TEXTBOOK

OF VETERINARY
PATHOLOGY
Quick Review and Self Assessment

PROF. R.S. CHAUHAN

MVSc, PhD (Path), FNAV5, FSIIP, FIAVP, Diplomat ICVP
Director
Indian Veterinary Research Institute
Izatnagar-243122, Bareilly (UP)
India

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Contents
SECfION-A: GENERAL VETERINARY PATHOLOGY

Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter

4
5
6
7

Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Chapter 11

Introduction
Etiology
Genetic Disorders, Developmental
Anomalies and Monsters
Disturbances in Growth
Disturbances in Circulation
Disturbances in Cell Metabolism
Necrosis, Gangrene and
Post-mortem Changes
Disturbances in Calcification and Pigment
Metabolism
Inflammation and Healing
Concretions
Immunity and Immunopathology

1
13
39
49
53
61
67
77
85
121
125

SECfION-B: SYSTEMIC PATHOLOGY

Chapter 12
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Chapter 15
Chapter 16
Chapter 17
Chapter 18
Chapter 19
Chapter 20
Chapter 21

Pathology of Cutaneous System

Pathology of Musculoskeletal System
Pathology of Cardiovascular System
Pathology Respiratory System
Pathology of Digestive System
Pathology of Hemopoitic and
Immune System
Pathology of Urinary System
Pathology of Genital System
Pathology of Nervous System
Pathology of Endocrine System, Eyes
and Ear

141
149
159
171
189
209

221
233
247

253

SECfION-C: SPECIAL PATHOLOGY-I

Chapter 22
Chapter 23
Chapter 24
Chapter 25
Chapter 26
Chapter 27
Chapter 28
Chapter 29
Chapter 30
Chapter 31

Neoplasm
Viral Diseases
Bacterial Diseases
Chlamydial Diseases
Rickettsial Diseases
Mycoplasmal Diseases
Spirochaetal Diseases
Prion Diseases
Fungal Diseases
Parasitic Diseases

263
307
349
381
383
385
389
391
393
403

SECfION-D: SPECIAL PATHOLOGY II, DISEASES OF

POULTRY, WILD, ZOO AND LABORATORY ANIMALS
Chapter 32
Chapter 33
Chapter 34
Chapter 35
Chapter 36
Chapter 37
Chapter 38
Chapter 39
Chapter 40
Chapter 41
Chapter 42
Chapter 43
Chapter 44
Chapter 45
Chapter 46
Index

Avian Inflammation
Pathology of Nutritional Disorders
Viral Diseases
Bacterial Diseases
Chlamydial Disease
Mycoplasmal Diseases
Spirochaetal Disease
Fungal Diseases
Parasitic Diseases
Vices and Miscellaneous Disease
Conditions
Pathology of Diseases of Wild and Zoo
Animals
Pathology of Diseases of Laboratory
Animals
Cytopathology
Appendices
Self Assessment - MCQ

433
435
439
463
477
479
483
485
493
501
505
509
515
519
575
641

Chapter

Introduction
DEFINITIONS
Pathology
Pathology is the study of the anatomical, chemical and
physiological alterations from normal as a result of disease in
animals. It is a key subject because it forms a vital bridge between
preclinical sciences (Anatomy, PhYSiology, Biochemistry) and
clinical branches of medicine and surgery. Pathology is derived
from a Greek word pathos = disease, logos= study. It has many
branches, which are defined as under:
General Pathology
General Pathology concerns with basic alterations of tissues as
a result of disease. e.g. Fatty changes, Thrombosis, Amyloidosis,
Embolism, Necrosis.
Systemic Pathology
Systemic Pathology deals with alterations in tissues/ organs of
a particular system. e.g. Respiratory system, Genital system etc.
Specific Pathology
Specific Pathology is the application of the basic alterations
learned in general pathology to various specific diseases. It
involves whole body or a part of body. e.g. Tuberculosis,
Rinderpest.
Experimental Pathology
Experimental Pathology concerns with the production of lesion
through experimental methods. e.g. Rotavirus ~ calves ~
enteritis/ diarrhoea in calves.

Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Clinical Pathology
Oinical Pathology includes certain laboratory methods which
helps in making the diagnosis using animal excretions/
secretions/ blood/ skin scrapings/ biopsy etc. e.g. Urine
examination, Blood examination.
Post-mortem Pathology
Post-mortem Pathology is examination of an animal after death.
Also known as Necropsy or Autopsy. It forms the base for study
of pathology.
Microscopic Pathology
Microscopic Pathology deals with examination of cells/ tissues/
organs using microscope. It is also known as histopathology/
cellular pathology. e.g. Microscopy, Electronmicroscopy.
Humoral Pathology
Humoral Pathology is the study of alterations in fluids like
antibodies in serum.
Chemical Pathology
Chemical Pathology is the study of chemical alterations of body
fluids/ tissues. e.g. Enzymes in tissue.
Physiological Pathology
Physiological Pathology deals with alteration in the functions
of organ/ system. It is also known as Pathophysiology. e.g.
Indigestion, Diarrhoea, Abortion.
Nutritional Pathology
Nutritional Pathology is the study of diseases occurred due to
deficiency or excess of nutrients. e.g. Vit.-A deficiency induced
nutritional roup, rickets due to calcium deficiency.
Comparative Pathology
Comparative Pathology is the study of diseases of animals with
a comparative study in human beings and other animals. e.g.
Zoonotic diseases such as Tuberculosis.

Introduction

Oncology
Oncology is the study of cancer/ tumor/ neoplasms.
Immunopathology
Immunopathology deals with the study of diseases mediated
by immune reactions. It includes Immunodeficiency diseases,
autoimmunity and hypersensitivity reactions.
Cytopathology
Cytopathology is the study of cells shed off from the lesions
for diagnosis.
Health
Health is a state of an individual living in complete harmony,
with his environment; surroundings.
Disease
Disease is a condition in which an individual shows an
anatomical, chemical or physiological deviation from the normal.
(Discomfort with environment & body).
Illness
Illness is the reaction of an individual to disease in the form of
illness.
Forensic Pathology
Forensic Pathology includes careful examination and recording
of pathological lesions in case of veterolegal cases.
Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the mechanism by which body keeps equilibrium
between health and disease. e.g. Adaptation to an altered
environment.
Toxopathology
Toxopathology or Toxic Pathology deals with the study of
tissue/ organ alterations due to toxins/ poisons.
3

Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and SelfAssessment

Etiology
Etiology is the study of causation of disease.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis is an art of precisely knowing the cause of a particular
disease (Dia= thorough, gnosis= knowledge)
Symptoms
Any subjective evidence of disease of animal characterized by
an indication of altered bodily or mental state as told by owner
(Complaints of the patients).
Signs
Indication of the existence of something, any objective evidence
of disease, perceptible to veterinarian (Observations of the
clinicians).
Syndrome
A combination of symptoms caused by altered physiological
process.
Lesion
I:esion is a pathological alteration in structurej function that
can be detectable.
Pathogenesis
Pathogenesis is the progressive development of a disease
process. It starts with the entry of cause in body and ends either
with recovery or death. It is the mechanism by which the lesions
are produced in body.
Incubation period
Incubation period is the time elapses between the action of a
cause and manifestation of disease.
Course of disease
Course of disease is the duration for which the disease process
remains till fate either in the form of recovery or death.
4

Introduction

Prognosis
Prognosis is an estimate by a clinician of probable severity/out
come of disease.
Morbidity rate
Morbidity rate is the percentage/ proportions of affected
animals out of total population in a particular disease outbreak.
e.g. Out of 100 animals, 20 are suffering from diarrhoea. The
morbidity rate of diarrhoea will be 20%.
Mortality rate
Mortality rate is the percentage/ proportions of animals out of
total population died due to disease in a particular disease
outbreak. e.g. In a population of 100 animals, 20 falls sick and 5
died. The mortality rate will be 5%.
Case fatality rate

Case fatality rate is the percentage/ proportions of animals died

among the affected animals. In a population of 100 animals, 20
falls sick and 5 died. The case fatality rate will be 25%.
Biopsy
Biopsy is the examination of tissues received from living animals.
Infection
Infection is the invasion of the tissues of the body by pathogenic
organisms resulting in the development of a disease process.
Infestation
. Infestation is the superficial attack of any parasite/ organisms
on the surface of body.
Pathogenicity
Pathogenicity is the capability of an organism for producing a
disease.

Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Re'oiew and Self Assessment

Virulence

Virulence is the degree of invasiveness of pathogenic organism.

HISTORICAL MILESTONES
2500-1500 Shalihotra
BC
(India)

2100BC

Muni

Palkapya
(India)
Hammurabi

First known veterinarian of the

world
Written "Haya Ayurved" /
" Ashwa- Ayurved" in Sanskrit, 8
volumes on equine medicine with
diagnosis, treatment, effect of
planetary forces and evils on health
Written a treatise on elephants "Gaj
Ayurved"
Conduct of Veterinary Practitioners
"Laws of Hammurabi"

Krishna
(India)

Mathura is known for best cattle

production/ milk production

Nakul (4th
Pandav)
(India)

Sahdev
(5th Pandav)
(India)

Written" Ashwa- Chikitsa" a book

on equine medicine.
He is considered as an expert of
equine management
Expert in cattle rearing and disease
management.

800BC

Charak
(India)

500BC

Jeevak
(India)

1000BC

460-375 BC Hippocrates
(Greek)

Written "Charak Sanhita"with

details of cause of diseases and
impact of environment.
Described the Pathology of brain.

Physician, Studied Malaria,

pneumonia "Father of Medicine"

Introduction

384-323 BC Aristotle
(Greek)

300BC

Chandra
Gupta
Maurya
period

Samrat
Ashok

Humoral theory of disease

Father of Zoology
Originator of Modern Anatomy &
Physiology
In Kautilya Arthshashtra
description on "Animal Husbandry
and Veterinary Sciences", rules on
animal ethics and jurisprudence
First Veterinary Hospital
established for treatment of animal
diseases
Prevention of cruelity on animals
advertised through wall posters

Cornelius
Celsus
(Roman)

Written 8 volumes of pathology (1st

special pathology) Cardinal signs
of inflammation (Redness,
swelling, heat and pain)

131-206 , Claudius
Galen
AD
(Roman)

Meat inspection
5th cardinal sign of inflammation
"Loss of function"

450-500
AD

Renatus
Vegetius
(Roman)

Father of Veterinary Medicine

Disregard divine pleasure
Disease of animals influence man

600 AD

Madhav

Described pathology of diarrhoea,

dysentery, icterus, tuberculosis and
various toxic conditions.

980-1037
AD

Avicenna

Cause of disease are minute

organism
Spreads through air, food, water.

53 BC-37
AD

1578-1657 William
Harvey
AD

Blood vascular system and its

impact on Pathology

Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Galileo
Galilei
Drebbel

Developed single microscope

Developed double lens microscope

Antony van
Leeuwenhoek
Jean Femel

Saw microbes first

Book "little animals"

Compiled the information of his

time"First to attempt to codify the
knowledge of Pathology".

1682-1771 G.B.
AD
Morgagni
(Italian)

Conducted 700 autopsies

Began modem pathology
Book "The seats and causes of
disease"

1771-1802 Bichat
AD
(French)

Father of pathological anatomy

Foundation for the study of
histology
Father of histology

Book on 'Le Parfact Marechal'

1564 AD1642 AD
1617 AD1619 AD
1632 AD1723 AD
1497 AD1558 AD

1617-1680 Solleysel
AD
(French)

1712-1779 Bourgelat, C
(French)
AD
1762 AD

Bourgelat, C
(French)

1753-1793 Saint-Bel
(French)
AD

1728-1793 John Hunter

AD
(English)
1804-1878 Carl
RokitanAD
Skey
(German)

New Knowledge of equine

medicine
1sl Veterinary School established
"Ecole Veterinaire Nationale'd
Alfort"
Teacher at Alfort Established Vet
School in England 1791 and in 1793
died due to glanders.
First experimental Pathologist

Supreme descriptive Pathologist

Introduction

1801-1858 Mueller.J.
AD
(German)

1821-1902 R. Virchow
AD
(German)

1818--1865 Semmelwiss
AD
(Hungarian)
1822-1895 Louis
Pasteur
AD
(France)
1843-1890 R. Koch
AD
(German)

Bacteria cause of disease

Koch's postulates,
Identified Tuberculosis,
Staphylococcus and Vibrio as cause
of disease
Originator of modern experimental
Pathology
Detected leucocytes at the site of
inflammation
This forms the basis for the
pathology of inflammation
Introduced frozen sections

1839-1884 J. Cohnheim
AD
(German)

1889 AD

1893 AD

1850-1934 W.H. Welch

AD
(U.S.A)

1869 AD

Cellular Pathology, his work "The

fine structure and form of morbid
tumors"
Journal "Virchow's Archives
Great work on cellular Pathology
"Father of modern Pathology"
Surgery/autopsy
Started hospital sanitation.

