [ , ],  | ),V,W ) be a Manin triple, where E is finitedimensional. Let E E be equipped with the product Lie bracket, which we denote
by [ , ] , and with the non-degenerate ad-invariant symmetric bilinear form  |  ,
given for (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) E E by
(x1 , y1 ) | (x2 , y2 )  := x1 | x2 y1 | y2 .

(11.32)

Let
V  := {(u, u) E E | u E} ,
W  := W V .

(11.33)

11.2 Lie Bialgebras

313

Then ((E E, [ , ] ,  |  ),V  ,W  ) is a Manin triple and the Lie bialgebra associated to it is the double of the Lie bialgebra associated to (E,V,W ).
Proof. Let ((E, [ , ],  | ),V,W ) be a Manin triple and let (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) be its
associated Lie bialgebra. According to Proposition 11.28, we may identify (E, [ , ])
with (d = g g , [ , ]d ); under this identification, (V, [ , ]|V ) and (W, [ , ]|W ) are
identified with (g, [ , ]g ) and (g , [ , ]g ) respectively; the inner product  | on
E corresponds to the natural inner product (11.22) on d. According to Proposition 11.25, d is a coboundary Lie bialgebra, where the Lie bracket on d is the
r-bracket a which is associated to the Lie algebra splitting d = g g, i.e., the
Lie algebra splitting E = W V . According to Example 11.29, in the particular
case of g0 = {0}, the Manin triple of such a coboundary Lie algebra is given by
((E E, [ , ] ,  |  ),V  ,W  ), where [ , ] is the product Lie bracket on E E and

where  |  and V  , W  are given by (11.32) and (11.33).

11.2.6 Lie Bialgebras and Poisson Structures

We give in the following proposition a different description of the notion of a Lie
bialgebra, by interpreting one of the Lie algebra structures as a linear Poisson structure: according to Proposition 7.3, to a Lie bracket [ , ]g on g corresponds a linear
Poisson structure on g (and vice versa).
Proposition 11.32. Let (g, [ , ]g ) be a finite-dimensional Lie algebra and let be a
linear Poisson structure on g. Then the following conditions are equivalent:
(i)
(ii)

Denoting by [ , ]g the Lie bracket on g , corresponding to , the triple

(g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) is a Lie bialgebra;
For every x, y g, the bivector x 2 Tx g, considered as an element of 2 g,
satisfies
[x,y]g = adx y ady x .
(11.34)

Proof. Let [ , ]g be the Lie bracket on g which corresponds to the linear Poisson structure = { , } on g. For F, G F (g), their Poisson bracket at x g is,
according to (7.4) and (11.21), given by


{F, G} (x) = [dx F, dx G]g , x = dx F dx G, (x) ,
where we recall that in this formula dx F and dx G are viewed as elements of g . It
follows that (x) = x for every x g, where the latter bivector is considered as an
element of 2 g. The equivalence between (i) and (ii) then follows from item (iii) in
Proposition 11.15 and Definition 11.17.

If (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) and (h, [ , ]h , [ , ]h ) are two finite-dimensional Lie bialgebras,

with corresponding Poisson structures { , }g and { , }h on g and h respectively,
then a linear map : g h is a homomorphism of Lie bialgebras if and only if

314

11 PoissonLie Groups

: (g, [ , ]g ) (h, [ , ]h ) is a homomorphism of Lie algebras and : (g, { , }g )

(h, { , }h ) is a Poisson map. Indeed, the latter condition is equivalent to the fact that
 : (h , [ , ]h ) (g , [ , ]g ) is a Lie algebra homomorphism. It follows that Lie
sub-bialgebras can be characterized as follows:
Proposition 11.33. Let (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) be a Lie bialgebra, and denote by the
linear Poisson structure on g corresponding to [ , ]g . A subspace h g is a Lie
sub-bialgebra if and only if the following two conditions are satisfied:
(1)
(2)

h is a Lie subalgebra of the Lie algebra (g, [ , ]g );

h is a Poisson submanifold of the Poisson manifold (g, ).

11.3 PoissonLie Groups and Lie Bialgebras

In this section, we relate the objects which appeared in the two previous sections,
namely we establish a natural correspondence between PoissonLie groups and
finite-dimensional Lie bialgebras. We first show that the tangent space to the unit
of a PoissonLie group inherits the structure of a Lie bialgebra (Section 11.3.1).
We then show that every finite-dimensional Lie bialgebra is the Lie bialgebra
of a PoissonLie group. This is first done in Section 11.3.2 for coboundary Lie
bialgebras and then in general in Section 11.3.3, using the fact that every finitedimensional Lie bialgebra can be embedded in a coboundary Lie bialgebra (its double, see Proposition 11.25).

11.3.1 The Lie Bialgebra of a PoissonLie Group

Let (G, ) be a PoissonLie group, whose unit is denoted by e. First, since G is a
Lie group, the tangent space g := Te G is equipped with a Lie algebra bracket [ , ]g
(see Theorem 5.1). Second, according to item (1) in Proposition 11.5, the Poisson
structure vanishes at e, leading to a linear Poisson structure 1 on Te G = g (the
linearized Poisson structure, see Section 7.5), hence a Lie bracket [ , ]g on g (see
Proposition 7.3), which we call the linearized bracket of (G, ). We show in the
following proposition that the Lie structures [ , ]g and [ , ]g make g into a Lie bialgebra, so that we can naturally associate to every PoissonLie group a Lie bialgebra.
Proposition 11.34. Let (G, ) be a PoissonLie group, with Lie algebra (g, [ , ]g ),
and with linearized bracket [ , ]g .
(1)
(2)

The triple (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) is a Lie bialgebra;

Let be a PoissonLie group homomorphism from (G, ) to a PoissonLie
group (H,  ), with corresponding Lie bialgebra (h, [ , ]h , [ , ]h ). The tangent map Te of at the unit e of G is a Lie bialgebra homomorphism from
(g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) to (h, [ , ]h , [ , ]h ).

11.3 PoissonLie Groups and Lie Bialgebras

315

Proof. Let (G, ) be a PoissonLie group with Lie algebra (g, [ , ]g ) and let
denote the cocycle G 2 g, defined by (11.2). We show that the cocycle condition (11.3) implies condition (ii) in Proposition 11.32, which guarantees that the
triple (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) is a Lie bialgebra, where [ , ]g denotes the linearized bracket
of (G, ). Consider the identity

(ghg1 ) = (g) + Adg (h) Adghg1 (g) ,

(11.35)

which is valid for all g, h G, as follows from the cocycle condition (11.3), upon
using that (e) = 0. Differentiating (11.35) leads to an identity for the linearized
Poisson bracket 1 , since
(1 )x = Te (x)
(11.36)
for x g (see (2) in Proposition 11.5). In order to obtain this identity, replace h
by exp(ty) in (11.35) and take the derivative at t = 0. In view of (11.36), this leads to
(1 )Adg y = Adg (1 )y adAdg y (g) ,

(11.37)

for all y g and g G. We replace now in (11.37) g by exp(tx) and we take the
derivative at t = 0; we claim that we obtain
(1 )[x,y]g = adx (1 )y ady (1 )x ,

(11.38)

which in view of Proposition 11.32, shows that the triple (g, [ , ]g ), [ , ]g ) is a Lie
bialgebra.
Let us show in detail how (11.38) is obtained from (11.37). Since 1 is a linear
Poisson structure, the map g 2 g, defined by x  (1 )x is a linear map. It follows
that, for every function z : F g,

d 
(1 )z(t) = (1 ) d | z(t) .
dt t=0
dt t=0
Applied to the left-hand side of (11.37), with g = exp(tx), this yields the left-hand
side of (11.38), in view of the definition of ad. Also,

d 
Ad
(1 )y = adx (1 )y ,
dt t=0 exp(tx)
which yields the first term in the right-hand side of (11.37). Finally, since (e) = 0,


d 
d 
ad

(exp(tx))
=
ad
(exp(tx))
y
Adexp(tx) y
dt t=0
dt t=0
= ady Te (x) = ady (1 )x ,
which is the second term in the right-hand side of (11.37). This completes the proof
of (11.38), and hence of item (1).

316

11 PoissonLie Groups

We turn to the proof of (2). Since : G H is a Lie group homomorphism,

the tangent map Te : g h is a Lie algebra homomorphism (Theorem 5.1). Similarly, since : G H is a Poisson map, with vanishing at e and  vanishing at
(e), the linear map Te : g h is a Poisson map (Proposition 7.22). According

to Section 11.2.6, this shows that is a Lie bialgebra homomorphism.

The second item of the previous proposition implies that the Lie bialgebra of a
PoissonLie subgroup of (G, ) is a Lie sub-bialgebra of the bialgebra of (G, ).
This is stated, together with its converse, in the following proposition.
Proposition 11.35. Let (G, ) be a PoissonLie group, whose Lie bialgebra is denoted by (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ). For a connected Lie subgroup H of G, with Lie algebra h,
the following conditions are equivalent:
(i)
(ii)

H is a PoissonLie subgroup of (G, );

h is a Lie sub-bialgebra of (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ).

Assuming that these equivalent conditions hold, denote the Lie brackets of the Lie
bialgebra h by [ , ]h and [ , ]h , and denote the Poisson structure on H, which
makes H into a Poisson submanifold of (G, ), by  . Then (h, [ , ]h , [ , ]h ) is the
Lie bialgebra of (H,  ).
Proof. The implication (i) (ii) follows at once from Proposition 11.34, since
the inclusion map of a PoissonLie subgroup is a PoissonLie group homomorphism. Conversely, assume that h is a Lie sub-bialgebra of the Lie bialgebra
(g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) of (G, ). Then the transpose : g 2 g of [ , ]g maps h to
2 h. According to item (2) in Proposition 11.5 and the proof of Proposition 11.32,
(x) = Te (x) for all x g, where is defined as usual by (11.2). It follows that
Te (x) 2 h for all x h. According to Proposition 11.7, this shows that the connected Lie subgroup H of G is a PoissonLie subgroup. Thus, condition (ii) implies
condition (i).

11.3.2 Coboundary PoissonLie Groups and Lie Bialgebras

We show in this section that the Lie bialgebra of a coboundary PoissonLie group
is a coboundary Lie bialgebra, which justifies why the same adjective coboundary is used for both structures. We also show the following converse: every
finite-dimensional coboundary Lie bialgebra is the Lie bialgebra of a coboundary
PoissonLie group.
We first show that there corresponds to every coboundary PoissonLie group a
coboundary Lie bialgebra. Let (G, ) be a coboundary PoissonLie group. By defi

a
a , where (g, [ , ]) is the Lie algebra
nition, there exists a 2 g such that =
of G. According to Proposition 11.10, [[a, a]] is Ad-invariant, hence is ad-invariant.
Proposition 10.11 implies that a is a skew-symmetric r-matrix, i.e., the associated
bracket [ , ]a is a Lie bracket on g , making (g, [ , ], [ , ]a ) into a coboundary Lie

11.3 PoissonLie Groups and Lie Bialgebras

317

bialgebra (see Definition 10.9). The next proposition shows that this coboundary Lie
bialgebra is the Lie bialgebra of the PoissonLie group (G, ).

a
a
Proposition 11.36. Let (G, ) be a coboundary PoissonLie group, with =
for some r-matrix a 2 g, where (g, [ , ]g ) denotes the Lie algebra of G. The Lie
bialgebra of (G, ) is the coboundary Lie bialgebra (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]a ).
Proof. According to (11.14), the map : G 2 g, defined by g  2 (Tg Rg1 ) g ,
is given by (g) = Adg a a. The tangent map of at e is therefore given by
Te (x) = adx a for all x g. According to item (2) in Proposition 11.5, the linearized
Poisson structure 1 of at the unit e of G is given by (1 )x = Te (x), for all x g,
so that the linearized Poisson structure 1 is given at x g by (1 )x = adx a, whose
transpose is precisely the Lie bracket [ , ]a . This shows that (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]a ) is the

Lie bialgebra of (G, ).

Corollary 11.37. Let (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]a ) be a finite-dimensional coboundary Lie bialgebra. If G is a connected Lie group, with Lie algebra (g, [ , ]g ), then G admits the structure of a coboundary PoissonLie group, whose Lie bialgebra is
(g, [ , ]g , [ , ]a ). In particular, every finite-dimensional coboundary Lie bialgebra
is the Lie bialgebra of a coboundary PoissonLie group.
Proof. We only need to prove the first part of the corollary, since the last statement follows from it at once upon using the fact that every Lie algebra is the Lie
algebra of a connected Lie group (see Theorem 5.1). Let (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]a ) be a finitedimensional coboundary Lie bialgebra, with a 2 g so that [[a, a]] is ad-invariant.
Let G be a connected Lie group whose Lie algebra is g. Since G is assumed to be

connected, [[a, a]] is Ad-invariant. Setting :=

a
a , Propositions 11.10 and 11.36
imply that (G, ) is a PoissonLie group, whose Lie bialgebra is (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]a ), as
was to be shown.

Corollary 11.38. Let (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) be a finite-dimensional Lie bialgebra and

let D be a connected Lie group whose Lie algebra is the double (d, [ , ]d ) of
(g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ). Then D admits a unique Poisson structure D , making (D, D ) into
a coboundary PoissonLie group, whose Lie bialgebra is (d, [ , ]d , [ , ]a ). In terms
of a pair of dual bases (e1 , . . . , ed ) and (1 , . . . , d ) for g and for g respectively, the
skew-symmetric r-matrix a of d is given by a = 12 di=1 ei i .
Proof. According to Proposition 11.25, the double (d, [ , ]d ) is a coboundary Lie
bialgebra; as before, we denote the corresponding Lie structure on d by [ , ]a . If D
is a connected Lie group with Lie algebra (d, [ , ]d ), then D admits, according to
Corollary 11.37, the structure of a coboundary PoissonLie group, whose Lie bialgebra is (d, [ , ]d , [ , ]a ). As we will see in Theorem 11.39, the Poisson structure
on D which integrates the given Lie bialgebra structure is unique.

318

11 PoissonLie Groups

11.3.3 The Integration of Lie Bialgebras

We show in this section that every finite-dimensional Lie bialgebra can be integrated. We mean by this that there exists for every finite-dimensional Lie bialgebra
(g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) a (not necessarily unique) PoissonLie group (G, ) whose Lie
bialgebra is isomorphic to (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ). For the particular case of a coboundary
Lie bialgebras, this was proved in Corollary 11.37.
Theorem 11.39. Let (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) be a finite-dimensional Lie bialgebra and
let G be a connected Lie group with Lie algebra (g, [ , ]g ).
(1)
(2)

(3)

There exists at most one Poisson structure on G such that (G, ) is a

PoissonLie group, whose Lie bialgebra is (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g );
If G is simply connected, then there exists on G a unique Poisson structure , such that (G, ) is a PoissonLie group, whose Lie bialgebra is
(g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g );
In particular, every finite-dimensional Lie bialgebra is the Lie bialgebra of a
PoissonLie group.

Proof. Let (1) and (2) be two multiplicative Poisson structures on the connected
Lie group G, leading to the same Lie bialgebra, i.e., their linearized Poisson structures at e coincide. In view of (2) in Proposition 11.5, Te (1) (x) = Te (2) (x), for all
(i)
x g, where (i) : G 2 g is defined by (i) (g) := 2 (Tg Rg1 )g , for i = 1, 2. It
follows that (1) (2) , which is a cocycle (since both (1) and (2) are cocycles),
has zero tangent map at e. By Proposition 11.4, this implies that (1) (2) = 0,
and hence that (1) = (2) . This shows item (1).
Let (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) be a finite-dimensional Lie bialgebra. According to Proposition 11.25, (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) is a Lie sub-bialgebra of a coboundary Lie bialgebra,
which we denote by (d, [ , ]d , [ , ]a ), because the underlying Lie algebra is the double of (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ). In view of Proposition 11.37, (d, [ , ]d , [ , ]a ) can be integrated into a PoissonLie group (D, D ), which is the only fact about d which we
the unique connected Lie subgroup of D,
will use in this proof. We denote by G
inherits a
whose Lie algebra is g. According to Proposition 11.35, the subgroup G

multiplicative Poisson structure from D , whose corresponding Lie bialgebra is

(g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ). This shows (3).
) can be replaced by the connected and simply conWe show now that (G,
nected Lie group G whose Lie algebra is g, which is the content of (2). In view
of Lies theorem (see item (4) of Theorem 5.1), there exists a Lie group homomor whose induced Lie algebra homomorphism is the identity map.
phism : G G,
into
We claim that there is a unique Poisson structure on G which turns : G G
a Poisson map, and we show that is multiplicative. Then (G, ) is a PoissonLie
group and is a homomorphism of PoissonLie groups, so that the induced
Lie bialgebra homomorphism, which is the identity map, is a homomorphism of Lie
bialgebras, which means that the Lie bialgebra of G is (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ).
Let us prove the claim. Differentiating the identity = R (g) Rg1 at g G
shows that the tangent maps of at g G and at e are related by Tg = Te R (g)

11.3 PoissonLie Groups and Lie Bialgebras

319

Te Tg Rg1 (in this formula, e and e are the units of the Lie groups G and G
respectively). Since the three linear maps which appear in the right-hand side of
this formula are invertible, so is Tg , hence is a local diffeomorphism. We can
therefore define for all g G by setting

g := 2 (Tg )1 (g) .

(11.39)

According to Proposition 1.19, if there exists a Poisson structure on G which makes

into a Poisson map, then it must be given by (11.39), which gives the desired
uniqueness of . Also, the vertical maps of the following commutative diagram are

local diffeomorphisms (here and stand for the group products of G and G).
GG

Combined with the fact that is a Poisson map, this shows that is Poisson map.

As a consequence, is multiplicative, as remained to be shown.

Having established the fact that every Lie bialgebra can be integrated into a Poisson
Lie group, we now show that every Lie bialgebra homomorphism can be integrated
into a morphism of PoissonLie groups.
Theorem 11.40. Let (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) and (h, [ , ]h , [ , ]h ) be two finite-dimensional Lie bialgebras and let (G, ) and (H,  ) be PoissonLie groups which integrate them, where G is chosen connected and simply connected. For every Lie
bialgebra homomorphism : g h, there exists a unique PoissonLie group homomorphism : G H whose induced Lie bialgebra homomorphism is , i.e., such
that Te = , where e denotes the unit element of G.
Proof. Suppose that : g h is a homomorphism of Lie bialgebras. In view of
Lies theorem (item (4) of Theorem 5.1), there exists a unique Lie group homomorphism : G H such that Te = . It remains to be shown that is a Poisson
map. To do this, we consider the map : G 2 h, defined for all g G by

(g) := 2 ( (g))  ( (g)) ,

where : G 2 g and  : H 2 h denote the group cocycles, associated to
(G, ) and to (H,  ) respectively (see item (iii) in Proposition 11.2). The map is
a cocycle of G with respect to the adjoint representation of G on 2 h, i.e.,

(gh) = (g) + Ad (g) (h) ,

for all g, h G. We first show that = 0. In view of item (1) of Proposition 11.4,
it suffices to show that Te (x) = 0 for all x g. To prove the latter, recall from

320

11 PoissonLie Groups

item (2) in Proposition 11.5 that Te (x) = (1 )x , for all x g, where 1 denotes the
linearized Poisson structure of at e, and similarly for  and 1 . It allows us to
compute
Te (x) = 2 (Te (x)) Te  (Te (x))
= 2 ((1 )x ) (1 ) (x) = 0 ,
where the last equality, which states that is a Poisson map, is tantamount to the
fact that the transpose map  : (h , [ , ]h ) (g , [ , ]g ) is a Lie algebra homomorphism (see Section 11.2.6). It follows that = 0, leading to the equality
2 ( (g)) =  ( (g)) ,
valid for all g G, which can be written, using Te = and using the definition (11.2) of the cocycle , as


2 (Tg ( Rg1 ))g = 2 T (g) R (g)1  (g) .
(11.40)
Now is a group homomorphism, so that

Rg1 = R (g1 ) ,
which, substituted in (11.40), leads to 2 (Tg )g =  (g) , since in a Lie group,
right translation by an element of the group is a diffeomorphism. In view of Proposition 1.19, the latter equality implies that is a Poisson map, as was to be shown.

The notion of duality for Lie bialgebra leads to a notion of duality for connected,
simply connected PoissonLie groups.
Definition 11.41. Two PoissonLie groups (G, ) and (G , ) are said to be dual
to each other if their Lie bialgebras are dual to each other.
Let (G, ) be a PoissonLie group and let (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ) denote its Lie bialgebra, whose dual bialgebra is (g , [ , ]g , [ , ]g ). Every PoissonLie group (G , )
which integrates the latter Lie bialgebra is dual to (G, ). A canonical dual is picked
by demanding that G be connected and simply connected. Indeed, there is up to
isomorphism a unique connected and simply connected Lie group G whose Lie
algebra is (g , [ , ]g ) (item (3) of Theorem 5.1) and on G there exists a unique
Poisson structure such that (G , ) integrates (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ). This Poisson
Lie group is called the dual of (G, ). For (G, ) a connected and simply connected
PoissonLie group, taking twice the dual gives back the PoissonLie group (G, ).
Example 11.42. Let G be a connected, simply connected Lie group, with Lie algebra
(g, [ , ]g ). Consider g as a Lie group, where the group operation is addition. In
view of Corollary 11.9, g becomes a PoissonLie group, when it is equipped with
the linear Poisson structure on g corresponding to the Lie bracket [ , ]g . Its Lie

11.4 Dressing Actions and Symplectic Leaves

321

bialgebra is (g , 0, [ , ]g ), with dual Lie bialgebra (g, [ , ]g , 0). It follows that the
(connected and simply connected) dual to the PoissonLie group (g , ) is the Lie
group G, equipped with the trivial Poisson structure.

11.4 Dressing Actions and Symplectic Leaves

We show in this section that the symplectic leaves of a PoissonLie group can be
described by using dressing actions, a notion which we first define in the general
context of Lie groups.
Let G be a connected Lie group and let G1 and G2 be two Lie subgroups of G.
The triple (G, G1 , G2 ) is said to be complete if the map G1 G2 G given by
1
(g1 , g2 )  g1 g2 is a diffeomorphism. Since (g1 g2 )1 = g1
2 g1 , for all g1 , g2 G,
the triple (G, G1 , G2 ) is complete if and only if the triple (G, G2 , G1 ) is complete. It
follows that, when (G, G1 , G2 ) is complete, there exists for every (g1 , g2 ) G1 G2
a unique pair (g1 , g2 ) G1 G2 , such that g1 g2 = g2 g1 . It is customary to denote
the elements g1 and g2 by gg12 and gg21 respectively.
The associativity of the group structure on G implies that the assignments
1
(g, h)  hg and (g, h)  gh are group actions. Indeed, the relation (g1 h1 )g2 =
g1 (h1 g2 ) implies, for g1 , h1 G1 and g2 G2 , that
h
(g 1 )

gg21 h1 (g1 h1 )g2 = g1 gh21 hg12 = (gh21 )g1 g1 2 hg12 ,

so that, by uniqueness of the decomposition, we can derive the relation
gg21 h1 = (gh21 )g1 ,

(11.41)

valid for all g1 , h1 G1 and g2 G2 . This shows that the assignment (g1 , g2 )  gg21
defines a group action of G1 on (the manifold) G2 . Similarly, one derives from the
relation g1 (g2 h2 ) = (g1 g2 )h2 , for g1 G1 and g2 , h2 G2 , the relation
gg12 h2 = (gg12 )h2 ,

(11.42)

g1

which says that the assignment (g2 , g1 )  g12 defines a group action of G2 on (the
manifold) G1 . These two group actions are respectively called the dressing action
of G1 on G2 and the dressing action of G2 on G1 .
Example 11.43. According to a standard theorem of linear algebra (essentially the
GramSchmidt orthogonalization process), every complex invertible matrix of determinant 1 can be decomposed in a unique way as the product of an element in
SUd and an element in T+ , the group of upper triangular matrices of determinant 1,
admitting only positive entries on the diagonal. It follows that (SLd (C), SUd , T+ )
is complete.

322

11 PoissonLie Groups

In the case of PoissonLie groups, the notion of dressing action leads to the
following definition.
Definition 11.44. Let (G, ) be a connected PoissonLie group with Lie bialgebra
(g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g ). A Lie group D is called a dressing group of (G, ) if the following
three conditions are satisfied.
(1)
(2)
(3)

The Lie algebra of D is the double (d, [ , ]d ) of (g, [ , ]g , [ , ]g );

G is the connected Lie subgroup of D corresponding to the Lie subalgebra
g d;
(D, G, G ) is complete, where G stands for the connected Lie subgroup of D
corresponding to the Lie subalgebra g d.

The Lie subgroup G of D is then called the dual of (G, ) with respect to the
dressing group D. The Poisson structure on G as a Poisson submanifold of the
PoissonLie group (D, D ) is denoted by .
Example 11.45. A Lie bialgebra structure on g := sud was given in Example 10.16,
We showed in Example 11.30 that its double d = g g is isomorphic to the Lie
algebra sld (C) of traceless complex matrices, identification under which the Lie
algebras g and g become the Lie algebras sud and t+ , where t+ is the Lie algebra of T+ , i.e., the vector space of upper triangular matrices of trace zero with real
coefficients on the diagonal. Consider the Poisson bracket on SUd which makes
(SUd , ) into a PoissonLie group, integrating the latter bialgebra structure on sud .
Since (SLd (C), SUd , T+ ) is complete, as we have seen in Example 11.43, conditions (1)(3) in the above definition are verified, so that SLd (C) is a dressing group
of (SUd , ).
Proposition 11.46. Let (G, ) be a connected PoissonLie group and suppose
that D is a dressing group of (G, ), and denote by (G , ) the dual of (G, )
with respect to D.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

The diffeomorphism G G G G, defined by (g, h)  (hg , gh ) is a Poisson map;

The dressing action of G on G is a Poisson action;
The dressing action of G on G is also a Poisson action, provided that we
replace the Poisson structure by its opposite ;
For g , the fundamental vector field of the dressing action of G on G
is given, at g G, by
 

(11.43)
g = Te Rg Pg Adg ,
where Pg : d g is the projection from d = gg onto g, and where Ad stands
for the adjoint action of D on its Lie algebra d.

Proof. The inclusion map G G  D D is a Poisson map because G and G

are Poisson submanifolds of D. Since the product map D D D is a Poisson map
(because D is a PoissonLie group), the diffeomorphism G G D, given by

11.4 Dressing Actions and Symplectic Leaves

323

(g, h)  gh, is a Poisson diffeomorphism. Since the same is true for the diffeomorphism G G D, given by (h, g)  hg, the map G G G G, defined by
(g, h)  (hg , gh ) is a Poisson diffeomorphism. This proves (1). As a corollary, the
map GG G , defined by (g, h)  hg , is a Poisson map, meaning that the dressing action of G on G is a Poisson map, proving (2). Since the inverse map h  h1
is a Poisson map from (G , ) to (G , ) (see Proposition 11.5, item (3)), the
1
assignment (g, h)  gh is also a Poisson map, provided that G G is endowed
with the product Poisson structure ( , ), which means precisely that the dressing action of G on G is Poisson, provided that we replace the Poisson structure
of G by its opposite. This proves (3).
We now prove (4). For all g G and t F we have, by definition of the dressing
action
1
(11.44)
g exp(t ) = h(t)gexp(t ) = h(t)gexp(t ) ,
where h(t) = exp (t )g . Note that h(0) = e, and that h(t) is a path in G . Multiplying (11.44) by g1 and taking the derivative with respect to t at t = 0, we obtain


d 
d 
exp(t )1 1
Adg =  g
g +  h(t)
dt t=0
dt t=0

d 
= Tg Rg1 g +  h(t) ,
(11.45)
dt t=0
where the last equality follows from the definition of the fundamental vector field

of a Lie group action. Since h(t)

 is apath in G , (11.45) is the decomposition of

Adg in g g , so that Pg Adg = Tg Rg1 g , which amounts to (11.43).

We can now describe the symplectic leaves of a PoissonLie group which admits
a dressing group, in terms of the dressing action.
Theorem 11.47. Let (G, ) be a connected PoissonLie group. Assume that D is a
dressing group of (G, ), and let G D be the dual of G with respect to D. Then
the symplectic leaves of (G, ) are the orbits of the dressing action of G on G.
Proof. Recall from Corollary 11.38 that D admits a Poisson structure D , making
(D, D ) into a coboundary PoissonLie group. This Poisson structure is associated
to the skew-symmetric r-matrix a := 12 di=1 ei i 2 d, where (e1 , . . . , ed ) and
(1 , . . . , d ) are dual bases of g and g . In view of (11.14), one has for every h D,
2 (Th Rh1 ) (D )h = Adh a a .
Since (G, ) is a PoissonLie subgroup of (D, D ), it follows for every g G that
2 (Tg Rg1 ) g =

1 d
1 d
Adg ei Adg i ei i .

2 i=1
2 i=1

The left-hand side of this equation belongs to 2 g, hence is fixed by the linear map
2 Pg (with Pg the projection of d = g g onto g). It follows that

324

11 PoissonLie Groups

2 (Tg Rg1 ) g =

1 d
Adg ei Pg(Adg i ) ,
2 i=1

(11.46)

which, in turn, gives the following expression of the Poisson bivector , evaluated
at the point g,
1 d
g = (
ei )g i g ,
(11.47)
2 i=1
where we used item (3) of Proposition 11.46 as well as the identity Te Rg (Adg x) =

x g for every x g.
Te Lg (x) =
We use the explicit expression (11.47) of g to show that the symplectic leaf of
through g coincides with the orbit through g of the dressing action of G on G.
Since G is connected and since (1 , . . . , d ) is a basis of g , it amounts to showing
that the image of the linear map g : Tg G Tg G, defined by g , is the vector subspace of Tg G generated by 1 g , . . . , d g . To show this, it suffices according to (11.47)
to show that the matrix (ai j )i, j=1,...,d expressing the elements i g , i = 1, . . . , d, in
e
terms of the basis of tangent vectors (
e1 )g , . . . , (
d )g is skew-symmetric, since
these elements are then the columns of the Poisson matrix of at g, expressed
in terms of the latter basis. Notice that, in view of (11.46), this matrix is also the
matrix which expresses the elements Pg (Adg i ), i = 1, . . . , g, in terms of the vectors Adg e1 , . . . , Adg ed ,
Pg (Adg i ) =

ai j Adg e j ,

j=1

so that


 

ai j = Adg j , Pg (Adg i ) = Pg (Adg j ), Pg (Adg i ) ,

where Pg is the projection of d = g g onto g ; we also used the fact that

adx j = Pg ([x, (y, j )]d ) for all x, y g, which follows from the definition (11.23)
of [ , ]d . Hence, to show that the matrix (ai j )i, j=1,...,d is skew-symmetric, we need
to show that

 

Pg (Adg i ), Pg (Adg j ) + Pg (Adg j ), Pg (Adg i ) = 0
(11.48)
for 1  i, j  d. According to the
of  | d , the left-hand side of

 definition (11.22)
this equation can be written as Adg i | Adg j d . Now


Adg i | Adg j


d



= i | j d = 0 ,

in view of the Ad-invariance of  | d . This proves (11.48), hence yields that the

matrix (ai j )i, j=1,...,d is skew-symmetric, which was to be shown.

11.5 Notes

325

11.5 Notes
Poisson structures can be seen as the semi-classical limit of quantum structures, i.e.,
as being what remains of quantization when h 2 (but not h ) is considered to be
small enough to be ignored (see Chapter 13). This is especially true for PoissonLie
groups which first appeared as semi-classical limits of quantum groups, in the pioneering work [58] of Drinfeld. A second motivation for the introduction of Poisson
Lie groups was the study of integrable systems associated to infinite-dimensional
Lie algebras, such as the Kortewegde Vries equation, where PoissonLie groups
provide the hidden symmetry, see SemenovTianShansky [180].
PoissonLie groups have proved to be interesting on their own. First, they naturally appear when studying the singularities of several highly singular spaces associated to semi-simple Lie groups, like Bruhat and Schubert cells, see LuWeinstein
[132, 136]. Also, a PoissonLie group is the first instance of a more general object, namely a PoissonLie groupoid, see MackenzieXu [140], which appears naturally when studying the dynamical YangBaxter equation. Exactly like PoissonLie
groups and Lie bialgebras are in one-to-one correspondence, PoissonLie groupoids
are in one-to-one correspondence with Lie bialgebroids, see MackenzieXu [140].
One of the first systematic studies of PoissonLie groups is the PhD thesis of
Lu [132], which remains an excellent introduction to the subject, especially to those
who want to learn more about the relation with Lie groupoids and enlarged definitions of moment maps. It also deals with a slightly more general object: affine
Poisson structures on Lie groups. Another useful reference is the review article by
KosmannSchwarzbach [110], which insists in particular on the link with Lie bialgebras.

Part III

Applications

Chapter 12

Liouville Integrable Systems

In this chapter we present the main application of Poisson structures: the theory of
integrable Hamiltonian systems.
Poissons theorem, which states that the Poisson bracket of two constants of motion (of a Hamiltonian system) is a constant of motion, is from the modern point of
view a direct consequence of the formalism, but was in Poissons time considered
as a fundamental step towards the explicit integration of Hamiltons equations, as
for doing this by the known methods, a large number of constants of motion was
required.
The fundamental role of Poisson structures in integrability was emphasized by
Liouville. As he showed, having half of the dimension of phase space of independent
constants of motion is sufficient for integrating the equations of motion, under the
assumption that these constants of motion are in involution (Poisson commute). Precisely, integration means here integration by quadratures. A geometrical counterpart
to this result states that, under some topological assumptions, the motion of such a
Hamiltonian system evolves on tori (the so-called Liouville tori), whose dimension
is half the dimension of phase space, and the motion on them is quasi-periodic. A
more elaborate version of this theorem is the action-angle theorem, which yields a
canonical model for Liouville integrable systems, in the neighborhood of a Liouville
torus.
Liouvilles theorems and the action-angle theorems will be presented here in
the context of general Poisson manifolds. These manifolds generalize the phase
spaces, considered in the classical results, namely the cotangent bundle of the configuration space, equipped with its canonical symplectic structure. We give the basic definitions and properties of functions in involution and of the map, associated to them, in Section 12.1. Several constructions of functions in involution are
given in Section 12.2: Poissons theorem, the Hamiltonian form of Noethers theorem, bi-Hamiltonian vector fields, Thimms method, Lax equations and the Adler
KostantSymes theorem. The action-angle theorem for Poisson manifolds is stated
and proved in Section 12.3.