Bruck Muller.
(USA)

Establishment of Imperial
Bacteriological laboratory at Pune
(NowIVRI)
Imperial Bacteriology Laboratory
relocated to Mukteshwar in
Kumaon Hills
Professor Pathology
Started Pathology in USA.
Textbook of Pathological anatomy
of domestic and zoo animals.

Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Phagocytosis (microphages/
macrophages)

1913 AD

Imperial Bacteriological Laboratory

(now IVRI) established at new
campus at Izatnagar- Bareilly

1924 AD

The Publication of Indian

Veterinary Journal started.
Wrote 5 volume of Veterinary
Pathology
The publication of Indian Journal
of Veterinary Sciences and Animal
Husbandry (Presently Indian
Journal of animal Sciences) started

1884 AD

1926 AD

E.
Metchnikoff

E. Joest

1931 AD

1933 AD

Ruskaand
Lorries

First developed
electronmicroscope.

1936 AD

Bittner

Milk transmission of cancer

1938 AD

R.A. Runnels

1884-1955
AD

Robert
Feulgen
(Germany)

Written book on" Animal

Pathology" .
Founder of Histochemistry

1883-1962 G.N.
Papanicolao
AD
u

Father of exfoliative cytology

Watson and
Crick

Structure of DNA

Author of Textbook of Pathology

1953 AD

1885-1979 William
AD
Boyd
(Canada)

10

Introduction

1968 AD

G.A. Sastry
(India)

1973 AD

1974 AD

1976 AD

1989 AD

1905-1993 L. Ackerman
AD
(USA)
1998 AD

2008

Author of "Veterinary
Pathology" textbook.
The Publication of Indian
Veterinary Medical Journal started
from Lucknow
The publication of Indian Journal
of Veterinary Pathology started
from Izatnagar
"Indian Association of Veterinary
Pathologist" established under the
persidentship of Dr. S. Damodaran.
"Veterinary Council of
India" established
Dr. CM. Singh became 1st
President of VCI
1sl Veterinary and Animal Sciences
University established in Madras
(now Chennai).
Authority on interpretation of
frozen sections.
Establishment of "Society for
Immunology and
Immunopathology" at Pantnagar.
Publication of "Journal of
Immunology and
Immunopathology" started from
Pantnagar
Indian Association of Veterinary
Pathologists celebrated Silver
Jubilee
Indian College of Veterinary
Pathologists established and First
batch of 22 Nos. of Charter Member
and Diplomats, ICVP passed out.

11

"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"

Chapter

Etiology
Etiology is the study of cause of disease. It gives precise causal
diagnosis of any disease. Broadly, the cause of diseases can be
divided into two:
a. Intrinsic causes, b. Extrinsic causes
INTRINSIC CAUSES
Those causes, which determine the type of disease present within
an individual over which he has no control. These causes are
further divided into following subgroups:
Genus
Specific diseases occur in a particular genus or species of animals.
e.g. Hog cholera in pigs, Canine distemper in dogs
Breed/Race
Diseases do occur in particular breed of animals such as: Dairy
cattle are more prone for mastitis. Brain tumors common in
Bull dog/ Boxer.
Family
Genetic relationship plays a role in occurrence of diseases in
animals. e.g. some chickens have resistance of leucosis; hernia
in pigs due to weak abdominal wall.
Age
Age of animal may also influence the occurrence of diseases
such as:

13

Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

In young age diarrhoeal pneumonia.

Old age- Tumor
Canine distemper- Young dogs
Strangles- Young horse
Prostatic hyperplasia- Old dogs
Coccidiosis- Young chickens

Sex
Reprod uctive disorders are more common in females

Milk fever, mastitis and metritis in females.

Nephritis is more in male dogs than female, but Bovine

nephritis is more common in females.
Colour
Colour may also play role in occurrence of diseases. e.g.
Squamous cell carcinoma in white coat colour cattle,
melanosarcoma in gray and white horses
Idiosyncrasy

An unusual reaction of body to some substances such as:

Drug reaction, small dose of drug may produce reaction.

Individual variations.
EXTRINSIC CAUSES
The etiological factors which are present in the out side
environment and may cause/ influence the occurrence of disease.
These are also known as exciting cause/ acquired cause. Majority
of cause of diseases falls under this group which are further
classified as physical, chemical, biological and nutritional causes.
PHYSICAL CAUSES
TRAUMA
Traumatic injury occurs due to any force or energy applied on
body of animal e.g. During controlf restraining, shipping or
transport of animal.

14

Contusions! Bruises
Contusions or bruises arise from rupture of blood vessel with
disintegration of extravassated blood.
Abrasions
Abrasions are circumscribed areas where epithelium has been
removed by injury and it may indicate the direction of force.
Erosions
Partial loss of surface epithelium on skin or mucosal surface is
termed as erosion .
Incised wounds! cuts
Incised wounds are produced by sharp edged instrument. They
are longer than deep
Stab wound
Stab wounds are deeper than longer produced by sharp edged
instrument.
Laceration
Severance of tissue by excessive stretching and is common over
bony surfaces or are produced by cut through a dull instrument.
Compression
Compression injury is produced as a result of force applied
slowly e.g. During parturition.
Blast injury
Force of compression waves against surfaces followed by a wave
of reduced pressure. It can rupture muscles/ viscera.
Bullet wound
Hitting at 90 by firearms to produce uniform margins of
abrasion. Exit wounds are irregular and lacerated.

15

Text Book a/Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

ELECTRICAL INJURY
High voltage currents induce tetanic spasms of respiratory
muscles and hits the respiratory centre of brain. It also produce
flash burns. Lightning causes cyanotic carcass, postmortem bloat,
congestion of viscera, tiny haemorrhage and skin damage.

TEMPERATURE
Burns
I degree bums

There is only congestion and injury to the superficial layers of

epidermis e.g. sun burn on hairless parts or white skinned
animal.
II degree bums
Epidermis is destr'oyed; hair follicles remain intact and provide
a nidus for healing of epithelium.
III degree bums
Epidermis and dermis both are destroyed leading to fluid loss,
local tissue destruction, laryngeal and pulmonary oedema, renal
failure, shock and sepsis: Till 20 hrs of burn, the burn surface
remains sterile then bacterial contamination occurs. After 72
hrs millions of bacteria enters in the affected tissue. Bacteria
such as staphylococci, streptococci and Pseudomonas aeruginosa
invade the deeper layers of skin and cause sepsis. There is a
state of immunosuppression in severe burns leading to impaired
phagocytosis by neutrophils .
Hyperthermia
Hyperthermia means increased body temperature due to high
environmental temperature e.g. Pets in hot environment without
water. Hyperthermia leads to increased respiration
(hyperpnoea), rapid heart beat (tachycardia), and degeneration
in myocardium, renal tubules and brain.

16

Hypothermia
Hypothermia means decreased body temperature and includes
freeze induced necrosis of tissues at extremities
RADIATION INJURY
Radiation as a result of exposure to X-rays, Gamma rays or UV
rays leads to cell swelling, vacuolation of endoplasmic reticulum,
swelling of mitochondria, nuclear swelling and chromosomal
damage resulting in mutation. The impact of radiation is more
on dividing cells of ovary, sperm, lymphocytes, bone marrow
tissue, and intestinal epithelium. It is characterized by vomiting,
leucopenia, bone marrow atrophy, anemia, oedema, lymphoid
tissue and epithelial necrosis.
BIOLOGICAL CAUSES
Virus
Viruses are smallest organisms, which have only one type of
nucleic acid DNA or RNA in their core covered by protein
capsid.
Viruses of Veterinary Importance with their classification
(International Committee on taxonomy of viruses, 2005)
DNA Viruses
S.No. Family
Genus
IVirus species
Grou i> I - ds DNA viruses ( Double stranded DNA virus)
1.
Adenoviridae Aviadenovirus Fowl adenovirus
Atadenovirus Ovine adenovirus A
Mastadenoviru Canine adenovirus 1
s
Herpesviridae Alphaherpes Herpes suis
2.
virus
Bovine herpes virus 1 (BHV-1)
Equine herpes virus 1 (EHV-1)
Equine herpes virus -

IDisease
IBH, EDS, HPS in
birds
Pneumonia in Sheep
ICH in Dog
Pseudorabies in pigs
ffiR, IPV in cattle
Equine viral abortion

Rhinopneumonitis in
[equines
Equine herpes virus - Coital exanthema

4 (EHV-4)
3 (EHV-3)

Avian herpes virus ILTin birds

Itype-1 (AHV-1)

17

Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Betaherpes
virus
Gammaherpes
virus

3.

4.

Porcine cytomegalo Inclusion

body
virus
rhinitis in pigs
Malignant catarrhal MCF in cattle
fever virus
Marek's disease virus Marek's disease in
birds
Papillomaviri Papillomavirus Bovine
Cutaneous papilloma
dae
papillomavirus
in cattle
Oral papilloma in
Canine
oral dogs
papillomavirus
Cutaneous papilloma
in rabbits
Rabbit
Ipapillomavirus
Poxviridae
virus, Pox in animals
Orthopox virus Vaccinia
virus,
Cowpox
virus,
Buffalopox
virus,
Monkeypox
Rabbitpox virus
Camelpox virus
virus, Fowl pox, Pigeon
Avipox virus Fowlpox
virus, pox,
Pigeonpox
virus, Turkeypox,
Turkeypox
x virus
umar'pvx
virus, Sheep pox, Goat pox
Capripox virus sheeppox
Goa~xvirus

Leporipox
virus
suipox virus

Myxoma virus

swinepox virus
Orjpox virus
Grou II - ss DNA viruses (Single stranded DNA virus )
1.
Circoviridae Circovirus
Porcine circovirus
Gyrovirus
Chicken anemia virus
Par~xvirus

Parvoviridae Parvovirus
Bocavirus

Murine minute virus

Bovine parvovirus
Canineparvovirus
Porcine parvovirus

18

Myxomatosis
Rabbits
Swine pox
Orfinsheep

in

Chicken infectious
anemia
Diarrhoea in cattle
Enteritis,
myocarditis in dogs
Infertility,
fetal
death in pigs

RNA Viruses
S.No Family

Genus

Virus species

Disease

Grou iJ III - ds RNA virus ( Double stranded RNA virus)

Bimaviridae Avibimavirus IBDvirus
IBDin birds
1.
Aquabimavirus Infectious pancreatic nrurectious pancreatic
necrotic virus
necrosis
Reoviridae
Orthoreovirus Mammalian orthoreo Pneumoenteritis in
2
calves
virus
Blue tongue in sheep
Blue tongue virus
Orbivirus
in
Rotavirus
Diarrhoea
Rotavirus
neonates
Grou IV - (+ve) ss RNA virus ( Positive single stranded RNA or M RNA like )
Arteriviridae Arterivirus
1.
IEquine arteritis virus IEquine viral arteritis
Infectious bronchitis Infectious bronchitis
2.
Coronaviridae Coronavirus
in birds
virus
Bovine coronavirus Diarrhoea in calves
Turkey astrovirus
Swine
vesicular Vesicular exanthema
exanthema virus
inlligs
Lagovirus
Rabbit haemorrhagic Haemmorhagic
disease in rabbit
disease virus
Norovirus
Norwalk virus
FIaviviridae FIavirus
Yellow fever virus
Yellow fever in man
5.
Hepacivirus
Hepatitis C virus
Hepatitis in man
BVD virus, CSF virus BVD,CSF
Pestivirus
Picornaviridae Enterovirus
Poliovirus
Polio in man
6.
Rhinovirus
Rhinovirus
Rhinitis
Hepatovirus
Hepatitis A virus
Hepatitis
Cardiovirus
Encephalomyocarditi Encephalomyocardit
s virus
is
Aphthovirus
FMDvirus
FMD
Erbovirus
Equine rhinitis B Respiratory disease
virus
in~uines
Togaviridae Alphavirus
Equine
Equine
7.
encephalomyelitis
Encephalomyelitis
virus
Rubivirus
Rubellavirus
Grou p V - (-ve) ss RNA virus1 Negative single stranded RNA)
Paramyxoviri Paramyxovirus Parainfluenza virus 1 Respiratory diseases
1.
in pigs
dae
(PI-!)- Pigs,
Parainfluenza virus 2 Kennel cough in
(PI-2)- Dogs,
dogs
Parainfluenza virus 3
(PI-3)- Cattle
Respiratory disease
in cattle

3.
4.

Astroviridae
Calciviridae

Avastrovirus
Vesivirus

19

Text Book a/Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Sel/ Assessment

Avulavirus

Ranikhet disease Ranikhet disease in

virus
birds
Morbillivirus
Canine Distemper CD in dogs
virus
RP- in animals
Rinderpest virus PPR - sheep, goat
PPRvirus
2.
Bomaviridae Boma
disease Boma
disease Boma disease in
virus
virus
sheep
3.
Filoviridae
Ebolavirus
Filovirus
4.
Rhabdovirida Vesiculovirus
Vesicular
Vesicular stomatitis
e
stomatitis virus
in bovines
Lyssavirus
Rabies virus
Rabies
Ephemerovirus
Ephemeral fever Ephemeral fever in
virus
animals
5.
Bunyaviridae Hantavirus
Hantaanvirus
Hantavirus
pulmonary
syndrome, Korean
haemorragic fever
Phlebovirus
Nairobi
sheep Nairobi
Sheep
disease virus, Rift disease, RVF
valley fever virus, Akabana disease
Akabana disease
virus
6.
Orthornyxovir Influenza virus A Influenza virus A Influenza in animals
idae
Influenza virus B Influenza virus B
Influenza virus C Influenza virus C
Group VI ss RNA-RT virus (Single stranded RNA virus with reverse
transcriptase)
Retroviridae Alpharetrovirus Avian leucosis virus ALCinbirds
1.
Betaretrovirus Mouse
mammary Cancer in mice
tumour virus
Garnmaretrovir Murine
leukemia Leukemia in mice
virus
us
Feline leukemia virus Leukemia in cats
Deltaretrovirus Bovine
leukemia Bovine leukemia
virus
Lentivirus
Bovine
Bovine
immunodeficiency
immunodeficiency
virus
syndrome
Feline
Feline
immunodeficiency
immunodeficiency
syndrome
virus
Group VII ds DNA-RT virus (Double stranded DNA virus with reverse
transcri~tase1

1.

Hepadnavirid Orthohepadnavi Hepatitis B virus

ae
rus
Avihepadna
Duck hepatitis
virus
virus

20

Hepatitis
B Duck hepatitis

Sub viral agents

Prion proteins are infectious proteins without any nucleic

acid. e.g. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy.

Viroids are having only nucleic acid without proteins. They

do not cause any disease in animals. However, they are
associated with plant diseases.
Rickettsia

Coxiella burnetti causes Q-fever

Mycoplasma

Mycoplasma mycoides is responsible for pneumonia, joint ailments

and genital disorders
Chlamydia

Chlamydia trachoma tis, C. psittaci cause abortions, pneumonia,

and eye ailments.
Spirochaete

Leptospira sp. causes abortion, icterus.

Borrelia ansarina causes fowl spirochetosis in chickens.
Bacteria
Bacteria are classified as Gram positive and Gram negative on
the basis of Gram's staining. Gram positive bacteria include
Staphylococci, Streptococci, Corynebacterium, Listeria, Bacillus
Clostridia. Gram negative bacteria are E. coli, Salmonella,
Proteus, Klebsiella, Pasteurella, Pseudomonas, Brucella, Yersinia,
Campylobactor etc. Besides, there are certain organisms stained
with Zeihl Neelson stain and are known as acid fast bacilli
e.g.Mycobacterium tuberculosis and M. paratuberculosis.
Fungi
Fungi pathogenic for animals are mostly belongs to fungi
imperfecti. e.g. Histoplasmosis
Fungi cause three type of disease- Mycosis e.g. Actinomycosis;
Allergic disease e.g. Ringworm; Mycotoxicosis e.g. Aflatoxicosis.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Parasites
Parasites are classified mainly in 3 groups:
Protozoan Parasites

Trypanosoma evansi, Theileria annulata, Babesia bigemina, Toxoplasma

goodii, Eimeria Spp.
Helminths
Nematodes- Roundworms e.g. Ascaris,
Trematod- Flat worms e.g. Liverfluke
Cestodes- Tapeworms e.g Taenia spp.
Arthropods
Ticks, Mites, Flies, Lice
TRANSMISSION
Biological agents are transmitted from one animal to another
through horizontal or vertical transmission.
Horizontal Transmission
Horizontal transmission of biological causes occurs through
direct contact or indirectly via animal or inanimate (fomites)
objects. It is also known as lateral transmission as it occurs in a
population from one to another. Various methods of horizontal
transmission are as under:

Ingestion: Food, water, faecal-oral route e.g. Salmonellosis,

Johne's disease, Rotavirus infection.
Inhalation: Air borne infections, droplet infection e.g. R.P., FMD,
Tuberculosis.
Contact: Fungal infection, Bacterial dermatitis, Flu, Brucellosis,
Rabies through bite.
Inoculation: Introduction of infection in body through puncture
either mechanically through needles or by arthropods such as
by ticks. Ticks transmit diseases through transovarian (one
22

generation to next generation) or transstadial (through

developmental stages) transmission.

Iatrogenic: Transmission of infection during surgical practice

or it is created by doctor, through dirty instrument and
contaminated preparations.
Coitus: Through sexual contact of animals, biological agents
spread from one to another animals. e.g. Campylobacteriosis,
Trichomoniasis.
Vertical Transmission
Vertical transmission occurs from one generation to another
generation in ovo/ in utero or through milk. These include:

Hereditary
Infection/ disease carried in the genome of either parent e.g.
Retrovirus

Congenital
Diseases acquired either in utero/ in ovo

Infection in ovary/ovum (Germinative transmission) e.g.

ALC in chickens, lymphoid leukemia in mice, Salmonellosis in poultry.

Infection through placenta. e.g. Feline panleukopenia virus (Transmission to embryo)

Ascending infection from lower genital canal to amnion/

placenta e.g. Staphylococci.

Infection at Parturition: Infection from lower genital tract

during birth. e.g. Herpex simplex virus.

MAINTENANCE OF INFECTION
Biological agents face difficulty of survival at both places in
environment or in host. Two types of hazards which create
problem to agent.

Internal hazards e.g. Host immune system

External hazards e.g. Desiccation, IN light
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Text Book of Veterinary Patlwlogy :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Agents try to maintain themselves by adopting following

maintenance strategies:

Avoidance of a stage in the external environment.

Resistant fotms e.g. Anthrax spores.

Rapidly in-rapidly out strategy e.g. Viruses of respiratory

tract.

Persistence within the host e.g. Mycobacterium tuberculosis,

Slow viral diseases.

Extension of host range.

Infection in more than one host e.g. Foot and mouth disease.

CHEMICAL CAUSES
Biological Toxins

Snake venom
Snake venom have phospholipase Az which causes lytic action
on membranes of RBC and platelets.
The presence of hyaluronidase, phosphodiesterase and
peptidase in snake venom are responsible for oedema, erythema,
haemolytic anemia, swelling of facialj laryngeal tissues,
haemoglobinurea, cardiac irregularities, fall in blood pressure,
shock and neurotoxicity.

Microbial toxins
Microbial toxins are those toxins/ poisons that are produced
by microbial agents particularly by bacteria and fungi.
Bacterial toxins
Bacterial toxins include structural proteins (endotoxins) and
soluble peptides/ secretary toxins (exotoxins). Endotoxins are
present in cell wall of Gram-negative bacteria and are found to
be responsible for septicemia and shock. Exotoxins are secreted
by bacteria outside their cell wall and are found responsible
for protein lysis and damage of cell membrane. e.g. Clostridium
toxins suppress metabolism of cell. Most potent clostridial toxins

24

are botulinum and tetanus, which are the cause of hemolysis

and are powerful neurotoxin. Besides, Clostridium chauvei toxins
are responsible for black leg disease in cattle.
Fungal Toxins (Mycotoxins)
There are several fungi known for production of toxins. Such
toxins are known as mycotoxins and they are mostly found in
food/ feed items, which causes disease in animals through
ingestion.
Aflatoxins
Aflatoxins are produced by several species of fungi including
mainly Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus and Penicillium puberlum.
These aflatoxins are classified as B1, B2, G1, G2, M1, M2, B2a, G2a
and aspertoxin. Aflatoxins are produced in moist environment
in grounded animal! poultry feed on optimum temperature and
are more common in tropical countries where storage conditions
are poor and provide suitable environment for the growth of
fungi. These toxins are known to cause immunosuppression,
formation of malignant neoplasms and hepatopathy.
Ergot
Ergot is produced by Claviceps purpura in grains which causes
blackish discoloration. It produces gangrene by chronic
vasoconstriction, ischemia and capillary endothelium
degeneration. It is also associated with summer syndrome in
cattle characterized by gangrene of extremities.
Fusarium toxins

Fusarium toxins are produced by Fusarium tricinctum in paddy

straw, which are found to cause gangrene in extremities.
Zearalenone toxin is the cause of ovarian abnormality in sow.
Ochratoxins

Ochratoxins are produced by Aspergillus ochracheous and A.

viridicatum fungi in grounded feed on optimum temperature
and moisture and are found to cause renal tubular necrosis in
chickens and pigs.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Plant toxins
Over 700 plants are known to produce toxin. e.g. Braken fern
which causes haematuria and enccphalomalacia. Strychnine from
Strychnos nuxvomica is highly toxic and causes death in animals
with nervous signs. It is used for dog killing in public health
operations to control rabies. HCN is found in sorghum which
is known to cause clonic convulsions and death in animals
characterized by haemorrhage in mucous membranes.
Drug toxicity

Antibiotics: Cause direct toxicity by destroying gut

microflora. Oxytetracyline, sulfonamides are nephrotoxic.

Neomycin and Lincomycin cause Mal-absorption diarrhoea
and Immunosuppression.
Anti-inflammatory drugs: like acetaminophen causes hepatic
necrosis, icterus and hemolytic anemia.
Anticoccidiostate drug: Monensin is responsible for necrosis
of cardiac and skeletal muscles.
Trace elements: There are various trace elements; excess of
which may cause poisoning in animals. e.g. Selenium poisoning "Blind staggers" or "Alkali Disease" in cattle characterized by chronic debilitating disease. It also causes
encephalomalacia in pigs.

Environmental Pollutants
Environment is polluted due to presence of unwanted materials
in food, water, air and surroundings of animals, particularly
by agrochemicals including pesticides and fertilizers. The
environmental pollutants exert their direct or indirect effect on
the animal health and production. The main pollutants are:

Heavy metals such as mercury, lead, cadmium are found

in industrial waste, automobile and generator smoke, soil,
water and also found as contaminants of pesticides and
fertilizers, are responsible for damage in kidneys, immune
system and neuropathy. They are also associated with
immune complex mediated glomerulonephritis.

26

Sulpher dioxide is produced by automobHes, industries

and generators. It is responsible for loss of cilia in
bronchiolar epithelium.
Hydrogen sulfide is produced by animal's decay and in
various industries. It inhibits mitochondrial cytochrome
oxidase leading to death.
Pesticides are agrochemicals used in various agricultural,
animal husbandry and public health operations. They are
classified as insecticides, herbicides, weedicides and
rodenticides. Chemically, insecticides are grouped mainly
as organochlorine organophosphates, carbamates and synthetic pyrethroids. Acute poisoning of pesticides causes
death in animals after nervous clinical signs of short duration. Chronic toxicity is characterized by immunosuppression, nephropathy, neuropathy, hypersensitivity and
autoimmunity in animals.

NUTRITIONAL CAUSES
Nutrition causes disease in animals either due to deficiency or
excess of nutrients. It is very difficult to diagnose the nutritional
causes and sometimes it is not possible to find a precise cause
as in case of infectious disease because functions of one nutrient
can be compensated by another in cell metabolism. Experimental
production of nutritional deficiency is not identical to natural
disease. When tissue concentration of nutrient falls down to
the critical level, it leads to abnormal metabolism and the
abnormal metabolites present in tissues can be detected in urine
and faeces. First changes of nutritional deficiency are recorded
in rapidly metabolizing tissues e.g. skeletal muscle, myocardium
and brain. Immature animals are more susceptible to nutritional
disease. e.g. calves, chicks, piglets etc.
Types of deficiency

Acute/ chronic e.g. Thiamine deficiency in pigs

Multiple deficiencies: e.g. Poor quality food.

Nutritional imbalance: e.g. Imbalance in calcium: phosphorus (2:1) ratio.

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Text Book o/Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Protein malnutrition: e.g. Malabsorption

Calorie deficiency: e.g. Loss of fat! Muscle wasting.

Factors responsible for nutritional deficiency

Interference with intake e.g. Anorexia, G.I. tract disorders.

Interference with absorption e.g. Intestinal hypermotility,

Insoluble complexes in food (Fat! Calcium)

Interference with storage e.g. Hepatic disease leads to deficiency of vito A.