C. Laurent-Gengoux et al., Poisson Structures,

Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften 347,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-31090-4 12, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

329

330

12 Liouville Integrable Systems

12.1 Functions in Involution

In this section we give the basic definitions and the (geometrical) properties of
functions in involution. Throughout the section, all manifolds considered are real
(F = R) or complex (F = C). For such a manifold M, we denote its algebra of
smooth or holomorphic functions by F (M).
Definition 12.1. Let (M, ) be a Poisson manifold and let F1 and F2 be two elements
of F (M). We say that F1 and F2 are in involution if their Poisson bracket is zero,
{F1 , F2 } = 0. More generally, let F = (F1 , . . . , Fs ) be an s-tuple of elements of F (M).
We say that F is involutive if for all 1  i, j  s, the functions Fi and Fj are in
involution.
Classically, a function F F (M) which is constant on all the integral curves of a
Hamiltonian vector field XH , where H is a given function on a Poisson manifold
(M, ), is called a constant of motion (for H). Since XH [F] = {F, H}, we have that
F is a constant of motion for H if and only if F and H are in involution. Therefore,
the notion of involutive s-tuples generalizes the notion of constant of motion.
An s-tuple F = (F1 , . . . , Fs ) of elements of F (M) defines a map M Fs , which
will be denoted by the same letter F. We say that F is independent if the open
subset UF of M, defined by
UF := {m M | dm F1 dm Fs = 0} ,

(12.1)

is a dense subset of M. Besides the open subset UF , defined by (12.1), we will in

this chapter also make extensive use of the open subset
M(r) := {m M | Rkm = 2r} ,
where 2r stands for the rank of . Notice that, if F is independent, then the open
subset UF M(r) of M is non-empty.
When dealing with involutive functions, the reader should have the geometrical
picture in mind, described by the following proposition (see also Fig. 12.1).
Proposition 12.2. Let (M, ) be a Poisson manifold and assume that F = (F1 , . . . , Fs )
is an involutive and independent s-tuple of elements of F (M). The Hamiltonian vector fields XFi , 1  i  s, commute and they are tangent to the smooth fibers of the
map F : M Fs .
Proof. The Hamiltonian vector fields, which are associated to functions in involution, commute, because [XF , XG ] = X{F,G} for all F, G F (M). Assume that


F = (F1 , . . . , Fs ) is involutive and let 1  i  s; since XFi [Fj ] = Fj , Fi = 0 for all
1  j  s, the vector field XFi is tangent to the smooth level sets of F1 , . . . , Fs , that
is, to the smooth fibers of F. 

The number of independent functions on a manifold M is bounded by the dimension
of M. In the case of a Poisson manifold, the upper bound for the number of independent functions in involution is much lower, as given by the following proposition.

12.1 Functions in Involution

331

Fig. 12.1 The Hamiltonian vector fields of the components of F = (F1 , . . . , Fs ) are tangent to the
smooth fibers F1 (c) of F and they commute.

Proposition 12.3. Let (M, ) be a Poisson manifold of dimension d and rank 2r and
suppose that F = (F1 , . . . , Fs ) is an independent s-tuple of elements of F (M).
(1)
(2)
(3)

If F1 , . . . , Fs are Casimirs, then s  d 2r;

If F is involutive, then s  d r;
If F is involutive, with s = d r, then


dim span (XF1 )m , . . . , (XFs )m = r
for every m UF M(r) .

Proof. For m M, let m denote the linear map Tm M Tm M, which corresponds

to the Poisson structure. Explicitly, for H F (M),

m (dm H) = (XH )m .
Recall that the rank of m is Rkm . For every H Cas(M) the cotangent vector
dm H belongs to Ker m , whose dimension is d Rkm . Let F = (F1 , . . . , Fs ) be
independent and let m be an element of the non-empty (open) subset UF M(r)
of M. Suppose first that each element of F is a Casimir. Since dm F1 , . . . , dm Fs are
independent elements of Ker m , we have that
s  dim Ker m = d 2r
and (1) follows. Next, suppose that F is involutive and consider Fm , the fiber of F,
passing through m. Since m UF M(r) , the restriction of Fm to a neighborhood U
of m is a submanifold of dimension d s of U, passing
through m. This dimension

is an upper bound for the dimension dm of span (XF1 )m , . . . , (XFs )m , because
these s vectors are tangent to that fiber at m. Moreover, dm  s dim Ker m =
s + 2r d, because the differential one-forms dF1 , . . . , dFs are independent at m.
Combining the two inequalities for dm , we get

332

12 Liouville Integrable Systems

s + 2r d = s dim Ker m  dm  d s ,

(12.2)

leading to (2). Third, suppose that s = d r. For m UF M(r) we deduce

from (12.2) that
r = s dim Ker m  dm  r ,



so that dim span (XF1 )m , . . . , (XFs )m = dm = r. 
The extreme case r + s = d will be discussed in detail in Section 12.3. Notice
that, in this case, the commuting Hamiltonian vector fields XF1 , . . . , XFs define an
integrable distribution of rank r on the open subset UF M(r) of M.

12.2 Constructions of Functions in Involution

In this section we will give a list of constructions of functions in involution. The
first two of them (Poissons theorem and Noethers theorem (in its Hamiltonian
form)) are very classical, the other ones were discovered quite recently. All manifolds which are considered in this section are real or complex; accordingly, F stands
for R or for C.

12.2.1 Poissons Theorem

Poissons theorem yields new constants of motion (of a given Hamiltonian H), starting from two given constants of motion.
Theorem 12.4 (Poissons theorem). Let (M, ) be a Poisson manifold and let F, G
and H be elements of F (M). If F and G are constants of motion for H, then their
Poisson bracket {F, G} is also a constant of motion for H.
Proof. The proof is an easy consequence of the Jacobi identity, valid for all
F, G, H F (M):
{F, {G, H}} + {G, {H, F}} + {H, {F, G}} = 0 .

(12.3)

Namely, if F and G are constants of motion for H, then the first two terms in (12.3)
vanish. Then the remaining term also vanishes, that is, {F, G} is a constant of motion
for H. 

In practice, Poissons theorem often does not yield a function which is independent
of the given constants of motion; as we will see, it happens in many important cases
that the Poisson bracket of two constants of motion is actually equal to zero.

12.2 Constructions of Functions in Involution

333

12.2.2 Noethers Theorem

A second classical theorem which leads to constants of motion is Noethers theorem, which we give in a Hamiltonian form (the classical version is in a Lagrangian
form). Let G be a Lie group, whose Lie algebra is denoted by g. Suppose that G
acts on a Poisson manifold (M, ) and suppose that the action is Hamiltonian
(Definition 5.38). Recall that this means in particular that one can construct a comomentum map, which is a linear map : g F (M), having the property that for
every x g the function x F (M) is a Hamiltonian for the fundamental vector
field x, i.e.,
x = X x .
Noethers theorem, in its Hamiltonian form, then states that the co-momentum map
yields constants of motion for every G-invariant Hamiltonian.
Theorem 12.5 (Noethers theorem). Let G be a group which acts on a Poisson
manifold (M, ) and assume that the action is Hamiltonian, with co-momentum
map . If H is a G-invariant function on M, then for every x g the function x is
a constant of motion for XH .
Proof. Let x g and m M be arbitrary. We denote for every g G by g : M M
the diffeomorphism which is induced by the action and we write { , } for . By Ginvariance of H, that is, H g = H for every g G, we have that


{H, x } (m) = X x m [H] = xm [H]


d
d
H exp(tx) (m) =
H(m) = 0 .
=
dt |t=0
dt |t=0
Since m M is arbitrary, this shows that the function x is a constant of motion
for H. 


12.2.3 Bi-Hamiltonian Vector Fields

A bi-Hamiltonian manifold (M, 1 , 2 ) is a manifold M, equipped with two compatible Poisson structures i = { , }i , i = 1, 2. Let V be a vector field on a biHamiltonian manifold (M, 1 , 2 ) and suppose that there exist functions F and G
on M for which
V = { , F}1 = { , G}2 .
(12.4)
Then V is called a bi-Hamiltonian vector field. Equation (12.4) implies that F and G
are in involution with respect to both Poisson structures since {F, G}2 = {F, F}1 = 0
and {G, F}1 = {G, G}2 = 0. They are in involution with respect to every linear combination of these Poisson structures, which is itself a Poisson structure, because 1
and 2 are compatible.

334

12 Liouville Integrable Systems

More generally, suppose that we have a bi-Hamiltonian hierarchy on a biHamiltonian manifold (M, 1 , 2 ), i.e., a sequence of functions F = (Fi )iZ such
that
{ , Fi+1 }1 = { , Fi }2 ,
(12.5)
for every i Z. In this case one has, for all i < j Z,




Fi , Fj 1 = Fi , Fj1 2


= Fi+1 , Fj1 1
= ...


= Fj , Fi 1 ,


so that Fi , Fj 1 = 0 by skew-symmetry. It follows that F is involutive with respect




to 1 . Also, F is involutive with respect to 2 , because Fi , Fj 2 = Fi , Fj+1 1 .
Such bi-Hamiltonian hierarchies may be constructed, under some assumptions,
as follows. Given two compatible Poisson structures 1 and 2 , one first considers, for arbitrary F, the Poisson structure := 1 2 . We set, as before,
{ , } := . The one-dimensional family of Poisson structures ( ) F is called a
Poisson pencil. Suppose that there exists a Laurent polynomial in ,


F =

i Fi ,

i=k

such that { , F } = 0 for all F. Such a Laurent polynomial is called a Casimir

for the Poisson pencil. Setting Fi := 0 for i >  and for i < k, we can write
{ , F } =

i+1 ({ , Fi+1 }1 { , Fi }2 ) .

iZ

It follows that, since F is a Casimir for the Poisson pencil, the sequence of functions
(Fi )iZ satisfies (12.5) for all i Z, hence is a bi-Hamiltonian hierarchy. By the
above, (Fi )iZ is involutive.

12.2.4 Poisson Maps and Thimms Method

Thimms method [191] for constructing large families of functions in involution is
based on a few elementary observations, cleverly combined. The first one is that if
: (M1 , { , }1 ) (M2 , { , }2 ) is a Poisson map (between two Poisson manifolds),
then the pull-back of every involutive s-tuple on M2 yields an involutive s-tuple
on M1 . This is simply because if F and G are functions on M2 and {F, G}2 = 0, then
{F , G }1 = {F, G}2 = 0 .

12.2 Constructions of Functions in Involution

335

The second one is that Lie algebra homomorphisms between finite-dimensional Lie
algebras induce Poisson maps: let : g1 g2 be a Lie algebra homomorphism,
where (g1 , [ , ]1 ) and (g2 , [ , ]2 ) are finite-dimensional Lie algebras and consider
the transpose map  : g2 g1 , which assigns to 2 g2 the linear form  (2 ) :
g1 F, defined for all x g1 by


 (2 ), x := 2 , (x) ,
where we recall that  , stands for the canonical pairing between a vector space
and its dual. Then  is a Poisson map, when both g1 and g2 are equipped with their
LiePoisson structure (denoted { , }i , for i = 1, 2). To check this, it is sufficient to
check that if x, y g1  (g1 ) , then


x  , y  = {x, y}1  .
(12.6)
2

Recall that under the canonical isomorphism g1  (g1 ) , the LiePoisson bracket
[x, y]1 corresponds to {x, y}1 , and similarly for g2 . Also, under the isomorphism
(g2 )  g2 , the linear map x  : g2 F corresponds to (x), for all x g1 .
Therefore, (12.6) is equivalent to saying that is a Lie algebra homomorphism.
Combining both observations, it is clear that Lie algebra inclusions lead to functions in involution (on the dual of the larger Lie algebra). It has the following nontrivial consequence: if g0 is a Lie subalgebra of g, then the Ad -invariant functions
on g0 provide involutive functions on g ; notice that while the Hamiltonian vector
fields of these functions are trivial on g0 , they are non-trivial, in general, on g .
Applied to a sequence of subalgebras, a family of functions in involution can be
constructed on the dual of a Lie algebra (equipped with its LiePoisson structure).
One usually refers to this technique as Thimms method. Explicitly, let g be a finitedimensional Lie algebra and suppose that
g1 g2 gk gk+1 = g
where g1 , . . . , gk are Lie subalgebras of g. By the above, the functions on g , obtained
by pulling back to g all Ad -invariant functions on each of the spaces g1 , . . . , gk+1 ,
are in involution. Notice that to this involutive family, the pull-back to g of an
arbitrary involutive set on g1 can be added.
Thimm [191] also analyzes the case of two Lie subalgebras g1 , g2 of the same
Lie algebra g (the above case corresponds to g1 g2 ).
Proposition 12.6. Let g be a finite-dimensional Lie algebra and let g1 and g2 be
two Lie subalgebras of g, with inclusion maps i , whose transpose maps g gi are
denoted by 
i (i = 1, 2). Suppose that
[g1 , g2 ] g2 .

(12.7)

Then for every function F1 on g1 and for every Ad -invariant function F2 on g2 , the


functions F1 
1 and F2 2 on g are in involution.

336

12 Liouville Integrable Systems

Proof. Let us denote the LiePoisson brackets on g, respectively on gi , by { , },

respectively { , }i (i = 1, 2). For all g we have that








F1 
1 , F2 2 ( ) = , d (F1 1 ), d (F2 2 )

 
= , d ( ) F1 , d ( ) F2 .
1

In view of (12.7), the latter Lie bracket belongs to g2 , so we can replace by 

2 ( ),
which is the restriction of to g2 . It follows that







F1 
=0,
1 , F2 2 ( ) = 2 ( ), d ( ) F1 , d ( ) F2
1

where we used Ad-invariance of F2 in the last step (see (5.15)).




12.2.5 Lax Equations

Let M gld (F) be an affine subspace of the Lie algebra of (d d)-matrices with
entries in F and let V be a vector field on M. Suppose that there exists a matrixvalued function : M gld (F) such that
Vx = [x, (x)]

(12.8)

for all x M. Then V is said to be written in Lax form and (12.8) is called a Lax
equation. As we have seen in Section 7.2, if g is a quadratic Lie algebra, identified
with its dual using its bilinear form, and equipped with its LiePoisson structure,
then every Hamiltonian vector field on g is of this form. We claim that all coefficients
of the characteristic polynomial det( 1d x), which we view as functions (of x)
on M, are constants of motion of V . To see this, let x(t) be an integral curve of V ,
defined for t in a neighborhood of 0, and denote by y(t) the value of at x(t) M.
Take an arbitrary i > 0 and use Trace(AB) = Trace(BA) to compute


dx
d
Trace xi (t) = i Trace xi1 (t) (t)
dt
dt

 i
= i Trace x (t)y(t) xi1 (t)y(t)x(t) = 0 .
Thus, the functions Hi : x  Trace xi are constants of motion of V . The same is true
for each coefficient of the characteristic polynomial of x, viewed as a function on M,
because each such coefficient is a polynomial in the functions Hi . In particular, if
V = XH is a Hamiltonian vector field, with Hamiltonian H, then H is in involution
with each Hi , and with each coefficient of the characteristic polynomial of x.

12.2 Constructions of Functions in Involution

337

12.2.6 The AdlerKostantSymes Theorem

The AdlerKostantSymes theorem is a fundamental theorem in the modern theory
of integrable systems, which allows one to construct, from Lie algebra splittings, on
the one hand large families of independent functions in involution and on the other
hand explicit solutions to Hamiltons equations, with either one of these functions
as Hamiltonian. We will focus on the case in which the Lie algebra is quadratic, because in the known examples where the AdlerKostantSymes theorem is applied,
the Lie algebra is usually quadratic.
Let g be a finite-dimensional Lie algebra. We recall from Section 10.1 that a
linear map R : g g is called an R-matrix of g if the skew-symmetric bilinear map
[ , ]R : g g g, defined for x, y g by
[x, y]R :=

1
([Rx, y] + [x, Ry]) ,
2

defines a Lie bracket on g. If g is quadratic, i.e., g is equipped with an ad-invariant

non-degenerate symmetric bilinear form  | , then the original Lie bracket [ , ] and
the R-bracket [ , ]R lead to two LiePoisson structures { , } and { , }R on g. In
order to describe these, recall that to a function F F (g) and an element x g, an
element x F of g is associated by setting x F | = dx F, that is,
x F | y = dx F, y ,
for all y g. Using this notation, the two LiePoisson structures on g take the form
{F, G} (x) = x | [x F, x G] ,
{F, G}R (x) = x | [x F, x G]R ,

(12.9)

for F, G F (g) at x g (see Section 7.2). The involutivity theorem yields functions
in involution, coming from the R-bracket; moreover, their Hamiltonian vector fields
can be written in a Lax form.
Theorem 12.7 (Involutivity theorem). Let (g, [ , ]) be a finite-dimensional quadratic Lie algebra, whose bilinear form is denoted by  | . Let R be an R-matrix
for g and denote the LiePoisson bracket on g, which corresponds to the R-bracket,
by { , }R . If F and H are Ad-invariant functions on g, then
(1)
(2)

{F, H}R = 0;
The Hamiltonian vector field of H with respect to { , }R is given, at x g, by
1
(XH )x = [x, R(x H)] .
2

(12.10)

Proof. Recall that the Ad-invariance of H means that [x H, x] = 0 for all x g (see
Section 5.1.4). For functions F and H on g, their R-bracket is given, at x g, by

338

12 Liouville Integrable Systems

1
1
x | [R (x F) , x H] + x | [x F, R (x H)]
2
2
1
1
= R (x F) | [x H, x] + R (x H) | [x, x F] ,
2
2

{F, H}R (x) =

which is zero when F and H are both Ad-invariant; if only H is assumed Adinvariant, only the first term vanishes, leading to
{F, H}R (x) =
which proves (12.10).

1
1
x F | [R (x H) , x] = dx F, [R (x H) , x] ,
2
2




We will now refine the involutivity theorem to obtain the (historically older) Adler
KostantSymes theorem, in which the R-matrix comes from a Lie algebra splitting.
Recall from Section 10.1.2 that if (g, [ , ]) is a finite-dimensional Lie algebra and g
is written as a vector space direct sum g = g+ g of two Lie subalgebras g+ and
g of g, then g+ g is called a Lie algebra splitting, and that such a splitting
leads to a natural R-matrix. Denoting the projections of x g on g+ and g by x+ ,
respectively x , the endomorphism R : g g is defined by
Rx := x+ x ,
for all x g. As in the case of the involutivity theorem, we assume that g is a
quadratic Lie algebra, with bilinear form  | . The LiePoisson bracket { , }R on
g can then also be written as





{F, G}R (x) = x | (x F)+ , (x G)+ x | (x F) , (x G) .
Non-degeneracy of  | implies that g admits another (vector space) direct sum

decomposition, namely as g = g
+ g where g+ (respectively g ) is the orthogonal
complement (with respect to  | ) of g+ (respectively g ).
The AdlerKostantSymes theorem (AKS theorem), which we formulate and
prove next, yields functions in involution on certain translates of g
(items (1)(3)
below) and the explicit integration of their Hamiltonian vector fields (item (4)).
Theorem 12.8 (AKS theorem). Suppose that g = g+ g is a Lie algebra splitting, with associated R-matrix R, and that  | is an Ad-invariant non-degenerate
symmetric bilinear form on g. Let F and H be Ad-invariant functions on g and
suppose that g satisfies
[ , g+ ] g
+,

[ , g ] g
.

(12.11)

The restrictions of F and H to + g

are denoted by F and H .
(1)
(2)

The affine subspace + g

of g is a Poisson submanifold of (g, { , }R ); the
restricted Poisson structure on + g
will be denoted by { , } ;
{F , H } = 0;

12.2 Constructions of Functions in Involution

(3)

339

The Hamiltonian vector field of H with respect to { , } is given by

1
XH (y) = [y, R(y H)] = [y, (y H) ] ,
2

(4)

where y + g
;
Let G be a Lie group, whose Lie algebra is g, and let G+ and G denote the
Lie subgroups of G, corresponding to g+ , respectively g . For x0 g and for
|t| small, let g+ (t) and g (t) denote the smooth curves in G+ respectively G
which solve the factorization problem1
exp(tx0 H) = g+ (t)1 g (t) ,

g (0) = e .

(12.12)

Then the integral curve of XH := { , H}R , which starts at x0 g (or in particular of XH , starting at x0 + g
), is given, for |t| small, by
x(t) = Adg+ (t) x0 = Adg (t) x0 .

(12.13)

Proof. We first show that + g

is a Poisson submanifold of (g, { , }R ). Let x g
and let H be a function, defined in a neighborhood of +x in g. We need to show that

(XH ) +x T +x g
 g . Let F be an arbitrary function, defined on a neighborhood
of + x in g, which is constant on + g
. Then +x F g since

 +x F | y =

d
F( + x + ty) = 0 ,
dt |t=0

for all y g
. It follows from ad-invariance of  | and from the assumptions (12.11)
on that
(XH ) +x [F] = {F, H}R ( + x)
 



= + x | ( +x F)+ , ( +x H)+ ( +x F) , ( +x H)





= x | ( +x F)+ , ( +x H)+ x | ( +x F) , ( +x H) .
Both of the above terms are equal to zero: the first one because +x F g and
the second one because x g
, combined with the fact that g is a Lie subalgebra (of g). This proves that all Hamiltonian vector fields XH are tangent to + g
,
{
hence that +g
is
a
Poisson
submanifold
of
(g,
,
}
),
which
is
the
content
of
(1).

R
Since ( + g
, { , } ) is a Poisson submanifold of (g, { , }R ), the involutivity of
two Ad-invariant functions F and H on g (Theorem 12.7) implies the involutivity
of F and H on + g
, which proves (2); similarly, the first equality in (3) follows from (1) and from the involutivity theorem (Theorem 12.7), while the second
equality is a direct consequence of the obvious formulas
R (x H) = (x H)+ (x H) = 2(x H)+ x H = x H 2(x H) .
For g in a neighborhood of the identity e G, the factorization g = g+ g , with g G exists
and is unique.

340

12 Liouville Integrable Systems

We now turn to (4), the integral curves of XH . We first show that Adg+ (t) x0 =
Adg (t) x0 (the second equality in (12.13)). Since Ad is a group homomorphism, the
factorization (12.12) implies that
Adexp(tx

H) x0

= Adg+ (t)1 Adg (t) x0 ,

for all x0 g. We have for every x g that


 

Adexp(tx H) x0 | x = x0 | Adexp(tx H) x
0
0
 


= x0 | exp t adx0 H x



= x0 | x + t x0 | x0 H, 



= x0 | x + t x0 , x0 H | 
= x0 | x ,
where the value of  (which depends on t) is irrelevant, in view of the Ad-invariance
of H and  | . This shows that Adexp(tx H) x0 = x0 , and hence that Adg+ (t) x0 =
0
Adg (t) x0 .
We now show that x(t) := Adg+ (t) x0 is (for small |t|) a solution to (12.10), which
amounts to proving that


 
d
Adg+ (t) x0 = x(t), x(t) H + .
dt

(12.14)

In order to simplify the proof (mainly the notation), we will assume that G is a linear
group, so that Ad is just given by conjugation and we will write g (t) for dgdt (t).


Then the left-hand side of (12.14) is given by g+ (t)g+ (t)1 , x(t) , so it suffices to
show that
g+ (t)g+ (t)1 = (x(t) H)+ .
Differentiating the identity g+ (t) exp(tx0 H) = g (t) with respect to t and multiplying both sides of the result by g (t)1 , we get


g+ (t)g+ (t)1 g (t) x0 H g (t)1 = g (t)g (t)1 .
Taking the + part of both sides of this equation, we find






g+ (t)g+ (t)1 = g (t) x0 H g (t)1 + = x(t) H + ,
where we have used Ad-invariance of H and of  | in the last step.




12.3 The Liouville Theorem and the Action-Angle Theorem

341

12.3 The Liouville Theorem and the Action-Angle Theorem

In this section, we formulate and prove two basic theorems in the theory of integrable systems: the Liouville theorem and the action-angle theorem. Classically,
these theorems are considered for Liouville integrable systems on symplectic manifolds; we consider these theorems here in the more natural context of Poisson
manifolds. We follow [3] in Section 12.3.1 and [120] in Sections 12.3.2 to 12.3.4.
Throughout the section, all manifolds are real and F (M) stands for the algebra of
smooth functions on the (real) manifold M.

12.3.1 Liouville Integrable Systems and Liouvilles Theorem

We first give the definition of a Liouville integrable system on a real Poisson manifold.
Definition 12.9. Let (M, ) be a real Poisson manifold of rank 2r and of dimension d. Let F = (F1 , . . . , Fs ) be an s-tuple of smooth functions on M and suppose
that
(1)
(2)
(3)

F is independent;
F is in involution;
r + s = d.

Then (M, , F) is called a Liouville integrable system of dimension d and rank 2r.
Viewed as a map, F : M Rs is called the momentum map of (M, , F).
Suppose that (M, , F) is a Liouville integrable system, where (M, ) is a Poisson
manifold of rank 2r. We recall that M(r) denotes the open subset of M where the rank
of is equal to 2r, and UF denotes the dense open subset of M, which consists of
all points of M where the differentials of the elements of F are linearly independent.
We consider on the non-empty open subset UF M(r) of M two (regular) foliations:
(1)

(2)

The Hamiltonian vector fields XF1 , . . . , XFs define, according to Propositions 12.2 and 12.3, on the non-empty open subset UF M(r) of M an integrable distribution D of rank r. The integral manifolds of D are the leaves
of a foliation, which we denote by F ; the leaf of F , passing through
m UF M(r) , is denoted by Fm , and is called the invariant manifold of F,
through m;
Since, by definition, the restriction F of F to UF M(r) is a submersion, its
fibers define a foliation on UF M(r) , which is denoted by F . Thus, the leaves
of F are the connected components of the fibers of the map
F = (F1 , . . . , Fs ) : UF M(r) Rs .

We show in the following proposition that both foliations F and F coincide, leading to a description of the invariant manifolds of F.

342

12 Liouville Integrable Systems

Proposition 12.10. Let (M, , F) be a Liouville integrable system and let F and F
denote the foliations, defined above.
(1)
(2)

The foliations F and F coincide;

For m UF M(r) , the invariant manifold Fm of F is the connected component of the fiber of F which contains m. In particular, Fm is an (embedded)
submanifold of M.

Proof. We prove item (1); item (2) is an immediate consequence of it. Since all
leaves of F and of F are r-dimensional (and are, by definition, connected), it suffices to show for every m UF M(r) the following inclusion of tangent spaces:
Tm F Tm F . According to Proposition 12.2, the fact that F1 , . . . , Fs are pairwise
in involution implies that each of the Hamiltonian vector fields XF1 , . . . , XFs , at m,
belong to Tm F . Since Tm F is spanned by these vector fields, the required inclusion
follows. 

We now come to the Liouville theorem for Liouville integrable systems on Poisson
manifolds.
Theorem 12.11 (Liouvilles theorem). Let (M, , F) be a Liouville integrable system of dimension d and rank 2r. For m UF M(r) , let Fm denote the invariant
manifold of F = (F1 , . . . , Fs ) which passes through m.
(1)

(2)

If Fm is compact, then there exists a diffeomorphism from Fm to the torus

Tr = (R/Z)r , under which the vector fields XF1 , . . . , XFs are mapped to constant (i.e., translation-invariant) vector fields;
If Fm is not compact, but the flow of each of the vector fields XFi (i = 1, . . . , s)
is complete on Fm , then there exists a diffeomorphism from Fm to a cylinder Rrq Tq (0  q < r), under which the vector fields XFi are mapped to
constant vector fields.

Proof. We suppose that the flow (i) of each of the integrable vector fields XFi is
complete on Fm , i.e., is defined for all t R. We may order the functions Fi such
that the r vector fields XF1 , . . . , XFr are independent at m. These vector fields are
then independent at every point of Fm . Indeed, since the vector fields XFi pairwise
commute,
r


LXF j (XF1 XFr ) = XF1 XFj , XFi XFr = 0 ,
i=1

for j = 1, . . . , s. It means that XF1 XFr is conserved by the flow of each one of
the vector fields XF1 , . . . , XFs . In particular, since this r-vector field is non-vanishing
at m, it is non-vanishing on the entire invariant manifold Fm . As a consequence, Fm
is a leaf of the distribution, defined by the first r vector fields XF1 , . . . , XFr , in a
neighborhood of Fm .
The completeness and commutativity of the vector fields XF1 , . . . , XFr on Fm
imply that we can define an action Rr Fm Fm by

12.3 The Liouville Theorem and the Action-Angle Theorem

343



(1)
(2)
(r)  
(t1 , . . . ,tr ), m  t1 t2 tr m .
Since Fm is the integral manifold through m of the distribution defined by the first
r integrable vector fields, the action is transitive on Fm and Fm becomes a homogeneous space. The action is also locally free, because the vector fields XFi are
independent at every point of Fm . Therefore the stabilizer is a discrete subgroup
Hm of Rr and Fm is diffeomorphic to Rr /Hm . If Fm is compact, then Hm must be a
lattice, so Rr /Hm is a torus, smoothly embedded into M. Otherwise Hm is a discrete
subgroup whose rank q is at most r 1 and Rr /Hm is isomorphic to Rrq Tq . By
construction, the vector fields XFi are mapped to translation-invariant vector fields
in both cases. 

For what follows, we will be uniquely interested in the case in which Fm is
compact. Then Fm is a torus; we call such a torus a standard Liouville torus.

12.3.2 Foliation by Standard Liouville Tori

We show in this section that, in some neighborhood of a standard Liouville torus,
the invariant manifolds of a Liouville integrable system (M, , F) of dimension d
and rank 2r form a trivial torus fibration over an open ball Bdr .
Proposition 12.12. Suppose that Fm is a standard Liouville torus of a Liouville integrable system (M, , F) of dimension d and rank 2r. There exists an open subset U UF M(r) , containing Fm , and there exists a diffeomorphism : U
Tr Bdr , which takes the foliation F to the foliation defined by the fibers of the
canonical projection pB : Tr Bdr Bdr , leading to the following commutative
diagram.
F m = Fm

U
F|U

Tr Bdr
pB

Bdr
Moreover, U and can be chosen such that the last d 2r components of are
Casimirs of , restricted to U.
Proof. Suppose that Fm is a standard Liouville torus. Setting s := d r, as before,
we first show that there exists a neighborhood U of Fm and a diffeomorphism :
U Fm Bs , which sends the foliation F (which, according to Proposition 12.10,
coincides with F ), restricted to U, to the foliation defined by pB on Fm Bs . The
proof of this statement depends only on the fact that Fm is a compact component
of a fiber of a submersion (namely F; see Proposition 12.10). Notice that since F
is a submersion, every point m F m = Fm has a neighborhood Um in M, which

344

12 Liouville Integrable Systems

is diffeomorphic to the product of a neighborhood Vm of m in Fm times an open

ball Bsm , centered at F(m ) = F(m) in Rs ; such a diffeomorphism m , as provided
by the implicit function theorem, is a lifting of F, that is, it leads to the following
commutative diagram:
Um

m

Vm Bsm
pB

Bsm
Since Fm is compact, it is covered by finitely many of the sets Vm , say Vm1 , . . . ,Vm .
Thus, if every pair of the diffeomorphisms m1 , . . . , m agrees on the intersection
of their domain of definition (whenever non-empty), we can define a global diffeomorphism on a neighborhood U of Fm , whose image is the intersection of the
concentric balls Bsm1 , . . . , Bsm . In order to ensure that these diffeomorphisms agree,
we need to chose them in a more specific way. This is done by choosing an arbitrary
Riemannian metric on M. Using the exponential map, defined by the metric, we
can identify a neighborhood of the zero section in the normal bundle of Fm , with
a neighborhood of Fm in M; in particular, for every m Fm there exist neighborhoods Um of m in M and Vm of m in Fm , with smooth maps m : Um Vm , which
have the important virtue that they agree on the intersection of their domains. Upon
shrinking the open subsets Um , if necessary, the maps m := m (F1 , . . . , Fs ) are a
choice of diffeomorphisms, defined on a neighborhood U of Fm , with the required
properties. This leads to the diffeomorphism : U Fm Bs , which we view as a
diffeomorphism : U Tr Bs , using the fact that Fm is diffeomorphic with Tr ,
as stated in the Liouville theorem.
It remains to be shown that can be chosen such that its last d 2r = s r components are Casimirs. To do this, we consider on U the integrable distribution D 
defined by all Hamiltonian vector fields on U; it has rank 2r and its leaves are the
symplectic leaves of (U, ). It is clear that D D  , where we recall that D is the
distribution defined by the Hamiltonian vector fields XF1 , . . . , XFs . Consider the
submersive map
pB : U Tr Bs Bs ,
whose fibers are by assumption the leaves of F , that is, the integral manifolds of D
(restricted to U), so that the kernel of the tangent map T (pB ) is precisely D. The
image of D  by T (pB ) is therefore a (smooth) distribution D  of rank r on Bs ,
which is integrable, since D  is integrable. The foliation defined by the integral
manifolds of D  is, in the neighborhood of the point pB ( (m)), defined by s r =
d 2r independent functions z1 , . . . , zd2r . Pulling them back to M, we get functions
z1 , . . . , zd2r on a neighborhood V U of Fm which are Casimir functions, because
they are constant on the leaves of D  , which are the symplectic leaves of (U, ).

12.3 The Liouville Theorem and the Action-Angle Theorem

345

Since they have independent differentials on U, they can be chosen as d 2r of the


last d r components of , upon shrinking Bs into a smaller ball, if needed. 

12.3.3 Period Normalization

In this section, we study Liouville integrable systems of the form (Tr Bs , , F),
where F = pB : Tr Bs Bs is the projection on the second factor and is a
regular Poisson structure of rank 2r on Tr Bs . Given such a Liouville integrable
system, there is no reason why the Hamiltonian vector fields XFi , which are tangent
to the fibers of F (which are tori), would be constant on these fibers, and even if they
were constant on these fibers, they might vary from one fiber to another in the sense
that their flow may not come from an action of the torus Tr on Tr Bs . We show
in the following proposition that vector fields which satisfy the latter property can
be constructed by taking well-chosen linear combinations of the Hamiltonian vector
fields XFi , with as coefficients F-basic functions, i.e., functions of the form F,
where F (Bs ); equivalently, smooth functions on Tr Bs which are constant on
the fibers of F.
Proposition 12.13. Let (Tr Bs , , F) be a Liouville integrable system, where
has constant rank 2r and F = (F1 , . . . , Fs ) is the projection on the second component. Suppose that among the s commuting vector fields XF1 , . . . , XFs , the first r
are independent at every point of Tr Bs . There exists a ball Bs0 Bs , concentric
with Bs , and there exist F-basic functions ij F (Bs0 ), such that the vector fields
V1 , . . . , Vr , defined by
Vi :=

i j X F j ,

j=1

are the fundamental vector fields of a torus action of Tr on Tr Bs0 .

(i)

Proof. The fibers of F = (F1 , . . . , Fs ) are compact, so for i = 1, . . . , r, the flow ti

of the Hamiltonian vector field XFi is complete and we can define a map,

: Rr (Tr Bs )
Tr Bs
(1)
(r)
((t1 , . . . ,tr ), m)  t1 tr (m) .
(i)

Since the vector fields XFi are pairwise commuting, the flows ti pairwise commute and is an action of Rr on Tr Bs . Since the vector fields XF1 , . . . , XFr are
independent at all points of Tr Bs , the fibers of F, which are r-dimensional tori,
are the orbits of the action. For c Bs , let c denote the lattice of Rr , which is the
isotropy group of every point in F1 (c); it is the period lattice of the action , restricted to F1 (c). In order to simplify the notation, we assume that Bs is centered
at o.
Let mo be an arbitrary point of F1 (o) and choose a basis (1 (o), . . . , r (o)) of
the lattice o . For a fixed i, with 1  i  r, for m in a neighborhood of mo in Tr Bs

346

12 Liouville Integrable Systems

and for Li in a neighborhood of i (o) in Rr , consider the equation (Li , m) = m.

Since F( (Li , m)) = F(m) for all Li and m, it is meaningful to write (Li , m)
m and solving the equation (Li , m) = m locally for Li amounts to applying the
implicit function theorem to the map
Rr (Tr Bs )

(Li ,m)m

Tr Bs

Tr .

Since the action is locally free, the Jacobian condition is satisfied and we get by
solving for Li around i (o) a smooth Rr -valued function i (m), defined for m in
a neighborhood Wi of mo . Doing this for i = 1, . . . , r and setting W := ri=1Wi , we
have that W is a neighborhood of mo , and on W we have functions 1 (m), . . . , r (m),
with the property that (i (m), m) = m for all m W and for all 1  i  r. Thus,
1 (m), . . . , r (m) belong to the lattice F(m) for all m W and they form a basis
when m = mo ; by continuity, they form a basis of F(m) for all m W .
The functions i can be extended to a neighborhood of the torus F1 (o). In
fact, the functions i are F-basic, hence extend uniquely to F-basic functions on
F1 (F(W )). We will use in the sequel the same notation i for these extensions and
we write F1 (F(W )) simply as W . Using these functions, we define the following
smooth map:
:
Rr W

W

r

ti i (m), m

((t1 , . . . ,tr ), m) 

(12.15)

i=1

Since the functions i are F-basic, the fact that is an action implies that is an
action. This action has the extra feature that the stabilizer of every point in W is Zr .
Thus, induces an action of Tr on W , which we still denote by . By shrinking W ,
if necessary, we may assume that W is of the form F1 (Bs0 ), where Bs0 is an open
ball, concentric with Bs , and contained in it. Thus we have a torus action

Tr W

((t1 , . . . ,tr ), m) 

W
r

ti i (m), m

i=1

Looking at the action on a single point m W , it is clear that the fundamental

vector fields of are expressible as linear combinations of the Hamiltonian vector

fields XFi , with F-basic functions as coefficients. 

12.3.4 The Existence of Action-Angle Coordinates

We formulate and prove in this section the action-angle theorem. The following
lemma plays a key role in the proof.

12.3 The Liouville Theorem and the Action-Angle Theorem

347

Lemma 12.14. Let M be a manifold, equipped with a vector field V and a bivector
field P. Suppose that V is complete and that each one of its integral curves has
period 1. If LV2 P = 0, then LV P = 0.
Proof. Let Q be the bivector field on M, defined by Q := LV P. We pick an arbitrary
point m and we show that Qm = 0. Denoting the flow of V by t , we have for all t
that

d
(t ) Pt (m) = (t ) (LV P)t (m) = (t ) Qt (m) = Qm ,
dt

(12.16)

where we used in the last step that the bivector field Q satisfies LV Q = 0. By integrating (12.16),
(t ) Pt (m) = Pm + tQm .
Evaluated at t = 1 this yields Qm = 0, since 1 = 1 = 1M , as V has period 1.


Theorem 12.15 (Action-angle theorem). Let (M, , F) be a Liouville integrable
system, where (M, ) is a Poisson manifold of dimension d and rank 2r. Suppose that Fm is a standard Liouville torus, where m UF M(r) . Then there exist R-valued smooth functions (p1 , . . . , pdr ) and R/Z-valued smooth functions
(1 , . . . , r ), defined in a neighborhood U of Fm , such that
(1)
(2)

The map, defined by (1 , . . . , r , p1 , . . . , pdr ), is a diffeomorphism between U

and Tr Bdr ;
The Poisson structure can be written in terms of these coordinates as

pi
i
i=1
r

(3)

in particular the functions pr+1 , . . . , pdr are Casimirs of (restricted to U);

The leaves of the surjective submersion F = (F1 , . . . , Fdr ) are given by the
projection onto the second component Tr Bdr , in particular, the functions
F1 , . . . , Fdr depend on the functions p1 , . . . , pdr only.

The functions 1 , . . . , r are called angle coordinates, the functions p1 , . . . , pr are

called action coordinates and the remaining functions pr+1 , . . . , pdr are called
transverse coordinates.
Proof. We denote s := d r, as before. The hypotheses imply, according to Proposition 12.12 that we can assume that (M, , F) is of the form (Tr Bs , , pB ), where Bs
is a ball, centered at the origin of Rs . We do this, but we still write F for pB , denoting
its components as ( f1 , . . . , fr , z1 , . . . , zsr ), since according to the latter proposition,
the last components of F can be assumed to be Casimir functions. According to
Proposition 12.13 there exist F-basic functions ij F (Tr Bs ), such that the r
vector fields
Vi :=

i j X f j ,

j=1

(12.17)

348

12 Liouville Integrable Systems

where i = 1, . . . , r, are the fundamental vector fields of an action of Tr on Tr Bs .

We first prove that these vector fields are Poisson vector fields, i.e., that LVi =
[Vi , ]S = 0 for i = 1, . . . , r. Since each Vi has period 1 and is complete, it suffices
to show, according to Lemma 12.14, that LV2i = [Vi , [Vi , ]] = 0, for i = 1 . . . , r.

Since each of the coefficients ij which appear in (12.17) is an F-basic function,

it suffices to show that if F, F  , G and G are F-basic functions on Tr Bs , then
[FXG , [F  XG , ]S ]S = 0. In fact, Hamiltonian vector fields leave invariant, Fbasic functions are in involution and their Hamiltonian vector fields commute, so
that the graded Leibniz identity for the Schouten bracket yields

 

FXG , F  XG , S S = [FXG , XF  XG ]S
= F [XG , XF  XG ]S + XG [F, XF  XG ]S = 0 ,

as was to be shown.
We proceed to construct the action coordinates: we show that the Poisson vector
fields Vi are actually Hamiltonian vector fields (upon shrinking Br , if necessary),
where the Hamiltonians can be taken as F-basic functions; these Hamiltonians will
yield the action coordinates. According to Theorem 1.28, we can construct on a
neighborhood U  of m in Tr Bs functions g1 , . . . , gr such that
( f1 , . . . , fr , g1 , . . . , gr , z1 , . . . , zsr )
is a system of coordinates on U  , in which the Poisson structure takes the form

gi
i
i=1
r

In what follows, we make no notational distinction between the F-basic functions

f1 , . . . , fr , z1 , . . . , zsr , ij , considered as functions on F(U  ) Bs , and the functions
f1 , . . . , fr , z1 , . . . , zsr , ij themselves, defined on U  . With this notation, the vector
fields X j and Vi can be written as
i

X j =
i

i j
X fk ,
k=1 f k
r

and

j=1

j=1

i j X f j = i j g j .

Vi =

Expressing that Vi is a Poisson vector field, [Vi , ]S = 0, then takes the explicit form

j,k=1

i j

g j f k gk

i j

f k g j gk = 0 ,
j,k=1
r

=
S

which is rewritten in terms of the Hamiltonian vector fields X f j as



1 j<kr

ij ik

fk
fj


X f j X fk = 0 .

(12.18)

12.3 The Liouville Theorem and the Action-Angle Theorem

349

Since the vector fields X f1 , . . . , X fr are linearly independent at all points of U  , all
coefficients of (12.18) vanish and we get, for every i, j, k {1, . . . , r}:

i j
ik
=
.
fk
fj

(12.19)

As in the proof of the classical Poincare lemma, the smooth functions p1 , . . . , pr

on F(U  ), defined by
r

pi = pi ( f1 , . . . , fs ) :=

 1

j=1 t=0

ij (t f1 , . . . ,t fr , z1 , . . . , zsr ) f j dt

satisfy

i j =

pi
,
fj

(12.20)

(12.21)

for all 1  i, j  r. As above, we view these functions as functions on U  . They are

Hamiltonians of the vector fields Vi , because
X pi =

pi
fj Xfj =
j=1
r

ij X f j = Vi .

(12.22)

j=1

This shows that each one of the vector fields Vi is a Hamiltonian vector field on U  .
Since the functions pi and z j are F-basic, each admits a unique extension to an
F-basic function on F(F1 (U  )), a neighborhood of Fm which we call U  in the
sequel. On U  , we still have Vi = X pi .
We proceed to the construction of the angle coordinates. In view of Theorem 1.28, there exist on a neighborhood U  U  of m in Tr Bs , smooth functions
1 , . . . , r such that
r

.
(12.23)
pj
j=1 j
On U  , X p j = j , for j = 1, . . . , r; since each of these vector fields has period 1, it
is natural to view the functions 1 , . . . , r as R/Z-valued functions, which we will do
without changing the notation. Notice that the functions 1 , . . . , r are independent
and pairwise in involution on U  , as a trivial consequence of (12.23). In particular,
1 , . . . , r , p1 , . . . , ps define local coordinates on U  . In these coordinates, the action
of Tr is given by
(t1 , . . . ,tr ) (1 , . . . , r , p1 , . . . , ps ) = (1 + t1 , . . . , r + tr , p1 , . . . , ps ) ,

(12.24)

so that the functions i uniquely extend to smooth R/Z-valued functions satisfying (12.24), on U := F1 (F(U  )), which is an open neighborhood
 of Fm in M; the

extended functions are still denoted by i . It is clear that i , p j = i, j on U, for
all i, j = 1, . . . , r. Combined with the Jacobi identity, this leads to

350

12 Liouville Integrable Systems

 
  
 


X pk [ i , j ] = i , j , pk = i , j,k j , i,k = 0 ,


which shows that the Poisson brackets i , j are invariant under the Tr -action;
but the latter vanish on U  , hence these brackets vanish at every point of U. We
may conclude that on U, the functions (1 , . . . , r , p1 , . . . , ps ) have independent differentials, so they define a diffeomorphism to Tr Bs where Bs is a (small) ball
with center 0, and that the Poisson structure takes in terms of these coordinates the
canonical form (12.23), as required. 

In terms of action-angle coordinates, the Hamiltonian vector fields X fi take a
particularly simple form. In fact, since the functions Fi depend on the coordinates pi
only, the equations of motion, associated to the Hamiltonian Fi are given by


Fi
=0,
p j = p j , Fi =
j
 Fi

j = j , Fi =
= cj ,
pj
zk = 0 ,

j = 1, . . . , r ,
j = 1, . . . , r ,
k = 1, . . . , s 2r ,

where c j depends on the p and z coordinates only. Integrating the first and third
equations, we find that all p j and zk are constant (which is not surprising since the
Fj are constants of motion and the zk are Casimirs), so that the c j are constant,
which yields upon using the second equation that the angle coordinates evolve linearly, j (t) = c j t, for j = 1, . . . , r. Thus, action-angle coordinates not only exhibit
an integrable system locally as a Hamiltonian system with linear flow(s) on a family
of tori, they are also the coordinates in which the equations of motion take their
simplest possible form.
The action-angle theorem admits a natural generalization to the case of noncommutative integrable systems (see [120]). The classical examples of Liouville
integrable systems can be found in [204]. For a modern treatment of Liouville integrability, including recently discovered examples, we refer to [3, 164].

12.4 Notes
The term integrable system appears in a large variety of mathematical and physical contexts, referring often more to phenomena than to a precise general definition.
The notion of a Liouville integrable system, detailed in this chapter, is a notable
exception. Liouvilles observation that Liouville integrable systems can be solved
by quadratures has been a main impulse to the development of Poisson geometry,
for a long time restricted to symplectic geometry (the geometry of the phase space
of a mechanical system). For an excellent account of what was classically known
about integrable systems, the reader should consult Whittaker [204]. The books by
AbrahamMarsden [1], Arnold [15] and LibermannMarle [125] are all devoted

12.4 Notes

351

partly to integrability in classical mechanics, in the setting of symplectic manifolds,

although Lie groups and Lie algebras are present throughout these books, just as
Poisson brackets are. See also the book by KosmannSchwarzbach [114], which
focuses on the Noether theorems, with special emphasis on their historical developments, as well as on their influence in mathematics and physics.
Shortly before 1970, the remarkable discovery was made that the Kortewegde
Vries equation can be solved by the inverse spectral method, has an infinite number of constant of motion, has a (in fact many) Hamiltonian structure(s) and can be
described as an isospectral flow of a SturmLiouville operator (as a Lax equation).
It has very much revived the interest in integrable systems, in particular in Liouville integrable systems, on which the newly discovered infinite-dimensional tools
(inverse spectral method, Lax equations, recursion operators), were successfully applied, thereby shedding a new light on some classical results, leading to the solution
of some classical problems and to the discovery of some new integrable systems.
See the books by Perelomov [164] and Fomenko [78], which together cover a large
spectrum of examples and phenomena. From the Poisson point of view, the important observation by Adler that the Poisson structure of the Kortewegde Vries
equation comes from a Lie algebra splitting led to the notion of an R-bracket, which
in turn was at the basis of a better understanding of the symmetries of quantum systems, culminating in the discovery of quantum groups, see FaddeevTakhtajan [72]
and ChariPressley [40].
The presence of algebraic geometry in integrable systems, already present in
the classical works of Euler, Jacobi, Painleve and Kowalevskaya, was reaffirmed
by ItsMatveev, who showed that the theta functions of hyperelliptic curves lead
to solutions of the Kortewegde Vries equation, and by Adlervan Moerbeke, who
showed upon building upon Kowalevskayas intuition that basically all classical examples of integrable systems are algebraically integrable, see Adlervan Moerbeke
Vanhaecke [3, 196]. The underlying Lie and Poisson geometry of these systems is
always very rich, but often only partly understood.

Chapter 13

Deformation Quantization

In this chapter we present a second application of Poisson structures: the theory of

deformations of commutative associative algebras, also called deformation quantization. Geometric quantization and deformation quantization are two approaches to
the process of forming a quantum mechanical system from a given classical system. Both are based on Diracs observation that the natural quantization rules for
Euclidean-invariant systems yield for the simplest variables (position and momentum) differential operators which obey commutation relations analogous to the Poisson bracket for the corresponding classical variables. We will only discuss deformation quantization here, which consists of considering for a given Poisson manifold
(M, { , }) all associative products  on the vector space C (M)[[ ]], which are of
the form:
1
F  G = FG + {F, G} +C(F, G) 2 +
2
Kontsevichs formality theorem implies that for every Poisson manifold, such a deformation quantization exists.
The problem of describing for a given commutative associative algebra (A , )
all associative structures on A [[ ]], which deform the product is also interesting
from the mathematical point of view. Since even in this more general context, any
such deformation makes a Poisson bracket appear on (A , ), the question is most
naturally asked when this Poisson bracket is fixed in advance, i.e., when (A , , { , })
is a Poisson algebra. As we will see, the problem of describing all Poisson brackets
on (A [[ ]], ) which deform the Poisson bracket { , } is related to the deformation
quantization problem.
Formal deformations of associative products and of Poisson structures are introduced in Sections 13.1 and 13.2. Section 13.3 is devoted to the basics on differential
graded Lie algebras, while the more advanced theory of L -morphisms of differential graded Lie algebras is discussed in Section 13.4. Combined, these sections
provide the material which allows the reader to understand and appreciate Kontsevichs formality theorem, which is stated, together with some of its consequences,
in the final Section 13.5.
Unless stated otherwise, F is an arbitrary field of characteristic zero.
C. Laurent-Gengoux et al., Poisson Structures,
Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften 347,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-31090-4 13, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

353

354

13 Deformation Quantization

13.1 Deformations of Associative Products

In this section, we introduce the notion of a formal deformation and of a k-th order
deformation of a commutative associative algebra and we show how these deformations are related to Hochschild cohomology. We pick an indeterminate and we
denote by F the ring F[[ ]] of formal power series in with coefficients in F.

13.1.1 Formal and k-th Order Deformations

Let A be a commutative associative algebra over F with unit. The product on A will
be denoted in its functional form by , or by a simple juxtaposition of the factors,
so we write FG for (F, G) for all F, G A . Associated to A , we consider the F algebra A [[ ]] of formal power series in , with coefficients in A ; we also denote
this algebra by A . Thus, an element of A is a formal power series iN Fi i ,
where all Fi A . The product which A inherits from A by extension of scalars,
as in Section 2.4.1, is given by
 



Fi i

iN

G j j

jN

:=

Fi G j i+ j ,

(13.1)

i, jN

which is well-defined, since for every k N, the coefficient of k in the right-hand

side of (13.1) is a finite sum. This product is associative, F -bilinear and reduces to
the original product on A when setting = 0. It is therefore a formal deformation
of in the sense of the following definition.
Definition 13.1. Let (A , ) be a commutative associative algebra. An F -bilinear
map  : A A A is called a formal deformation of if  is associative
and  = (mod ), i.e., if  (F, G) (F, G) A for all F, G A .
The question which we will address later in this chapter is the construction of all
formal deformations of a commutative associative product . The above deformation (13.1), which is commutative, is a particular example, in fact a rather trivial
one. We stress that the formal deformations which we consider, are not required to
be commutative.
The notion of equivalence of deformations of a given commutative associative
product is given in the following definition.
Definition 13.2. Let (A , ) be a commutative associative algebra and let  and 
be two formal deformations of . Then  and  are said to be equivalent if there
exists an F -linear map : A A , such that
(1)
(2)

(F) = F (mod ), for all F A ;

( (F, G)) =  ( (F), (G)), for all F, G A .

The map is then called an equivalence of formal deformations.

13.1 Deformations of Associative Products

355

Condition (1) in the above definition implies that the map is invertible, so the
notion of equivalence of formal deformations defines an equivalence relation on the
set of all formal deformations of a product . Also, if  is a formal deformation
of and : A A is an F -linear map such that (F) = F (mod ), for
every F A , then the map  : A A A , defined for F, G A by


 (F, G) :=  ( 1 (F), 1 (G)) ,
is a formal deformation of , equivalent to  .
Remark 13.3. A formal deformation  of can be seen as an element of Hom(A
A , A )[[ ]], because there is for every k N a natural isomorphism of F -modules


HomF (A k , A )[[ ]]  HomF (A )k , A .
We show this in the case of k = 1, the case of arbitrary k being only notationally
more complicated. Suppose that : A A is an F -linear map. For F A ,
we can write (F) in a unique way as

(F) = 0 (F) + 1 (F) + + k (F) k + ,

(13.2)

where every i (F) belongs to A . It follows that we can associate to every element of HomF (A , A ) a sequence of linear maps (i )iN from A to A , that
is, an element of HomF (A , A )[[ ]]. Conversely, given such a sequence of F-linear
maps (i )iN , the map , defined by (13.2), extends in a unique way to an F -linear
map. By a slight abuse of notation, we keep the notation i for the F -linear extensions of the maps i to A , which has the effect that (13.2) remains valid when F
belongs to A .
Formal deformations are often constructed term by term, which is done rigorously by considering k-th order deformations. For k N, we consider the ring
Fk := F / k+1 . Elements of this ring can be represented by polynomials in
of degree at most k and the product in this ring is the ordinary multiplication of
polynomials, followed by stripping off the terms whose degree is higher than k.
Starting from a commutative associative algebra A , we consider similarly
Ak := A / k+1  ,
which we can view as an F -algebra, or as an Fk -algebra. We have that A0  A ,
in a natural way; these algebras will be identified in the sequel. Notice also that in
Remark 13.3, one can replace F by Fk and A by Ak .
Definition 13.4. Let (A , ) be a commutative associative algebra. For k N, an
Fk -bilinear map (k) : Ak Ak Ak ,

(k) = 0 + 1 + + k k ,

(13.3)

356

13 Deformation Quantization

where each i is an F-bilinear map from A to itself, is called a k-th order deformation of if 0 = and (k) is associative.
A , formal deformations
Under the natural quotient maps A Ak and Ak+1
k
(respectively (k + 1)-th order deformations) are mapped to k-th order deformations.
By a slight abuse of language, we say that an F -bilinear map  : A A A
such that  = (mod ) defines a k-th order deformation of if the induced
Fk -bilinear map (k) : Ak Ak Ak is a k-th order deformation of . Clearly,
this is equivalent to saying that

 ( (F, G), H) =  (F,  (G, H)) (mod k+1 )

for all F, G, H A .
The notion of equivalence of k-th order deformations of is obtained by replacing F by Fk and A by Ak in Definition 13.2, which deals with the notion of
equivalence of formal deformations. Again, an F -linear map A A which induces an equivalence of k-th order deformations will be said to define an equivalence
of k-th order deformations.
Let (A , ) be a commutative associative algebra and suppose that (1) = 0 +
1 defines a first order deformation of = 0 . For a, b, c A , the coefficient
in in the associativity equation (1) ((1) (a, b), c) = (1) (a, (1) (b, c)) (mod 2 )
is given by
1 (ab, c) + 1 (a, b)c = a1 (b, c) + 1 (a, bc) .
It follows that

1 (ab, c) + 1 (a, b)c a1 (b, c) 1 (a, bc) = 0 ,

where 1 is the skew-symmetric part of 1 , i.e.,
1
1 (a, b) := (1 (a, b) 1 (b, a)) ,
2

(13.4)

for all a, b A . Performing a cyclic permutation of a, b, c in this equation leads to

the following three equations.

1 (ab, c) + 1 (a, b)c 1 (b, c)a 1 (a, bc) = 0 ,

1 (bc, a) + 1 (b, c)a 1 (c, a)b 1 (b, ac) = 0 ,
1 (ac, b) + 1 (c, a)b 1 (a, b)c 1 (c, ab) = 0 ,
whose alternating sum simplifies to

1 (ab, c) = 1 (a, c)b + 1 (b, c)a .

It follows that if (1) is a first order deformation of = 0 , then 1 is a skewsymmetric biderivation of (A , ). Suppose now that (2) = 0 + 1 + 2 2 is a
second order deformation of = 0 . The associativity of (2) (up to 2 ) implies

13.1 Deformations of Associative Products

357

that the commutator

[a, b] :=  (a, b)  (b, a)
= 2 1 (a, b) (mod 2 ) .
satisfies the Jacobi identity up to order 2 ,
[[a, b] , c] +  (a, b, c) = 0

(mod 3 ) ,

for all a, b and c in A . It follows that

1 (1 (a, b), c)+  (a, b, c) = 0 ,

for all a, b and c in A , i.e., 1 satisfies the Jacobi identity. In conclusion, if (2) =
0 + 1 + 2 2 is a second order deformation of an associative algebra (A , ),
then (A , , 1 ) is a Poisson algebra!

13.1.2 Hochschild Cohomology

Deformations of associative products are governed by Hochschild cohomology. In
the present section, we introduce this cohomology and we show in the next section
how it is related to deformation theory. Throughout this section, we fix a commutative ring R.
Let V be a module over R. For k N , we denote by HCk (V ) := Hom(V k ,V )
the space of all k-linear maps V k V , while HC0 (V ) := V . We will define
a bracket [ , ]G , called the Gerstenhaber bracket, on
HC (V ) :=

HCk (V ) ,

kN

which is a graded Lie bracket, just like the Schouten bracket, after a shift of degree
(see Section 3.3.2). Thus, we denote k := k 1, and we define HCk1 (V ) := HCk (V )
for k N so that HCk (V ) = HCk (V ). Elements of the latter space have degree k and
shifted degree k. With respect to the shifted degree, the Gerstenhaber bracket is a
graded Lie bracket, i.e., for all k,  N ,
[ , ]G : HCk (V ) HC (V ) HCk+ (V )
and [ , ]G is graded skew-symmetric and satisfies the graded Jacobi identity (see
Table A.2 in Appendix A).
Explicitly, the bracket [ , ]G is defined, for HCk (V ) and HC (V ), by the
following formula,

358

13 Deformation Quantization

[ , ]G (x1 , . . . , xk++1 )
k

:=

(1)i 

(13.5)




x1 , . . . , xi1 , xi , . . . , xi+ , xi++1 , . . . , xk+

i=1






(1)k  (1)i k x1 , . . . , xi1 , xi , . . . , xi+k , xi+k+1 , . . . , x+k ,
i=1

where x1 , . . . , xk++1 V . In particular, if HC2 (V ), then

[ , ]G (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = 2 ( (x1 , x2 ), x3 ) 2 (x1 , (x2 , x3 )) ,
for all x1 , x2 , x3 V , so that defines an associative product on V if and only if
[ , ]G = 0.
Suppose now that (A , ) is an associative (not necessarily commutative) algebra with unit, over R. Combined with the graded Jacobi identity, the associativity
condition [ , ]G = 0 implies that

k := [, ]G : HCk (A ) HCk+1 (A )

(13.6)

is a coboundary operator, i.e., k+1 k = 0 for every k N. This operator is called

the Hochschild coboundary operator and the associated complex

k1

HCk1 (A )

HCk (A )

HCk+1 (A )

k+1

is called the Hochschild complex of A . The cohomology of this complex,

HH (A ) :=

HHk (A )

kN

is called the Hochschild cohomology of A , where

HHk (A ) := Ker k / Im k1 ,
for k N , while HH0 (A ) := Ker 0 . The elements of Ker k are called Hochschild
k-cocycles and the elements of Im k1 are called Hochschild k-coboundaries.
An explicit formula for the Hochschild coboundary operator is obtained by
substituting for in (13.5); writing FG for (F, G), it takes, for HCk (A ),
and F0 , . . . , Fk A , the simple form

k ( )(F0 , . . . , Fk ) := F0 (F1 , . . . , Fk ) + (1)k+1 (F0 , . . . , Fk1 )Fk

k

+ (1)i (F0 , . . . , Fi1 Fi , . . . , Fk ) .

i=1

Since

0 (F)(G) = GF FG ,

(13.7)

13.1 Deformations of Associative Products

359

for F, G A , one has that HH0 (A ) = Ker 0 is the center of the associative algebra (A , ). Since moreover

1 ( )(F, G) = F (G) (FG) + (F)G ,

(13.8)

for F, G A and HC1 (A ), the kernel of 1 consists of linear maps : A A

which satisfy
(FG) = F (G) + (F)G ,
for all F, G A , which is the non-commutative analog of the derivation property. It
follows that the first Hochschild cohomology space associated to (A , ) consists of
the quotient of the space of all the derivations of (A , ), by the space of all inner
derivations of (A , ) (i.e., derivations of (A , ) of the form [F, ], for F A ,
where [F, G] := FG GF, for G A ). In particular, if (A , ) is commutative,
then HH1 (A ) is the R-module X1 (A ) of all derivations of A .

13.1.3 Deformations and Cohomology

We now explain how the Hochschild cohomology of a commutative associative algebra (A , ) is related to the deformations of its product . As we already pointed
out, a formal deformation (respectively, an -th order deformation) defines for every k N (respectively for every k  ) a k-th order deformation. Conversely, let
1 , . . . , k HC2 (A ) and suppose that (k) := 0 + 1 + + k k defines a

k-th order deformation of = 0 , so that (k) , (k) G = 0 (mod k+1 ), where1
[ , ]G denotes the F -linear extension of [ , ]G to A . Let k+1 be a bilinear map
A A A . The bilinear map (k+1) , defined by:

(k+1) := (k) + k+1 k+1

defines a (k + 1)-th order deformation of , if and only if (k+1) , (k+1) G = 0

(mod k+2 ). Since (k) , (k) G = 0 (in Ak ), all that remains in the latter equation is

[i , j ]G = 0 ,

i+ j=k+1
i, j0

which we can write in terms of the Hochschild coboundary operator (13.6), associated to = 0 , as

2 (k+1 ) = [k+1 , 0 ]S =

1
2

[ i , j ] G .

i+ j=k+1
i, j1

In other words, [ , ]G denotes the Gerstenhaber bracket on the F -module HC (A ).

(13.9)

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13 Deformation Quantization

This means that (k) can be extended to a deformation of of order k +1, if and only
if the right-hand side of (13.9) is a 3-coboundary for the Hochschild coboundary
operator 2 . Notice that it is a 3-cocycle, since

i+ j=k+1
i, j1

[i , j ]G
=

, [i , j ]G

i+ j=k+1
i, j1

i , [ j , ]G

i+ j=k+1
i, j1

=2

i+ j=k+1
i, j1

i , 2 ( j )

+ [ j , [ , i ]G ]G

i , [ j ,  ]G

i+ j+=k+1
i, j,1

= 0,
where we have used the graded Jacobi identity for [ , ]G to obtain the second and the
last lines. It follows that the obstruction to extending a deformation of of some
order to the next order lies in the third Hochschild cohomology space HH3 (A ).
This statement is the content of the following proposition.
Proposition 13.5. Let (A , ) be a commutative associative algebra and suppose
that (k) = ki=0 i i defines a k-th order deformation of . Then (k) can be extended to a (k + 1)-th order deformation of if and only if the Hochschild 3-cocycle
ki=1 [i , k+1i ]G is a Hochschild 3-coboundary.
It is clear from (13.9) that the term k+1 k+1 which makes a k-th order deformation
of into a (k + 1)-th order deformation of is not unique (if it exists): one can
always add a Hochschild 2-cocycle to k+1 and this is the only freedom in the choice
of k+1 . If this 2-cocycle is a coboundary, then the two extended (k + 1)-th order
deformations are essentially the same, in the sense that they are equivalent (see
Definition 13.2). More generally, we have the following proposition.
Proposition 13.6. Let (A , ) be a commutative associative algebra and suppose
that (k) = ki=0 i i defines a k-th order deformation of , where k N . Let   k,
where  N . Let : A A be an F-linear map, which we extend to an F -linear
map A A , still denoted by , and let

()
= 0 + 1 + 2 2 + + 1 1 + ( + 1 ( ))  .

(13.10)

 extends to a k-th order deformation  of , which is equivalent to .

Then, ()
(k)
(k)

Proof. Consider the F -linear map : A A , defined by

13.1 Deformations of Associative Products

361

: A A
F
F (F) 
 , dewhose inverse is given by 1 (F) = iN i (F) i . The F -bilinear map (k)
fined for all F, G A by

(k)
(F, G) := ((k) ( 1 (F), 1 (G)))

is a k-th order deformation of , which is equivalent to (k) . Up to order , it is

given by
 (F, G) = ( (F + (F)  , G + (G)  ))
()
()

= (() (F, G) + (F)G  + F (G)  )

= () (F, G) + ( (F)G (FG) + F (G)) 
= () (F, G) + 1 ( )(F, G)  ,
 = + 1 ( )  , as
where we have used (13.8) in the last step. It follows that ()
()

in (13.10). 


It follows from the proposition that in order to construct all possible deformations of , up to equivalence, one only has to consider, at every step k, as many
possibilities as there are elements in HH2 (A ).

13.1.4 The MaurerCartan Equation

2
i

Let  =
i=0 i be an element of HC (A ), where 0 = . As above,  is
associative if and only if [ ,  ]G = 0, which is in turn equivalent to demanding
that  HC2 (A ) is a solution of the following equation

1
2 (x) [x, x]G = 0 ,
2

(13.11)

where, by a slight abuse of notation, 2 stands for the F -linear extension of 2

to HC2 (A )  HC2 (A )[[ ]]. For future use, we stress that we consider only solutions x of this equation which are formal series without constant term. Precisely,
x HC2 (A ). In terms of the terminology of Section 13.3, equation (13.11) is
called the MaurerCartan equation associated to the differential graded Lie algebra
( HC (A ), [ , ]G , ).

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13 Deformation Quantization

13.1.5 Star Products

As a particular case, we consider the algebra A = C (M) of smooth functions on
a real manifold M, where the associative product is the usual product of functions. In this case, one usually considers a particular class of formal deformations
of , where all Hochschild cochains are bi-differential operators, a notion which we
define first.
A bi-differential operator on M is a map : C (M) C (M) C (M), compatible with restrictions to open subsets and such that, on every coordinate chart
(U, (x1 , . . . , xd )) and for all smooth functions F, G on U, one can write:
 r  s 
F
G
,
(13.12)
(F, G) = r,s
r

x
xs
r,sNd
where for r, s Nd the coefficients r,s are smooth functions on U, which vanish except for a finite number of (r, s). When all coefficients r,s are constant,
we speak of a constant coefficient bi-differential operator. For each multi-index
r = (r1 , . . . , rd ) Nd , we used in (13.12) the notation

rF
r1 ++rd F
:=
r .
xr
x1r1 xdd
The generalization of the definition of a bi-differential operator to a multi-differential
operator is clear. Notice that is a bi-differential operator on M.
Definition 13.7. Let M be a real manifold.
(1)
(2)

(3)

A star product on C (M) is a formal deformation  = iN i i of the product of C (M), where each i is a bi-differential operator on M;
Two star products  and  on C (M) are said to be equivalent star products
if they are equivalent as formal deformations, via an equivalence of the form
= 1C (M) + 1 + + k k + , where each one of the F-linear maps
i : C (M) C (M) is a differential operator;
If is a Poisson structure on M, then (M, ) is said to admit a deformation
quantization if there exists a star product  = iN i i on C (M), such that
1 = 2 . Then  is said to be a star product for (M, ).

We also use the infix notation  for a star product. Thus, we often write F  G
instead of  (F, G), for F, G C (M).
Several authors demand that the constant power series 1 is a unit for the star
product; this condition is not very essential, since it can be shown that every star
product as defined above is equivalent to a star product which has 1 as its unit
(see [39, Cor. 3.4.5]).
The description of star products in terms of cohomology is the same as for deformations, except that one considers as cochains only the differential Hochschild

13.1 Deformations of Associative Products

363

cochains of C (M), i.e., the Hochschild cochains which are given by multi-differential operators. The space of all differential Hochschild cochains of C (M) is denoted

by HCdiff (M) := kN HCkdiff (M). Notice that the Gerstenhaber bracket can be restricted to such cochains because the Gerstenhaber bracket of two multi-differential
operators is a multi-differential operator.

13.1.6 A Star Product for Constant Poisson Structures

In this section we consider the case of a constant Poisson structure on a finitedimensional vector space V . We describe the MoyalWeyl product, which is an
explicit star product for (V, ).
In order to describe the MoyalWeyl product, we first show how a constant
Poisson structure leads naturally to an endomorphism of F (V ) F (V ), where
F (V ) := C (V ). Given two endomorphisms V1 and V2 of F (V ), an endomorphism
V1 V2 of F (V ) F (V ) is defined by letting
(V1 V2 )(F G) := V1 (F) V2 (G) ,
for all F, G F (V ). Given endomorphisms V1 , . . . , Vk , V1 , . . . , Vk of F (V ) leads by
linear extension to an endomorphism ki=1 Vi Vi  of F (V ) F (V ). In particular,
given a constant Poisson structure on V , which we write as = ki=1 Vi Vi  , with
V1 , . . . , Vk , V1 , . . . , Vk constant vector fields on V , the previous construction yields
an endomorphism of F (V ) F (V ), which we also denote . We can then write

[F, G] = ( (F G)) ,

(13.13)

where denotes the linear map : F (V ) F (V ) F (V ), which simply sends

F G to the product FG, for functions F, G F (V ). The interest of writing the
Poisson structure, and the other differential operators which will come up in the construction, as in the right-hand side of (13.13) is that although cannot be reapplied
to [F, G], it can be reapplied to (F G). It allows us to define, for F, G F (V )
(or, by -linearity, for F, G F (V ) ) the following formal power series:
e /2 (F G) := F G +

2i i! i (F G) .