Increased excretion e.g. Polyuria, Sweating and Lactation

Increased requirement e.g. Fever, Hyperthyroidism and

Pregnancy

Natural inhibitors e.g. Presence of thiaminases in feed,leads

to thiamine deficiency.
Calorie deficiency
Calorie deficiency in animals occurs due to food deprivation or
starvation.
Food deprivation
Dietary deficiency of food in terms of quantity/quality leads
to emaciation, loss of musculature, atrophy of fat, subcutaneous
oedema, cardiac muscle degeneration and atrophy of viscera
including liver and pancreas. The volume ofhepatocytes reduced
by 50% and mitochondrial total volume is also reduced 50%.
Starvation
Starvation is the long continued deprivation of food. It is
characterized by fatty degeneration of liver, anemia and skin
diseases. Young and very old animals are more susceptible to
starvation while in pregrlant animals it causes retarded growth
of foetus. In animals, following changes can be seen due to
starvation.
Intestinal involution
Absorptive surface is reduced with shrunken cells and pyknotic
nuclei. Villi becomes shorter and shows atrophy.

28

Atrophy of muscles
There is decrease in muscle mass.
Lipolysis
Increased cortisol leads to increased lipolysis resulting in
formation of fatty acids in liver which in turn converts into
ketones used by brain.
Gluconeogenesis
In early fasting blood glucose level drops down. The insulin
level becomes low while glucagon goes high in starvation. The
glucose comes from skeletal muscle, adipose tissue and lymphoid
tissue during starvation. Twenty four hours of food deprivation
causes reduction in liver glycogen and blood glucose. Fatty acids
from adipose tissue forms glucose and in mitochondria after
oxidation it forms acetoacetate, hydroxybutyrate and acetone.
Which are also known as ketone bodies and are present in blood
stream during starvation. It is also known as ketosis e.g. Ketosis/
Acetonemia in bovines. Lack of glucose in blood leads to
oxidation of fatty acids which forms ketone bodies as an
alternate source of energy. They are normalf physiological at
certain level but may become pathological when their level is
high.
Clinically it is characterized by anorexia, depression, coma, sweet
smell in urine, concentration of acetone increases in milk, blood
and urine along with hyperlipimia and acidosis. A similar
condition also occurs in sheep known as pregnancy toxaemia
which is characterized by depression, coma and paralysis. This
situation occurs when many children/ foetuses are there in
uterus. There are fatty changes in liver, kidneys, and heart,
with subepicardial petechiae or echymosis.
Protein deficiency
Generally, protein deficiency does not occur. However, the
deficiency of essential amino acids has been reported in animals
when certain ingredients are deficient in certain amino acids.
e.g. maize is deficient in lysine, and tryptophan that leads to
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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

slow growth; peanuts and soybean are deficient in methioine.

Protein deficiency is characterized by hypoproteinemia, anemia,
poor growth, delayed healing, decreased or cesation of cell
proliferation, failure of collagen formation, atrophy of testicles
and ovary, atrophy of thymus and lymphoid tissue.
Deficiency of Lipids
Generally, there is no deficiency of fat in animals. However,
essential fatty acids including linolenic acid, linoleic acid and
arachidonic acid deficiency may occur which causes dermatoses
in animals. Fat has high calorie value and it is required in body
because there are certain vitamins soluble in fat only.
Deficiency of Water
Deficiency of water may lead to dehydration and slight
wrinkling in skin. Deficiency may occur due to fever, vomiting,
diarrhoea, haemorrhage and polyuria, which can be corrected
through adequate water supply for drinking or through
intravenous fluid therapy.
Deficiency of Vitamins
Vitamin deficiency may occur due to starvation. There are two
types of vitamins viz., fat soluble and water soluble. Fat soluble
vitamins are vit. A, D, E and K and water soluble are vit B
complex and C.
Vitamin A
It is also known as retinol. It is derived from its precursor
carotene. It is found in abundant in plants having yellow
pigment, animal fat, liver, cod liver oil, shark liver oil. bcarotene is cleaved in gut mucosa into two molecules of retinol
(Vit. A aldehyde) which after absorption is stored in liver. Bile
salts and pancreatic juice are responsible for absorption of vit.
A from gut. Deficiency of Vit. A occurs due to damage in liver.

Vit. A deficiency may lead to following disease conditions:

Squamous metaplasia of epithelial surfaces in esophagus,
pancreas, bladder and parotid duct, which is considered

30

pathognomonic in calves. Destruction of epithelium/ goblet cell

in respiratory mucosa is generally replaced by keratin
synthesizing squamous cells in vito A deficient animals. There
are abnormal teeth in animals due to hypoplasia of enamel and
its poor mineralization. Vitamin A deficiency is also associated
with still birth and abortions in pigs. It causes night blindness
(Nyctalopia) in animals. Due to deficiency of Vito A there is
recurrent episodes of conjunctivitis/ keratitis. In poultry, there
is distention of mucous glands, which opens in pharynx and
esophagus because of metaplasia of duct epithelium leading to
enlargement of esophageal glands due to accumulation of its
secretions. The glands become spherical, 1-2 mm dia. over
mucosa. It is considered pathognomonic for hypovitaminosis
A. and is known as Nutritional roup. Inflammation of upper
respiratory tract lead to coryza. Urinary tract of cattle, sheep
and goat suffers due to formation of calculi, which may cause
obstruction in sigmoid flexure of urethra in males. Such calculi
are made up of desquamated epithelial cells and salts and the
condition is known as urolithiasis. Deficiency of vito A may also
lead to in abnormal bone growth of cranial bones and there is
failure of foramen ovale to grow leading to constriction of optic
nerves which results in blindness in calves, increased CSF
pressure, blindness at birth and fetal malformations. In sows,
piglets are born without eyes (Anophthalmos) or with smaller
eyes- (Microphthalmos).
Vitamin D
Vitamin D occurs in 3 forms viz. vitamin D2 or calciferol, Vito D3
or cholecaliciferol and Vit D1 impure mixture of sterols. About
'80% Vito D is synthesized in body skin through UV rays on 7hydrocholesterol. In diet containing egg butter, it is found in
abundant quantity in milk, plants, grains etc. Active forms of
vito Dare 25-hydroxy vito D and 1, 25 dihydroxy vit D.
(Calcitriol) which is 5 to 10 times more potent than former. Vit
D is stored in adipose tissue in body. The main functions of vit
D are absorption of Ca and P from intestines and kidneys,
mineralization of bones, maintains blood levels of Ca and P
and in immune regulation as it activates lymphocytes and
macrophages.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

The deficiency of vitamin D is associated with rickets in

young animals, osteomalacia in adult animals and
hypocalcemic tetany.
Excess of vitamin D leads to the formation of renal calculi,
metastatic calcification and osteoporosis in animals.

Vitamin E (a- tocopherol)

Source of vitamin E is grains, oils, nuts, vegetables, and in body
it is stored in adipose tissue, liver and muscles. It has antioxidant
activity and prevents oxidative degradation of cell membrane.

Deficiency of vit E causes degeneration of neurons in peripheral nerves. There is denervation of muscles leading
to muscle dystrophy e.g. White muscle disease in cattle and
Stifflamb disease in sheep and Myoglobinuria in horses. Deficiency of vito E causes degeneration of pigments in retina
reduces life span of RBC, leading to anemia and sterility
in animals. Crazy chick disease (Encephalomalacia) is also
caused by vit E deficiency; the chicks become sleepy with
twisting of head and neck. There is muscular dystrophy in
chickens due to vito E deficiency.
Vitamin K

Vito K occurs in two forms namely Vito ~ or Phylloquinone

found in green leaf and vegetables and Vit- ~ or Menadione
which is produced by gut microflora. Its main function is
coagulation of blood. Deficiency of vit K may leads to
hypoprothrombinemia and haemorrhages.
Vitamin B

Vitamin B is a water soluble vitamin which has at least 9 sub

types including B} or thiamine, B2 or riboflavin, B6 or pyridoxine,
B}2 or cyanocobalamin, niacin or nicotinic acid, folate or folic
acid, choline, biotine and pantothenic acid.
Thiamine
In ruminants synthesis of thiamine occurs in rumen. Source of

vito B are pea, beans, pulses, green vegetables, roots, fruits,

32

rice, wheat bran etc. Strong tea, coffee have antithiamine action.
It is stored in muscles, liver, heart, kidneys and bones of animals.
Thiamine plays active role in carbohydrate metabolism.

Deficiency of thiamine may lead to Beri beri disease characterized by Ataxia and neuralf lesions. Chastek paralysis in
cats, fox and mink and stargazing attitude of chicks due to
thiaminase (thiamine deficiency) in meal may be observed.
Bracken fern poisoning in cattle and horses may cause
deficiency of thiamine due to presence of thiaminase enzyme in bracken fern. Toxicity of thiamine splitting drugs
like amprolium, a coccidiostate, may cause
polioencephalomalcia in cattle and sheep. Cardiac dialation
in pigs has also been observed due to vit. Bl deficiency.
Riboflavin
Riboflavin is a component of several enzymes and is found in
plants, meat, eggs and vegetables.

Deficiency of riboflavin may cause Curled Toe Paralysis in

chicks and swelling of sciatic and brachial nerves.
Niacin
Role of niacin (NAD / NADP, nicotinamide adenine dinueotide)
is in electron transport in mitochondria of cells. It is found in
grains, cereals, meat, liver, kidneys, vegetables and plants.

Deficiency of niacin is associated with skin disorders in

man Pellegra; anorexia, diarrhoea, anemia in pigs and mucous hyperplasia, haemorrhage in gastrointestinal tract and
black tongue in dogs which is also known as Canine pellegra.

Pyridoxine
It is found in egg, green vegetables, meat, liver etc.

Deficiency of pyridoxine causes uremia, convulsions, dermatitis and glossitis.

Pantothenic acid

Pantothenic acid deficiency is associated with stunted

growth of chicks.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Revieu7 and Self Assessment

Folate

Folic acid is required in formation of erythrocytes and

hence its deficiency leads to anemia.
Cyanocobalamin
Deficiency of cyanocobalamin may also lead to anemia, as it is
also needed in RBC formation.
Biotin
Biotin deficiency causes paralysis of hind legs in calves.
Choline
Choline deficiency is associated with fatty changes in liver and
perosis.
Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)
It is found in green plants and citrus fruits.

Deficiency of vit. C may cause retardation of fibroplasia, scurvy

in G. pigs, haemorrhage, swelling, ulcers and delayed wound
healing in animals.
MINERALS
Various minerals are also necessary for survival of animals.
Deficiency of anyone of them or in combination may cause
serious disease in animals. Some of the important minerals are:
Sodium chloride

Cobalt

Calcium

Manganese

Phosphorus

Magnesium

Fluorine

Iodine

Sulfur

Iron

Selenium

Copper

Zinc

34

Potassium

Sodium chloride
Sodium chloride is an essential salt which maintains osmotic
pressure in blood, interstitial tissue and the cells because 65%
of osmotic pressure is due to sodium chloride. Chloride ions of
hydrochloric acid present in stomach also comes from sodium
chloride.

The excess of sodium chloride causes gastroenteritis in

cattle, gastroenteritis and eosinophilic meningoencephalitis
in pigs and ascites in poultry.

Deficiency of sodium chloride is characterized by anorexia,

constipation, loss of weight in sows and pica, weight loss,
decreased milk production and poly urea in cattle. Deficiency of salt occurs due to diarrhoea, dehydration and
vomiting.
Calcium
Normal range of calcium is 10-11 mg/ 100 ml blood in body of
animals. If it increases above 12 mg/ 100 ml blood, metastatic
calcification occurs, while its level less than 8 mg/ 100 ml blood
may show signs of deficiency characterized by tetany.
Absorption of calcium from gut is facilitated by vito D.
Paratharmone stimulates to raise blood Ca level from bones
while calcitonin from thyroid stimulates it's deposition in bones
and thus reduces blood Ca levels.

In pregnant cows, calcium deficiency occurs just after parturition. During gestation calcium goes to foetus from skeleton of cows, resulting in weak skeleton of dam. If calcium is not provided in diet, it may cause disease in dam
characterized by locomotor disturbances, abnormal curvature of back, distortion of pelvis, tetany, incoordination, muscle spasms, unconsciousness and death. Such
symptoms occur in animals when their blood calcium level
falls below 6 mg/ 100 ml of blood and if it is less than 3
mg/ 100ml blood, death occurs instantly.

Milk fever is a disease of cattle occurs due to deficiency of

calcium just after parturition. Cow suddenly becomes recumbent and sits on sternum with head bending towards

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

flank and is unable of get up. No gross/ microscopic lesion reported in this disorder. The calcium therapy recovers the animal immediately.
The excess of calcium may cause metastatic calcification
leading to its deposition in soft tissue of kidney, lungs
and stomach.

Magnesium
It acts as activator of many enzymes e.g. alkaline phosphatase.
It requires for activation of membrane transport synthesis of

protein, fat and nucleic acid and for generation/ transmission

of nerve impulses. The normal blood levels are 2 mg/ 100 ml of
blood.