(13.14)

iN

Proposition 13.8. Let be a constant Poisson structure on a finite-dimensional vector space V and let denote the linear map : F (V ) F (V ) F (V ) , defined
by (F G) := FG, for all F, G F (V ) . The bilinear map F (V ) F (V )
F (V ) , defined by


(13.15)
F  G := e /2 (F G) ,
is a star product for (V, ).

364

13 Deformation Quantization

Proof. We first prove that  is associative: for all F, G, H F (V ), we show that

F  (G  H) = (F  G)  H. This can be done by direct computation, upon using
the classical trick of representing a bi-differential operator as a composition of two
differential operators: if is a bi-differential operator, which we consider here with
constant coefficients, then there exists a differential operator xy , such that

(F, G) = xy (F(x)G(y))|y=x .
Explicitly, when is of the form (13.12), with all r,s constant, then xy is given by

xy =

r,s

r,sNd

r+s
.
x r ys

With this notation, we can write (13.15) as

F  G = e xy /2 F(x)G(y)|y=x .
The associativity of  then follows from the following computation:
(F  G)  H = e xz /2 (F  G)(x)H(z)|z=x
= e xz /2+ yz /2 e xy /2 F(x)G(y)H(z)|z=y=x
= e (xz +yz +xy )/2 F(x)G(y)H(z)|z=y=x
= F  (G  H) .
The computation demands some extra justification. We have used in the third equality that if 1 and 2 are commuting endomorphisms, then e1 +2 = e1 e2 ; this property follows at once from the definition given in (13.14). We used in the second
equality that if V = Vx is a derivation of F (V ), then


V F(x, y)|y=x = Vx F(x, y)|y=x + Vy F(x, y)|y=x = (Vx + Vy )F(x, y)|y=x ,
which follows from the chain rule. This proves that  is associative, hence is a formal
deformation of ; since for F, G F (V ) the coefficient of in F  G is 12 [F, G], it

follows that  is a star product for (V, ). 
When the rank 2r of the constant Poisson structure is equal to the dimension of V ,
there exists a system of linear coordinates (q1 , . . . , qr , p1 , . . . , pr ) on V , in which the
Poisson bracket of functions F, G F (V ) takes the canonical form

r 
F G F G
{F, G} =
;

pi qi
i=1 qi pi
see Proposition 6.5 for the existence of such coordinates. For such a choice of Poisson structure and such coordinates, the explicit formula (13.14) is referred to as the
MoyalWeyl product, or simply the Moyal product.

13.1 Deformations of Associative Products

365

13.1.7 A Star Product for Symplectic Manifolds

In this section we explain how the MoyalWeyl product can be used to prove that
every symplectic manifold (M, ) admits a star product; more precisely, the algebra of smooth functions on (M, ), equipped with its canonical Poisson structure,
admits a star product. The construction presented here is due to Fedosov; we refer
to his original paper [73] for proofs and details.
We first need to elaborate on the star product in the case of a symplectic vector
space (the MoyalWeyl product, explained in Section 13.1.6 above). Let (V, ) be
a finite-dimensional symplectic real vector space and let = { , } denote the (constant) Poisson structure on V which corresponds to (see Section 6.3.1). We denote
by F (V ) the space of all formal power series in the variables that constitute a basis
for V and we denote by F  j (V ) the subspace of F (V ), consisting of those formal
power series whose valuation is at least j N. We also consider, for k N,
E k (V ) :=

i F  j (V ) .

i, jN
2i+ jk

It is easy to see from the explicit formula (13.15) that the MoyalWeyl product
on C (V ) extends to F (V ) := F (V )[[ ]]; moreover, for all k,  N, we have
that
E k (V )  E  (V ) E k+ (V ) ,
(13.16)

 k
which follows immediately from the fact that F (V ), F  (V ) F k+2 (V ),
for all k,  N . To V we associate the associative algebra A(V ), defined by
A(V ) := E 0 (V ) V ,
equipped with the associative product  given by:
(F )  (G ) := (F  G) ( ) ,
for all F, G E 0 (V ) and , V . Note that there is a decreasing sequence of
vector spaces
Ak (V ) := E k (V ) V
with A0 (V ) = A(V ). Note also that A(V )/Ak (V ) is a finite-dimensional vector
space, for each k N, and that there is on A(V ) a natural linear form P0 : A(V ) R
defined by mapping F to 0 if i1 i V and by mapping F 1 to F(0)
for all F E 0 (V ), where 1 stands for the unit element of the algebra V , and
where F(0) stands for the constant term of the formal power series F.
We now get back to the case of a symplectic manifold (M, ). The canonical
Poisson structure associated to is denoted by and the algebra of smooth functions on M is denoted by F (M). Each tangent space Tm M to M is a symplectic
vector space, associated to the Poisson structure m , so that we can consider as
above a star product m on F (Tm M) and an associative product m on A(Tm M).

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13 Deformation Quantization

We say that a section of the canonical projection mM A(Tm M) M mapping each

element to its base point is smooth if its projection on the vector bundle


A(Tm M)
M
k (T M)
A
m
mM
is smooth, for every k N. For k N, the space of all smooth sections which take
values in Ak (Tm M), for every m M, is denoted by A k (M); we use the shorthand
A (M) for A 0 (M). The product of two sections a A k (M) and b A  (M) is
the section of A k+ (M) whose value at m M is a(m) m b(m). Combined, the
linear maps P0 : A(Tm M) R defined above lead to a linear map A (M) F (M) ,
which we also denote by P0 .
Theorem 13.9. Let (M, ) be a symplectic manifold and let (A (M), ) be the algebra constructed as above. There exists a derivation D : A (M) A (M) with the
following property: for every F F (M) , there exists a unique aF A (M) such
that D(aF ) = 0 and P0 (aF ) = F.
Without going into details, we mention briefly how D is constructed, thereby
sketching a proof of the theorem; see [73] for details. D is an operator of the following form:
D := d + [ + , ] .
(13.17)
The first term, d , depends on the choice of a symplectic connection, i.e. a torsionfree connection on T M which satisfies
Z d (V , W ) = (Z V , W ) + (V , Z W ) ,
for arbitrary vector fields V ,W , Z on M. Such a symplectic connection induces
a connection on the bundle mM F (Tm M) M, which is strictly speaking not
a vector bundle (because the vector spaces F (Tm M) are infinite-dimensional), yet
it leads to a covariant derivative, which is d : A (M) A (M). The bracket [ , ]
in (13.17) is the Lie bracket on A (M) induced from the bracket [ , ]m on the spaces
A(Tm M), with m M, where [ , ]m is defined by
[a , b ]m := (a  b b  a) ,
for all a, b F (Tm M) and , Tm M. Third, is the symplectic structure , viewed as an element of A (M). Finally, A 3 (M) is a section of


mM F (Tm M) Tm M, which is chosen such that D = 0. Using the latter property, one proves the existence and uniqueness of aF , as stated in Theorem 13.9.
It is clear that D is a derivation, because both the adjoint action and the covariant
derivatives are derivations.
Corollary 13.10. Let (M, ) be a symplectic manifold, let (A (M), ) be the algebra constructed above and let D be a derivation of A (M) as in Theorem 13.9.
Denote by  the bilinear map on F (M) defined for all F, G F (M) by

13.2 Deformations of Poisson Structures

F  G := P0 (aF  aG ) ,

367

(13.18)

where aF is the unique element in the kernel of D, for which P0 (aF ) = F, and similarly for aG . Then  is a star product for (M, ), where is the canonical Poisson
structure on M, associated to .
Proof. We first prove that the product, defined by (13.18), is associative. Let
B(M) A (M) be the kernel of D; it is a subalgebra of A (M) since D is a
derivation. By Theorem 13.9, the assignment F
aF is a bijective linear map
from F (M) to B(M) with inverse map the restriction of P0 to B(M). It follows that the product  on F (M) is obtained from the associative product 
on B(M), via a bijection, hence is associative. We prove that  is a star product
for (M, ). Let F and G be smooth functions on M (in particular, they are independent of ). A closer look at the construction of aF and aG in [73] implies that
aF = (F + dm F + Hessm F) 1 + bF and aG = (G + dm G + Hessm G) 1 + bG for
some bF , bG A 3 (M), where dm F and dm G are viewed as linear functions on
Tm M, and Hessm F and Hessm G are viewed as quadratic functions on Tm M. An
explicit computation then yields P0 (aF  aG ) = FG + 2 {F, G} (mod 2 ), which
completes the proof. 


13.2 Deformations of Poisson Structures

The deformation theory of commutative associative algebras, described in Section 13.1, can quite easily be transcribed for Lie algebras. For Poisson algebras,
a few extra adaptions are necessary, since Poisson algebras have not one but two
algebra structures; in this section, we will deform only one of them, the Poisson
bracket, but we need to keep in mind that the deformed Poisson bracket should be
compatible with the associative product. As we will see, the deformation theory of
Poisson algebras is, despite this constraint, formally very similar to the deformation
theory of commutative associative algebras.

13.2.1 Formal and k-th Order Deformations

Let (A , , ) be a Poisson algebra. On A we consider, as in (13.1), the F -linear
extension of the product , which makes A into a commutative associative algebra (over the ring F ).
Definition 13.11. Let (A , , ) be a Poisson algebra. An F -linear skew-symmetric
biderivation  of (A , ) is called a formal deformation of if  satisfies the
Jacobi identity and  = (mod ).
When  is a formal deformation of a Poisson structure , the triple (A , ,  ) is a
Poisson algebra over the ring F . Strictly speaking, our Definition 1.1 of a Poisson

368

13 Deformation Quantization

algebra is valid only for algebras over a field, but it is clear that one can define
Poisson algebras over an arbitrary commutative ring (with unit) R, by replacing in
Definition 1.1 F-vector space A by R-module A . It is also clear that the Jacobi
identity for  is satisfied if and only if [ ,  ]S = 0, where the Schouten bracket
[ , ]S is still given by (3.36), but for F -multi-linear maps, rather than F-multi-linear
maps; this is the main fact which we will use about this more general context.
Definition 13.12. Let (A , , ) be a Poisson algebra and let  and  be two formal
deformations of . Then  and  are said to be equivalent deformations if there
exists an F -linear map : A A , satisfying for all F, G A the following
conditions:
(1)
(2)
(3)

(F) = F (mod );
(FG) = (F) (G);
( [F, G]) =  [ (F), (G)].

Condition (1) implies that is invertible; then (2) means that is an automorphism
of the associative algebra (A , ), hence of (A , ) and (3) means that is a Lie
algebra isomorphism (A ,  ) (A ,  ).
It is clear that, if  is a formal deformation of and : A A is an

F -linear map satisfying items (1) and (2) of Definition 13.12, then the map  :
A A A , defined for F, G A by


 [F, G] :=  [ 1 (F), 1 (G)] ,
(13.19)
is a formal deformation of , equivalent to  .
As in the associative case, we define the notion of a k-th order deformation of a
Poisson structure.
Definition 13.13. Let (A , , ) be a Poisson algebra. For k N , an Fk -bilinear
skew-symmetric biderivation (k) of Ak ,

(k) = 0 + 1 + + k k ,

(13.20)

is called a k-th order deformation of , if 0 = and if (k) satisfies the Jacobi

identity.
One defines the notion of equivalence of k-th order deformations by replacing F
by Fk and A by Ak in Definition 13.12.

13.2.2 Deformations and Cohomology

As in the associative case, it is clear that a formal deformation can be truncated
to a k-th order deformation, for every k N. Similarly, an -th deformation can be
truncated to a k-th order deformation, for every k  . This suggests to approach also
in this case the construction and the study of all (formal) deformations of a Poisson

13.2 Deformations of Poisson Structures

369

bracket, by analyzing the extensibility of a k-th order deformation to a (k + 1)-th

order deformation.
Therefore, let (A , , ) be a Poisson algebra and suppose that (k) = 0 + 1 +
+ k k defines a k-th order deformation of , where 1 , . . . , k are elements of
X2 (A ) and 0 = . Given a skew-symmetric bilinear map k+1 : A A A , the
skew-symmetric Fk+1 -bilinear map (k+1) , defined by (k+1) := (k) + k+1 k+1 , is

a (k +1)-th order deformation of if and only if (k+1) , (k+1) S = 0 (mod k+2 ),
i.e.,
1
2 (k+1 ) = [k+1 , 0 ]S =
(13.21)
[i , j ]S ,
2 i+ j=k+1
i, j1

where we have used the Poisson coboundary operator (4.5), associated to the Poisson bracket = 0 . As in the associative case (see Section 13.1.3), one checks by
using the graded Jacobi identity for [ , ]S , that the right-hand side in (13.21) is a
Poisson 3-cocycle, so that the obstruction for extending a deformation of the Poisson bracket , of some order to the next order lies in the third Poisson cohomology
space H3 (A ). This shows the following proposition.
Proposition 13.14. Let (A , , ) be a Poisson algebra and suppose that (k) =
ki=0 i i is a k-th order deformation of . Then (k) can be extended to a (k + 1)-th
order deformation of if and only if the Poisson 3-cocycle ki=1 [i , k+1i ]S is a
Poisson 3-coboundary.
It is clear from (13.21) that the term k+1 k+1 which makes a k-th order deformation of into a (k + 1)-th order deformation of is not unique (if it exists): one
can always add an arbitrary Poisson 2-cocycle (for ) to k+1 . If this cocycle is a
coboundary, then the two extended (k + 1)-th order deformations are essentially the
same, in the sense that they are equivalent (see Definition 13.12). A stronger statement is given in the following proposition, which is the analog of Proposition 13.6.
Proposition 13.15. Let (A , , ) be a Poisson algebra and suppose that (k) =
ki=0 i i is a k-th order deformation of , where k N and let   k, where  N .
Let X1 (A ), which we extend to an F -linear map A A , still denoted by ,
and let

()
= 0 + 1 + 2 2 + + 1 1 + ( + 1 ( ))  .

(13.22)

 extends to a k-th order deformation  of , which is equivalent to .

Then, ()
(k)
(k)

Proof. Let us consider the map

: A A
F
e (F) =


(1)k k k
(F) .

kN k!

(13.23)

It is clear that is F -linear and that (F) = F (mod ), for all F A . We show
that (FG) = (F) (G) for all F, G A . To do this, we use that for all k N,

370

13 Deformation Quantization

 
k
k
(FG) =
r (F) s (G) ,
s
r+s=k

(13.24)

r,s0

which is a consequence of the fact that is a derivation of A . Then,

(1)k k k
(FG)
kN k!
 
(1)k k k r
(F) s (G)
s
k!

(FG) = e (FG) =


kN r+s=k
r,s0

(1)r+s (r+s) r

(F) s (G)
s!r!
rN sN



(1)r r r
(1)s s s
(F)
(G)
=

rN r!
sN s!

= (F) (G) .
 , which is defined for all F, G A by
As in (13.19), we have that (k)



(k)
[F, G] := (k) 1 (F), 1 (G) ,
is a k-th order deformation of which is equivalent to (k) . Using the formula for
the inverse of , namely

1 (F) = e (F) =


k k
(F) ,
kN k!

we can make the following computation in the algebra A (i.e., all equalities are
modulo +1 ):



 (F, G) =


()
() F + [F] , G + [G]


= () [F, G] + ( [ [F], G] + [F, [G]]) 
= () [F, G] + ( [ [F], G] + [F, [G]] [ [F, G]]) 
= () [F, G] + 1 ( )[F, G]  .
 = + 1 ( )  , which is the content of (13.22).
It shows that ()
()

It follows from the proposition that in order to construct all possible deformations
of , up to equivalence, one only has to consider, at every step k, as many possibilities as there are elements in H2 (A ). Notice that the associative analog of the above
proposition, which was given in Proposition 13.6, is easier to prove; the reason for

13.3 Differential Graded Lie Algebras

371

this is that in the Poisson case the map which defines the equivalence needs to be
an automorphism of the associative algebra (Ak , ).

13.2.3 The MaurerCartan Equation

i
2

Let (A , , ) be a Poisson algebra and let  =

i=0 i be an element of X (A ),
where 0 = . As above,  is a Poisson structure if and only if [ ,  ]S = 0. Denoting by 2 the F -linear extension of 2 to X2 (A )  X2 (A )[[ ]], it follows that 
is a Poisson structure if and only if  is a solution of the following equation

1
2 (x) [x, x]S = 0 .
2

(13.25)

In the terminology of Section 13.3, this equation is called the MaurerCartan equation associated to the differential graded Lie algebra (X (A ), [ , ]S , ).

13.3 Differential Graded Lie Algebras

Differential graded Lie algebras are graded Lie algebras which are equipped with
a derivation of degree one whose square is zero. A prime example, which we have
already encountered several times in this book, is the algebra of skew-symmetric
multi-derivations of a Poisson algebra (or multivector fields on a Poisson manifold),
where the graded Lie bracket is the Schouten bracket and the differential is (up to
a sign) the Poisson coboundary operator. Since in the study of a differential graded
Lie algebra its symmetric algebra plays an important role we first give the basic
definitions and properties of the symmetric algebra of a graded vector space.

13.3.1 The Symmetric Algebra of a Graded Vector Space



Let V = iZ Vi be a graded vector space. We denote the degree of a homogeneous element x V by d 0 (x). The symmetric algebra of V is the associative algebra SV , which is obtained by dividing the tensor (graded associative) algebra

T V = N V  of V by the two-sided ideal generated by all elements of the form
0
0
x y (1)d (x)d (y) y x, with x and y homogeneous. The induced product is denoted by juxtaposition of elements. With this notation,
xy = (1)d

0 (x)d 0 (y)

yx,

(13.26)

for all homogeneous elements x, y of V . Note that if x is a homogeneous element

of V of odd degree, then it follows from (13.26) that x2 = x2 , so that x2 = 0. We

372

13 Deformation Quantization

call an element of SV of the form x1 . . . x with all xi homogeneous, a homogeneous

monomial of SV . Let i1 , . . . , i be integers for which there exists a non-zero homogeneous monomial X = x1 . . . x where x1 Vi1 , . . . , x Vi . Then we can define the
sign sgn( ; i1 , . . . , i ) {1, 1}, associated to (i1 , . . . , i ) and S , by the equality
x (1) . . . x () = sgn( ; i1 , . . . , i ) x1 . . . x ,

(13.27)

since it only depends on the -tuple (i1 , . . . , i ) and not on the choice of x1 , . . . , x .
With X as above, we often write sgn( ; X) as a shorthand for sgn( ; i1 , . . . , i ). For
indices i1 , . . . , i such that Vi1 Vi2 . . .Vi = 0 we define sgn( ; i1 , . . . , i ) := 1 for all
S .
In what follows, the graded vector space of which we consider the symmetric
algebra will always be a graded Lie algebra, but in which we shift the grading by

one. Thus, if g = N g is a graded Lie algebra, we consider on g two gradings:
for x g we define |x| :=  and d 0 (x) :=  1 = |x| 1. Then g is a graded Lie
algebra with respect to the grading | |, but when the grading d 0 is used, it is only
a graded vector space; when we use the latter grading, we will write g instead of g.
The symmetric algebra which plays an important role in what follows is the graded
commutative algebra S g, where the grading on S g is given, for a homogeneous
monomial x1 . . . x , by


i=1

i=1

d 0 (x1 . . . x ) := |xi |  = d 0 (xi ) .

(13.28)

Of course, S g inherits also a grading from the tensor algebra, which assigns to a
monomial x1 . . . x the degree ; we will not use this grading, except that we denote,
for  N, by S g the span of all monomials of the form x1 . . . x , where x1 , . . . , x g.

13.3.2 Differential Graded Lie Algebras

In this section, we introduce the notion of a differential graded Lie algebra and of a
morphism of differential graded Lie algebras. The basic examples, given below, are
the Poisson complex, associated to a Poisson algebra, and the Hochschild complex,
associated to an associative algebra.
Definition 13.16. A differential graded Lie algebra is a triple (g, [ , ], D), where
(g, [ , ]) is a graded Lie algebra and D : g g is a differential of g, i.e., D is a
graded linear map of degree one from g to g, D satisfies D D = 0 and D is a graded
derivation of degree one of (g, [ , ]).


Expressed in terms of formulas, the fact that (g = kZ gk , [ , ]) is a graded Lie

algebra means that [ , ] satisfies, for all homogeneous elements x, y and z of g and
for all i, j Z, the following properties:
(1)

[gi , g j ] gi+ j ;

13.3 Differential Graded Lie Algebras

(2)
(3)

373

[x, y] = (1)|x||y| [y, x];

(1)|x||z| [[x, y] , z] +  (x, y, z) = 0;

while the fact that D is a differential on g means that D satisfies, for all homogeneous
elements x and y of g and for all i Z, the following properties:
(4)
(5)
(6)

D(gi ) gi+1 ;
D ([x, y]) = [D(x), y] + (1)|x| [x, D(y)];
D D = 0.

Let (g, [ , ]) be a graded Lie algebra and let z be an element of degree one, z g1 .
The graded Jacobi identity for [ , ], i.e., the above identity (3), implies that the
degree one map Dz , defined by
Dz (y) := [z, y]
for all y g, is a graded derivation of g of degree one. Moreover, if z satisfies
[z, z] = 0, the graded Jacobi identity implies that Dz Dz = 0, hence (g, [ , ], Dz )
is a differential graded Lie algebra. We then call the triple (g, [ , ], z) a pointed differential graded Lie algebra. The differential of a pointed differential graded Lie
algebra (g, [ , ], z) will, without further mention, always be denoted by Dz .
Example 13.17. Let (A , , ) be a Poisson algebra and consider the graded Lie algebra (X (A ), [ , ]S ), where we recall that X (A ) denotes the graded vector space
of skew-symmetric multi-derivations of A , with shifted degree, and [ , ]S denotes
the Schouten bracket on X (A ) (see Chapter 3). Since the shifted degree of is one
and since [ , ]S = 0 because is a Poisson bracket, (X (A ), [ , ]S , ) is a pointed
differential graded Lie algebra.
Example 13.18. The previous example can also be considered in the smooth category. Namely, let (M, ) be a real Poisson manifold and recall that we denote by
(X (M), [ , ]S ) the graded Lie algebra of multivector fields on M, equipped with
the Schouten bracket [ , ]S . Then (X (M), [ , ]S , ) is a pointed differential graded
Lie algebra. Notice that this example can be considered for any real manifold M by
taking the trivial Poisson structure on M, i.e., for every real manifold M, the triple
(X (M), [ , ]S , 0) is a pointed differential graded Lie algebra.
Example 13.19. Let (A , ) be a commutative associative algebra and consider the
graded Lie algebra ( HC (A ), [ , ]G ), where we recall from Section 13.1.2 that
HCk (A ) = Hom(A k+1 , A ) is the space of all (k + 1)-linear maps from A to itself
and the graded Lie bracket [ , ]G is the Gerstenhaber bracket (defined in (13.5)).
Since is associative, [ , ]G = 0 and hence ( HC (A ), [ , ]G , ) is a pointed differential graded Lie algebra.
Example 13.20. The previous example can also be considered when (A , ) is the
algebra of smooth functions on a real manifold M, equipped with the usual product
of functions . Consider the graded Lie algebra ( HCdiff (M), [ , ]G ), which is the
subalgebra of ( HC (C (M)), [ , ]G ) which consists of the differential Hochschild
cochains (see Section 13.1.5). Then ( HCdiff (M), [ , ]G , ) is a pointed differential
graded Lie algebra.

374

13 Deformation Quantization

Example 13.21. Every differential graded Lie algebra (g, [ , ], D) leads to a cohomology space, which is itself a pointed differential graded Lie algebra. To see this,
consider Dk : gk gk+1 , the restriction of the differential D to gk . Since D D = 0,
we have a complex

Dk1

gk1

gk

Dk

Dk+1

gk+1

The cohomology of this complex is denoted by HD (g) =

all k Z,
HDk (g) := Ker Dk / Im Dk1 .

k
kZ HD (g),

where, for

D is a graded derivation of degree one of (g, [ , ]), hence [ , ] induces a Lie bracket
on HD (g), also denoted by [ , ] and the triple (HD (g), [ , ], 0) is a pointed differential
graded Lie algebra.
We now show that the differential and the bracket of a differential graded Lie algebra
(g, [ , ], D) can be encoded in a single differential on S g. Let g be a graded vector
space, let [ , ] : g g g be a graded skew-symmetric bilinear map of degree zero
and let D : g g be a graded linear map of degree one. Two linear maps from S g
to itself are defined by setting for every homogeneous monomial X = x1 . . . x S g,

D (X) :=

sgn(i ; X)D(xi )Xi ,

i=1

[ ,] (X) :=

sgn(i j ; X)(1)d

0 (x

i)

(13.29)
[xi , x j ] Xi j ,

1i< j

where Xi and Xi j are obtained by removing from X the element xi , respectively the
elements xi and x j . For example, Xi = x1 . . . xi1 xi+1 . . . x . The permutation i S
is the permutation which sends 1 to i and subtracts one from the integers 2, . . . , i and
fixes the other integers, i.e., it is the cycle (i, i 1, . . . , 1); similarly, i j is the permutation which sends 1 to i, sends 2 to j, removes two from the integers 3, . . . , i + 1,
removes one from the integers i + 2, . . . , j and fixes the other integers. We leave it as
an exercise to the reader to check that the maps D and [ ,] are well-defined. We
define to be the sum of the two linear maps in (13.29),

:= D + [ ,] .

(13.30)

Taking a homogeneous monomial X S g, it is easy to see that d 0 (D (X)) =

d 0 ([ ,] (X)) = d 0 (X) + 1, so that has degree 1. Notice however that D : S g
S g, while [ ,] : S g S1 g.


Proposition 13.22. Let (g, [ , ], D) be a triple, where g = kZ gk is a graded vector

space, D : g g a graded linear map of degree one and [ , ] : 2 g g a graded
skew-symmetric bilinear map of degree zero. Let D , [ ,] and denote the linear
maps defined in (13.29) and (13.30). Then the following statements are equivalent.
(i)

(g, [ , ], D) is a differential graded Lie algebra;

13.3 Differential Graded Lie Algebras

(ii)
(iii)

375

D2 = [2,] = 0 and D [ ,] + [ ,] D = 0;
2 = 0.

For a given differential graded Lie algebra (g, [ , ], D), we call the linear map :
S g S g the total differential of (g, [ , ], D).
Proof. As we already pointed out, for X S g, we have that D (X) S g, while
[ ,] (X) S1 g. Therefore, D2 (X) S g, while [2,] (X) S2 g and (D [ ,] +

[ ,] D )(X) S1 g. Since

2 = D2 + D [ ,] + [ ,] D + [2,] ,
the equivalence of (ii) and (iii) follows. Let X = x1 . . . x be a homogeneous monomial of S g. Then


D2 (X) = sgn(i ; X) D2 (xi )Xi ,

i=1

so that D2 = 0 if and only if D2 = 0. Similarly,

[2,] (X) =

sgn(i jk ; X)(1)|xi ||xk |+|x j | i jk (X)Xi jk ,

1i< j<k

where i jk and Xi jk are defined similarly to i j and Xi j , defined earlier in this section,
and
i jk (X) := (1)|xi ||xk | [[xi , x j ] , xk ] +  (i, j, k) .
It follows that [2,] = 0 if and only if [ , ] satisfies the graded Jacobi identity. Finally,
(D [ ,] + [ ,] D )(X) =

sgn(i j ; X)(1)|xi | i j (X)Xi j ,

1i< j

where

i j (X) := D([xi , x j ]) [D(xi ), x j ] (1)|xi | [xi , D(x j )] ;

as a consequence, D [ ,] + [ ,] D = 0 if and only if D is a derivation of [ , ].

The last three equivalences, combined, prove the equivalence of (i) and (ii). 

We finish this section by giving the definition of a morphism of differential
graded Lie algebras.
Definition 13.23. Let (g, [ , ]g , Dg ) and (h, [ , ]h , Dh ) be two differential graded Lie
algebras. A graded linear map : g h of degree zero is said to be a morphism of
differential graded Lie algebras, if is a homomorphism of graded Lie algebras
and Dg = Dh .
Let us denote by g and h the total differentials of (g, [ , ]g , Dg ), respectively
of (h, [ , ]h , Dh ). It follows easily from the definitions that a graded linear map of
degree zero : g h is a morphism of differential graded Lie algebras if and only
if S g = h S , where S : S g S h is defined by

376

13 Deformation Quantization

S (x1 . . . x ) := (x1 ) . . . (x )

(13.31)

for all x1 , . . . , x g.

13.3.3 The MaurerCartan Equation

In this section, we define the MaurerCartan equation associated to a general differential graded Lie algebra. We have already met this equation in the case of the
pointed differential graded Lie algebras ( HC (A ), [ , ]G , ) and (X (A ), [ , ]S , )
(see (13.11) and (13.25)); as we explained, these equations govern deformations of
associative products and of Poisson brackets. We will come back to these particular
cases in Section 13.3.6 below.
As in the case of deformations of associative products and of Poisson brackets, we consider formal power series with coefficients in a (differential graded
Lie) algebra. Thus, given a differential graded Lie algebra (g, [ , ], D), we consider
g := g[[ ]], the F -module of formal power series with coefficients in g. Every
k
element x of g is of the form x =
k=0 xk ; even without writing explicitly x in
this form, we will often write xk (or (x)k in the case of ambiguity) for the coefficient
of k in x, a notation which comes in particularly handy when picking a particular
coefficient of the series of a complex expression.
We keep the same notations [ , ] and D for the F -linear extension of [ , ] and
of D to g . Similarly, when denotes the total differential on S g, then will still
denote its extension to (S g) := (S g)[[ ]]. Consider the subspace g1 := g1 [[ ]]
of g , which consists of all formal power series in without constant term and with
coefficients in g1 , the degree one component of g. On g1 we consider the equation
1
D(x) + [x, x] = 0 ,
2

(13.32)

which is called the MaurerCartan equation associated to (g, [ , ], D) (or to g). We

denote by MC(g) the set of all elements x of g1 which are solutions of the Maurer
Cartan equation associated to g. We will give in Proposition 13.26 below two characterizations of the solutions of the MaurerCartan equation. To do this, we define,
for x g1 and for k N ,
Obsk (x) := D(xk ) +

1
2

[xi , x j ] .

(13.33)

i+ j=k
i, j1

Then (13.32) can be written out as the infinite list of equations Obsk (x) = 0,
where k N . If x satisfies Obsk (x) = 0 for k = 1, . . . ,  we say that x is a solution of the MaurerCartan equation up to order  and we denote by MC (g) the set
of all such elements. Clearly, x MC (g) if and only if x satisfies (13.32) modulo

13.3 Differential Graded Lie Algebras

377

+1 and x MC(g) if and only if x MC (g) for all  N . Moreover, we have
the following proposition.
Proposition 13.24. Let (g, [ , ], D) be a differential graded Lie algebra. Suppose
that x MC (g) for some  N . Then Obs+1 (x) is a cocycle.
Proof. Since D is a graded derivation, satisfying D2 = 0, and since the Lie bracket
is graded skew-symmetric, we have that
D (Obs+1 (x)) =

1
2

([D(x j ), xk ] [x j , D(xk )]) =

j+k=+1
j,k1

[D(x j ), xk ] .

j+k=+1
j,k1

Since x satisfies the MaurerCartan equation up to order , we obtain

D (Obs+1 (x)) =

1
2

[[xi , x j ] , xk ] = 0 ,

i+ j+k=+1
i, j,k1

where we used the graded Jacobi identity in the last step.

For the second characterization, we use the exponential map. For x g , we

define ex to be the following formal power series
ex := 1 + x +

xk
x2
+ + + (S g) .
2
k!

(13.34)

Notice that this infinite sum is a well-defined formal power series in with coefficients in S g since at most the first k + 1 terms of the infinite sum in (13.34)
contribute to the coefficient of k in ex (recall that x is a formal power series in
without constant term). The total differential , applied to ex , can be explicitly
computed, as is shown in the following lemma.
Lemma 13.25. Let (g, [ , ], D) be a differential graded Lie algebra with total differential : S g S g. For x g1 , one has


1
(ex ) = D(x) + [x, x] ex .
2

(13.35)

Proof. One computes directly that

k D(x)xk1
k(k 1) [x, x] k2
+
x
k!
2
k!
k1
k2


1
= D(x) + [x, x] ex .
2

(ex ) =

This completes the proof.

The lemma and the remarks made about Obsk lead at once to the proof of the following proposition.

378

13 Deformation Quantization

Proposition 13.26. Let (g, [ , ], D) be a differential graded Lie algebra with total
differential : S g S g. For x g1 , the following statements are equivalent.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

x satisfies the MaurerCartan equation associated to g;

(ex ) = 0;
Obsk (x) = 0 for every k N .

In the case of a pointed differential graded Lie algebra (g, [ , ], z), these conditions
are also equivalent to
(iv)

[z + x, z + x] = 0.

13.3.4 Gauge Equivalence

We have introduced in Sections 13.1.1 and 13.2.1 the notion of equivalence of deformations in the case of associative products and of Poisson brackets. We now
introduce the corresponding notion for formal power series (without constant term)
with coefficients in the degree one component of an arbitrary pointed differential
graded Lie algebra.
Definition 13.27. Let (g, [ , ], z) be a pointed differential graded Lie algebra. Two
formal power series without constant term x, y g are said to be gauge equivalent
denoted by x y, if there exists g0 such that
z + y = ead (z + x) .
The definition requires some explanation. As the notation suggests,2 ead stands for
the endomorphism of g , defined for x g by
e

ad

(x) :=

k=0

adk x
k!

1
= x + [ , x] + [ , [ , x]] + .
2

(13.36)

The latter infinite sum is a well-defined formal power series in with coefficients
in g since at most the first k + 1 terms of the sum contribute to the coefficient of k .
Notice that it follows easily from (13.36) that


d adt
e (x) = , eadt (x) ,
dt

(13.37)

for g0 and x g . When we work in a fixed pointed differential graded Lie

algebra (g, [ , ], z), we will make extensive use of the notation

1 k
ad (z + x) ,
k=1 k!

 x := ead (z + x) z = x +

The endomorphism ead of g , defined here, should not be confused with the exponential e ,
which is the element of (S g) , defined in (13.34).