Dietary deficiency leads to hypomagnesaemia and a level

below 0.7 mg/ 100 ml cause symptoms in calves characterized by nervous hyperirritability, tonic and clonic convulsions, depression, coma and death.

The post-mortem lesions of magnesium deficiency includes

haemorrhage in heart, intestines, mesentery and congestion of viscera.

Microscopic lesions include calcification of intimal layer of

heart blood 'vessels (metastatic) muscles and kidneys. Grass
tetany and Grass staggers occurs due to hypomagne semia
and characterized by hyperirritability, abnormal gait, coma
and death.
Phosphorus
Normal level of phosphorus is 4-8 mg/ 100 ml of blood. In
bones, it is in the form of calcium phosphate. Deficiency of
phosphorus may lead to hypophosphatemia and characterized
by pica, rheumatism and hemoglobinurea.

Pica is licking/ eating of objects other than food. It mainly

occurs in cattle, buffaloes and camels, who eats bones, mud
and other earthern materials. Such animals have heavy
parasitic load in their gut.

Rheumatism like syndrome is characterized by lameness

in hind legs particularly in camels and buffaloes.
36

Hemoglobinurea is characterized by the presence of coffee colour urine of animal due to extensive intravascular
hemolysis Hemo globinurea thus known as postparturient
hemoglobinurea.

Selenium
Deficiency of selenium causes hemolysis as it protects cell
membrane of RBC and thus its deficiency leads to anemia. Blind
Staggers occurs due to excess of selenium.
Iron
Deficiency of iron leads to anemia, which is hypochromic and
microcytic but rarely occurs in animals.
Copper
Deficiency of copper results in anemia and steel wool disease
in sheep, which is characterized by loss of crimp in wool.
Enzootic ataxia with incoordination of posterior limb has been
observed in goats.
Cobalt
Vito Bt2 is synthesized by ruminal bacteria from cobalt in
ruminants. Cobalt also stimulates erythropoiesis. Its deficiency
may cause wasting disease, cachexia and emaciation in animals.
The pathological lesions are comprised of anemia, hemosiderosis
in liver, spleen and kidneys.
Manganese
Deficiency of manganese causes slipped tendon in chicken or
perosis characterized by shortening of long bones in chickens.
It occurs as the epiphyseal cartilage fails to ossify at 12 week of
age and epiphysis becomes loose and thus gastrocnemious
tendon slips medially and condition is known as Slipped Tendon
or Perosis.
Zinc
Deficiency of zinc may cause parakeratosis in pigs at 10-20 weeks
age. Calcium in diet with phytate or phosphate forms a complex
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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

with zinc making it unavailable for absorption leading to its

deficiency, which is characterized by rough skin of abdomen,
medial surface of thigh, which becomes horny. It also causes
fascial eczema in cattle, thymic hypoplasia in calves and
immunodeficiency in animals.
Iodine
Deficiency of iodine causes goiter in newborn pigs characterized
by absence of hair on their skin. Other signs of iodine deficiency
include abnormal spermatozoa, decreased spermatogenesis, loss
of libido, reduced fertility, suboestrus, anoestrus, abortions,
dystocia and hydrocephalus. Excess of iodine may lead to
lacrimation and exfoliation of dandruff like epidermal scales
from skin.
Fluorine
Excess of fluorine causes mottling in teeth and bones. The teeth
become shorter, broader with opaque areas.

38

Chapter

Genetic Disorders,
Developmental Anomalies and
Monsters
GENETICS
Genetics is the branch of science deals with study of genes,
chromosomes and transmittance of characters from one
generation to another.
CHROMOSOMES
Chromosomes are thread like structures present in the form of
short pieces in nucleus of a cell. They are in pairs; of which one
pair is sex chromosome and others are autosomes.
Table 3.1: Number of chromosomes in different species of
animals
51. No.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Animal
Cattle
Buffalo (River)
5heep
Goat
Pig
Dog
Cat
Horse
Donkey
Poultry

Chromosomes
Total
Pairs
60
30
25
50
27
54
30
60
19
38

78

39
19
32
31
39

38
64

62
78

Male

Female

XY
XY
XY
XY
XY
XY
XY
XY
XY

XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX

ZZ
ZW
Each chromosome is composed of two chromatids connected at centromere.
Chromosomes are grouped together on the basis of their
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Text Book o{Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

length, location of centromere and this procedure is known

as Karyotyping.
The study of Karyotyping is known as cytogenetics.
Chromosomes are composed of 3 components:

DNA - 20%
RNA -10%
Nuclear Proteins - 70%

Deoxyribo nucleic acid (DNA)

Double helix structure of polynucleotide chain.

A nucleotide consists of phosphate, sugar and base of either purine (Adenine, Guanine) or pyrimidine (Thymine,
Cytosine).

A sequence of 3 nucleotide determines the synthesis of an

amino acid and is known as genetic code! codon.

During cell division, one half of DNA molecule acts as template for the synthesis of other half by an enzyme DNA
polymerase to transmit the genetic information whicp may
also have some disorders to next progeny.
Gene

Sequence of nucleotides which controls the synthesis of

one specific protein is known as gene. It is a unit of function. Study of genes is termed as Genetics. In higher animals about 1.0 million genes are present.

Genes located on X or Y chromosomes are termed as sex

linked and all other genes are autosomal genes.

When the genes at one locus are same from both parents
they are termed as homozygous but when they are different at one locus they are known as heterozygous.

In heterozygous, characters of one gene are manifested in

phenotype and such gene is known as dominant while
unexpressed gene is called as recessive.

40

Genetic Disorders, Developmental Anomalies and Monsters

Karyotyping

Karyotyping is the study of chromosomes in cell.

Collection of blood, separation of lymphocytes using

Histopaque-1077 gradient.

The lymphocytes are cultured with mitogen concanavalin

A (ConA) or phytohemagglutinin - M (PHA-M) for 72 hrs.

Colchicine is used after 72 hrs to arrest the cell division at

metaphase stage.

Hypotonic solution is added to allow cells for swelling

which causes separation of chromosomes.

Prepare glass slides and stain with Giemsa or other special stain.

Identify the chromosomes and photograph them.

Cut photographs having homologous chromo-somes and
make pairs.

GENETIC DISORDERS
ABERRATION IN CHROMOSOMES

A large number of chromosomal aberrations are removed

due to death of gamete or zygote which is termed as "species cleansing effecr'. Even though some aberrations do
persist and expressed in phenotype leading to illness.
1. Aberration in number

Chromosomes are in pairs (2n). When number of chromosomes are other than (n) or (2n). It is known as hetero-

ploidy.
(a) Heteroploidy

The number of chromosomes are other than (n) or (2n).

When abnormal number is exact multiplies of the haploid

set due to errors in mitosis. The polar body may fail to be
extruded from ovum leaving diplod set to be fertilized by
sperm (n) i.e. 2n + n = 3n (Triploid zygote).

When abnormal number is not the exact multiplies of haploid set. It may have specific chromosome in triple number
(trisomy) or in single number (monosomy).

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Text Book o/Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

(b) Duplication and deficiencies

Duplication or deficiency may occur in a section of chromosome and total number of chromosomes remains same.

Translocation is the rearrangement of a part of chromosome in two non-homologous chromosomes. It may be

reciprocal or non-reciprocal. Absence of a piece of chromosome is known as deletion.
(c) Mosaicism

In mosaicism, there is more than one population of cells in

body; each population differs in their chromosomes/ genes
due to error during development.

May be due to chromosomal non-disjunction e.g. XXY in

some cells, XY in other cells.

(d) Chimerism

In this, one type of cells are acquired in utero from a twin

e.g. Bovine twin 1 male and 1 female with joint placenta.
The blood cells of male may go in female counterpart. Then
the female will have two type of cell population, one of its
own and another acquired from twin. Similarly, male may
also have XX leucocytes in its blood. Such chimeric bulls
are sterile.
2. Abnormalities in sex chromosomes

(a) Klinefelters syndrome

Male have sex chromatin i.e. XXY = 47(2n) in man.

In some cells, different number of chromosomes i.e. XX,

XXY, XXXY, XXYY

It is recognized in adolscence by small testes, tall body,

and low sexual characters, mostly infertile.

May occur in sheep, cattle and horse.

(b)

Tortoiseshell male cat

Male cat has small testes, lack of libido and absence of
spermatozoa in testes with 3n chromosomes (XXY).

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Genetic Disorders, Developmental Anomalies and Monsters

(c) Turner's syndrome

Mare are with XO karyotype having gonadal dysgenesis

and such animals are sterile and do not have sex chromatin.

In mice XO karyotype is normal.

(d) Intersexes

In this condition ambiguity occurs in genitalia or the secondary sex characters are present for both the sexes including male and female.

Hermaphrodites have maie and female genitalia while

pseudohermaphrodites are having external genitalia of one
sex and gonads of opposite sex.
(e) Freemartinism

In bovine twins, one male with (XY) and one female (XX)
karyotype but they share placental circulation so cells of
embryo establish in other co-twin.
(f) Testicular feminization

Animal is having female genitalia as external and internal

organs but in place of ovaries, there are testes. It occurs
due to single gene defect and makes tissues unresponsive
to androgenic hormones.

3. Abnormalities in autosomal chromosomes

(a) Down's syndrome! Mongolism

It occurs as a result of trisomy, number of a particular chromosome increases leaving 2n, as 61 in bovines, 77 in dogs
and 47 in man e.g. bovine lymphosarcoma occurs in animals with 2n=61. Male dog with 2n= 77 are prone to lymphoma.
(b) Sterility in hybrids

Donkey has 2n=62 and horse has 2n= 64. Their cross mule
has 2n=63.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Sterility in mules, cause is not known, may be due to uneven number of chromosomes.

4. Abnormalities in genes

Lethal genes are those genes, which are responsible for

death of zygote.

Sublethal genes
X-linked or sex linked: Diseases transmitted by heterozygous carrier females only to male offsprings who are
homozygous for X-chromosome.

ANOMALIES
Anomaly is a developmental abnormality occurs in any organ/
tissue. It may be due to genetic disorder and may affect the
zygote itself within few days after fertilization or may occur
during any stage of pregnancy. It may be classified as under:
1. Imperfect development
(a) Agenesis
Agenesis is incomplete development of an organ or mostly it is
associated with absence of any organ.

Acrania is absence of cranium.

Anencephalia is absence of brain.

Hemicrania is absence of half of head.

Agnathia is absence of lower jaw.

Anophathalmia is absence of one or both eyes.

Abrachia is absence of fore limbs.

Abrachiocephalia is absence of forelimbs and head.

Adactylia is absence of digits.

Atresia is absence of normal opening e.g. Atresia ani is absence of anus opening.
(b) Fissures
Fissures are a cleft or narrow opening in an organ on the median
line of head, thorax and abdomen.
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Genetic Disorders, Developmental Anomalies and Monsters

Cranioschisis is a cleft in skull.

Chelioschisis is a cleft in lips also known as harelip.
P~!atoschisis is a cleft in palates; also known as cleft pal-

ate.

Rachischisis is a cleft in spinal column.

Schistothorax is a fissure in thorax.
Schistosomus is a fissure in abdomen.

(c) Fusion
Fusion is joining of paired organs.

Cyclopia is fusion of eyes.

Renarcuatus is fusion of kidneys; also known as horse shoe

kidneys.
2. Excess of development

Congenital hypertrophy of any organ.

Increase in the number of any organ or part! tissue.

Polyotia is increased number of ears.

Polyodontia is increased number of teeth.

Polymelia is increased number of limbs.

Polydactylia is increased number of digits.

Polymastia is increased number of mammary gland.

Polythelia is increased number of teats.

3. Displacement during development

(a) Displacement of organ

Dextrocardia is the transposition of heart into right side

instead of left side of thoracic cavity.

Ectopia cordis is the displacement of heart into neck.

(b) Displacement of tissues

Teratoma is a tumor arising due to some embryonic defect

and composed of two or more types of tissues. In this at
least two tissues should be of origin.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Dermoid cyst is a mass containing skin, hair, feathers or

teeth depending on the species and often arranged as cyst.
It mostly occurs in the subcutaneous tissues.

MONSTERS
Monster is a disturbance of development in several organs and
causes distortion of the foetus e.g. Duplication of all or most of
the organs.

Monsters develop from a single ovum; these are the product of incomplete twinning.

Monsters are classified as under:

1. Separate twins
One twin is well developed while another is malformed and
lack the heart, lungs or trunk, head, limbs.
2. United twins

These twins are united with symmetrical development and are

further classified as:
(a) Anterior twinning
Anterior portion of foetus is having double structures while
posterior remains as single.

Pyopagus is a monster twin united in the pelvic region

with the bodies side by side.