13.3 Differential Graded Lie Algebras

379

where x and are as above. In terms of this notation, x, y g are gauge equivalent
if and only if there exists g0 such that y =  x.
In order to show that the relation is an equivalence relation, we use the
CampbellHausdorff formula
exp(u) exp(v) = exp(CH(u, v)) ,

(13.38)

where CH(u, v) is an infinite sum, each of whose terms consists only of repeated
brackets of u and v. The first few terms of CH(u, v) are given by
1
1
CH(u, v) = u + v + [u, v] + ([u, [u, v]] + [v, [v, u]]) + .
2
12

(13.39)

In particular, CH(u, u) = 0 for all u. This formula is usually given for u and v in
a finite-dimensional Lie algebra, with exp being the exponential map between the
Lie algebra and its Lie group (see for example [29]), but the CampbellHausdorff
formula is essentially a formal identity, in particular it is equally valid when for
example u and v are formal power series (without constant term) with coefficients
in an arbitrary Lie algebra. In the present case, we apply it for u and v of the form
ad , where is a formal power series without constant term and the Lie bracket is
the graded commutator (of graded linear maps, such as ad ). For , g0 and
x g , the CampbellHausdorff formula and the fact that ad is a representation
imply that
ead ead (x) = eCH(ad ,ad ) (x) = eadCH( , ) (x) ,
so that

 (  x) = CH( , )  x .

(13.40)

The fact that is an equivalence relation follows at once from it.

To finish this section, we show that the equivalence relation is compatible with
the MaurerCartan equation, i.e., that if x y, then x is a solution of the Maurer
Cartan equation if and only if y is a solution of the MaurerCartan equation. To do
this, let x, y g1 be two equivalent solutions of the MaurerCartan equation and let
g0 be such that y =  x. Since x is a solution of the MaurerCartan equation
if and only if [z + x, z + x] = 0, we need to show that


ead (z + x), ead (z + x) = 0 .
For s,t g , the fact that ad is a derivation of the Lie bracket implies that
e

ad

 

j
1 j
1 j  i
ad s, adji t
[s,t] = ad [s,t] =
j=0 j!
j=0 i=0 j! i


j 

1 i
1 k 1 
1
ad s,
adji t =
ad s, ad t
=
( j i)!
!
j=0 i=0 i!
k,=0 k!

380

13 Deformation Quantization

= ead s, ead t .


We may conclude that ead (z + x), ead (z + x) = ead [z + x, z + x] = 0, since x is a
solution of the MaurerCartan equation.
The upshot is that gauge equivalence defines an equivalence relation on the set of
solutions of the MaurerCartan equation associated to g. For x MC(g), we denote
by cl(x) its equivalence class modulo gauge equivalence.

13.3.5 Path Equivalence

We introduce in this section another notion of equivalence of solutions of the
MaurerCartan equation. This notion, which turns out to be equivalent to the notion of gauge equivalence (see Proposition 13.31 below) seems both less intuitive
and technically more complicated, but we will see that it is easier to work with the
latter notion when dealing with L -morphisms, introduced in the next section.
We first define the notion of a polynomial path in V := V [[ ]], where V is an
arbitrary F-vector space. By definition, a polynomial path in V is a map from F to
V whose component in V k is for every k N a polynomial in t; it means that a
polynomial path x(t) in V can be written as

x(t) =

xk (t) k ,

k=0

where each one of the functions xk (t) is a polynomial function, with values in V . We
will often consider such paths satisfying x0 (t) = 0; they will be referred to as polynomial paths in V . Polynomial paths in V admit well-defined derivatives with
respect to t, which are themselves also polynomial paths in V . Also, polynomial
paths in a (graded) algebra, such as (SV ) , form an algebra and, for every polynomial path (t) in V , its exponential e (t) (defined as in (13.34)) is a polynomial
path in (SV ) .
Definition 13.28. Let (g, [ , ], z) be a pointed differential graded Lie algebra, and
let denote the total differential on (S g) , as in (13.30). We say that two solutions
x, y g1 of the MaurerCartan equation are path equivalent if there exists two
polynomial paths (t), (t) in g1 and g0 respectively, such that (0) = x, (1) = y
and


d (t)
e = (t)e (t) .
(13.41)
dt
We will show in Proposition 13.31 below that two solutions of the MaurerCartan
equation are gauge equivalent if and only if they are path equivalent. We will do this
by using the following two lemmas, the first one of which can be viewed as giving
yet another (equivalent!) notion of equivalence of solutions of the MaurerCartan
equation.

13.3 Differential Graded Lie Algebras

381

Lemma 13.29. Let (g, [ , ], z) be a pointed differential graded Lie algebra and
suppose that x, y g1 are two solutions of the MaurerCartan equation associated to g. Let (t) and (t) be polynomial paths in g1 and g0 respectively,
with (0) = x and (1) = y. Then condition (13.41) is equivalent to the following
condition:
d
(t) = [z + (t), (t)] .
(13.42)
dt
Proof. If condition
(13.41)
holds, then the component in g = S1 g (S g) of


d (t)

(t)
vanishes. Since the components of (t) g1 commute, this
(t)e
dt e
component is given by
d
d
(t) Dz ( (t)) [ ,] ( (t) (t)) = (t) [z + (t), (t)] ,
dt
dt
condition (13.41) implies condition (13.42).
Conversely, suppose that (t) and (t) satisfy condition (13.42), where (0) = x
is a solution of the MaurerCartan equation and (1) = y. We first show that (t)
is a solution of the MaurerCartan equation for all t, which we do by showing that
[z + (t), z + (t)] = 0 for all t. This is in turn done by showing that the polynomial
path F(t) := [z + (t), z + (t)] is the unique solution of a linear differential equation, with initial condition F(0) = 0. Taking the derivative of F and using (13.42)
and the graded Jacobi identity we find

 

d
d
d
F(t) =
(t), z + (t) + z + (t), (t)
dt
dt
dt
= [[z + (t), (t)] , z + (t)] + [z + (t), [z + (t), (t)]]
= [[z + (t), z + (t)] , (t)]
= [F(t), (t)] ,
which yields the required linear differential equation. We write F(t) = k1 Fk (t) k
and (t) = k1 k (t) k , where all coefficients Fk (t) and k (t) depend polynomially on t. Then the differential equation can be written out as an infinite list of
equations
k1
d
Fk (t) = [Fk (t),  (t)] and Fk (0) = 0 ,
dt
=1
where k N . An easy recursion on k implies that Fk (t) = 0 for all k N . In
conclusion, (t) is a solution of the MaurerCartan equation for all t F. Next, we
sum up, for k N, each one of the following equalities,


Dz (t) k (t) = Dz ( (t)) k (t) + Dz ( k (t)) (t),




[ ,] (t) k (t) = k [ (t), (t)] k1 (t) + [ ,] k (t) (t) ,
to find that

382

13 Deformation Quantization


(t)e (t) = [z + (t), (t)] e (t) + e (t) (t)
= [z + (t), (t)] e (t) ,
where we have used in the last step that (t) MC(g) for all t, combined with
item (ii) of Proposition 13.26. It follows that


 d
d (t)
e (t)e (t) =
(t) [z + (t), (t)] e (t) ,
dt
dt
showing that condition (13.42) implies condition (13.41).

The second lemma which we will use to prove Proposition 13.31 below can
be seen as a generalization of the classical formula, giving the derivative of e f (t) ,
when f (t) takes values in a non-commutative algebra.
Lemma 13.30. Let (g, [ , ]) be a graded Lie algebra and let (t) be a polynomial
path in g0 . Then
ead (t)

dead (t)
= ad
d (t) .
1
adk (t) ( dt )
(k+1)!
dt
kN

(13.43)

Proof. Given a polynomial path (t) in g0 , we consider for fixed t the polynomial
path in End(g1 ) , defined for s F by
Gs := eads (t)

deads (t)
+ ad

dt

kN

sk+1
(k+1)!

d (t)

adk (t) dt

(13.44)

It is clear that G0 = 0. We will show that

d
Gs = ad (t) Gs Gs ad (t) .
ds

(13.45)

It follows, as in the proof of Lemma 13.29, by writing Gs and as formal series in

that all coefficients of G as a series in vanish, so that Gs = 0 for all s F. In
particular, G1 = 0, which is tantamount to (13.43).
In order to show (13.45), we write the two terms in the right-hand side of (13.44)
as As and Bs , so that Gs = As + Bs . Explicitly, As (x) and Bs (x) are given, for x g1 ,
by


d ads (t)
e
As (x) := eads (t)
(x) ,
dt


(13.46)
sk+1
k

Bs (x) :=
ad (t) (t), x ,
kN (k + 1)!
where (t) is an abbreviation for

d
dt (t).

Using (13.37) twice, we compute

13.3 Differential Graded Lie Algebras

383



d
(t), eads (t) (x)
dt

d  ads (t)
e
= [ (t), As (x)] eads (t)
([ (t), x])
dt


= [ (t), As (x)] As ([ (t), x]) (t), x .

d
As (x) = [ (t), As (x)] + eads (t)
ds

(13.47)

For the derivative of Bs , it follows at once from the second equation in (13.46) that


d
Bs (x) = eads (t) (t), x ,
ds
so that, in view of the graded Jacobi identity,


sk+1

adk+1
[ (t), Bs (x)] =
(t) (t), x + Bs ([ (t), x])
kN (k + 1)!


d
= Bs (x) (t), x + Bs ([ (t), x]) ,
ds
giving the following formula for the derivative of Bs :


d
Bs (x) = [ (t), Bs (x)] Bs ([ (t), x]) + (t), x .
ds

(13.48)

Equations (13.47) and (13.48), combined, yield the proof of (13.45), and hence
of (13.43). 

Using the two lemmas, we show that gauge equivalence and path equivalence are
the same (for solutions of the MaurerCartan equation).
Proposition 13.31. Let (g, [ , ], z) be a pointed differential graded Lie algebra. Two
solutions x, y g1 of the MaurerCartan equation associated to g are gauge equivalent if and only if they are path equivalent.
Proof. Let us first assume that x and y are gauge equivalent. Then there exists
g0 such that y =  x. For t F, define

(t) := (t )  x = eadt (z + x) z ,
and let (t) := , which is a constant polynomial path. Then (0) = x, (1) = y
and it follows from (13.37) that (t) and (t) satisfy condition (13.42). In view of
Lemma 13.29, x and y are path equivalent.
Conversely, let us assume that x and y are path equivalent, and let (t), (t) be
polynomial paths in g1 and g0 respectively, such that (0) = x, (1) = y and such
that the equivalent conditions (13.41) and (13.42) are satisfied. In order to establish
that x, y are gauge equivalent, we will construct a polynomial path (t) in g0 such
that (t) = (t)  x, i.e.,
e ad (t) (z + (t)) = z + x ,

(13.49)

384

13 Deformation Quantization

for all t F. It implies that y = (1) = (1)  x, so that x and y are gauge equivalent.
In order to satisfy (13.49) for t = 0, we require (0) = 0. With this additional assumption, the condition which we wish to impose on (t) is dtd e ad (t) (z + (t)) = 0,
or equivalently:

d  ad (t)
e
(z + (t)) = 0 .
ead (t)
dt
We can compute the left-hand side of the previous equation with the help of (13.43)
and (13.42) as follows:
ead (t)


d  ad (t)
de ad (t)
d
e
(z + (t)) + (t)
(z + (t)) = ead (t)
dt
dt
dt
= ad

d (t)

1
adk (t) dt
(k+1)!
kN

(z + (t)) +

d
(t)
dt


1
d (t)
k
ad (t)
+ (t) .
= z + (t),
dt
kN (k + 1)!


It suffices therefore to find a polynomial path (t) in g0 which satisfies

1

(k + 1)! adk (t)

kN

d (t)
= (t)
dt

(13.50)

and (0) = 0. To see that such a polynomial path (t) exists, substitute (t) =
N  (t)  and (t) = N  (t)  in (13.50) and observe that the equation
decomposes into an infinite number of equations
1
1
d (t)
=  (t)
dt
k=1 (k + 1)!

i1 ++ik + j=
i1 ,...,ik , j1

adi

(t) adik (t)

d j (t)
, (13.51)
dt

indexed by  N , which express ddt (t) as a multi-linear expression in  (t) and

1 (t), . . . , 1 (t). By integration, we find a unique polynomial  (t), satisfying the
initial condition  (0) = 0. Thus, the coefficients of (t) can be constructed recursively. It leads to a polynomial path (t) in g0 which at t = 1 realizes the gauge
equivalence between x and y. 

Remark 13.32. Let x, y g1 be solutions of the MaurerCartan equation, as in
Proposition 13.31. Suppose that x and y are gauge equivalent, y =  x, where
 g0 . Then it is clear from the first part of the proof of the proposition that the
constant polynomial path (t) belongs to  g0 . Alternatively, suppose that x and y
are path equivalent, where the polynomial path (t) belongs to  g0 . Then the integration of (13.51) gives a polynomial path (t) in  g0 , since k (t) = 0 for k < .
Then (1)  g0 , so that x and y are gauge equivalent via an element of  g0 .

13.3 Differential Graded Lie Algebras

385

13.3.6 Applications to Deformation Theory

We pointed out in Example 13.17 that for every Poisson algebra (A , , ), the triple
(X (A ), [ , ]S , ) is a pointed differential graded Lie algebra. Similarly, according to Example 13.19, for every commutative associative algebra (A , ), the triple
( HC (A ), [ , ]G , ) is a pointed differential graded Lie algebra. Up to a sign, the
differentials D and D coincide with the Poisson and Hochschild coboundary operators, namely

(P) = (1) p D (P) ,

( ) = (1)q D ( ) ,

for P X p (A ) and HCq (A ). Thus, the cohomology of (X (A ), [ , ]S , ) is the

Poisson cohomology of (A , , ) and the cohomology of ( HC (A ), [ , ]G , ) is the
Hochschild cohomology of (A , ). Since for elements of shifted degree 1, and
D have opposite sign, the MaurerCartan equation (13.32) of (X (A ), [ , ]S , )
is precisely the MaurerCartan equation (13.25) of (A , , ), and similarly for the
MaurerCartan equation (13.11) of (A , ).
The fact that the notion of gauge equivalence of solutions of the MaurerCartan
equation for pointed differential graded Lie algebras coincides in the cases of
(HC (A ), [ , ]G , ) and (X (A ), [ , ]S , ) with the notion of equivalence of formal
deformations of associative products and of Poisson brackets is also true, but it is
less obvious. We prove it in the case of formal deformations of associative products,
the proof in the case of Poisson brackets being completely analogous. Thus, we consider the pointed differential graded Lie algebra ( HC (A ), [ , ]G , ). Let x and y be
solutions of the MaurerCartan equation associated to this differential graded Lie algebra, which is equivalent to saying that + x and + y are formal deformations of
. Let us suppose that x and y are gauge equivalent, which means that there exists
an element HC0 (A ) = Hom(A , A )[[ ]], such that + y = ead ( + x),
where ad = [ , ]G . Let : A A be the F -linear map, defined by := e .
We show that realizes an equivalence between the formal deformations + x and
+ y (see Definition 13.2). Since (F) = F (mod ) for all F A , we only need
to show that
(( + x)( 1 (F), 1 (G))) = ( + y)(F, G)
for all F, G A , which amounts to showing that
e (( + x)(e (F), e (G))) = (ead ( + x))(F, G)
for all F, G A . Writing x for + x, the left-hand side of the above equation is
given by
 

e x e (F), e (G)
= x (F, G) +

kN

r,s,tN
r+s+t=k

(1)s+t


1 1 1 r  s
x ( (F), t (G))
r! s! t!

386

13 Deformation Quantization

= x (F, G) +

k! adk (x )(F, G) = ead (x )(F, G)

kN

where the second equality is easily proved by induction on k N . This shows

that if two solutions of the MaurerCartan equation are gauge equivalent, then the
corresponding deformations are equivalent. The same computation shows that if two
deformations are equivalent, then the corresponding solutions of the MaurerCartan
equation are gauge equivalent: one constructs in this case Hom(A , A )[[ ]]
from by taking the logarithm (using the series expansion of log(1 + x)). Summing
up, we have shown the following proposition.
Proposition 13.33. Let (A , ) be a commutative associative algebra and let x, y
HC2 (A ) .
(1)
(2)

x is a solution of the MaurerCartan equation associated to HC (A ) if and

only if + x is a formal deformation of the associative product ;
If x and y are solutions of the MaurerCartan equation associated to HC (A ),
then x and y are gauge equivalent if and only if the formal deformations + x
and + y are equivalent.

The above proposition and its proof are easily transcribed to the case of Poisson
brackets. The statement is the following.
Proposition 13.34. Let (A , , ) be a Poisson algebra and let x, y X2 (A ) .
(1)
(2)

x is a solution of the MaurerCartan equation associated to X (A ) if and

only if + x is a formal deformation of ;
If x and y are solutions of the MaurerCartan equation associated to X (A ),
then x and y are gauge equivalent if and only if the formal deformations + x
and + y are equivalent.

Both propositions are easily specialized to the case of smooth manifolds; in the case
of Proposition 13.33 one can also restrict oneself to star products on the algebra of
smooth functions on a manifold M, rather than considering arbitrary deformations
of the standard product on C (M). Also, taking all formulas in the above proof
modulo k+1 shows that two k-th order deformations + x and + y are equivalent
if and only if x and y are gauge equivalent up to order k.

13.4 L -Morphisms of Differential Graded Lie Algebras

In this section we introduce the notion of an L -morphism and of an L -quasiisomorphism of differential graded Lie algebras and we show that an L -quasiisomorphism between two pointed differential graded Lie algebras (g, [ , ]g , zg )
and (h, [ , ]h , zh ) induces a bijection between the sets MC(g)/ and MC(h)/ of
gauge equivalence classes of solutions of the MaurerCartan equation of (g, [ , ]g , zg )
and of (h, [ , ]h , zh ).

13.4 L -Morphisms of Differential Graded Lie Algebras

387

Let g = Z g and h = Z h be two graded Lie algebras. In what follows we

will be mainly interested in graded linear maps : S g h of degree 0. We recall
that g is the same vector space as g, but the degree of its homogeneous elements is
lowered by one; it is this grading which is extended to S g (see (13.28)). Denoting
for k N by k the restriction of to Sk g, the fact that is graded of degree 0
means that k maps gi1 . . . gik to hi1 ++ik k+1 for all i1 , . . . , ik Z. In particular, k
maps g1 . . . g1 to h1 , a fact which will be useful when we consider solutions of the
MaurerCartan equations associated to g and h.
 : S g S h, whose component in
We extend to a graded linear map

0
 to S g  F is by definition the identity map
h S h is . First, the restriction of
onto S0 h  F. For k,  N and for a homogeneous monomial X = x1 . . . xk Sk g,
 (X) to be given by
we define the component in S h of

i1 ,...,i N Si1 ,...,i

i1 ++i =k

sgn( ; X)

1 
i j (x (i1 ++i j1 +1) . . . x (i1 ++i j ) ) , (13.52)
!
j=1

where Si1 ,...,i is the set of (i1 , . . . , i )-shuffles, i.e.,

#
(1)<< (i1 ),

(i
+1)<<

(i
+i
),
1
1
2
Si1 ,...,i := Si1 ++i ##
.

# (i1 +i2 ++i1 +1)<< (i1 +i2 ++i )

Remark 13.35.
 is the (unique) extension of as a coderivation of S g with values in S h,
(1)
but this fact will not be used in what follows.
(2) It is clear that, when is identically zero on Sk g for all k  2, i.e., when is
 = S (see (13.31)).
simply a graded linear map of degree 0 from g to h, then
 (x1 . . . xk ) is zero for all  > k.
(3) It is also clear that the component in S h of
(4) The order of the terms in the product in (13.52) is important: the meaning of
the product is that the terms are ordered as follows: i1 i2 . . . i .
Definition 13.36. Let (g, [ , ]g , Dg ) and (h, [ , ]h , Dh ) be two differential graded Lie
algebras, whose total differentials are denoted by g and by h respectively. A
graded linear map : S g h of degree 0 is called an L -morphism between g
and h if
.
 g = h

(13.53)
 (x) = 1 (x). Therefore, if : S g h
For x g we have that g (x) = Dg (x) and
is an L -morphism, then
1 Dg = Dh 1 ,
(13.54)

388

13 Deformation Quantization

as maps3 from g to h, so that 1 : g h induces a morphism in cohomology,

1 : HD g (g) HD h (h) .
Notice that 1 is not a morphism of differential graded Lie algebras, in general.
However, if a graded linear map : g h is a morphism of differential graded
Lie algebras (see Definition 13.23), then one can extend to a graded linear map
: S g h, with 1 = and k = 0 for all k  2. According to item (2) of
Remark 13.35, the map is then an L -morphism. In this sense, morphisms of
differential graded Lie algebra are particular cases of L -morphisms.
Definition 13.37. Let (g, [ , ]g , Dg ) and (h, [ , ]h , Dh ) be two differential graded Lie
algebras and let : S g h be an L -morphism. Then is called an L -quasiisomorphism if the morphism 1 : HD g (g) HD h (h), induced by the restriction
1 : g h of to g, is an isomorphism.
 , which is an equality of
 g = h
We have seen in (13.54) that the equation

1
maps S g S h yields, when restricted to S g = g, the equality 1 Dg = Dh 1 .
Similarly, we can consider the restriction to Sk g, which yields an equality of maps,
involving 1 , . . . , k . In the example which follows, we show how this equality is
obtained for k = 2.
Example 13.38. Let (g, [ , ]g , Dg ) and (h, [ , ]h , Dh ) be two differential graded Lie
algebras and let : S g h be an L -morphism. We compute the restriction of the
compact equation (13.53) to S2 g. To do this, let x, y g, with x homogeneous, and
recall that, by definition

g (xy) = Dg (x)y + (1)d

0 (x)

xDg (y) + (1)d

0 (x)

[x, y]g ,

 (xy) = 2 (xy) + 1 (x)1 (y) ,

 (x) = 1 (x). It follows that

while g (x) = Dg (x) and
 g (xy) = 1 (Dg (x))1 (y) + 2 (Dg (x)y)



0
+ (1)d (x) 1 (x)1 (Dg (y)) + 2 (xDg (y)) + 1 ([x, y]g )
and
 (xy) = Dh (2 (xy)) + Dh (1 (x))1 (y)
h


0
+ (1)d (x) [1 (x), 1 (y)]h + 1 (x)Dh (1 (y)) .
Equating the right-hand sides of these two equations yields, upon using that 1
Dg = Dh 1 , the following equation, involving both the maps 1 and 2 :
Strictly speaking, 1 is a map from S1 g S1 h, but we rather consider it as a map from g to h,
i.e., we consider g and h with their original grading, as differential graded Lie algebras; with this
convention 1 induces maps in cohomology with the following labeling: 1k : HDk g (g) HDk h (h).

13.4 L -Morphisms of Differential Graded Lie Algebras

[1 (x), 1 (y)]h 1 ([x, y]g )

= 2 (xDg (y)) + (1)d

0 (x)


2 (Dg (x)y) Dh (2 (xy)) .

389

(13.55)

Let : S g h be a graded linear map of degree 0. The F -linear extension of

 . To , one can associate
to (S g) will also be denoted by , and similarly for
a map : g h , defined for x g by:

(x) :=

k! k (xk ) .

(13.56)

kN

The infinite sum makes sense because, for every k N , at most the first k terms
contribute to the coefficient of k in (x). Notice that if x g1 , then all elements
xk are formal power series whose coefficients are elements of degree 0 in S g, since
xk is of degree 0 when x g1 (or x g1 ). It follows that k (xk ) h1 for all k N ,
hence (x) h1 .
Sections 13.4.1 to 13.4.3 below are devoted to the proof of the following theorem.
Theorem 13.39. Let (g, [ , ]g , zg ) and (h, [ , ]h , zh ) be two pointed differential graded Lie algebras. If : S g h is an L -morphism, then

: MC(g)/ MC(h)/


cl(x)
cl (x)
is a well-defined map, which is a bijection if is an L -quasi-isomorphism.
Theorem 13.39 is true more generally for L -morphism of arbitrary (not necessarily
pointed) differential graded Lie algebras, but we will not use it in that generality.

13.4.1 is Well-Defined
We start with a proposition which will be useful for showing that is well-defined.
Proposition 13.40. Let (g, [ , ]g , Dg ) and (h, [ , ]h , Dh ) be two differential graded
Lie algebras. Let : S g h be a graded linear map of degree 0 and let be the
associated map, defined as in (13.56).
(1)
(2)

If x g1 , then

 (ex ) = e (x) .

If x g1 and g , then

x
 ( e ) =


1

k1
k ( x ) e (x) .
(k

1)!
kN

(13.57)

(13.58)

390

13 Deformation Quantization

Proof. Let x g1 . It follows from the definition of , that

1

e (x) = 1 +

!

N

i1

1
i1 (xi1 ) . . . i (xi ) .
i
!
.
,...,i N 1 . . i !

(13.59)

For every k N and for every permutation Sk , one has sgn( ; xk ) = 1, because
x g1 . Hence, by definition of , we have:
1

 (ex ) =

k!  (xk )

kN

k!

= 1+

kN

N i1 ++i =k
i1 ,...,i 1

= 1+

!

N

i1

1
i1 (xi1 ) . . . i (xi )
! S
i ,...,i
1

1
i1 (xi1 ) . . . i (xi )
(i
+

+
i
)!

1


S
,...,i N
i ,...,i

 )!
which is the same as the right-hand side of (13.59), since #Si1 ,...,i = (i1i++i
. This
1 !...i !
proves (1).
In order to prove (2), we introduce a formal parameter t and we compute the
coefficient in t of both sides of the equality

 (ex+t ) = e (x+t )

(mod t 2 ) .

(13.60)

The proof that this equality holds is the same as the proof of (13.57) since everything
is computed modulo t 2 , so that all products of elements of odd degree in h, which
are precisely the ones which do not commute, are discarded. For the same reason,
 ( ex ), which is the left-hand side
 (ex+t ) is given by
the coefficient of t in
(x+t )

is given by the coefficient of t of

of (13.58), and the coefficient of t in e
(x) Z1 (t)

e
e
, where Z1 (t) is the linear term in t of (x + t ), which is given by
Z1 (t) =

k1

k! k (x (t )xk1) = (k 1)! k ( xk1 )t ,

kN

kN

=0

so that the coefficient of t in e (x+t ) is given by the right-hand side of (13.58),

which establishes (2). 


Proposition 13.41. Let (g, [ , ]g , zg ) and (h, [ , ]h , zh ) be two pointed differential

graded Lie algebras. Let : S g h be an L -morphism and let : g h
be the associated map, defined as in (13.56).
(1)
(2)

If x g1 is a solution of the MaurerCartan equation associated to g, then

(x) is a solution of the MaurerCartan equation associated to h;
If x, y g1 are gauge equivalent solutions of the MaurerCartan equation
associated to g, then (x) and (y) are gauge equivalent;

13.4 L -Morphisms of Differential Graded Lie Algebras

(3)

391

If x g1 and k g0 for some k N, then there exists s k h0 , such that

(  x) = s  (x). Moreover, s = 1 ( ) (mod k+1 ).

Proof. We denote by g and h the total differential of g, respectively of h. According to Proposition 13.26, if x g1 , then x MC(g) if and only if g (ex ) = 0, and

(x) MC(h) if and only if h (e (x) ) = 0. The fact that is an L -morphism

and (13.57) imply that

h (e (x) ) = h (ex ) = g (ex ) ,

(13.61)

and (1) follows.

Let x, y g1 be two gauge equivalent solutions of the MaurerCartan equation.
As we saw in Proposition 13.31, x and y are also path equivalent, which means, by
definition, that there exist a polynomial path (t) in g1 and a polynomial path (t)
in g0 , such that (0) = x, (1) = y and


d (t)
e = g (t)e (t) .
dt
Applying to both sides of this equation, and using the definition of an L morphism, we obtain


d  (t) 
= h (t)e (t) ,
e
dt
which gives, in view of both items of Proposition 13.40,


d ( (t))

e
= h (t)e ( (t)) ,
dt
where

(t) :=

( 1)!  ( (t) 1 (t)) .

(13.62)

(13.63)

N

Now ( (t)) is a polynomial path in h1 and (t) is a polynomial path in h0 .

Equation (13.62) says that (x) = ( (0)) and (y) = ( (1)) are path
equivalent, hence gauge equivalent (by Proposition 13.31), which is the content
of (2).
According to Remark 13.32, if x g1 and k g0 , then the polynomial
path (t) which is used in establishing the path equivalence between x and  x
can be chosen in k g0 , namely we can choose (t) := . Then the polynomial
path (t), given by (13.63), belongs to k h0 so that, again by Remark 13.32, the
gauge equivalence between (  x) and (x) can be realized by an element
s k h0 . Since (t) = 1 ( (t)) (mod k+1 ), we have s = 1 ( ) (mod k+1 ),
which proves (3). 


392

13 Deformation Quantization

13.4.2 Surjectivity of
We show in this section that if is an L -quasi-isomorphism, then is surjective,
which is part of the statement of Theorem 13.39. We will use the following proposition, which describes how the operators Obs behave under an L -morphism (see
Section 13.3.3 for the definition of Obs and for its relation to the MaurerCartan
equation).
Proposition 13.42. Suppose that is an L -morphism between two differential
graded Lie algebras (g, [ , ]g , Dg ) and (h, [ , ]h , Dh ). Let x g1 and let  N . If
x MC (g), then (x) MC (h). Moreover, the following equality holds:


1 (Obs+1 (x)) = Obs+1 (x) .
(13.64)
Proof. As before, we denote by g and h the total differentials on S g and S h
respectively. For x g1 , we have according to (13.61) that



 (g (ex )) .
h e (x) =
(13.65)
Both sides of this equation can be computed from (13.35), namely


 

(x)

= Dh ( (x)) + (x), (x) h e (x) ,

h e
2

 
1
x


Dg (x) + [x, x]g ex .
(g (e )) =
2

(13.66)
(13.67)

Let  N and suppose that x MC (g). Then Dg (x) + 12 [x, x]g = 0 (mod +1 ),
hence the right-hand side of equation (13.67) is zero, modulo +1 . In view
of (13.65), the right-hand side of (13.66) is also zero, modulo +1 , so that
Dh ( (x)) +

1
(x), (x) h = 0
2

(mod +1 ) .

This shows that (x) MC (h), which proves the first part of the proposition.
For x MC (g), the first part of the proof and (13.66) imply that
 




 (ex )
h
= h (e (x) )
= Obs+1 ( (x)) .
(13.68)
+1

+1

Moreover, letting := Dg (x) + 12 [x, x]g +1 g2 we obtain, using (13.67) and
Proposition 13.40,




1

x
x
k1
 (e ) =
 ( e ) =
h
k ( x ) e (x) .
(13.69)
(k

1)!

kN
Therefore,

13.4 L -Morphisms of Differential Graded Lie Algebras

 

 (ex )
h

+1

393

= (1 ( ))+1 = 1 (+1 ) = 1 (Obs+1 (x)) ,

which leads, combined with (13.68), to Eq. (13.64). 


We now prove that if is an L -quasi-isomorphism between two pointed differential graded Lie algebras (g, [ , ]g , zg ) and (h, [ , ]h , zh ), then is surjective, which
is part of the statement of Theorem 13.39.
Proof. First, let us point out a fact which will be used several times in this proof. Let
(g, [ , ], D) be a differential graded Lie algebra, let  N and let x = kN xk k
and x = kN xk k . If x = x (mod k ), then
Obsk (x) Obsk (x ) = D(xk xk ) ,

(13.70)

in particular Obsk (x) Obsk (x ) is a coboundary. This fact follows immediately
from the definition (13.33) of the operator Obsk .
Suppose that y MC(h) (in particular, all non-zero coefficients yk of y belong to
h1 ). We show that there exist formal power series x g1 and h0 , such that
y =  (x). These series will be constructed term by term. Thus, we assume that
we have constructed the first k terms x1 , . . . , xk of x and the first k terms 1 , . . . , k
of , such that
(ak ) xk := x1 + + xk k MCk (g);
(bk ) k := 1 + + k k and xk satisfy the following equation:
y = k  (xk )

(mod k+1 ) .

We show how to construct an extra term xk+1 for x and k+1 for , such that (ak+1 )
and (bk+1 ) are satisfied. Notice that (a0 ) and (b0 ) are trivially satisfied, since by
construction x0 = 0 and 0 = 0, while the constant term of y is zero.


First we construct xk+1
g1 such that xk+1 := xk + xk+1
k+1 MCk+1 (g). In
view of Proposition 13.42, (bk ) and (13.70), there exists u h1 such that


1 (Obsk+1 (xk )) = Obsk+1 ( (xk )) = Obsk+1 ( k )  y + D(u) = D(u) ,
where we used in the last step that y, and hence ( k )  y, belongs to MC(h). Since
xk MCk (g), Proposition 13.24 implies that Obsk+1 (xk ) is a cocycle, so it defines
a cohomology class in HD2 zg (g); by the above computation, the image under 1 of
this cohomology class is trivial. Now 12 : HD2 zg (g) HD2 z (h) is injective, since
h

is an L -quasi-isomorphism, hence the cohomology

Obsk+1 (xk ) is trivial,

 class of

g1 satisfying Obsk+1 (xk ) = xk+1
, zg g . Letting xk+1 := xk +
i.e., there exists xk+1


k+1 , we have that
xk+1

Obsi (xk+1 ) = Obsi (xk ) = 0, for all 1  i  k ,

while (13.70) implies that

394

13 Deformation Quantization



Obsk+1 (xk+1 ) = Obsk+1 (xk ) + Dzg (xk+1
) = Obsk+1 (xk ) + zg , xk+1
=0,
g
so that xk+1 MCk+1 (g), i.e., xk+1 satisfies property (ak+1 ).

g1 and an element k+1 h0 , such
We now prove that there exist a cocycle xk+1


k+1


that xk+1 := xk+1 + xk+1
= xk + (xk+1 + xk+1 ) k+1 and k+1 := k + k+1 k+1
satisfy property (bk+1 ); property (ak+1 ) remains satisfied when we replace xk+1

by xk+1 because xk+1
is a cocycle.
Property (bk ) and the fact that xk+1 = xk

(mod k+1 ) imply that

y = k  (xk+1 ) (mod k+1 ) .

Writing k  (xk+1 ) = kN Xk k , with Xk h1 for all k, we have according
to (13.70) that


(13.71)
Obsk+1 (y) Obsk+1 k  (xk+1 ) = Dzh (yk+1 Xk+1 ) .
As xk+1 MCk+1 (g), Proposition 13.42 implies that (xk+1 ) MCk+1 (h), hence


k  (x ) MCk+1 (h), so that Obsk+1 k  (x ) = 0. Moreover, since
k+1

k+1

y MC(h), we also have Obsk+1 (y) = 0, so that (13.71) gives Dzh (yk+1 Xk+1 ) = 0.