Ischiopagus is a monster twin united in the pelvic region

with the bodies at more than a right angle.

Dicephalus is a monster having two separate heads, neck,

thorax, and trunk.

Diprosopus is a monster having double organs in cephalic

region without complete separation of heads and with
double face.
(b) Posterior twinning
When in monsters, the anterior portion remains single and
posterior parts become double.
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Genetic Disorders, Developmental Anomalies and Monsters

Craniopagus is a monster having separate brain with separate bodies arranged at an acute angle.
Cephalothoracopagus is the monster having united head
and thorax.
Dipygus is the monster having double posterior extremities and posterior parts of body.

(c) Almost complete twining

In some monster, twins are having complete development with

joining in thorax and abdomen.

Thoracopagus is a monsters united in thorax region.

Prosopothoracopagus is the monster twin united at thorax, head, neck and abdomen.

Rachipagus is the monster in which thoracic and lumber

portion of vertebral column are united in twin.

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Chapter

Disturbances in Growth
APLASIA! AGENESIS
Aplasia or agenesis is absence of any organ.
HYPOPLASIA
Hypoplasia is failure of an organ/ tissue to attain its full size.
Etiology

Congenital anomalies e.g. Hypoplasia of kidneys in calves.

Inadequate innervation.

Inadequate blood supply.

Malnutrition
Infections e.g. Cerebral hypoplasia in Bovine viral diarrhoea.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Organ size, weight, volume reduced

Reduced size of cells

Reduced number of cells

Connective tissue and fat is more

ATROPHY

Atrophy is decrease in size of an organ that have reached

their full size.
Etiology

Physiological e.g. Senile atrophy.

Pressure atrophy
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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Disuse atrophy e.g. Atrophy of immobilized legs.

Endocrine atrophy e.g. Atrophy of testicles.
Environmental pollution e.g. Atrophy of lymphoid organs.
Inflammation/ fibrosis

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Size, weight, volume of organ decreased.

Wrinkles in capsule of organ.

Size of cell is smaller.

Cell number is less.

Fat and connective tissue cells are more.

HYPERTROPHY
Hypertrophy is increase in size of cells leading to increase in
size of organ/ tissue without increase in the number of cells.
Etiology

Increase metabolic activity e.g. Myometrium during pregnancy.

Compensatory e.g. If one kidney is removed, another becomes hypertrophied due to compensatory effect.
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Organ becomes large in size.

Organ weight increases.

Size of cells increases.

HYPERPLASIA
Hyperplasia is increase in number of cells leading to increase in
size of organ/ tissue.
Etiology

Prolonged irritation e.g. Fibrosis/ nodules in hands, pads.

Nutritional disorders e.g. Iodine deficiency

Infections e.g. Pox.

Endocrine disorders e.g. Prostate hyperplasia.

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Disturbances in Growth

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Increase in size, weight of organ., Nodular enlargement

of organ.

Increased number of cells, Displacement of adjacent tissue, Lumen of ducts/ tubules obstructed.

METAPLASIA
Metaplasia is defined as transformation of one type of cells to
another type of cells.
Etiology

Prolonged irritation e.g. Gall stones cause metaplasia of

columnar cells to stratified squamous epithelial cells in wall
of gall bladder.

Endocrine disturbances e.g. In dog columnar epithelium

of prostate changes into squamous epithelium.

Nutritional deficiency e.g. Nutritional roup. In poultry,

cuboidal/ columnar epithelium of esophageal glands
changed into stratified squamous epithelium.

Infections e.g. Pulmonary adenomatosis

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Mucous membrane becomes dry in squamous metaplasia.

Presence of nodular glands on oesophageal mucous membrane due to vitamin A deficiency in chickens also known
as "Nutritional roup".

Change of one type of cells to another type, In place of

columnar cells, there are squamous epithelial cells.

In place of endothelial cells, cuboidal or columnar cells in

alveoli e.g. pulmonary adenomatosis.

ANAPLASIA
Anaplasia is defined as reversion of cells to a more embryonic
and less differentiated type. It is a feature in neoplasia. Neoplasia
is uncontrolled new growth, serves no useful purpose, have no
orderly structural arrangement and is of undifferentiated or

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Text Book o[Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

less differentiated in nature with more embryonic characters

of the cells.
Etiology

Chemicals

Radiation

Viruses e.g. Oncogenic Viruses.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Enlargement of organ/ tissue.

Nodular growth of tissue, hard to touch.

Presence of pleomorphic cells and less or undifferentiated

cells

Hyperchromasia
Size of cells increases
Size of nucleus and nucleolus increases
Presence of many mitotic figures
Seen in neoplastic conditions .

.DYSPLASIA
Abnormal development of cells/ tissues which are improperly
arranged. It is the malformation of tissue during maturation.
1. Spermatozoa head and tailpiece are structurally abnormal
or aligned in improper way.
2. Fibrous dysplasia in bones.
3. In gastrointestinal tract, disruption of cellular orientation,
variation in size, and shape of cells, increase nuclear and
cytoplasmic ratio and increased mitotic activity.

52

Chapter

Disturbances in Circulation
CONGESTION! HYPEREMIA

Hyperemia is increased amount of blood in circulatory system.

It is of two types, active and passive. In active hyperemia blood
accumulates in arteries while in passive hyperemia the amount
of blood increases in veins.
Etiology

As a result of inflammation.

Obstruction of blood vessels.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Organ becomes dark red! cyanotic.

Size of organ increases.

Weight of organ increases.

Blood vessels become distended due to accumulation of

blood.

Increased amount of blood in blood vessels.

Veins/ capillaries/ arteries are distended due to accumulation of blood.

Blood vessels become enlarged with blood and their

number increases.
HAEMORRHAGE

Escape of all the constituents of blood from blood vessels. It

may occur through two processes i.e. rhexis- break in wall of
blood vessel or through diapedesis in which blood leaves through
intact wall of blood vessel. It occurs only in living animals.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Etiology

Mechanical trauma

Necrosis of the wall of blood vessels

Infections

Toxins
Neoplasm

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Organ becomes pale due to escape of blood

As per size, the haemorrhage is classified as under:

Pinpoint haemorrhage of about one mm diameter or pinhead size is known as petechiae.

More than one to 10 mm diameter haemorrhage are known

as ecchymoses.

Irregular, diffuse and flat areas of haemorrhage on mucosal or serosal surfaces are known as suffusions.

Haemorrhage appear in line in crests or folds on mucous

membrane are known as linear haemorrhage.

Hematoma is the accumulation of blood in spherical shaped

mass.

According to location, the haemorrhage is classified as:

Hemothorax: Blood in thoracic cavity.

Hemopericardium: Blood in pericardial sac. When there

is increased amount of blood in pericardial sac, it causes
heart failure and is known as cardiac temponade.

Hemoperitonium: Blood in peritoneal cavity.

Hemoptysis: Blood in sputum.

Hematuria: Blood in urine.

Epistaxis: Blood from nose.

Metrorrhagia: Blood from uterus.

Melena: Bleeding in faeces.

Hematemesis: Blood in vomitus.

Blood constituents are seen outside the blood vessels.

54

Disturbances in Circulation

Break in blood vessels.

Presence of red blood cells in tissues outside the blood
vessels.

THROMBOSIS
Formation of clot of blood in vascular system in the wall of
blood vessel. It occurs due to endothelial injury leading to
accumulation of thrombocytes, fibrinogen, erythrocytes and
leucocytes.
Etiology

Injury in endothelium of blood vessels.

Alteration in blood flow.

Alteration in composition of blood.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Blood clot in wall of blood vessels.

On removal of clot, rough surface exposed.

Got may be pale, red or laminated.

Occlusive thrombus totally occlude blood vessels.

Mural thrombus is on the wall of heart.

Valvular thrombus is on valves of heart.

Cardiac thrombus is in heart.

Saddle thrombus is at the bifurcation of blood vessel just

like saddle on back of horse.

Septic thrombus contains bacteria.

Blood clot in blood vessel.

Attached with wall of blood vessel.

Alternate, irregular, red and gray areas in thrombi.

EMBOLISM
Presence of foreign body in circulatory system which may cause
obstruction in blood vessel.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Etiology

Thrombus, Fibrin
Bacteria
Neoplasm
Oumps of normal cells
Fat, Gas
Parasites

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Emboli causing obstruction of blood vessels lead to formation of infarct in the area.

Organ/ tissue becomes pale.

Parasitic emboli e.g. Dirofilaria immitis

Presence of foreign material in blood.

Dependent area necrotic due to absence of blood supply.

ISCHEMIA

Ischemia is deficiency of arterial blood in any part of an organ.

It is also known as local anemia.

Etiology

External pressure on artery

Narrowing/ obliteration of lumen of artery

Thrombi! emboli
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Necrosis of dependent part.

Occurrence of infarction.

Dead tissue replaced by fibrous tissue.

Lesions of infarction
INFARCTION

Local area of necrosis resulting from ischemia. Ischemia is the

deficiency of blood due to obstruction in artery.

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Disturbances in Circulation

Etiology

Thrombi

Emboli

Poisons like Fusarium toxins

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Necrosis in triangular area

Red infarct is observed as red triangle bulky surface.

Pale infarct is gray in colour and seen as triangle depressed

surface.

Necrosis in cone shaped area.

Obstruction of blood vessels.

EDEMA
Accumulation of excessive fluid in intercellular spaces and/ or
in body cavity.
Etiology

Deficiency of protein.

Passive hyperemia.

Increased permeability of capillaries.

Obstruction of lymphatics.
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Swelling of tissue/ organ/ body.

Weight and size of organ increased.

Colour becomes light.

Pitting impressions on pressure.

Ascites is accumulation of fluid in peritoneum. It is also

known as hydroperitonium.

Hydropericardium is fluid accumulation in pericardial sac.

Hydrocele is fluid accumulation in tunica vaginalis of the

testicles.

Anasarca is generalized edema of body.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Hydrocephalus is accumulation of fluid in brain.

Hydrothorax is accumulation of fluid in thoracic cavity.
Inter cellular spaces becomes enlarged.
Serum/ fluid deposits (pink in colour on H&E. staining) in
intercellular spaces.
Cells separated farther.

SHOCK
Shock is a circulatory disturbance characterized by reduction
in total blood volume, blood flow and by hemconcentration.
Etiology
Primary shock

Occurs immediately after injury.

Injury/extensive tissue destruction.

Emotional crisis.

Surgical manipulation.
Secondary shock

Crushing injury involving chest and abdomen.

Occurs after several hours of incubation.

Release of histamine and other substances by injured tissue.

Extensive haemorrhage.

Burns
Predisposing factors like cold, exhaustion, depression.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Acute general passive hyperemia

Dilc~tation of capillaries

Cyanosis

Numerous petechial haemorrhages

Edema and loose connective tissue

Capillaries and small blood vessels are distended due to

accumulation of blood.
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Disturbances in Circulation

Number of engorged blood vessels increased.

Focal haemorrhage.
Edema, cells separated farther due to accumulation of transudate in intercellular spaces.

SLUDGED BLOOD
Sludged blood is agglutination of erythrocytes in the vascular
system of an animal.

Etiology

Fluctuation in blood flow

Slow rate of blood flow

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Edema

Emboli

Infarction

Necrosis

Clumping of erythrocytes in pulmonary capillaries.

Infarction, necrosis.

Edema.
Erythrophagocytosis by reticuloendothelial cells.

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Chapter

Disturbances in Cell
Metabolism
CLOUDY SWELLING

Swelling of cells occur with hazy appearance due to a mild injury.

The cells take more water due to defect in sodium pump leading
to swollen mitochondria which gives granular cytoplasmic
appearance. It is the first reaction of cell to a mildest injury.
Cloudy swelling is a reversible reaction.

Etiology

Can be caused by any mildest injury.

Any factor causing interference with metabolism of the
cell like bacterial toxins, fever, diabetes, circulatory disturbances etc.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Organ becomes enlarged and rounded.

Weight of organ increases.

Bulging on cut surfaces.

Amount of fluid increases in organ.

Swelling of cells, edges become rounded.

Increased size of cells.

Cytoplasm of the cells becomes hazyj cloudy due to increased granularity.

Can be seen in liver, kidney and muscles.

HYDROPIC DEGENERATION

Cells swell due to intake of clear fluid. Such cells may burst due

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Text Book o{Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

to increased amount of fluid and form vesicle. Hydropic

degeneration can be seen in epithelium of skin and/ or mucous
membranes of body.
Etiology

Mechanical injury

Burns
Chemical injury
Infections like foot and mouth disease virus, pox virus etc.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Vesicle formation

Accumulation of fluid under superficial layer of skin/

mucus membrane.

Heals rapidly within 2-4 days

No scar formation

Pyogenic organisms may convert it into pustule.

Cell size increases due to accumulation of clear fluid in

cytoplasm.

Droplets in cytoplasm as vacuoles.

Cell bursts and epithelium protrudes leading to blister.

Mostly affects prickle cell layer (Stratum spinosum) of skin.

MUCINOUS DEGENERATION
Excessive accumulation of mucin in degenerating epithelial cells.
Mucin is a glassy, viscid, stringy and slimy glycoprotein
produced by columnar epithelial cells on mucus membranes.
Such cells burst to release the mucin in lumen of organ and are
called as goblet cells. When mucin is mixed with water, it is
known as mucus.
Etiology

Any irritant to mucus membrane like chemicals and infection.

Bacteria e.g. E. coli

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Disturbances in Cell Metabolism

Virus e.g. Rotavirus

Parasite e.g. Ascaris

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Over production of mucus in intestines which covers intestinal contents/ stool.

Over pro~uction of mucus in genital tract during oestrus

and is characterized by mucus discharge from vulva.

Nasal discharge during respiratory mucosa involvement.

Mucus is mucin mixed with water and slimy and stringy

in nature.

Increased number of goblet cells.

Goblet cells are elliptical columnar cells containing mucus.

Mucin in lumen stains basophilic through H & E staining.

Seen on mucous surfaces only.

MUCOID DEGENERATION
Mucoid degeneration is mucin like glycoprotein deposits in
connective tissue.
Etiology

In embryonic tissue e.g. umblical cord.

In connective tissue tumors e.g. Myxosarcoma.

Myxedema due to thyroid deficiency.

In cachexia due to starvation, parasitism or chronic wasting diseases.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Shrunken tissue giving translucent jelly like appearance.

A watery, slimy and stringy material on cut surface.

Mucoid degeneration tissue stains blue

Nuclei are hyperchromatic.

Fibrous tissue as pale blue.

Usually accompanied by fat necrosis.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

PSEUDOMUCIN
Pseudomucin is secretion of ovaries and is observed in
cystadenomas. However, it is not a disturbance of cell
metabolism.
Etiology

Cystadenoma, cystadenocarcinoma

Paraovarian cysts.
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Transparent, slimy similar to mucin.

It is not precipitated by acetic acid while mucin is precipitated.

Homogenous like plasma stains pink with H&E stain

Extracellular

AMYLOID INFILTRATION
Deposition of amyloid between capillary endothelium and
adjacent cells. Amyloid is a starch like substance which stains
brown/ blue/ black with iodine and chemically is protein
polysaccharide.
Etiology

Not exactly known.

It is thought to be due to antigen-antibody reaction/ deposition of immune complexes in between capillary endothelium and adjacent cells.
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Organ size increases with rounded edges, pits on pressure, cyanotic/ yellow in colour and fragile.

Sago spleen due to deposition of gray, waxy sago like material.

Amyloid stains pink on H& E stain.

It is a permanent effect in body and remains in whole life

without causing much adverse effects.

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Disturbances in Cell Metabolism

HYALINE DEGENERATION
Glossy substance (glass like) solid, dense, smoothly homogenous
deposits in tissues. Tissue becomes inelastic. It is a permanent
change. Hyaline is very difficult to distinguish macroscopically.
Etiology

Disturbance in protein metabolism

No specific cause
Macroscopic and Microscopic features
Connective tissue hyaline

In old scars, due to lack of nutrients; homogenous, strong

acidophilic and pink in colour. There are no nuclei and no
fibrils.
Epithelial Hyaline

Starch like bodies in prostate, lungs, kidneys.

Microscopically characterized by round, homogeneous,

pink, within an alveolus of lung.

Homogenous, pink in kidney tubules/ glomeruli.

Keratohyaline

Occurs due to slow death of stratified squamous epithelial

cells and because of lack of nutrients. Keratinized epithelium is firm, hard and colourless. Microscopically, it is seen
in epithelial pearls e.g. horn cancer, warts.
FATTY CHANGES
Intracellular accumulation of fat in liver, kidneys and heart. It
is a reversible change.
Etiology

Increased release of fatty acids.

Decreased oxidation of fatty acids.

Lipotrope deficiency.

In ketosis, diabetes, pregnancy toxaemia.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Enlargement of organ.

Cut surfaces are bulging and greasy.

Organ colour becomes light.

Intracellular deposition of fat droplets.

In cytoplasm clear round/ oval spaces with eccentrically

placed nucleus.

Stains yellow orange with sudan III.

GLYCOGEN INFILTRATION (GLYCOGEN STORAGE
DISEASE)

Glycogen accumulates when increased amount of glycogen

enters in the cells of kidneys, muscles and liver.
Etiology

Diabetes mellitus.

Impaired carbohydrate metabolism due to drugs e.g. corticosteroid therapy.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Affected organ becomes enlarged.

Intracellular deposits of glycogen in cells of kidneys, liver

and muscles.

Small clear vacuoles seen in distal portion of proximal convoluted tubules, hepatocytes etc.

It can be stained as bright red by Best's. Carmine and PAS

and reddish brown by iodine.

66

Chapter

Necrosis, Gangrene and

Post-mortem Changes
NECROSIS
Local death of tissue/ cells in living body is known as necrosis,
It is characterized by the followings.

Pyknosis is condensation of chromatin material, nuclei becomes dark, reduced in size and deeply stained

Karyorrhexis is fragmentation of nucleus

Karyolysis is dissolution of nucleus into small fragments,

basophilic granules/ fragments.

Chromatolysis is lysis of chromatin material.
Necrobiosis is physiological cell death after completion of
its function e.g. RBC after 140 days.

Necrosis is further classified into coagulative, caseative,

liquifactive and fat necrosis which are different from apoptosis.
COAGULATIVE NECROSIS
Local death of cells/ tissue in living body characterized by loss
of cellular details, while tissue architecture remains intact.
Etiology

Infections

Ischemia

Mild irritant e.g. toxins/ chemical poisons

Heat, trauma

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Organ becomes gray/white in colour, firm, dense, depressed with surrounding tissue.
67

Text Book o[Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Cellular out line present, which maintains the architecture

of tissue/ organ.
Nucleus absent or pyknotic.

Cytoplasm becomes acidophilic.

CASEATIVE NECROSIS
Local death of cells/ tissue in living body; the dead cells/ tissue
is characterized by presence of firm, dry and cheesy consistency.
It occurs due to coagulation of proteins and lipids.
Etiology

Chronic infections e.g. Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Systemic fungal infections.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Dead tissue looks like milk curd or cottage cheese.

Tissue dry, firm, agranular, white/ gray/yellowish in

colour

Disappearance of cells; no cell details/ architecture.

Purplish granules on H&E staining, blue granules from

nucleus fragments, red granules from cytoplasm fragments.
LIQUEFACTIVE NECROSIS
Local death of cells/ tissues in living body characterized by
rapid enzymatic dissolution of cells. The intracellular hydrolases
and proteolytic enzymes of leucocytes play role in dissolution
of cells.
Etiology

Pyogenic organisms.
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Liquefactive necrosed tissue present in a cavity Abscess" .

It contains small/ large amount of cloudy fluid, which is

creamy yellow (Pus).

Areas of liquefactive necrosis stains pink.

Infiltration of neutrophils
1/

68

Necrosis, Gangrene and Post-mortem Changes

Sometimes empty spaces but infiltration of neutrophils at

periphery.

FAT NECROSIS
Local death of adipose cells in living body.

Etiology

Trauma

Increased action of enzymes due to leakage of pancreatic

juice.

Starvation

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Chalky white mass deposits in organ.

White opaque firm mass.

Adipose cell without nucleus.

Macrophages giant cells contain fat droplets.

Presence of lime salts in tissues.

Differential features of various types of Necrosis
Liquifactive
1. Liquifactive
necrosed tissue
present in a
cavity .. Abscess"
2 It contains
small/ large
amount of
cloudy fluid,
which is creamy
lvellow (Pus)
Microscopic 1. Cellular out 1. Areas of
line present,
liquifactive
features
which
necrosis stains
maintains the pink.
architecture of 2. Infiltration of
tissue/ organ neutrophils
2. Nucleus
3. Sometimes
absent or
empty spaces
but infiltration
pyknotic
3. Cytoplasm of neutrophils at
becomes
periphery
acidophilic

Coagulative
Macroscopic 1. Organ
features
becomes gray/
white in colour,
firm, dense,
depressed with
surrounding
tissue

69

Fat
Caseative
1. Dead tissue
1. Chalky
looks like milk
white mass
curd or cottage
deposits in
cheese
organ
2 Tissue dry, firm, 2 White
agranular, white/ opaque firm
gray/yellowish in mass
colour

1. Disappearance
of cells; no cell
details/
architecture
2. Purplish
granules on H&E
staining, blue
granules from
nucleus
fragments, red
granules from
cytoplasm
fragments.

1. Adipose cell
without
nucleus
2
Macrophages
giantce11s
contain fat
droplets.
3. Presence of
lime salts in
tissues.

Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

APOPfOSIS
Apoptosis is a finely tuned mechanism for the control of cell
number in animals; the process is operative during foetal life,
tumor regression and in the control of immune response.
Apoptosis plays an important role in the development and
maintenance of homeostasis and in the maturation of nervous
and immune system. It is also a major defense mechanism of
the body, removing unwanted and potentially dangerous cells
such as self reactive lymphocytes, virus infected cells and tumor
cells.
Most cells in animal have the ability to self destruct by activation
of an intrinsic cellular suicidal programme when they are no
longer needed or are seriously damaged. The dying cell exhibits
morphological alterations including shrinkage of cell, membrane
blebbing, chromatin condensation and fragmentation of nucleic
acid. Cells under going apoptosis often fragment into membrane
bound apoptotic bodies that are readily phagocytosed by
macrophages or neighbouring cells without generating an
inflammatory response. These changes distinguish apoptosis
from cell death by necrosis. Necrosis refers to the morphology
most often seen when cells die from severe and sudden injury
such as ischemia, sustained hyperthermia or physical and
chemical trauma. In necrosis, there are early changes in
mitochondrial shape and function; cell losses its ability to regulate
osmotic pressure, swells and ruptures. The contents of the cell
are spilled into surrounding tissue, resulting in generation of a
local inflammatory response.
Necrosis is the consequence of a passive and degenerative
process while the apoptosis is a consequence of an active
process.
Execution of apoptosis requires the coordinated action of
aspartate specific cysteine proteases (caspases) which are
responsible for cleavage of key enzymes and structural proteins
resulting in death of cell. Apoptosis is triggered by a variety of
signals which activate the endogenous endonucleases to cause
fragment action of nuclear DNA into oligonucleosomal size
fragments. Initially, the DNA fragments are large (50-300 Kb)

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Necrosis, Gangrene and Post-mortem Changes

but are later digested to oligonucleosomal size (multimers of

180-200 bp). The formation of this distinct DNA ladder is
considered to be a biochemical hallmark of apoptosis.
There is rounding of nucleus with pyknosis and rhexis,
chromatin coalesces to form a crescent along the nuclear
membrane. Cell fragments to form blebs, which may have one
or more organelles. Such changes occurs in apoptotic cells within
20 min of duration.
Apoptosis is generally synonymously used with "programmed
cell death"but it differs from programmed cell death as
apoptosis cannot be prevented by cycloheximide or actinomycin
D, rather these chemicals accelerate the process of apoptosis
while programmed cell death is prevented by these chemicals.
GANGRENE
Necrosis of tissue is followed by invasion of saprophytes.
Gangrene is mainly divided into three types: Dry, moist and
gas gangrene.
DRY GANGRENE
Dry gangrene occurs at extremities like tail, tip of ears, tip of
scrotum, hoof etc. due to necrosis and invasion of saprophytes.
The evaporation of moisture takes place resulting into dry
lesions.
Etiology

Mycotoxins from fungus Fusarium equiseti found on paddy

straw in low lying areas with moisture (Degnala disease).
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Dry, fragmented crusts like lesions on tail, scrotum, ear.

Hoof becomes detached due to necrosis and gangrene,

sloughing exposing the red raw surface.

Blackening of the affected area.

Necrosis and invasion of saprophytes in skin of tail, ear or
scrotum.

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Text Book o/Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

MOIST GANGRENE
Moist gangrene mostly occurs in internal organs of body like
lungs, intestine, stomach etc. It occurs due to necrosis and
invasion of saprophytes leading to dissolution of the tissues.
Etiology

Drenching of milk, medicines etc. e.g. Aspiration pneumonia/ Drenching pneumonia.

Volvulus/ Intussusception or torsion in intestine.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Greenish or bluish discoloration of the affected organ.

Dissolution of affected part into fragments

Presence of foreign material like milk, fiber, oil, etc.
Necrosis and invasion of saprophytes
Presence of foreign material like milk, fibers, oil etc.