Since 11 : HD1 zg (g) HD1 z (h) is surjective, there exists a cocycle xk+1
g1 and an
h

element k+1 h0 , such that



) Dzh (k+1 ) = 1 (xk+1
) + k+1 , zh h ,
yk+1 Xk+1 = 1 (xk+1
in other words, we obtain

 




y k  (xk+1 ) = 1 (xk+1
) + k+1 , zh h k+1

(mod k+2 ) . (13.72)

With the help of (13.56) and (13.72), we compute modulo k+2 :

 k+1 )
k+1  (xk+1 ) = ( k + k+1 k+1 )  (xk+1 + xk+1


 k+1

 ) +
,
z
=y.
= k  (xk+1 ) + 1 (xk+1
k+1 h h

Thus, xk+1 and k+1 satisfy (ak+1 ) and (bk+1 ).

Remark 13.43. Notice that the fact that 1 is an isomorphism is not fully used in
the proof. In fact, we only used that 12 : HD2 zg (g) HD2 z (h) is injective and that

11 : HD1 zg (g) HD1 z (h) is surjective.

h

13.4 L -Morphisms of Differential Graded Lie Algebras

395

13.4.3 Injectivity of
In this section we prove that is injective, which is also part of the statement of
Theorem 13.39. To do this, we use the following lemma. Recall that, for a formal
power series x (in ), we denote by xk its coefficient of k .
Lemma 13.44. Let (g, [ , ], z) be a pointed differential graded Lie algebra. Suppose
that x g1 and that k g0 .
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

(  x x)k = Dz (k );
If s g0 is a cocycle, then ( + s k )  x =  x (mod k+1 );
If  x = x (mod k+1 ), then k is a cocycle;
If k is a coboundary and x is solution of the MaurerCartan equation, then
there exists  k+1 g0 , such that  x =   x.

Proof. Items (1)(3) follow from the fact that, since k g0 , the term in  in
 x is x when 1   < k and is xk + [k , z] = xk Dz (k ) when  = k.
For item (4), assume that k is a coboundary, k = Dz ( ) for some g1 , and
that x MC(g), so that [z + x, z + x] = 0. For w g1 , the graded Jacobi identity
implies that ad[w,z+x] (z + x) = 12 [[z + x, z + x] , w] = 0, so that
[w, z + x]  x = x +

k! adk[w,z+x] (z + x) = x .

kN

In particular, if w k g1 , then

 x =  ([w, z + x]  x) = CH( , [w, z + x])  x ,

(13.73)

and it follows from (13.39) that (CH( , [w, z + x]))k = k + [wk , z] = Dz ( wk ).

Therefore, taking w := k , we have that  := CH( , [w, z + x]) k+1 g0 , while
  x =  x, according to (13.73). This proves (4). 

We can now prove that if is an L -quasi-isomorphism between two pointed differential graded Lie algebras (g, [ , ]g , zg ) and (h, [ , ]h , zh ), then is injective,
which is part of the statement of Theorem 13.39.
Proof. Suppose that x, y MC(g) have the same image under , which means
that (x) and (y) are gauge equivalent. We need to show that x and y are
gauge equivalent. To do this, we construct three sequences: a sequence (x(k) )kN
in g1 with x(0) = x, a sequence ( (k) )kN in g0 and a sequence (u(k) )kN in h0 ,
with u(k) k+1 h0 for all k. These sequences will be constructed such that their
elements satisfy, for all k N , the following four properties:
(Ak ) x(k) = ( (k) k )  x(k1) ;
(Bk ) x(k) = y (mod k+1 );
(k1)
+ 1 ( (k) ) is a coboundary;
(Ck ) uk
(Dk ) (x(k) ) = u(k)  (y).

396

13 Deformation Quantization

We first show that the existence of these sequences satisfying the properties (Ak )
and (Bk ) proves that x and y are gauge equivalent; properties (Ck ) and (Dk ) will
turn out to be useful for constructing the sequences satisfying the former properties.
Consider the formal power series := limk (k) , where the polynomials (k) are
recursively defined by (k) := CH( (k) k , k1 ) for k N and 0 := 0. Notice that
the limit is well-defined, because (k) = (k1) (mod k ) for k N , and that it
belongs to g0 . In view of (A1 ),. . . ,(Ak ), (Bk ), and (13.40),

(k)  x = x(k) = y (mod k+1 ) ,

for all k N, so that  x = y.
We proceed to the construction of the three sequences. First, we set (0) := 0 and
we choose for u(0) an element in h0 for which u(0)  (y) = (x), which can
be done because, by assumption, (x) and (y) are gauge equivalent. In order
(1)
to satisfy (A0 ), (B0 ), (C0 ) and (D0 ), we define x(1) := x(0) = x and u0 := 0. Let
us assume that x(0) , . . . , x(k) and u(0) , . . . , u(k) and (0) , . . . , (k) are constructed, and
satisfy the above conditions (A ), (B ), (C ) and (D ), for  = 0, . . . , k.
We first construct x(k+1) and (k+1) satisfying (Ak+1 ) and (Bk+1 ). In view of (Bk ),
(k)
x and y agree modulo k+1 . As a first consequence, since both are solutions of the
(k)
MaurerCartan equation, (13.70) implies that D(xk+1 yk+1 ) = 0, i.e., (x(k) y)k+1

is a cocycle. As a second consequence,  (y ) =  ((x(k) ) ) (mod k+2 ) for   2,
so that




(k)
(13.74)
(x(k) ) (y)
= 1 xk+1 yk+1 .
k+1

The left-hand side of (13.74) is a coboundary, in view of (Dk ) and item (1) of
Lemma 13.44. Since 11 : HD1 zg (g) HD1 z (h) is injective, (x(k) y)k+1 is also
h

(k)

a coboundary, i.e., there exists (k+1) g0 such that Dzg ( (k+1) ) = xk+1 yk+1 .


(k)
Now (( (k+1) k+1 )  x(k) )k+1 = xk+1 + (k+1) , zg , so that ( (k+1) k+1 )  x(k) = y
(mod k+2 ). Defining x(k+1) := ( (k+1) k+1 )  x(k) , it follows that x(k+1) and (k+1)
satisfy (Ak+1 ) and (Bk+1 ).
(k)

The constructed element (k+1) does not satisfy (Ck+1 ), namely uk+1 + 1 ( (k+1) )
need not be a coboundary, but it is a cocycle. In fact, in view of (Ak+1 ) and (Bk+1 ),
( (k+1) k+1 )  x(k) = y

(mod k+2 ) ,

so that, in view of (Dk ), we have the following equalities, modulo k+2 :



u(k)  ( (k+1) k+1 )  x(k) = u(k)  (y) = (x(k) ) .

(13.75)

Since is an L -morphism, item (3) of Proposition 13.41 implies that

( (k+1) k+1  x(k) ) = 1 ( (k+1) k+1 )  (x(k) ) (mod k+2 ) ,

13.5 Kontsevichs Formality Theorem and Its Consequences

397

so that, still modulo k+2, the left-hand side of (13.75) is CH(u(k) , 1 ( (k+1) k+1 ))
(x(k) ). According to (13.39),
(k)

(CH(u(k) , 1 ( (k+1) k+1 )))k+1 = uk+1 + 1 ( (k+1) ) ,

(k)

so that we can apply item in (3) of Lemma 13.44 to (13.75), to conclude that uk+1 +
1 ( (k+1) ) is a cocycle.
We now show how (k+1) can be modified, so that (Ck+1 ) is satisfied, i.e., so that
(k)
uk+1 + 1 ( (k+1) ) is a coboundary. We will do this without much altering x(k+1) .
(k)

Since uk+1 + 1 ( (k+1) ) is a cocycle it defines a cohomology class in HD0 z (h);

h

since 10 : HD0 zg (g) HD0 z (h) is surjective, this cohomology class is the image of
h

a cocycle g0 . Upon replacing (k+1) by (k+1) , the new x(k+1) , defined by

(Ak+1 ), still satisfies (Bk+1 ), in view of item (2) of Lemma 13.44, i.e., removing a
cocycle from (k+1) does not alter x(k+1) modulo k+1 . However, the cohomology
(k)
class of uk+1 + 1 ( (k+1) ) is now trivial, i.e., the latter element is a coboundary.
The last step of the construction is the construction of uk+1 , such that (Dk+1 ) is
satisfied. Item (3) in Proposition 13.41 yields the existence of s k+1 h0 such that
( (k+1) k+1  x(k) ) = s  (x(k) ); by the same proposition, s = 1 ( (k+1) )
(mod k+2 ). Using (Ak+1 ) and (Dk ), it follows that


(x(k+1) ) = s  (x(k) ) = s  u(k)  (y) = CH(s, u(k) )  (y) .
(k)

In view of (13.39), (CH(s, u(k) ))k+1 = 1 ( (k+1) ) + uk+1 , which is a coboundary,

according to (Ck+1 ). Item (4) in Lemma 13.44 implies that there exists u(k+1) in
k+2 h0 such that
u(k+1)  (y) = CH(s, u(k) )  (y) = (x(k+1) ) ,
which is (Dk+1 ).

Remark 13.45. The fact that 1 is an isomorphism is not fully used in the proof of
the injectivity of . Indeed, we only used that 11 : HD1 zg (g) HD1 z (h) is injech

tive and that 10 : HD0 zg (g) HD0 z (h) is surjective (see Remark 13.43 for a similar
h

remark concerning the proof of the surjectivity of ).

13.5 Kontsevichs Formality Theorem and Its Consequences

The present section is devoted to a fundamental result by Kontsevich, whose statement and implications are accessible for the readers who have become sufficiently
familiar with the concepts developed in the previous sections of this chapter. In-

398

13 Deformation Quantization

stead of giving a full proof of Kontsevichs theorem, which is beyond the scope of
this book, we present some of the main ingredients, and we concentrate on a few of
its consequences, which have deep implications to both Poisson geometry and Lie
theory. The most popular consequence can be stated in a few words: the algebra of
smooth functions on a real Poisson manifold admits a formal deformation quantization. This result will be proved in Theorem 13.51, as a consequence of Kontsevichs
formality theorem (Theorem 13.46).

13.5.1 Kontsevichs Formality Theorem

Let M be a real manifold and denote by the usual product on C (M). Recall that
there are two pointed differential graded Lie algebras, which are naturally associated
to M:

(X (M), [ , ]S , 0) is the graded vector space of multivector fields on M, with

shifted degree, equipped with the Schouten bracket and with the zero differential (see Example 13.18);
( HCdiff (M), [ , ]G , ) is the graded vector space of differential Hochschild
cochains of C (M), with shifted degree, equipped with the Gerstenhaber bracket
and with the Hochschild differential associated to (see Example 13.20).

First, we show how these differential graded Lie algebras are related. Let P be a
p-vector field on M, where p  1. A p-linear map (P) : (C (M)) p C (M) is
naturally associated to P by setting, for all F1 , . . . , Fp C (M),

(P)(F1 , . . . , Fp ) :=

1
P[F1 , . . . , Fp ] .
p!

(13.76)

It leads for every p to a graded linear map of degree 0,

p
: X p (M) HCdiff
(M) ,

(13.77)

which is injective, because P can be recovered from (P). We have, according to

(13.7), for all F0 , . . . , Fp C (M),

p (p! (P))(F0 , . . . , Fp ) = F0 P[F1 , . . . , Fp ] + (1) p+1 P[F0 , . . . , Fp1 ]Fp

p

+ (1)i P[F0 , . . . , Fi1 Fi , . . . , Fp ]

i=1

= 0,
where we used in the last equality that P is a derivation in each of its arguments.
It follows that the map takes values in the Hochschild cocycles of (C (M), ).
In particular, induces a linear map H between the cohomologies of the pointed
differential graded Lie algebras (X (M), [ , ]S , 0) and ( HCdiff (M), [ , ]G , ). According to the HochschildKostantRosenberg theorem (see [131]), H is an iso-

13.5 Kontsevichs Formality Theorem and Its Consequences

399

morphism of differential graded Lie algebras. The map itself is however not a
morphism of (differential) graded Lie algebras, since [P, Q]S = [P, Q]G for general
multivector fields P, Q as one easily checks from the definitions.
The following result, due to Kontsevich, states that, even if is not a morphism of differential graded Lie algebras, it extends to an L -morphism between
(X (M), [ , ]S , 0) and ( HCdiff (M), [ , ]G , ); since the induced map in cohomology
H 1 is H , which is according to the HochschildKostantRosenberg theorem
an isomorphism, is an L -quasi-isomorphism (see Definition 13.37).
Theorem 13.46 (Kontsevichs formality theorem). Let M be a real manifold and
denote by the usual product on C (M). There exists an L -quasi-isomorphism
from (X (M), [ , ]S , 0) to ( HCdiff (M), [ , ]G , ), such that the map 1 : X (M)
HCdiff (M) is the natural inclusion map , defined in (13.77).
For a proof of this theorem, which is quite involved and is beyond the scope of
this book, we refer to [38, 39, 107, 189] and [14]. We will give in the following
section some more details about the construction of the L -quasi-isomorphism in
the case of M = Rd . But first, we say a few words about the origin of the name
of the theorem. Recall from Example 13.21 that the cohomology of a differential graded Lie algebra is itself also a (pointed) differential graded Lie algebra. In
the case of (X (M), [ , ]S , 0), the differential is trivial hence the latter differential
graded Lie algebra and its cohomology are isomorphic differential graded Lie algebras. According to the HochschildKostantRosenberg theorem, cited above, this
cohomology and the cohomology of ( HCdiff (M), [ , ]G , ) are isomorphic differential graded Lie algebras. Thus, Kontsevichs theorem says that there exists an L quasi-isomorphism between ( HCdiff (M), [ , ]G , ) and its cohomology. A differential graded Lie algebra which admits an L -quasi-isomorphism to its cohomology
is called formal, a terminology which is borrowed from topology. Thus, Kontsevichs theorem says that ( HCdiff (M), [ , ]G , ) is formal, which explains the name
formality theorem.

13.5.2 Kontsevichs Formality Theorem for Rd

Without going into technical details, we present in this section Kontsevichs explicit construction of the L -quasi-isomorphism between (X (M), [ , ]S , 0) and
( HCdiff (M), [ , ]G , ) in the particular case where M = Rd . In order to do this, we
first need to explain how multi-differential operators are naturally coded by graphs,
how weights are associated to these graphs and how they all sum up to yield a formula for the L -quasi-isomorphism .

400

13 Deformation Quantization

13.5.2.1 A Kontsevichs Graphs

We describe in this subsection the graphs which are used in Kontsevichs construction. Recall that an oriented graph is a pair (V, A), where A is a subset of V V .
The elements of V are called vertices and the elements of A arrows. For an arrow
a = (x, y) A, we call y its head, denoted h(a) and x its tail, denoted t(a). We will
assume that contains no loops, which means that if (x, y) A, then x = y. For given
integers k,  N, the vertex set of the graphs which are considered is the set Vk, ,
defined by
Vk, := {1, . . . , k} {1, . . . , } .
For reasons which will be clear later, it is demanded that these integers satisfy 2k +
 2  0, that is the cases (k, ) = (0, 0) and (k, ) = (1, 0) are excluded. The k
vertices 1, . . . , k of Vk, are called vertices of the first type, while the  vertices 1, . . . , 
of Vk, are called vertices of the second type. Another piece of data added to the
graphs which are considered here is an ordering of each of the sets of arrows with a
common tail, i.e., of each of the sets
Star(s) := {a A | t(a) = s} ,
for s {1, . . . , k}. Denoting the number of elements in Star(s) by ps , such an ordering amounts to a numbering s of the elements of Star(s) by the integers 1, . . . , ps ;
using this numbering we write Star(s) as Star(s) = {s1 , . . . , sps } .
Definition 13.47. Let k,  N, such that 2k +  2  0. A triplet = (Vk, , A, ) is
said to be a Kontsevich graph if
(1)
(2)
(3)

The pair (Vk, , A) is an oriented graph without loops, called the underlying
graph of ;
For every arrow a A, its tail t(a) is a vertex of the first type;
For every s {1, . . . , k}, s is an ordering of Star(s).

The set of Kontsevich graphs = (Vk, , A, ) is denoted by Gk, . The underlying

graph of some element G3,4 is depicted in Fig. 13.1.

13.5.2.2 B The Weight of a Kontsevich Graph

Let k,  N, such that 2k +  2  0. To a Kontsevich graph Gk, we associate
a number , called its weight. The definition involves angles in the Poincare halfplane and integration over a configuration space. We recall first that the Poincare
half-plane is the open subset


H := (x, y) R2 | y > 0 ,
equipped with the metric

13.5 Kontsevichs Formality Theorem and Its Consequences

401

Fig. 13.1 The elements in Gk, are triplets (V, A, ), where the set of vertices consists of k vertices
of the first type, denoted 1, . . . , k and  vertices of the second type, denoted 1, . . . , . All arrows start
from vertices of the first type and are ordered by . Depicted here is the graph (V, A) that underlies
some element of G3,4 . For reasons that will become clear later, the graph is drawn in the upper
half-plane, with the vertices of the second type on its boundary.

Fig. 13.2 For p and q, points in the Poincare half-plane H , (p, q) denotes the angle between
the vertical geodesic through p and the geodesic through p and q.

(ds)2 =

(dx)2 + (dy)2
,
y2

whose geodesics are the vertical half-lines, starting from the horizontal axis (the
line y = 0) and half-circles, with center on the horizontal axis. For p, q H :=
H {y = 0}, with p = q, we denote by (p, q) the angle (at p) between the vertical geodesic through p and the geodesic through p and q (see Fig. 13.2). The angle
function leads, for each arrow a of , to an analytic function a on a configuration space of points, whose construction we briefly recall (see the appendix by
A. Brugui`eres in [39] for details). With k,  as above, consider Confk, , the space
of (k + )-tuples of distinct points, the first k points belonging to H and the  remaining points belonging to the boundary of H . We write a point of Confk, as a
(k + )-tuple (z1 , . . . , zk , z1 , . . . , z ), since we think of such a point as corresponding
to the vertices of a graph of Gk, , drawn in H . The group G of affine transformations of C of the form z
z + , with R+ and R, acts in a natural way
on Confk, . This action is free and the quotient manifold

402

13 Deformation Quantization

Fig. 13.3 The graph  belongs to G1, . It has one vertex of the first type and  vertices of the
second type. Its weight is 1/(!)2 .

Ck, := Confk, /G
has dimension 2k +  2; the class of a point (z1 , . . . , zk , z1 , . . . , z ) Confk, in Ck,
is denoted by [(z1 , . . . , zk , z1 , . . . , z )]. The manifold Ck, admits a natural compactification as a manifold with corners; the connected component which contains the
points [(z1 , . . . , zk , z1 , . . . , z )] for which z1 < z2 < < z is denoted by Ck, . To an
arrow a = (t(a), h(a)) of , we can associate an analytic function on Ck, , by defining a ([(z1 , . . . , zk , z1 , . . . , z )]) := (zt(a) , zh(a) ). When has p arrows, we obtain in
this way p functions, and hence a p-form on the configuration space, which leads
upon integrating to the weight associated to = (Vk, , A, ), namely
k

1
(#
Star(s))!
s=1

:=

'

( da

Ck,

aA

We do not discuss here the technical issues, related to the fact that Ck, has corners
and concerning the choice of ordering in the above wedge product. We simply point
out that, for dimensional reasons, = 0 whenever the number of arrows in is
different from the dimension 2k +  2 of Ck, .
Example 13.48. Up to the ordering of its arrows, there is a single graph  in G1,
which has  arrows. It is depicted in Fig. 13.3. The Kontsevich weight of  is given
by

 =

1
! (2 )

'
C1,


(
t=1

d(1,t) =

1
! (2 )

'
01 << 2

d1 d =

1
.
(!)2
(13.78)

13.5 Kontsevichs Formality Theorem and Its Consequences

403

Fig. 13.4 To each vertex of a graph one associates a multivector field on Rd (a 0-vector field, i.e.,
a function, when the vertex is of the second type). Depicted is the graph of Fig. 13.1, with the extra
data.

13.5.2.3 C The Differential Operator Associated to a Kontsevich Graph

Let = (Vk, , A, ) Gk, be a Kontsevich graph, with 2k +  2  0, as before. We
show how there is naturally associated to (equipped with some extra data) a multidifferential operator on Rd ; the natural coordinates on Rd are denoted by x1 , . . . , xd .
We add the following data to the graph:
(1)
(2)

To each vertex s of the first type, a ps -vector field Qs on Rd ;

To each vertex t of the second type, a smooth function Ft on Rd .

See Fig. 13.4, which is Fig. 13.1 with the extra data. Let : A {1, . . . , d} be any
map. Using the above data and , we can associate to each vertex t of the second
type a function D,t (Ft ), namely

D,t (Ft ) :=

aA
h(a)=t

Ft .
x (a)

Similarly, we associate a function D, s (Qs ) to each vertex s of the first type, by

setting


 

Qs x 1 , . . . , x ps
,
D, s (Qs ) :=

s
s
x (a)
aA
h(a)=s



where we recall that s1 , . . . , sps = Star(s) is the set of arrows whose tail is s,
ordered by s . When the above products are taken over the empty set, i.e., if t,
respectively s, is not the head of an arrow in A, then the derivatives reduce to a
zero-th order derivative, i.e., no derivatives are taken. Taking the product of the thus

404

13 Deformation Quantization

Fig. 13.5 The graph  with some extra data.

constructed k +  functions and summing over all maps : A {1, . . . , d}, leads to
the function
B (Q1 , . . . , Qk )(F1 , . . . , F ) :=

D, s (Qs )

:A{1,...,d} s=1

D,t (Ft ) .

t=1

The right-hand side of this equation is clearly a multi-differential operator in the

functions F1 , . . . , F . In summary, we have associated to each Kontsevich graph =
(Vk, , A) and to each choice of multivector fields (of the right degree) an -differential
operator B (Q1 , . . . , Qk ), whose action on functions is defined as above. If at least
one of the multivector fields Qs is not of the right degree (i.e., its degree is different
from ps , the number of arrows of whose tail is s), we define B (Q1 , . . . , Qk ) to be
equal to the zero -differential operator. Extending these definitions by linearity, we
get for each Kontsevich graph = (Vk, , A) Gk, a linear map B : Sk g h, where
we recall that g and h are respectively the pointed differential graded Lie algebras

(X (Rd ), [ , ]S , 0) and ( HCdiff (Rd ), [ , ]G , ).

Example 13.49. We write down B , where  is the graph in G1, which we introduced in Example 13.48. Let Q be an -vector field on Rd and let F1 , . . . , F be
functions on Rd . See Fig. 13.5, where these data have been added to the graph. We
label the arrows of the graph from 1 to , so that the arrow labeled i connects 1 to i ,
for all i = 1, . . . , . For a map : A = {1, . . . , } {1, . . . , d} we write (i) as i ;
then, summing over all such maps simply amounts to summing over all 1 , . . . ,  ,
ranging from 1 to d. With these notations,
B (Q)(F1 , . . . , F ) =

11 ,..., d

Q[x1 , . . . , x ]

= Q[F1 , . . . , F ],
so that B (Q) = Q.

F1 F2
F

x1 x2
x

13.5 Kontsevichs Formality Theorem and Its Consequences

405

Example 13.50. Similarly, we write down B , where is the graph of Fig. 13.4.
The arrows of the graph are labeled 1, . . . , 7, starting with the arrows whose tail is
Q1 X2 (Rd ), then those whose tail is Q2 X3 (Rd ), finally the ones whose tail is
Q3 X2 (Rd ). It leads to the following formula:
B (Q1 , Q2 , Q3 )(F1 , . . . , F4 ) =

Q 1 F1 2 F2
2 F3 F4
Q2 Q3
,
x1 x2 x3 x4 x7 x5
11 ,...,7 d x6

where
Q 1 := Q1 [x1 , x2 ], Q 2 := Q2 [x3 , x4 , x5 ], Q 3 := Q3 [x6 , x7 ] .
13.5.2.4 D Kontsevichs Formula for the L -Quasi-Isomorphism
We have introduced in the previous subsections all the ingredients which are
used in Kontsevichs explicit construction of the L -quasi-isomorphism between

(X (Rd ), [ , ]S , 0) and ( HCdiff (Rd ), [ , ]G , ). As above, we denote these pointed

differential graded Lie algebras by g and h respectively, and we denote the natural coordinates on Rd by x1 , . . . , xd . Recall that : S g h is completely determined by the family of maps (k )kN , where for each k N, k is the restriction of to Sk g. They are defined as follows: for all p1 , . . . , pk N and for all
Q1 Q2 . . . Qk g p1 1 g pk 1 , the -differential operator k (Q1 Q2 . . . Qk ) h1 ,
where  := ki=1 pi 2k + 2, is defined by:

k (Q1 Q2 . . . Qk ) :=

Gk,

B (Q1 , . . . , Qk ) .

(13.79)

In this definition, the sum is taken over all Kontsevich graphs = (Vk, , A) Gk,
and for each such graph , and B are the weight and the -differential operator
associated to , as defined in Subsections 13.5.2.2 and 13.5.2.3.
A few comments about this definition are in order:
(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

As we have seen, = 0 when is a graph in Gk, whose number of arrows

is different from 2k +  2. This explain why the sum in (13.79) is only taken
over Gk, , where  := ki=1 pi 2k + 2. Recall also that B is zero when has
a vertex i for which the number of arrows which start from i is not equal to pi .
With respect to the grading which we introduced on S g, the monomial
Q1 Q2 . . . Qk in (13.79) is of degree ki=1 pi 2k, while B (Q1 Q2 . . . Qk ) is of
weight  2, with  as above. It follows that is a graded map (of degree 0).
Each k is well-defined: the order of Q1 , . . . , Qk in the right-hand side of
(13.79) is irrelevant, since both and B are independent of the ordering
of the vertices of the first type.
The above formula for k is particularly simple for k = 1. In fact, there are !
graphs  = (V1, , A, ) in G1, with  arrows, differing only by their ordering
(as given by ). As we have seen in Example 13.48, the weight of these graphs
is 1/(!)2 ; according to Example 13.49, B (Q) = Q. It follows that

406

13 Deformation Quantization

1 (Q) =

G1,

B (Q) =

1
Q.
!

In view of (13.76), it follows that 1 = , as stated in Kontsevichs formality

theorem (Theorem 13.46).
The main result is that is an L -quasi-isomorphism between g and h. As a consequence, Kontsevichs formality theorem (Theorem 13.46) holds for Rd and the
L -quasi-isomorphism which proves this theorem can be constructed quite explicitly. For a proof that is an L -quasi-isomorphism we refer to [39, 107].

13.5.3 A Few Consequences of Kontsevichs Formality Theorem

The following theorem is a first important corollary of Kontsevichs formality theorem.
Theorem 13.51. Let M be a real manifold and denote by the usual product
on C (M).
(1)
(2)

(3)

Every Poisson structure on M admits a star product, i.e., there exists a star
product  = + iN i i on C (M), with 1 = 2 ;
There is a one-to-one correspondence between the set of equivalence classes
of formal deformations of the trivial Poisson structure on M and the set of
equivalence classes of star products on C (M);
The correspondence in (2) is natural in the following sense: if the equivalence
class of a formal deformation  = iN i i of the zero Poisson structure
on M and the equivalence class of a star product  = + iN i i on M
correspond under (2), then 1 is the skew-symmetric part of 21 .

Proof. Let be a Poisson structure on M. It is an element of degree one of

(X (M), [ , ]S , 0) and since it satisfies the Jacobi identity, is a solution of
the MaurerCartan equation associated to (X (M), [ , ]S , 0). According to Theorem 13.46, there exists an L -quasi-isomorphism between the differential graded
Lie algebras (X (M), [ , ]S , 0) and ( HCdiff (M), [ , ]G , ), with 1 = . According
to the first item of Proposition 13.41, ( ) is a solution of the MaurerCartan
equation associated to ( HCdiff (M), [ , ]G , ), so that + ( ) is a star product
on C (M) (Proposition 13.33). Moreover, by definition of (see (13.56)), we can
write

( ) =

k
k ( k ) ,
k1 k!

k! k (( )k ) =

k1

(13.80)

so that the coefficient in of the star product + ( ) is 1 ( ) = ( ) = 2 ,

according to Theorem 13.46. This shows (1).

13.5 Kontsevichs Formality Theorem and Its Consequences

407

Theorems 13.46 and 13.39, combined, show that there is a one-to-one correspondence between the set of gauge equivalence classes of solutions of the Maurer
Cartan equation associated to the differential graded Lie algebra (X (M), [ , ]S , 0)
and the set of gauge equivalence classes of solutions of the MaurerCartan equation associated to ( HCdiff (M), [ , ]G , ). According to Proposition 13.33, the first
set is the set of equivalence classes of deformations of the trivial Poisson structure,
while the second set, after a translation by , is the set of equivalence classes of star
products on C (M). This yields the one-to-one correspondence in (2).
Let  = kN k k be a formal deformation of the trivial Poisson structure on
M and consider  := + ( ), which is a star product on C (M). Recall that
the equivalence class of  and the equivalence class of  are related by the one-toone correspondence in (2). We have, as in (13.80), that  = + 21 (mod 2 ).
Let  = + kN k k be an arbitrary star product on C (M) which is equivalent
to  , which means that  and  are gauge equivalent. Then there exists
= kN k k in HC0diff (M) such that  = ead ( ), so that


1
+ [1 , ]G (mod 2 ) .
 = +
2
The bilinear map [1 , ]G HC1diff (M) is symmetric, because
[1 , ]G (F, G) = 1 ( (F, G)) (1 (F), G) (F, 1 (G)) ,
for all F, G C (M). This shows that 1 is the skew-symmetric part of 21 , which
is the content of (3). 

If (M, ) is a real Poisson manifold, one can also consider the formal deformations
of rather than of the trivial Poisson structure on M. We show in the following
theorem how these deformations are related to star products on C (M)M.
Theorem 13.52. Let (M, ) be a real Poisson manifold and let denote the usual
product on C (M). There is a one-to-one correspondence between the set of equivalence classes of formal deformations of the Poisson structure and the set of equivalence classes of star products  = + kN k k on C (M), for which is the
skew-symmetric part of 21 .
Proof. Let us denote by D0 the set of equivalence classes of formal deformations
of the trivial Poisson structure on M and by D the set of equivalence classes of
formal deformations of the Poisson structure on M. Let us also denote by S the
set of equivalence classes of star products on C (M) and finally by S , the set of
equivalence classes of star products  = + kN k k on C (M), such that the
skew-symmetric part of 21 is . Of course, one has S , S and according to
item (2) of Theorem 13.51, there exists a bijection : D0 S .
An element  = + kN k k X1 (M) is a formal deformation of if
and only if [ ,  ]S = 0, which is also equivalent to [ ,  ]S = 0, meaning that
 = + kN k k+1 is a formal deformation of the trivial Poisson structure.
Moreover, saying that two formal deformations  and  of are equivalent means

408

13 Deformation Quantization

that  and  are two gauge equivalent solutions of the MaurerCartan

equation associated to the pointed differential graded Lie algebra (X (M), [ , ]S , ),
i.e., that there exists X0 (M) satisfying

 = ead ( ) .
Since this equation is equivalent to  = ead ( ) = ead ( ), two formal deformations  and  of are equivalent if and only if  and  are equivalent
as formal deformations of the trivial Poisson structure. This fact permits us to identify D with a subset of D0 . Now, according to item (3) of Theorem 13.51, we
have ( D ) S , . Moreover, if  = + kN k k is an element of S , ,
one has 21 = and, once more according to item (3) of Theorem 13.51, there
exists a formal deformation  = kN k k of the trivial Poisson structure, whose
equivalence class is sent by to  and such that = 21 = 1 . This implies in
particular that 1  is a formal deformation of the Poisson structure and that 
lies in ( D ). This shows that ( D ) = S , , so that induces a bijection

between D and S , , hence between D and S , . 
Example 13.53. In the case of Rd , the explicit construction of the L -quasi-isomorphism which we have given in Subsection 13.5.2.4 leads to an explicit formula
for the star product on C (Rd ), equipped with an arbitrary Poisson structure .
Specializing (13.80) to (13.79), gives the following formula for the star product
on C (Rd ), for F, G C (Rd ),

k
k ( k )(F, G)
k1 k!

 (F, G) = (F, G) +

k
B ( , . . . , )(F, G) .
k1 k! Gk,2

= (F, G) +

In the above sum, only those graphs for which every vertex of the first type is the
tail of exactly two arrows contribute, since B ( , . . . , ) is equal to zero for all other
graphs.

13.6 Notes
Deformation quantization was proposed by Bayen, Flato, Fronsdal, Lichnerowicz
and Sternheimer in [19] as an approach to reverse the standard operation of taking the classical limit of a quantum system, which is loosely speaking done by
letting Plancks constant h tend to zero. They raise the question whether a deformation quantization of every Poisson manifold exists. For symplectic manifolds,
an affirmative answer to this question was given by De WildeLecomte [57], who
use the MoyalWeyl product, which answers the question locally (for symplectic manifolds). A geometric proof of the latter result was given by Fedosov [73].

13.6 Notes

409

The fact that every Poisson manifold admits a deformation quantization has been
shown by Kontsevich [107]. An alternative proof of Kontsevichs result was given
by Tamarkin [189].
In a purely algebraic context, the problem of (formally) deforming commutative associative algebras was considered by Gerstenhaber in [82], who establishes
the link with Hochschild cohomology. Deformations of Poisson structures were introduced in [126]. Deformations of Poisson manifolds, in which both the associative product and the Poisson bracket are deformed, are considered in Ginzburg
Kaledin [85].

Appendix A

Multilinear Algebra

In this appendix, we recall some basic definitions and properties related to multilinear algebra, including (graded) algebra and coalgebra structures, derivations and
coderivations. We need them in two particular cases, namely for vector spaces over
a field F, and for A -modules, where A is a commutative associative algebra over a
field F. Notice that the latter modules can also be thought of as vector spaces over F,
a fact which we often use, since many operations which we consider are F-linear,
rather than A -linear. In order to cover both cases, we consider in this appendix
the structures which we need on modules over an arbitrary commutative ring R with
unit; the reader may find it useful to keep in mind the example of the C (M)-module
of vector fields or differential forms over a manifold M.
Throughout the appendix, F denotes a field of characteristic zero and R denotes
an arbitrary commutative ring with unit, denoted by 1.

A.1 Tensor Algebra

For R-modules V and W , the set of linear1 maps V W is denoted by HomR (V,W ),
or by Hom(V,W ) when it is clear that V and W are considered as R-modules.
Hom(V,W ) is itself an R-module in a natural way. When V is a free R-module (for
example when R = F, so that V is an F-vector space) and B is a basis of V , every
map B W extends to a unique element of Hom(V,W ) by linearity; when both V
and W are finite-dimensional F-vector spaces, and bases for V and W have been
fixed, we often think of elements of Hom(V,W ) as matrices (with dimW rows and
dimV columns).
The dual of an R-module V is the R-module V := Hom(V, R). For a finitedimensional F-vector space V , the dual V is an F-vector space, isomorphic to V ;
the isomorphism is however not canonical, since it depends on the choice of a basis
1

We rarely use the word R-linear, to avoid confusion with the terminology for multilinear maps,
i.e., k-linear maps, with k N .

C. Laurent-Gengoux et al., Poisson Structures,

Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften 347,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-31090-4, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

411

412

A Multilinear Algebra

for V . The natural pairing (evaluation map)

 ,  : V V R
( , v)   , v := (v) ,

(A.1)

leads for fixed v V to a linear map , v : V R, i.e., to an element of (V ) =

Hom(V , R). The R-module (V ) is called the bidual of V . The resulting linear map
V (V ) is, in general, neither injective nor surjective, but there are two important
particular cases in which it is an isomorphism:

When V is a finite-dimensional vector space over R = F;

When R = C (M), the algebra of smooth functions on a smooth manifold M,
with V the space of smooth differential k-forms on M; in this case, V can be
identified with the R-module of smooth vector fields on M.

We will often deal with bilinear maps, sometimes with more general multilinear
maps between R-modules, where multilinear means (R-)linear in each of its arguments, keeping the other arguments fixed. The language of tensor products, which
we introduce now, is very useful for this. Let V1 , V2 ,V and W be R-modules and
let p : V1 V2 V be a bilinear map. If we compose p with a linear map V W ,
then we obtain a bilinear map V1 V2 W ; one may wonder if, given V1 and V2 ,
there exists an R-module V , such that, for every R-module W , every bilinear map
V1 V2 W can be obtained in this way from a linear map on V W . In fact,
there is a unique (up to isomorphism) such R-module, called the tensor product of
V1 and V2 , denoted by V1 R V2 , or V1 V2 , and it comes with a natural bilinear map
p : V1 V2 V1 V2 . Formally, the stated property means that every bilinear map
: V1 V2 W factors uniquely via p, meaning that there exists a unique linear
map , such that p = . This property is displayed in the following diagram:
p

V1 V2

V1 V2

W
In practice we do not make a distinction between the bilinear map and the linear
map , so we simply write Hom(V1 V2 ,W ). A natural construction of the
tensor product V1 V2 is as the quotient of the free R-module which is generated by
all formal expressions v1 v2 , with v1 V1 and v2 V2 , divided by the equivalence
relation defined by
(v1 + v
1 ) v2 = v1 v2 + v
1 v2 ,
v1 (v2 + v
2 ) = v1 v2 + v1 v
2 ,
a(v1 v2 ) = (av1 ) v2 = v1 (av2 ),
where v1 , v
1 V1 and v2 , v
2 V2 and a R. One says that v1 v2 is the tensor product of v1 and v2 . The maps p and are in this notation simply given by

A.1 Tensor Algebra

413

p(v1 , v2 ) = v1 v2 and (v1 v2 ) = (v1 , v2 ). In view of the above three properties,

p is a bilinear map.
As an application, consider the bilinear map V1 V2 V2 V1 , which is given by
(v1 , v2 )  v2 v1 . It factors via p to yield an R-module isomorphism S : V1 V2
V2 V1 , given by S(v1 v2 ) = v2 v1 , and called the twist map.
One easily shows that for arbitrary R-modules V1 , V2 and V3 , one has a natural
isomorphism (V1 V2 ) V3  V1 (V2 V3 ). The latter is also denoted as V1
V2 V3 as it can also be described, like in the case of bilinear maps, as a universal
object for trilinear maps, defined on V1 V2 V3 . Under the natural isomorphisms,
(V1 V2 ) V3  V1 (V2 V3 )  V1 V2 V3 , one has that
(v1 v2 ) v3 v1 (v2 v3 ) v1 v2 v3 ,

(A.2)

so that, in the sequel, we will not make a notational distinction between the elements
in (A.2). The extension to several R-modules is clear. For a given R-module V , we
obtain a natural sequence of R-modules T kV := V k , where k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , which is
defined, as the notation suggests, by V k := V V (k factors), when k  1 and
V 0 := R. Equipped with the product (X,Y )  X Y , where X V k and Y V  ,
the R-module
T V :=


k=0

T kV =

V k

k=0

becomes a graded R-algebra, called the tensor algebra of V . See Section A.3 below
for the basic definitions on graded algebras.
Fixing one R-module Z, it is useful to think of taking the tensor product with Z
as a functor, which means on the one hand that a linear map Hom(V,W ) yields,
in a natural way, a linear map

Hom(V Z,W Z) ,

(A.3)

simply by putting (v z) := (v) z, for v V and z Z, which is well-defined;

the map is usually denoted by 1Z , where 1Z stands for the identity map on Z.
On the other hand, it means that taking the tensor product with Z has the usual
functorial properties, which make it into a covariant functor. In formulas, this is
written as follows:
1V 1Z = 1V Z ,

( ) 1Z = ( 1Z ) ( 1Z ) ,

where Hom(V,W ) and Hom(U,V ). Above, we tensored with Z on the right,

but we could also have tensored with Z on the left.
For R-modules Vi and Wi , with i = 1, 2, there is also a natural injective morphism
(which is not surjective, in general)
Hom(V1 ,W1 ) Hom(V2 ,W2 ) Hom(V1 V2 ,W1 W2 ) ,

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where 1 2 Hom(V1 ,W1 ) Hom(V2 ,W2 ) is, as a linear map from V1 V2 to

W1 W2 , given by
(1 2 )(v1 v2 ) := 1 (v1 ) 2 (v2 ) ,
for all v1 V1 and v2 V2 . This justifies the notation 1Z introduced above.
For R-modules V1 , V2 and W , bilinear maps V1 V2 W are also in natural
correspondence with linear maps V1 Hom(V2 ,W ), or with linear maps V2
Hom(V1 ,W ). We use this usually in the form of the two natural isomorphisms
Hom(V1 V2 ,W )  Hom(V1 , Hom(V2 ,W ))  Hom(V2 , Hom(V1 ,W )) ,
which allows one to use a single bilinear map V1 V2 W to associate to each
element of V1 (respectively V2 ) a linear map V2 W (respectively a linear map
V1 W ). For example, for arbitrary R-modules V and W ,
(V W )  Hom(V,W )  Hom(W,V ) .

(A.4)

For given R-modules V and W , there is also a natural linear map : V W

Hom(V,W ), which associates to an element w, with V and w W , the
linear map
( w) : V W
v  (v) w =  , v w .
The map is always injective, but is in general not surjective. When R = F, then
is an isomorphism if and only if V or W is finite-dimensional. Combining the
injection V W Hom(V,W ) with the first isomorphism in (A.4), we obtain a
natural inclusion
V W (V W ) ,
which is an isomorphism when R = F and V or W is finite-dimensional.
When 1 Hom(V1 , A ) and 2 Hom(V2 , A ), where A is an R-algebra, then
1 2 is often implicitly combined with the multiplication map A A A ,
yielding 1 2 Hom(V1 V2 , A ), given for v1 V1 and v2 V2 , by
(1 2 )(v1 v2 ) := 1 (v1 )2 (v2 ) ,

(A.5)

where the latter product is the multiplication in A . When this multiplication has
extra properties, they yield similar properties for the product of maps: for example,
if A is commutative, then

1 2 = (2 1 ) S ,
as elements of Hom(V1 V2 , A ). Associativity of A implies that
(1 2 ) 3 = 1 (2 3 ) ,
as elements of Hom((V1 V2 ) V3 , A )  Hom(V1 (V2 V3 ), A ).

A.2 Exterior and Symmetric Algebra

415

A.2 Exterior and Symmetric Algebra

Our multilinear maps are usually skew-symmetric k-linear maps V k V , where V is
an R-module, so we recall here the corresponding tensorial notions. In T V , consider
the submodule N which is generated by all -tensors ( N ) of the form vi1
vi , where vis = vit for some 1  s < t  , and let Nk := N T kV for k N and
N0 := {0}. Then we may consider
V := T V /N =

T kV /Nk =

k=0

k V ,

k=0

where kV := T kV /Nk , for k N. Notice that kV = {0} as soon as k is bigger

than the (minimal) number of generators of V . We denote the quotient maps by
p : T V V and pk : T kV kV . Since N is a two-sided ideal of T V , we have
that the associative product on T V induces an associative product on V , which
is denoted by . Thus p(v1 vk ) = p(v1 ) p(vk ), which we also write as
v1 vk , because p1 (i.e., the restriction of p to V ) is injective. One easily verifies
that, if X iV and Y jV , then X Y i+ jV and
X Y = (1)i jY X .

(A.6)

In the language of the next section, this property is called graded commutativity.
The associative, graded commutative R-algebra (V, ) is called the exterior algebra of V and elements of V are called multivectors. One similarly constructs the
symmetric algebra (SV, ) which is the associative commutative graded R-algebra
obtained as T V /N
, where N
is the two-sided ideal of T V , generated by all
v w w v, where v, w V .
It is clear that every skew-symmetric k-linear map Hom(V k ,W ) vanishes
on Nk . Therefore, for R-modules V and W , we have that every skew-symmetric
k-linear map Hom(V k ,W ) corresponds in a canonical way to a linear map
: kV W , as in the following commutative diagram:
pk

V k

k V

W
In formulas, (v1 vk ) = (v1 , . . . , vk ). From now on, we do not distinguish
notationally between the maps and : we write Hom(kV,W ) and we simply
say that is a skew-symmetric k-linear map.
One usually thinks of elements of kV as skew-symmetric tensors: the permutation group Sk defines a natural linear action on V k which is defined for Sk and
v1 vk V k by

416

A Multilinear Algebra

(v1 vk ) := v (1) v (k) .

An element X V k is called a symmetric tensor when (X) = X for all Sk ,
while it is called a skew-symmetric tensor when (X) = sgn( )X for all Sk ,
where sgn( ) denotes the signature of . In order to identify the skew-symmetric
k-tensors with kV , one defines a linear map k , the skew-symmetrization map, by

k :

k V

T kV
1
sgn( )v (1) v (k) .
v1 vk 
k!
S

(A.7)

It is easy to see that this map is well-defined and injective, and that its image consists
precisely of all skew-symmetric k-tensors. One similarly identifies the symmetric ktensors with SkV by using the symmetrization map

k+ : SkV T kV ,
whose definition is formally the same as the above definition (A.7) of the skewsymmetrization map, except that one leaves out the factor sgn( ).
There are two types of internal products related to the exterior algebra. Let V
and W be arbitrary R-modules. For X jV , the internal product X yields, for
every i N, a linear map
X : Hom(iV,W ) Hom(i jV,W ) ,
which is given by

X (Z) := (X Z)

W and Z
where
X := 0. It is easily verified that
: iV

i jV , assuming i 

j; otherwise, i.e., when i < j, then

XY = Y X ,
for X jV and Y kV . For Hom(iV, R) the internal product , is the
family of linear maps, indexed by j N,
: jV jiV ,
defined for all v1 v j jV by
(v1 v j ) :=

Si, ji

sgn( ) (v (1) , . . . , v (i) ) v (i+1) v ( j)

when i  j, and is the zero map otherwise. In this formula, Si,k denotes the set
of all (i, k)-shuffles, i.e., all permutations Si+k for which (1) < < (i) and
(i + 1) < < (i + k); sgn( ) is the signature of as a permutation.

A.2 Exterior and Symmetric Algebra

417

To finish this section, we define a product on skew-symmetric multilinear maps

which take values in a commutative associative R-algebra A . We write FG for the
product of elements F and G in A . As above, V denotes an arbitrary R-module;
often, in the body of the book, this product will be considered for V = A , viewed
as an F-vector space (R = F). For Hom(iV, A ) and Hom( jV, A ), where
i, j > 0, we define Hom(i+ jV, A ) by
( )(v1 , . . . , vi+ j ) :=

Si, j

sgn( ) (v (1) , . . . , v (i) ) (v (i+1) , . . . , v (i+ j) ) ,

for all v1 , . . . , vi+ j V . We also write



, v1 vi+ j := ( )(v1 , . . . , vi+ j ) ,
thereby extending the notation of (A.1).
Notice that, if A = R, so that (iV ) and ( jV ) , then we can alternatively define (i+ jV ) as being the linear map . In this particular case,
the definition implies the following relation between and :
= ,
for , kN (kV ) . Indeed, let Hom(iV, A ) and Hom( jV, A ),
where i, j > 0, and let v1 , . . . , vk V , with k  i + j. Then,
(v1 , . . . , vk )

Si+ j,ki j

Si, j,ki j

sgn( )( )(v (1) , . . . , v (i+ j) ) v (i+ j+1) v (k)

sgn( ) (v (1) , . . . , v (i) ) (v (i+1) , . . . , v (i+ j) )

(A.8)
v (i+ j+1) v (k)



=

Si,ki

sgn( ) (v (1) , . . . , v (i) ) v (i+1) v (k)

= ( )(v1 , . . . , vk ) ,
where we have used the notation Si, j,ki j for the set of all permutations of {1, . . . , k}
that are increasing on the intervals 1, . . . , i and i + 1, . . . , i + j and i + j + 1, . . . , k.
We return to the general case for which A is not necessarily R, but an arbitrary
commutative associative R-algebra. We point out that, if Hom(iV, A ),
Hom( jV, A ) and Hom(kV, A ), where i, j, k  0, then
( ) = ( ) ,
i.e., is an associative product on N Hom( , A ). This is obtained by exactly
the same computation as in (A.8), with k =  i j and with acting on the last

418

A Multilinear Algebra

part (i.e., on the last vs that appear out of the arguments of and ). Moreover, for
Hom(iV, A ) and Hom( jV, A ), we have

= (1)i j .
In the language of the next section, the product makes kN Hom(kV, A ) into a
graded R-algebra which is associative and graded commutative. Notice that, in the
notation which we use, if 1 , . . . , k Hom(V, A ) and v1 , . . . , vk V , then


1 k , v1 vk  = det i , v j 1i, jk .
(A.9)

A.3 Algebras and Graded Algebras

In this section we recall the basic definitions of algebras and graded algebras. These
definitions will be dualized in the next section, to obtain the notions of a coalgebra
and of a graded coalgebra.
Let V be an R-module. An algebra structure on V is a bilinear map : V V V ,
called a product. We also view as an element of Hom(V V,V ), and we say that
(V, ) is an R-algebra. Usually, is assumed to have additional properties; the typical extra properties that may be supposed to have are summarized in Table A.1.
Table A.1 A product on an R-module, which makes it into an R-algebra, is usually assumed to
have one or two additional properties, taken from the list which appears in this table. We write the
properties in their usual form (with u, v, w V ) and in their functional form; the latter is useful for
obtaining the co-version (see Section A.4). S is the twist map u v  v u and S is the cycle
map u v w  v w u.
Property

Usual / functional form

commutative

(v, u) = (u, v)
S =

skew-symmetric

(v, u) = (u, v)
S =

associative

(u, (v, w)) = ( (u, v), w)

(1V ) = ( 1V )

Jacobi identity

(u, (v, w))+  (u, v, w) = 0

2=0 (1V ) S  = 0

The usual combinations of adjectives are the following: (1) If is skew-symmetric

and satisfies the Jacobi identity, then (V, ) is called a Lie algebra, and is called
a Lie bracket on V . We employ the standard custom of using brackets, such as [ , ]
and { , }, for the product. (2) An equally important combination of properties that

A.3 Algebras and Graded Algebras

419

may have are commutativity and associativity; some authors call (V, ) in this case
simply an algebra (or R-algebra), but we will not use this convention here since
our modules will usually have two algebra structures, one of which is a Lie algebra
structure, and the other one is associative and commutative.
Example A.1. A simple example of a Lie algebra structure is given by the vector
space Hom(W,W ), where W is an arbitrary vector space, equipped with the commutator
[1 , 2 ] := 1 2 2 1 ,
where 1 , 2 Hom(W,W ). The Jacobi identity for [ , ] is a direct consequence of
the associativity of the composition of (linear) maps.
A linear map : V W between R-algebras (V, ) and (W,
) is called an
algebra homomorphism if ( (v1 , v2 )) =
( (v1 ), (v2 )), for all v1 , v2 V , which
is written in functional form as =
( ), and which corresponds to the
commutativity of the following diagram.
V V

W W

(A.10)

In the case of Lie algebras (V, [ , ]) and (W, [ , ]

), such a linear map is called
a Lie algebra homomorphism. The homomorphism property then takes the form
([v1 , v2 ]) = [ (v1 ), (v2 )]
for all v1 , v2 V .
We now turn to the graded version of these definitions. For this, it is assumed
that V is a graded R-module,

Vi ,
(A.11)
V=
iZ

where each of the subspaces Vi is invariant under the action of R. The notation V
(or V , when the subspaces are indexed by superscripts) is also used for V . In many
cases, one has V = iNVi , or even V = ki=0Vi , the other Vi being undefined, but
one easily arrives at the form (A.11) by defining Vi := {0}, for those values of i
where Vi was undefined. An element of Vi is called a homogeneous element of V of
degree i. A linear map : V W between graded R-modules is said to be graded
of degree r if (Vi ) Wi+r for every i Z. When V and W are written as V and W ,
the suggestive notation : V W+r is also used. We denote the R-module of all
graded linear maps from V to W of degree r by Homr (V,W ). A graded product on V
is a product on V such that

(Vi V j ) Vi+ j , for all i, j Z .

Then V , equipped with , becomes a graded R-algebra and we have induced maps
i, j : Vi V j Vi+ j for all i, j. A graded linear map of degree zero : V W which

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is a (Lie) algebra homomorphism is called a graded (Lie) algebra homomorphism.

The graded analog of Table A.1 is given by Table A.2.
Table A.2 The graded analog of Table A.1 is displayed. The only difference between the graded
and ungraded notions lies in the signs; in fact, as there are no signs in the case of graded associativity, the notion of associativity and graded associativity coincide. For the graded Jacobi identity,
it is understood that when one sums over the three cyclic permutations of (i, j, k), the exponent 
takes the consecutive values 0, 1 and 2. The elements u, v and w are assumed to be homogeneous
of respective degrees i, j and k.
Property

Usual / functional form

graded commutative

(v, u) = (1)i j (u, v)

j,i S = (1)i j i, j

graded skew-symmetric

(v, u) = (1)i j (u, v)

j,i S = (1)i j i, j

(graded) associative

(u, (v, w)) = ( (u, v), w)

i, j+k (1Vi j,k ) = i+ j,k (i, j 1Vk )

graded Jacobi identity

(1)ik (u, (v, w))+  (u, v, w) = 0

(1)ik i, j+k (1Vi j,k ) S  +  (i, j, k) = 0

As in the ungraded case, the combination of graded skew-symmetric and the

graded Jacobi identity leads to the notion of a graded Lie bracket and of a graded
Lie algebra. The combination of graded commutativity and associativity leads to
the notion of an associative, graded commutative algebra.
Example A.2. To give a simple example of a graded Lie algebra, we define for
graded linear maps i Homri (V,V ), where i = 1, 2, their graded commutator
[1 , 2 ] as the graded linear map of degree r1 + r2 , given by
[1 , 2 ] := 1 2 (1)r1 r2 2 1 .

(A.12)

The graded R-module rZ Homr (V,V ), equipped with this bracket, is a graded
Lie algebra. For graded linear maps 1 , 2 , 3 of degree r1 , r2 , r3 , the graded Jacobi
identity takes the following form
(1)r1 r3 [1 , [2 , 3 ]] + (1)r2 r1 [2 , [3 , 1 ]] + (1)r3 r2 [3 , [1 , 2 ]] = 0 , (A.13)
which can also be written, in view of the graded skew-symmetry of [ , ], as
[1 , [2 , 3 ]] = [[1 , 2 ] , 3 ] + (1)r1 r2 [2 , [1 , 3 ]] .
In the language of Section A.5, this means that [1 , ], which is a graded linear map
of degree r1 , is a graded derivation of [ , ].

A.3 Algebras and Graded Algebras

421

We have in this appendix already met the following three examples of graded
algebras, associated to an R-module V .
(T V, ) is a graded R-algebra, which is associative;
(V, ) is a graded R-algebra, which is associative and graded commutative;
(SV, ) is a graded R-algebra, which is associative and commutative.
The grading on T V comes from the natural decomposition T V = iNV i ;
for V and SV , the induced grading is used. The commutativity of the graded
algebra (SV, ) should not be confused with the graded commutativity of the
graded algebra (V, ): in the former the arguments commute, but in the latter
they only commute up to a sign, see (A.6). We think of T as a functor: given
a linear map Hom(V,W ), we obtain a homomorphism of graded algebras
T : T V T W, whose restriction to T kV is the linear map T kV T kW , defined by T k := , i.e.,
T k (v1 v2 vk ) := (v1 ) (v2 ) (vk ) .
T is a covariant functor: for Hom(V,W ) and Hom(W, Z) one obtains
T (1V ) = 1T V ,

T ( ) = T ( ) T ( ) .

Similarly, and S are covariant functors.

Associated to a graded vector space V = iZ Vi there is a graded exterior algebra which takes into account the grading on V . This algebra, denoted by V
is the associative, graded commutative algebra, obtained by dividing the tensor al
gebra T V = kN T kV of V by the ideal generated by the elements of the form
x y + (1)i j y x, with x Vi and y V j . Denoting by the product in V , one
then has
x y = (1)i j y x ,
for all x Vi and y V j . For integers i1 , . . . , ik and for Sk an arbitrary permutation of {1, . . . , k}, let sgn( ; i1 , . . . , ik ) {1, 1} denote the sign, defined by the
equality
x1 xk = sgn( ; i1 , . . . , ik ) x (1) x (k) ,
where x is an arbitrary homogeneous element of V of degree i , for  = 1, . . . , k. As
in the ungraded case, if : V k W is a linear map, satisfying

(x1 xk ) = sgn( ; i1 , . . . , ik ) (x (1) x (k) ) ,

for all homogeneous elements x1 , . . . , xk , with i denoting the degree of x for  =
1, . . . , k, then descends to a linear map V W , which we also denote by .

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A Multilinear Algebra

A.4 Coalgebras and Graded Coalgebras

We now consider the co-versions of the concepts which were introduced in the
previous section. This is done in the customary way, namely we obtain the coversions by dualizing the definitions of the previous section, written in their functional forms (see Tables A.1 and A.2), which is done by reversing all arrows and
switching the order of their composition. Let us first dualize the definition of an algebra: a coalgebra structure on an R-module V is an element of Hom(V,V V ),
called a coproduct. The most important additional properties which may have, are
summarized in Table A.3.
Table A.3 Dualizing the usual properties of the product of an algebra, written in functional form,
as in Table A.1, we obtain the usual properties which the coproduct , defining a coalgebra structure on an R-module, can have. As before, S is the twist map and S is the cycle map.
Property

Functional form

cocommutative

S =

co-skew-symmetric

S =

coassociative

(1V ) = ( 1V )

co-Jacobi identity

2=0 S  (1V ) = 0

In order to define a homomorphism of coalgebras, we just reverse the arrows

in (A.10): for given coalgebras (V, ) and (W,
) we call a linear map : W V
a homomorphism if the following diagram is commutative.
V V

W W

We now consider the graded versions of the above co-concepts. Let V be a graded
R-module, V = iZVi . A graded coproduct is a coproduct on V such that for
every k Z,

(Vk )
Vi V j ,
i+ j=k

is finitely supported, i.e., (Vk ) has a non-trivial intersection with only a finite
number of Vi V j . Notice that (Vk ) is automatically finitely supported when
Vi = {0} for all i < 0. A graded R-module V , equipped with a graded coproduct , is called a graded R-coalgebra. For fixed i, j Z, we will need the linear map
i, j : Vi+ j Vi V j , which is obtained by composing , restricted to Vi+ j , with the

A.4 Coalgebras and Graded Coalgebras

423

natural projection V V Vi V j . The usual properties of a graded coproduct are

displayed in Table A.4.
Table A.4 This last table deals with the case of graded coalgebras. We recall that S is the twist
map and S is the cycle map (see Table A.2).
Property

Functional form

graded cocommutative

S j,i = (1)i j i, j

graded co-skew-symmetric

S j,i = (1)i j i, j

graded coassociative

(1Vi j,k ) i, j+k = (i, j 1Vk ) i+ j,k

graded co-Jacobi identity

(1)ik S  (1Vi j,k ) i, j+k +  (i, j, k) = 0

We have seen in the previous section that the graded R-modules T V, V

and SV have a natural (graded) algebra structure. We now show that they also have
a graded coalgebra structure; the latter structure is important at a few places in this
book. The coalgebra structure on T V is called de-concatenation and is defined,
for k N and for v1 , . . . , vk V , by
k

(v1 vk ) := (v1 vi ) (vi+1 vk ) ,

(A.14)

i=0

which means that the linear maps i, j are given by

i, j :

V (i+ j)
V i V j
v1 vi+ j  (v1 vi ) (vi+1 vi+ j ) .

(A.15)

Graded coassociativity of is an immediate consequence of the associativity of :

((i, j 1Vki j ) i+ j,ki j )(v1 vk )
= ((v1 vi ) (vi+1 v j )) (v j+1 vk )
= (v1 vi ) ((vi+1 v j ) (v j+1 vk ))
= ((1Vi j,ki j ) i,ki )(v1 vk ) .
We now turn to the natural coalgebra structure of the exterior algebra V . Let us
denote by the diagonal map V V V : v  (v, v). By functoriality of , it
induces a linear map
: V (V V ) ,
which we view as a linear map

:= : V V V ,

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where : (V V ) V V is the natural isomorphism, given by



(v1 , 0) (vi , 0) (0, vi+1 ) (0, vk ) :=
(v1 vi ) (vi+1 vk ) ,
where v1 , . . . , vk V . We denote the natural product on V V which makes
into a homomorphism of graded algebras by  (not to be confused with ). It
follows easily from the graded commutativity of that, if vi ri V for i = 1, . . . , 4,
then
(A.16)
(v1 v2 )(v3 v4 ) = (1)r2 r3 (v1 v3 ) (v2 v4 ) .
The commutative diagram

1V

V V

V V

1V

V V V

leads to a commutative diagram

V

( 1V )

(V V )

(V V )

(1V )

(V V V )

which, in terms of , becomes the coassociativity property of the coproduct .

V

1V

V V

V V

1V

V V V

The graded algebra structure on V V V is defined as in (A.16). An explicit formula for is given by

(v1 v2 vk ) = ( (v1 vk )) = ( (v1 ) (vk ))



= ((v1 , 0) + (0, v1 )) ((vk , 0) + (0, vk ))
= (v1 1 + 1 v1 ) (vk 1V + 1V vk )

A.5 Graded Derivations and Coderivations

i+ j=k Si, j

425

sgn( )(v (1) v (i) ) (v (i+1) v (k) ) .

In particular, i, j is given by

i, j (v1 vi+ j ) =

Si, j

sgn( )(v (1) v (i) ) (v (i+1) v (i+ j) ) ,

(A.17)
when i, j N and i, j = 0 when i < 0 or j < 0. The above formula is similar to the
de-concatenation formula (A.14) which we have introduced in the case of the tensor
algebra.

A.5 Graded Derivations and Coderivations

Let (V, ) be a (not necessarily associative) graded algebra, where V = iZVi is a
graded R-module. A graded linear map Homr (V,V ) of degree r is said to be a
graded derivation of degree r if

(vw) = (v)w + (1)rp v (w) ,

for all v Vp and w Vq , where vw is a shorthand for (v, w). In functional notation
this means that for every p, q Z,

p,q = p+r,q ( 1Vq ) + (1)rp p,r+q (1Vp ) ,

(A.18)

as linear maps Vp Vq Vp+r+q . We denote the R-module of all graded derivations of degree r of V by Derr (V ). It is easily verified by direct computation that
the graded commutator of two graded derivations of degrees r1 and r2 is a graded
derivation of degree r1 + r2 . This implies that rZ Derr (V ) is a graded Lie algebra,
with the graded commutator as Lie bracket. It is a Lie subalgebra of the graded Lie
algebra rZ Homr (V,V ), equipped with the graded commutator, which we considered in Section A.3. Clearly, a derivation is completely determined by its values on
an arbitrary set of elements of V , which generates V as a (graded) algebra.
Example A.3. Let V be an R-module and consider the graded algebra V . Equipped
with the graded commutator, the R-module rZ Derr (V ) is a graded Lie algebra.
Particular elements of Derr (V ) can be constructed from linear maps V r+1V :
every linear map
: V r+1V
extends to a derivation of degree r of the graded algebra (V, ) by putting

+rV

v1 vk 

(1)i1 (vi ) v1 v
i vk .

i=1

426

A Multilinear Algebra

Indeed, for X pV and Y qV ,

(X Y ) = (X) Y + (1) pr X (Y ),
which is an easy consequence of the fact that will either be applied to a factor
which appears in X, leaving Y untouched, or vice versa.
We now formulate the notion of a derivation for the case of a graded coalgebra.
As before, (V, ) is a graded coalgebra, where V = iZVi is a graded R-module.
Dualizing (A.18), a linear map : V V of degree r is called a graded coderivation of degree r if for every p, q Z,

p,q = ( 1Vq ) p+r,q + (1)rp (1Vp ) p,r+q ,

as maps from Vp+r+q to Vp Vq . We denote the R-module of all graded coderivations
of degree r of V by CoDerr (V ). Again, it follows by direct computation that the
graded commutator of two graded coderivations of degrees r1 and r2 is a graded
coderivation of degree r1 + r2 . This implies that rZ CoDerr (V ) is also a graded
Lie algebra, with the graded commutator as Lie bracket. Like rZ Derr (V ), it is
a Lie subalgebra of the graded Lie algebra rZ Homr (V,V ), equipped with the
graded commutator. The following example is the co-version of Example A.3.
Example A.4. Let V be an R-module and consider the graded coalgebra V .
Equipped with the graded commutator, the R-module rZ CoDerr (V ) is a graded
Lie algebra. Particular elements of CoDerr (V ) can be constructed from linear
maps r+1V V : every linear map

: r+1V V
extends to a coderivation of degree r of the graded R-coalgebra (V, ) by putting

V
rV
v1 vk 

Sr+1,k1r

sgn( ) (v (1) , . . . , v (r+1) ) v (r+2) v (k) .

It is understood that the above definition means that = 0 on kV for k  r. It

follows that, for p, q N we have that

p,q = ( 1qV ) p+r,q + (1)rp (1 pV ) p,r+q .

(A.19)

All coderivations of V are obtained in this way: if : V rV is a coderivation of degree r of (V, ), then = , where : r+1V V is the restriction of
to r+1V . Indeed, since and agree on kV , for k  r + 1 (they are both zero
when k  r, for degree reasons), they also agree, in view of (A.19), on r+2V (take
p = q = 1 in (A.19)), and similarly for the higher exterior powers of V .

Appendix B

Real and Complex Differential Geometry

In this appendix we recall the basic notions of differential geometry: the definition
of a real manifold, of a complex manifold and of a vector field on such a manifold.
We also recall briefly the main properties of vector fields on manifolds: the existence
of integral curves of a vector field, the flow of a vector field, the bracket of vector
fields and the straightening theorem, which says that a vector field takes, in wellchosen coordinates, a simple form. Our definition of vector fields on a manifold is
based on the concept of a pointwise derivation. This approach easily generalizes to
the introduction of the concept of a bivector field on a manifold, a crucial element
in the (geometrical!) definition of the notion of a Poisson structure on a (real or
complex) manifold (see Section 1.3).

B.1 Real and Complex Manifolds

We adopt the following geometric point of view: a differentiable manifold is a (second countable, Hausdorff) topological space which is covered by a family of coordinate charts (U, x), where U is an open subset of M, called the domain of the
chart, and x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) is a homeomorphism from U to an open subset of Rd .
The functions x1 , . . . , xd are called local coordinates; they are said to be centered at
m if x(m) = o, where o stands for the origin of Rd . The coordinate charts are demanded to be compatible in the sense that, if (U, x) and (V, y) are coordinate charts,
with U V = 0,
/ then the homeomorphism

y x1 x(UV ) : x(U V ) y(U V )
is a smooth map, see Fig. B.1. This homeomorphism is called a transition map. A
collection of compatible coordinate charts of M, whose domains cover M, is called
an atlas of M. For connected differentiable manifolds, the integer d is independent
of the coordinate chart; it is called the dimension of M, a terminology which we also
use in the non-connected case, when d is independent of the coordinate chart; it is
C. Laurent-Gengoux et al., Poisson Structures,
Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften 347,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-31090-4, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

427

428

B Real and Complex Differential Geometry

Fig. B.1 A manifold comes equipped with an atlas, a collection of coordinate charts (U, x), where
the transition maps y x1 between coordinate charts (U, x) and (V, y) (with U V = 0)
/ are demanded to be smooth.

denoted by dim M. When the integer d is even, we may interpret the homeomorphisms x as taking values in Cd/2 ; in this case, if all transition maps are complex
analytic (holomorphic), then M is called a complex manifold and d/2 is called the
(complex) dimension of M. It is a trivial, but important, fact that every non-empty
open subset of a real or complex manifold is itself, in a natural way, a real or complex manifold. In particular, every open subset of a (real or complex) vector space
is a (real or complex) manifold.
The main virtue of manifolds is that we can do calculus on them, hence also
analytic geometry. Roughly speaking, the coordinate charts allow us to identify objects on the manifold, locally, with standard objects on open subsets of Fd (F = R
or F = C) and the transition maps allow us to compare these standard objects. The
first object one thinks of is that of a smooth function: a function F : M F on a
real (respectively complex) manifold M is called a smooth function (respectively a
holomorphic function) if for every coordinate chart (U, x) of M the function
F = F x1 : x(U) F
is smooth (respectively holomorphic). The function F is called the coordinate expression of F in the coordinate chart (U, x). See Fig. B.2. The (commutative associative) algebra of all such functions F on M will be denoted by F (M). For an open
subset U, viewing U itself as a manifold, we have an algebra of functions F (U) and
there are obvious restriction maps F (M) F (U), which are in general neither injective nor surjective; the restriction of F F (M) to U will be denoted by F|U .
Notice that F (M) may consist only of the constant functions, for example when M
is a compact complex manifold.

B.2 The Tangent Space

429

Fig. B.2 Smooth functions on a manifold M are functions on M which are smooth in terms of local
coordinates.

One similarly defines the notion of a smooth map between real manifolds and a
holomorphic map between complex manifolds. It leads to two categories: the category of real manifolds, whose objects are real manifolds with smooth maps as
morphisms, and the category of complex manifolds, whose objects are complex
manifolds and whose morphisms are holomorphic maps. Since complex manifolds
are in a natural way also real manifolds, and since holomorphic maps are smooth,
there is a natural forgetful functor from the latter category to the former.

B.2 The Tangent Space

Let M be a manifold and let m M be an arbitrary point. We define the tangent space
Tm M of M at m. To do this, we consider the set Fm (M) of all pairs (F,U), where U is
an open subset of M which contains m, and F is an element of F (U). Two elements
(F,U) and (G,V ) of Fm (M) are defined to be equivalent, denoted (F,U) (G,V ), if
there exists a pair (H,W ) Fm (M), such that W U V and H = F|W = G|W . For
(F,U) Fm (M), we denote its equivalence class by Fm and we call it the germ of F
(or of (F,U)) at m. It is clear that the quotient set Fm (M)/ of all function germs
at m inherits from F (M) the structure of an associative F-algebra. For example,
in the complex case, the algebra Fm (M)/ is isomorphic to the algebra of power
series in d variables, whose radius of convergence is positive. Notice that a function
germ Fm has a well-defined value at m, which is simply F(m).
Definition B.1. Let M be a manifold and let m M. A pointwise derivation m of
F (M) at m is a linear function

430

B Real and Complex Differential Geometry

m :

Fm (M)
F,

satisfying, for all functions F and G, defined on a neighborhood of m in M,

m (Fm Gm ) = F(m) m Gm + G(m) m Fm .

(B.1)

The vector space of all pointwise derivations of F (M) at m is denoted by Tm M, and

is called the tangent space of M at m, while the dual space Tm M of linear forms
Tm M F is called the cotangent space of M at m. The canonical pairing between
the dual vector spaces Tm M and Tm M, which amounts to evaluating elements of Tm M
on elements of Tm M, is denoted by  , .
One easily deduces from (B.1) that if m is a pointwise derivation at m, and F is
constant in a neighborhood of m, then m Fm = 0. For a given function F, defined on
a neighborhood of m in M, consider the function dm F on Tm M, defined by
dm F : Tm M F

m  m Fm .

(B.2)

Clearly, dm F is a linear function, hence it is an element of the cotangent space Tm M.

It is called the differential of F at m. The differential of a function admits a natural
generalization to the case of maps between manifolds. Let M and N be two manifolds and let be a map, defined on a neighborhood of a point m M, with values
in N. The linear map Tm : Tm M T (m) N, called the tangent map of at m, associates to a pointwise derivation m of F (M) at m, the pointwise derivation Tm (m )
of F (N) at (m), defined for every germ G (m) at (m) by
(Tm )(m ) G (m) := m (G )m ,
see Fig. B.3. This is well-defined, because the germ (G )m is independent of the
function G which represents the germ G (m) . When F is a function, defined on a
neighborhood of m, the tangent map at m is a linear map Tm F : Tm M TF(m) F,
and we can recover the differential dm F, upon composing Tm F with the canonical
isomorphism TF(m) F  F, which will be explained below.
The tangent map obeys the usual rules of calculus: for example, if M, N and P
are manifolds, : M N and : N P are maps and m M, then
Tm ( ) = (T (m) ) Tm .
In particular, if is a diffeomorphism (at least in the neighborhood of m), then Tm
is invertible and
(Tm )1 = T (m) 1 .
Consider the vector space Fd , viewed as a d-dimensional manifold, and let m be a
point of Fd . There is a natural isomorphism between the vector spaces Tm Fd and Fd .
Namely to a vector v Fd we can associate a pointwise derivation vm at m by setting,

B.2 The Tangent Space

431

Fig. B.3 A map between two manifolds M and N leads for every point m M to a tangent map
Tm , which is a linear map between the tangent space Tm M and T (m) N.

for every germ Fm at m,

vm Fm :=

F(m + tv) F(m)

d
.
F(m + tv) = lim
t0
dt |t=0
t

It is clear that v  vm defines an injective linear map from Fd to Tm Fd . The surjectivity of this map follows from the Hadamard lemma.
Lemma B.2 (Hadamards lemma). Let F F (U), where U is an open subset
of Fd and let m U. On a small neighborhood V U of m in Fd ,
d

F = F(m) + (xi xi (m)) F (i) ,

(B.3)

i=1

where each of the functions F (i) belongs to F (V ). In particular,

F (i) (m) = (ei )m Fm ,
where (e1 , . . . , ed ) denotes the natural basis of Fd .
For a proof of this lemma, which is essentially a first-order form of Taylors theorem,
see [155, p. 17].
Let F F (U) and consider (B.3), germified at m U,

432

B Real and Complex Differential Geometry

d

Fm = F(m) + ((xi )m xi (m))Fm .

(i)

(B.4)

i=1

Let m be a pointwise derivation at m. Applying m to (B.4) we find, using (B.1), that

d

i=1

i=1

m Fm = m (xi )m F (i) (m) = m (xi )m (ei )m Fm ,

for all germs Fm at m, so that
d

m = m (xi )m (ei )m .

(B.5)

i=1

This shows that Tm Fd is spanned by the pointwise derivations (ei )m , so that the map,
defined by v  vm , is an isomorphism between Fd and Tm Fd .
If (U, x) is a coordinate chart of a manifold M, centered at m, then each of
the d vectors of the natural basis (e1 , . . . , ed ) of Fd leads to a pointwise derivation
of F (M) at m, defined by





:= To x1 (ei )o .
xi m
For a function F, defined on an open neighborhood of m in M, this means that


Fm = i F(x(m))
,
xi m
where F : x(U) F is the coordinate expression of a representative F F (U) of
the germ Fm (see Fig. B.2), and 1  i  d; also, i F denotes the derivative of F with
respect to its i-th variable (real or complex). Since To Fd is spanned by the point1
wise derivations
 (e1 )o , . .. , (ed)o and since To x is an isomorphism, the pointwise
, . . . , x
span Tm M.
derivations x
1

Remark B.3. When the tangent space of M at m is viewed as an equivalence class

of curves, passing through m, as is done in a more analytic approach to elementary
differential geometry, then the differential dm F of a function F : M F at m, is
dm F(m ) :=

d
F( (t))
dt |t=0

where : I M is a curve, defined on a neighborhood I of 0 in F, with (0) = m,

whose equivalence class has been denoted by m . As we have seen, in our approach
to defining the tangent space, the definition of the differential takes the more algebraic form
dm F, m  := m Fm ,

B.3 Vector Fields

433

for all m Tm M. Thus, in our setup, we view tangent vectors as objects which act
on equivalence classes of functions, rather than viewing functions as objects which
define linear forms on equivalence classes of curves, although both points of view
are equivalent (see [198, Ch. 1]).

B.3 Vector Fields

Let us consider a manifold M and a map V , which assigns to every m M an
element Vm of Tm M. To each function F F (U), where U is an open subset of M,
we can associate a function V [F] on U by defining, for all m U,
V [F](m) := Vm Fm F .

(B.6)

We also write Vm [F] for Vm Fm , so that Vm [F] = V [F](m). We say that V is a smooth
vector field (respectively holomorphic vector field) on M if for every open subset
U M and for every function F F (U), the function V [F], defined by (B.6),
belongs to F (U) (i.e., it is a smooth, respectively holomorphic function on U).
When the type of manifold which is considered is irrelevant or is clear from the
context, we simply say vector field for smooth or holomorphic vector field. Notice
that we use square brackets to denote the action of a vector field on a function.
With respect to pointwise multiplication, the vector fields on M form an F (M)module, which is denoted by X1 (M). Viewed as a vector space, X1 (M) is a Lie
algebra, where the Lie bracket is the commutator of vector fields, defined as follows.
Let V and W be vector fields on M, and let m M. For every function F, defined
in a neighborhood of m, letting
[V , W ]m (Fm ) := Vm (W [F])m Wm (V [F])m ,
leads to a well-defined linear map [V , W ]m : Fm (M)/ F, which is easily shown to be a pointwise derivation at m. For given vector fields V and W
on M, the map which assigns to every m M the element [V , W ]m of the tangent space Tm M is a (smooth or holomorphic) vector field, hence we have a map
[ , ] : X1 (M) X1 (M) X1 (M). Clearly, [ , ] is a skew-symmetric bilinear map,
which satisfies the Jacobi identity, hence it defines a Lie algebra structure on X1 (M);
it is called the Lie bracket on vector fields.
We have seen that a map : M N leads for every m M to a linear map Tm :
Tm M T (m) N. However, since is in general neither injective nor surjective, this
collection of linear maps cannot be used to associate to a vector field V on M, a
vector field on N. Nevertheless, when is bijective, so that is a diffeomorphism
(or biholomorphism), we get a vector field V on N by setting
( V ) (m) := (Tm )Vm ,
for all m M. The vector field V is called the pushforward of V by .

434

B Real and Complex Differential Geometry

It is clear that vector fields can be restricted to open subsets; we usually do not
make a notational distinction between a vector field on M and its restriction to some
open subset of M. It is also clear from (B.6) that V defines, for every open subset U
of M, a derivation of F (U), i.e., we have
V [FG] = F V [G] + G V [F] ,
for all F, G F (U). In particular, a vector field on M defines a derivation of F (M).
Remark B.4. It is shown in standard books on differential geometry that for a real
manifold M, the above natural correspondence between (smooth) vector fields on M
and derivations of F (M) is bijective. For complex manifolds however, this is not
true in general: think of a compact complex torus Cd /Z2d , which has non-trivial
holomorphic vector fields, but whose algebra of holomorphic functions consists of
constant functions only, so that all its derivations are trivial. The same phenomenon
occurs for skew-symmetric biderivations and bivector fields (e.g., Poisson structures), introduced in Chapter 1.
Remark B.5. The set of all tangent vectors at m, for m ranging through M, has a
natural vector bundle structure over M, denoted T M M. The fiber over m is the
vector space Tm M and the vector fields on M can be defined as the (smooth, holomorphic) sections of T M M. In abstract geometrical constructions, it is the latter
point of view on vector fields which is often the most appropriate.
On a coordinate chart (U, x) of M, 
thereare d distinguished vector fields / xi , i =
1, . . . , d, which are defined by m  xi , for all m U, which amounts to defining
m

[F](m) := i F(x(m))
,
xi

(B.7)

for all F F (M), where F : x(U) F is the coordinate expression of F, as in

Fig. B.2. By a slight abuse of notation, we usually write xFi (m) instead of either
expression in (B.7). If V is a map which assigns to every m U an element Vm
d
(i)
Tm M, then V can be written
  in a unique way as V = i=1 V / xi , since the
pointwise derivations

xi

form a basis of Tm M, for every m U. Then V is

a (smooth) vector field on U if and only if the coefficients V (i) in this expression
belong to F (U). It is clear that these coefficients V (i) are given by V (i) = V [xi ].
By a slight abuse of language, we often refer to the expression
d

V = V [xi ]
i=1

xi

(B.8)

as a coordinate expression of V in the coordinate chart (U, x). It is very useful for
explicit computations, as it allows us to compute with vector fields on a manifold,
locally, in the same way as on Fd .

B.4 The Flow of a Vector Field

435

Fig. B.4 For a given vector field on a manifold, there passes through every point of the manifold a
unique integral curve.

B.4 The Flow of a Vector Field

Let V be a vector field on a manifold M and let m M. The fundamental theorem on the existence and uniqueness of solutions of first order ordinary differential
equations with initial conditions, tells us that there exists a connected open neighborhood I of 0 in F, and there exists a map : I M, such that (0) = m and such
that

d
= V (t
) ,
(B.9)
(Tt
)
dt t

for all t
I; the map is unique in the sense that if 1 : I1 M and 2 : I2 M are
two such maps, then they coincide on (I1 I2 )0 , the connected component of their
common intersection, which contains 0,

1 |

(I1 I2 )0

= 2 |

(I1 I2 )0

The map or the pair (I, ) is called an integral curve of V , passing through m, see
Fig. B.4. By a slight abuse of notation, the left-hand side in (B.9) is often denoted
by ddt (t
); using this notation (B.9) takes the more familiar form
d

(t ) = V (t
) .
dt
The integral curves of a vector field depend smoothly on the initial data; this is stated
in a precise way in the following theorem (see [187, Ch. 5] for a proof).
Theorem B.6. Let V be a vector field on a manifold M and let m M. There exists
a neighborhood U of (0, m) in F M and there exists a map : U M such that,
for every (0, m
) U, the restriction

|I
: Im
M ,
m

(B.10)

is an integral curve of V , passing through m

; the subset Im
in (B.10) is the
connected component of U (F {m
}) which contains (0, m
). Moreover, has
the following property: for every (t
, m) in the connected component of (0, m) in

436

B Real and Complex Differential Geometry

U (F {m}), there exists a neighborhood Ut

of (t
, m) in U, such that the restriction
|U
: Ut
M ,
t

is a diffeomorphism (biholomorphism) between Ut

and its image (Ut
).
We refer to such a map as being the (local) flow of the vector field V in a neighborhood of m. The diffeomorphism |U
is called the local flow at t
and is usually
t
denoted by t
(omitting its domain of definition, which is all of M in good cases,
for example when M is a compact real manifold).
An important and useful consequence of the (local) existence of the flow of a
vector field, is the straightening theorem, which says that the coordinate expression
of a vector field on a manifold takes a particularly simple form, at points where the
vector field does not vanish.
Theorem B.7 (Straightening theorem). Let M be a manifold and let V be a vector
field on M. If m M is such that V (m) = 0, then there exist local coordinates
x1 , . . . , xd on a neighborhood U of m, such that V = / x1 on U.

B.5 The Frobenius Theorem

Instead of having a vector at every point of a manifold M, as is the case of a vector
field on M, one may have a one-dimensional subspace of the tangent space to M,
at every point of M. This is what is called a 1-dimensional distribution on M; a
k-dimensional distribution D on M is then the datum of a k-dimensional subspace
D(m) of Tm M for every m M. One says that D is smooth (or holomorphic) if
there exist for every m M smooth (or holomorphic) vector fields V1 , . . . , Vk , on a
neighborhood U of m, such that
D(m) = span {(V1 )m , . . . , (Vk )m } ,
for every m U. When it is clear from the context, we often simply say distribution
for smooth (or holomorphic) distribution. A vector field V , defined on an open
subset U of M, is said to be adapted to D on U if Vm D(m) for every m U. A
distribution D on M is said to be involutive if for every open subset U of M, and for
every pair of vector fields on U, which are adapted to D on U, their Lie bracket is
also adapted to D on U. Involutivity of a distribution is a very strong condition, as
is plain from Frobenius theorem.
Theorem B.8 (Frobenius theorem). Let M be a d-dimensional manifold and suppose that D is a k-dimensional distribution on M. If D is involutive, then every point
m M admits a coordinate chart (U, x), with m U, such that





,
for every m
U .
,...,
D(m
) = span
x1 m

xk m

B.5 The Frobenius Theorem

437

For a short and elementary proof, which is immediately adapted to the holomorphic
case, we refer to [41] or [138]. It is clear that Frobenius theorem can be seen as a
generalization of the straightening theorem (Theorem B.7).

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Index

action
adjoint, 120
coadjoint, 120
coordinates, 347
dressing, 321
Hamiltonian, 153
locally free, 119
Poisson, 148
proper, 119
action-angle theorem, 347
adapted vector field, 436
Ad-invariant
bilinear form, 121
function, 122
multivector, 121
Ad -invariant function, 122
ad-invariant
bilinear form, 122
tensor, 276
adjoint
representation, 120
adjoint action, 120
AdlerKostantSymes theorem, 337
affine
coordinate ring, 8
Poisson variety, 8
subvariety, 47
variety, 8
algebra, 418
exterior, 415
Gerstenhaber, 84
graded, 419, 420
graded Lie, 420
homomorphism, 419
graded, 420
Lie, 114, 115, 418
NambuPoisson, 222

Poisson, 4, 368
symmetric, 371, 415
tensor, 413
algebraic group, 116
reductive, 116
angle coordinates, 347
anti-Poisson map, 295
Arnolds theorem, 241
arrow, 400
associative product, 418
atlas, 427
basic function, 345
bi-Hamiltonian
hierarchy, 334
manifold, 333
vector field, 333
bialgebra
Lie, 305
biderivation, 5
pointwise, 17
skew-symmetric, 5
bidual, 412
bilinear form
Ad-invariant, 121
ad-invariant, 122
invariant, 121
non-degenerate, 122, 182
bivector, 163
field, 16, 17
boundary operator
Lie, 98
Poisson, 99
bracket
associated, 276
Gerstenhaber, 357
graded Lie, 420

C. Laurent-Gengoux et al., Poisson Structures,

Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften 347,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-31090-4, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

449

450
Lie, 418, 433
linearized, 314
notation, 19
Poisson, 4
Schouten, 79
bundle
tangent, 19
CampbellHausdorff formula, 379
canonical coordinates, 166
Cartans formula, 80
Casimir, 7
centered coordinates, 427
centralizer, 227
closed form, 72
coadjoint
representation, 120
coadjoint action, 120
coalgebra, 422
graded, 422
homomorphism, 422
coboundary
Hochschild, 358
Lie, 92
Lie bialgebra, 276
Poisson, 95
cocycle
group, 294
Hochschild, 358
Lie, 92
Poisson, 95
coderivation
graded, 426
cohomology
ChevalleyEilenberg, 93
de Rham, 73, 75
group, 294
Hochschild, 358
Lie algebra, 92
Poisson, 95
coisotropic submanifold, 129
commutator, 419
graded, 420
compatible, 80
complete triple, 321
complex manifold, 428
complex of de Rham, 72, 75
conjugation, 117
Conns theorem, 201
connection
symplectic, 366
constant of motion, 330
constant Poisson structure, 165

Index
constants
structure, 182
coordinate
affine
ring, 8
chart, 427
adapted, 49
expression, 428, 434
coordinates
action, 347
angle, 347
canonical, 166
Darboux, 26
local, 427
log-canonical, 220
splitting, 24
transverse, 347
coproduct, 422
graded, 422
cotangent
bundle, 175
space, 14, 16, 430
cubic polynomial, 258
curve
integral, 435
Darboux
coordinates, 26
theorem, 26
de Rham
cohomology, 73, 75
differential, 72, 75
de-concatenation, 423
deformation
equivalent, 354, 368
order k, 356
formal, 354, 367
order k, 356, 368
quantization, 362
degree, 206
of homogeneous element, 419
of linear map, 419
shifted, 79
density
invariant, 105
derivation, 4, 88
p-derivation, 64
exterior, 94
graded, 425
Hamiltonian, 6
inner, 94, 359
pointwise, 429
Poisson, 23

Index
diagonal Poisson structure, 214
diagonalizable
Poisson structure, 220
vector field, 220
differential, 16, 372, 430
de Rham, 72, 75
form, 74
graded Lie algebra, 372
morphism, 375
pointed, 373
Kahler, 69
total, 375
dimension, 14, 16, 427, 428
distribution, 436
holomorphic, 436
integrable, 29
involutive, 436
singular, 29
smooth, 436
divergence
of Poisson structure, 108
operator, 107
domain, 427
double
Lie algebra, 270
of Lie bialgebra, 305
dressing
action, 321
group, 322
Du Val singularity, 265
dual
module, 411
of Lie bialgebra, 307
of PoissonLie group, 320
PoissonLie groups, 320
w.r.t. dressing, 322
eigenvalue, 220
eigenvector, 220
embedded submanifold, 27, 49
equation
Lax, 184
MaurerCartan, 361, 371, 376
equivalent
deformation, 354, 368
order k, 356
gauge, 378
path, 380
star product, 362
Euler
formula, 208
vector field, 208
weighted, 212
exact form, 72

451
exponential map, 116, 377
extension
field, 56
local, 137
exterior algebra, 415
field
bivector, 16, 17
extension, 56
multivector, 67
vector, 433
flow
formal, 244
of vector field, 436
foliation
open book, 189
symplectic, 26, 29
form
associated, 177
differential, 74
exact, 72
Kahler, 70
Liouville, 176
modular, 192
volume, 103
formal
coordinate transformation, 237
deformation, 354, 367
flow, 244
isomorphism, 238
Poisson structure, 237
power series
equivalent, 237
formality theorem, 399
formula
CampbellHausdorff, 379
Frobenius theorem, 436
function
basic, 345
Hamiltonian, 21
holomorphic, 428
invariant, 121
polynomial, 8
regular, 8
smooth, 428
structure, 10
functions
in involution, 26, 330
independent, 330
involutive, 330
fundamental
identity, 222
vector field, 117

452
gauge
equivalence, 380
equivalent, 378
generalized Lie derivative, 85
germ, 429
germification, 59
Gerstenhaber
algebra, 84
bracket, 357
graded
algebra, 419, 420
coalgebra, 422
coderivation, 426
commutator, 420
coproduct, 422
derivation, 425
Lie algebra, 82, 420
Lie bracket, 420
linear map, 419
module, 419
product, 419
gradient, 183
graph
Kontsevich, 400
underlying, 400
weight, 400
group
algebraic, 116
cocycle, 294
cohomology, 294
dressing, 322
Lie, 114
PoissonLie, 292
representation, 116
Hadamard lemma, 431
Hamiltonian, 6
action, 153
derivation, 6
function, 21
local, 21
path, 27
piecewise, 27
vector, 22
field, 6, 21, 223
head, 400
Hermitian metric, 177
hierarchy
bi-Hamiltonian, 334
Hochschild
coboundary, 358
cocycle, 358
cohomology, 358
complex, 358

Index
holomorphic
distribution, 436
function, 428
map, 429
vector field, 433
homogeneous
element, 419
function, 207
monomial, 372
Poisson structure, 207
homology
Lie algebra, 98
Poisson, 99
homomorphism
algebra, 419
coalgebra, 422
Lie algebra, 419
Lie bialgebra, 305
PoissonLie group, 292
ideal, 6
Lie, 6
Poisson, 6
PoissonDirac, 134
identity
fundamental, 222
Jacobi, 4
immersed submanifold, 49
immersion, 49
independent functions, 330
inner derivation, 94, 359
integrable distribution, 29
integrable system
Liouville, 341
integral curve, 435
internal product, 76, 416
intertwining, 271
invariant
bilinear form, 121
density, 105
element, 93
function, 121
left, 115
manifold, 341
right, 115
submanifold, 149
subset, 149
subvariety, 149
involution, 34
functions in, 26, 330
involutive
distribution, 436
functions, 330

Index
isomorphism
formal, 238
Poisson algebra, 5
isotropic subspace, 281
Jacobi identity, 4
Jacobiator, 34
JacobsonMorozov theorem, 227
Kahler
differential, 69
form, 70
closed, 72
manifold, 177
metric, 177
Kleinian singularity, 265
Kontsevich
formality theorem, 399
graph, 400
Lax
equation, 184, 336
form, 336
left
invariant, 115
translation, 117
lemma
Hadamard, 431
Whitehead, 93
Lie
algebra, 114, 115, 418
cohomology, 92
differential graded, 372
differential graded pointed, 373
double, 270
graded, 82, 420
homology, 98
homomorphism, 419
quadratic, 122
splitting, 272, 338
trivial cohomology, 93
bialgebra, 305
coboundary, 276
double of, 305
dual of, 307
homomorphism, 305
bracket, 418, 433
graded, 420
coboundary, 92
cocycle, 92
derivative, 66, 68, 86
generalized, 85
group, 114
dual, 320

453
morphism, 114
ideal, 6
module, 92
sub-bialgebra, 306
subalgebra, 6
subgroup, 114
theorem, 115
LiePoisson structure
modified, 194
on g, 183
on g , 181
linear map
graded, 419
linearizable Poisson structure, 198
order , 199
linearized
bracket, 314
Poisson structure, 197
L -morphism, 387
L -quasi-isomorphism, 388
Liouville
form, 176
integrable system, 341
standard
torus, 343
theorem, 342
volume, 170
local
coordinates, 427
extension, 137
Hamiltonian, 21
localization, 57
locally free action, 119
locus
singular, 14, 22
log-canonical coordinates, 220
manifold
bi-Hamiltonian, 333
complex, 428
invariant, 341
Kahler, 177
NambuPoisson, 222
Poisson, 15, 19
real, 434
symplectic, 168
Manin triple, 310
map
co-momentum, 153
exponential, 377
holomorphic, 429
momentum, 153
Poisson, 9, 20
smooth, 429

454
symplectic, 171
tangent, 16, 430
twist, 413
matrix
Poisson, 10, 13, 19, 33
MaurerCartan
equation, 361, 371, 376
metric
Hermitian, 177
Kahler, 177
modular
class, 105
form, 192
vector field, 104
module
Lie, 92
momentum map, 153, 341
monomial
homogeneous, 372
morphism
differential graded Lie algebra, 375
Lie group, 114
Poisson, 9
Poisson algebra, 5
Moyal product, 364
MoyalWeyl product, 364
multi-derivation, 64
pointwise, 67
multiplicative, 292
Poisson structure, 215
system, 57
multivector, 415
Ad-invariant, 121
field, 67
homogeneous, 207
polynomial, 206
weight homogeneous, 212
NambuPoisson
algebra, 222
manifold, 222
structure, 222
nilpotent, 227
orbit, 229
Noethers theorem, 333
normalizer, 124, 273
operator
bi-differential, 362
multi-differential, 362
orbit
nilpotent, 229
order of power series, 240
orthogonal, 183

Index
path
equivalent, 380
polynomial, 380
pencil
Poisson, 334
point
regular, 14, 22
singular, 14, 22
smooth, 14, 55
pointed differential graded Lie
algebra, 373
pointwise
biderivation, 17
derivation, 429
multi-derivation, 67
Poisson
action, 148
algebra, 4, 368
isomorphism, 5
morphism, 5
boundary operator, 99
bracket, 4
reduced, 124
coboundary, 95
cocycle, 95
cohomology, 95
derivation, 23
homology, 99
ideal, 6, 47
manifold, 15, 19
regular, 22, 165
unimodular, 102, 105
map, 9, 20
matrix, 10, 13, 19, 33
morphism, 9
pencil, 334
product
bracket, 39
manifold, 44
structure, 41, 44
variety, 41
rank, 14, 19, 22
reducible, 124, 125, 127
reduction, 123
algebraic, 123
structure, 3, 8, 19
affine, 193
canonical on g , 181
constant, 162, 165
degree of, 206
diagonal, 214
diagonalizable, 220
divergence of, 108
formal, 237

Index
germ of, 60
homogeneous, 207, 209
linear, 181
linearizable, 198
linearizable order , 199
linearization, 196
linearized, 197
modified canonical, 194
multiplicative, 215
polynomial, 32, 206
quadratic, 213
quotient, 174
reduced, 123, 126, 128, 135
regular, 165
stable, 267
transverse, 147
unimodular, 102
weight homogeneous, 213
subalgebra, 6
submanifold, 49
subvariety, 10, 48
tensor product, 39
theorem, 34, 332
variety, 7, 8
affine, 8
quotient, 174
vector field, 23
vector space, 165
PoissonDirac
ideal, 134
reduction, 134
algebraic, 134
submanifold, 137
subvariety, 135
PoissonLie
group, 292
dual, 320
dual w.r.t. dressing, 322
homomorphism, 292
subgroup, 296
polynomial
cubic, 258
function, 8
path, 380
Poisson structure, 32, 206
power series
order of, 240
product, 418
graded, 419
internal, 76, 416
MoyalWeyl, 364
star, 362
tensor, 412
wedge, 65, 74

455
proper action, 119
pushforward, 18, 433
quadratic
Lie algebra, 122
Poisson structure, 213
quantization
deformation, 362
quotient
Poisson structure, 174
Poisson variety, 174
rank
locally constant, 22
maximal, 22
Poisson, 14, 19, 22
R-bracket, 273
real manifold, 434
reduced
Poisson structure, 123, 126, 128, 135
Poisson bracket, 124
reducible
Poisson, 124, 125, 127
reduction
Poisson, 123
algebraic, 123
PoissonDirac, 134
algebraic, 134
reductive algebraic group, 116
regular
function, 8
point, 14, 22
Poisson manifold, 22, 165
Poisson structure, 165
representation, 92
adjoint, 120
coadjoint, 120
group, 116
space, 92
right
invariant, 115
translation, 117
R-matrix, 270
r-matrix, 276
Russian formula
first, 279
second, 287
S-triple, 227
Schouten bracket, 79
algebraic, 85
shifted degree, 79
shuffle, 65, 416

456
singular
distribution, 29
locus, 14, 22
point, 14, 22
singularity
Du Val, 265
Klein, 265
simple, 241, 243
skew-symmetric
biderivation, 5
tensor, 416
skew-symmetrization, 416
smooth
distribution, 436
function, 428
map, 429
point, 14, 55
vector field, 433
space
cotangent, 14, 16, 430
representation, 92
tangent, 14, 16, 49, 430
splitting
coordinates, 24
Lie algebra, 272, 338
theorem, 23
star product, 362
equivalent, 362
straightening theorem, 436
structure
constants, 182
function, 10
NambuPoisson, 222
Poisson, 8, 19
symplectic, 167, 168
subalgebra, 6
Lie, 6
Poisson, 6
subgroup
Lie, 114
PoissonLie, 296
submanifold, 49
coisotropic, 129
embedded, 27, 49
immersed, 27, 49
Poisson, 49
PoissonDirac, 137
submersion, 127
subspace
isotropic, 281
subvariety
affine, 47
Poisson, 10, 48
PoissonDirac, 135

Index
symmetric
algebra, 371, 415
tensor, 416
symmetrization, 416
symplectic
connection, 366
foliation, 26, 27, 29
leaf, 29
manifold, 168
almost, 168
exact, 177
map, 171
structure, 167, 168
almost, 168
vector space, 167
symplectic connection, 366
tail, 400
tangent, 48, 49
bundle, 19
map, 16, 430
space, 14, 16, 49, 430
tensor
algebra, 413
product, 39, 412
skew-symmetric, 416
symmetric, 416
theorem
action-angle, 347
AdlerKostantSymes, 337
Arnold, 241
Conns linearization, 201
Darboux, 26
Frobenius, 436
JacobsonMorozov, 227
Kontsevichs formality, 399
Lie, 115
Liouville, 342
Noether, 333
Poisson, 34, 332
splitting, 23
straightening, 436
Weinstein, 23
Thimms method, 335
total differential, 375
transition map, 427
translation
left, 117
right, 117
transverse
coordinates, 347
Poisson structure, 147
submanifolds, 143
triple

Index
complete, 321
twist map, 413
type, 264
unimodular
Lie algebra, 192
Poisson manifold, 102, 105
Poisson structure, 102
variety
affine, 8
Poisson, 7, 8
vector
field, 433
adapted, 436
bi-Hamiltonian, 333
diagonalizable, 220
Euler, 208
Euler weighted, 212
flow of, 436
fundamental, 117
Hamiltonian, 6, 21, 223
holomorphic, 433
locally Hamiltonian, 21
modular, 104
Poisson, 23
polynomial, 206

457
smooth, 433
Hamiltonian, 22
space
Poisson, 165
symplectic, 167
vertex, 400
volume
form, 103
Liouville, 170
wedge product, 65, 74
weight, 208, 212
graph, 400
of function, 211
vector, 211
weight homogeneous
function, 211
multivector field, 212
Poisson structure, 213
weighted
Euler formula, 212
Euler vector field, 212
Weinsteins theorem, 23
Whiteheads lemma, 93
YangBaxter equation, 271
modified, 271

List of Notations

F, 3
{ , }, 4
{F, G}, 4
, 4
X1 (A ), 5
[V , W ], 5
P[F, G], 5
V [F], 5
X2 (A ), 5
XH , 6
Ham(A , { , }), 6
Ham(A ), 6
Cas(A , { , }), 7
Cas(A ), 7
F (M), 8
, 9
dF, 10
Matd (A ), 10
Rkm { , }, 14
Rk { , }, 14
Tm M, 14
Tm M, 14
m , 14
M(s) , 15
dim, 16
F (M), 16
Tm M, 16
Fm , 16
Tm M, 16
 , , 16
 , v, 16
Tm , 16
dm F, 16
X1 (M), 16
Vm , 16
V [F], 16
Vm [F], 17

Pm [F, G], 17
T M, 19
Rkm , 22
Rk , 22
LV , 23
o, 25
1r , 26
Sm (M), 27
F (V ), 32
X1 (M), 32
X2 (M), 32
J , 34
A1 A2 , 39
N sm , 55
[ , ], 56
[F, G], 56
P[F1 , . . . , Fp ], 64
X p (A ), 64
X (A ), 64
S p,q , 65
sgn, 65
P Q, 65
F , 66
LV , 66
P[F1 , . . . , Fp ], 67
1 (A ), 69
dF, 69
p (A ), 70
(A ), 70
, 71
p
HdR
(A ), 73

HdR (A ), 73
[ ], 73
p (M), 74
(M), 74
d, 74
p
HdR
(M), 75

C. Laurent-Gengoux et al., Poisson Structures,

Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften 347,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-31090-4, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

459

460
(M), 75
HdR
P , 76
[ , ]S , 79
[P, Q]S , 79
X p (A ), 79
p, 79
[[ , ]], 85
LP , 85
Lk , 91
k , 91
kL , 91
k , 91
HLk (g;V ), 91
Hk (A ), 91
HkL (g;V ), 91
Hk (A ), 91
Lk , 92
HLk (g;V ), 92
HL (g;V ), 92
V g , 93
HL (g), 93
(g), 93
HCE
k , 94
Hq (A ), 95
H (A ), 95
Hq (M), 95
H (M), 95
 , 96
kL , 98
HkL (g;V ), 98
HL (g;V ), 98
k , 99
Hk (A ), 100
H (A ), 100
, 104
Div, 107
P, 107
1X , 114
F (M)G , 119
g , 122
m , 130
Tn N, 130
i, j , 144
SP(V ), 174
(F), 211
(P), 212
d, 302
G , 322
, 322
F, 330
UF , 330
F , 354
A , 354

List of Notations
mod k , 354
Fk , 355
Ak , 355
(k) , 355
HCk (V ), 357
HC (V ), 357
HCk (V ), 357
HC (V ), 357
[ , ]G , 357
k , 358
k , 358
HH (A ), 358
HHk (A ), 358
sgn( ; i1 , . . . , ik ), 372
d 0 (x), 372
g, 372
Dz , 373
HCdiff (M), 373
HD (g), 374
HDk (g), 374
D , 374
[ ,] , 374
, 374
MC(g), 376
Obsk (x), 376
MCk (g), 376
ex , 377
x y, 378
ead , 378
 x, 378
CH(u, v), 379
cl(x), 380

(X), 387

Si1 ,...,i , 387

(x), 389
(cl(x)), 389
h(a), 400
t(a), 400
Gk, , 400
HomR (V,W ), 411
Hom(V,W ), 411
V , 411
V R W , 412
V W , 412
v w, 412
S, 413
V k , 413
T V , 413
1V , 413
, 414
V , 415
X Y , 415
SV , 415

List of Notations
Sk , 415
sgn( ), 416
X , 416
, 416
Si, j , 416
, 417
Si, j,k , 417
S , 418
V , 419
V , 419
V W+r , 419
Homr (V,W ), 419
i, j , 419
[ , ], 420
T , 421
, 422
i, j , 422

461

, 423
, 424
Derr (V ), 425
CoDerr (V ), 426
F (M), 428
Fm , 429
Tm M, 430
Tm M, 430
 , , 430
 , v, 430
dm F, 430
Tm , 430
V [F], 433
Vm [F], 433
X1 (M), 433
V , 433