GAS GANGRENE
Gas gangrene occurs in muscles particularly of thigh muscles of
hind legs in heifers in case of black leg (Black Quarter).
Etiology

Clostridium chauvei

Gram positive, rod, anaerobe.

Produces toxins under anaerobic conditions which causes
disease.
Stress, trauma, transportation predisposes animals.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Oedema of Muscles in affected part particularly thigh region.

Blackening of muscles due to production of ~S by bacteria and its chemical reaction with iron of free hemoglobin
producing iron sulphide.

Presence of gas in the area giving crepitating sound on

palpation.
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Necrosis, Gangrene and Post-mortem Changes

Necrosis of muscles
Presence of Gram positive rod shaped Clostridia
Dissolution of muscle fibers due to saprophytes/ toxins of
the organism.

Differential features of various types of Gangrene

Dry

Macrosco 1. Dry, fragmented

crusts like lesions on
pic
features tail, scrotum, ear
2. Hoof becomes
detached due to
necrosis and gangrene,
sloughing, exposing
the red raw surface.
3. Blackening of the
affected area.

Microsco 1. Necrosis and

pic
invasion of
features saprophytes in skin of
tail, ear or scrotum

Moist
1. Greenish or bluish
discoloration of the
affected organ.
2. Dissolution of
affected part into
fragments
3. Presence of foreign
material like milk,
fiber, oil, etc.

1. Necrosis and
invasion of
saprophytes
2. Presence of foreign
material like milk,
fibers, oil, etc.

Gas
1. Oedema of Muscles
in affected part
particularly thigh
region.
2. Blackening of
muscles due to
production of HB by
bacteria and its
chemical reaction with
iron of free
hemoglobin producing
iron sulphide.
3. Presence of gas in
the area giving
crepitating sound on
[palpation
1. Necrosis of muscles
2. Presence of Gram
positive rod shaped
Clostridia
3. Dissolution of
muscle fibers due to
saprophytes/ toxins of
the organism

POST-MORTEM CHANGES
Alterations in cells/ tissues occur after death of animal. The
degree of such alterations and their speed depends upon the
environmental temperature, size of animal, species of animal,
external insulation and nutritional state of the animal. The
postmortem changes occur rapidly in high environmental
temperature, large animal, fur/wool bearing and fatty animals.
Autolysis: Autolysis is the digestion of tissue by its own
enzymes and is characterized by uniform destruction of cells
without any inflammatory reaction. After death, a state of
hypoxia occurs leading to decreased ATP. The cell organelles
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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

degenerate and the membrane of lysosomes dissolved which

releases the lysosomal enzymes in the cell responsible for
digestion of cells/ tissues. These enzymes cause disintegration
of cell components into small granules in the cell. Microscopically,
autolysis is characterized by uniform dead cells without any
circulatory changes and inflammatory reaction.
Putrefaction: Putrefaction is decomposition of tissue after death
by saprophytes leading to production of foul odour. After
autolysis the saprophytes invade from external environment
into the body, multiply and eventually digest the tissues with
their enzymes. The tissue becomes frazile and produces foul
odour.
Pseudomelanosis: Pseudomelanosis is greenish or bluish
discolouration of tissues/ organs after death. Saprophytes
causing putrefaction also produce hydrogen sulfide which
chemically reacts with iron portion of hemoglobin to produce
iron sulfide. Iron sulfide is a black pigment and produces green,
gray or black shades on combination with other tissue pigments.
Rigor mortis: Rigor mortis is the contraction and shortening of
muscles after death of animal leading to stiffening and
immobilization of body. It occurs 2-4 hrs after death and remains
till putrefaction sets in. Rigor mortis begins in cardiac muscles
first and then in skeletal muscles of head and neck with a
progression towards extremities. It is enhanced by high
temperature and increased metabolic activity before death; while
it is delayed by starvation, cold and cachexia. Rigor appears
quickly in case animal is died due to strychnine poisoning as a
result of depletion of energy source ATP. Muscle fibers shorten
due to contraction and remain in contraction in the absence of
oxygen, ATP and creatine phosphate. Rigor mortis remains till
20-30 hrs of death, the duration depends on autolysis and
putrefaction. It disappears in same order as it appeared from
head, neck to extremities. It can be used to determine the length
of time after the death of animal.
Algor mortis: Algor mortis is cooling of body. As there is no
circulation of blood after death, which maintains the body
temperature, body becomes cool after death. However, it takes
74

Necrosis, Gangrene and Post-mortem Ozanges

2-4 hrs depending on the species, environmental temperature

and type of animal.
Livor mortis:' Livor mortis is the staining of tissues with
hemoglobin after death of animals. It gives pinkish
discolouration to the tissues.
Hypostatic congestion: Due to gravitational force, the blood is
accumulated in dependent ventral parts of body. It is helpful in
establishment of the state of the body at the time of death.
Post-mortem emphysema: It occurs due to decomposition by
gas producing organisms including saprophytes. The gas is
mainly' accumulated in gastrointestinal tract causing rupture of
the organ.
Post-mortem clot: It is clotting of blood after death of animal
mainly due to excessive release of thrombokinase from dying
leucocytes and endothelial cells. It is smooth in consistency and
glistening surface with red or yellow in colour. Post-mortem
clot is uniform in structure and it does not attach on wall of
blood vessel as thrombus does. In anthrax, postmortem clot
does not appear. Post-mortem clot in formed in two types: Red
or current jelly clot forms when the components of blood are
evenly distributed throughout the clot. It occurs due to rapid
clotting of blood. The yellow or chicken fat clot occurs when
the components of blood are not distributed evenly. The ventral
position is red and upper position in yellow due to WBC fibrin
and serum. It occurs due to prolonged coagulation time of blood
leading to sediment of red blood cells.
Displacement of organs: Displacement of internal organs due
to rolling of dead animal. Mainly intestine/ stomach and uterus
are affected with displacement which can be differentiated from
antemortem by absence of passive hyperemia.
Imbibition of bile: Cholebilirubin present in the gall bladder
diffuses to the surrounding tissues/ organs and stains them
with yellow/greenish pigmentation.

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"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"

Chapter

Disturbances in Calcification
and Pigment Metabolism
CALCIFICATION
Calcification is the deposition of calcium phosphates and calcium
carbonates in soft tissues other than bones and teeth. It may be
classified as dystrophic and metastatic calcification.
DYSTROPHIC CALCIFICATION
Dystrophic calcification is characterized by the deposits of
calcium salts in necrosed tissue of any organ.
Etiology! Occurrence

Necrosis

Parasitic infections

Tuberculous lesions
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Organ becomes hard, nodular.

Gray! white deposits in necrosed tissue looking like honey

comb.

Gritty sound on cutting.

Irregular deposits of calcium salts in necrosed tissue.
Calcium takes black/ purplish colour on H & E staining.

METASTATIC CALCIFICATION
Metastatic calcification is characterized by deposition of calcium
salts in soft tissue as a result of hypercalcemia.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Etiology

Hyperparathyroidism

Renal failure

Excess of vitamin-D

Increased calcium intake.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Organ becomes hard

Wall of arteries becomes hard due to calcium deposits.

Deposition of calcium in soft organs like myocardium, arteries, muscles, etc.

Purplish/ black colour calcium surrounded by comparatively normal tissue.

MELANOSIS

Melanosis is the deposition of melanin, a brown/ black pigment

in various tissues/ organs specially in lung, blood vessels and
brain.
Etiology

Hyperadrenalism

Melanosarcoma

Melanoma
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Organ/ tissue involved becomes black in colour.

Discolouration may be focal or diffused.

Brown/ black colour pigment is seen in cells.

The size, shape and amount of pigment vary.

HEMOSIDEROSIS

Hemosiderosis is characterized by deposition of hemosiderin

pigment in spleen and other organs. Hemosiderin is a blood
pigment with a shiny golden yellow colour and is usually found
within the macrophages.

78

Disturbances in Calcification and Pigment Metabolism

Etiology/ Occurrence

Extensive lysis of erythrocytes

Haemorrhage

Hemolytic anemia
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Colour of organ becomes brownish

Brown induration of lungs

Presence of golden yellow / golden brown pigment in red

pulp of spleen, lungs, liver and kidneys.

In most of the cases, the pigment is found intracellularly

in macrophages.
BILE PIGMENTS
Bile pigments are derived from the breakdown of erythrocytes
such as bilirubin and biliverdin. The icterus is hyperbilirubinemia
as a result of either excessive lysis of erythrocytes or due to
damage in liver or obstruction in the bile duct. The haemolysis
resulted into iron, globin and porphyin; the latter being
converted into biliverdin. Biliverdin is reduced to produce
bilirubin, an orange yellow pigment and bound to albumin and
transported by RE cells to liver. In hepatic cells, it is separated
from albumin and conjugated with glucuronic acid and excreted
in bile as bilirubin diglucuronide. In intestine, it is further
reduced by bacteria to urobilinogen, which is reabsorbed into
circulation and carried to liver for reexcretion in bile while small
amount enters in circulation and excreted through urine. The
unabsorbed urobilinogen is oxidized in lower intestine to form
urobilin and stercobilin, which gives normal pigment to faeces.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Hemolysis

/~~

Heme + Porphyrin + Globin

Biliverdin
Reduced by
Biliverdin reductase
Bilirubin

!
!

Albumin

Blirubin + albumin
RE cells

Liver

Conjugated with the help of

uridine diphosphoglucose
glucuronyl transferase

Bilirubin dig\ucuron,ide

Reduced by
Bacteria

Urobilinogen

Intestine

Kidney

Urobilin and
stercobilin
(faeces)

Excreted
in
urine

80

Disturbances in Calcification and Pigment Metabolism

ICTERUS
Icterus is increased amount of bile pigments in blood circulation
and is often called as hyper- bilirubinemia or jaundice. It is of
three types hemolytic, toxic and obstructive jaundice.
HEMOLYfIC JAUNDICE
Hemolytic jaundice occurs as a result of excessive hemolysis in
circulating blood. It is also known as prehepatic jaundice.
Etiology

Piroplasmosis (Babesia bigemina)

Anaplasmosis (Anaplasma marginale)

Leptospirosis(Leptospira ictehaemmorrhagae)

Equine infectious anemia virus

Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis)

Clostriduum hemolyticum

~-

haemolytic streptococci

TOXIC JAUNDICE
Toxic jaundice occurs as a result of damage in liver leading to
increased amount of unconjugated and conjugated bilirubin in
blood. It is also known as hepatic jaundice.

Etiology

Toxinj Poisons
Copper poisoning
Leptospirosis

OBSTRUCTIVE JAUNDICE
Obstructive jaundice occurs as a result of obstruction in bile
duct causing hindrance in normal flow of bile. It is also known
as post hepatic jundice.
Etiology

Blocking of bile canaliculi by swollen hepatocytes

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Text Book o[Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Obstruction in bile duct (Liver flukes, tapeworms and ascaris)

Biliary cirrhosis, Cholangitis and Cholelithiasis

Pressure on bile duct due to abscess, neoplasm.
Inflammation and swelling at duct opening in duodenum.

Macroscopic features

Mucous membrane yellow in colour.

Omentum, mesentry, fat become yellow.

Increased yellow colour in urine.

Conjunctiva becomes yellow.

Brownish pigment in tubules of kidney

Bile pigments in spleen

Hemolysis, erythrophagocytosis

Hepatitis

Differential features of various types of Jaundice

Etiology

Vanden
Berg's
reaction
Direct
Indirect

Hemolytic
(Prehepatic)
1. :piroplasmosis
(Babesia bigemil/a)
2 Anaplasmosis
(AI/aplasma marginate)
3. Leptospirosis
(Leptospira
icteimemmorrimgae)
4. Equineuuectious
anemia virus
5. Anthrax (Bacillus
antl!racis)
6. ClostridulIIll
hemotytiollll
7.13- haemolytic
streptococci

Negative
Positive

Toxic (Hepatic) Obstructive (post hepatic)

1. Toxin/

Poisons
2. Copper
poisoning
3. Leptospirosis

Positive
Positive

82

1. Blocking of bile canaliculi

by swollen hepatocytes
2. Obstruction in bile duct
(Liver flukes, tapeworms
and ascaris)
3. Biliary cirrhosis,
Cholangitis and
Cholelithiasis
4. Pressure on bile duct due
to abscess, neoplasm.
5. Inflammation and
swelling at duct opening in
duodenum.

Positive
Negative

Disturbances in Calcification and Pigment Metabolism

Diagnosis

Van-den-Bergh reaction

Direct reaction detects bilirubin diglucuronide (Obstructive jaundice)

Indirect reaction detects hemobilirubin (Hemolytic jaundice)

Both reaction (Toxic jaundice)

Vanden Berg's reaction
1.
2.

Hemobilirubin

3.
PNEUMOCONIASIS
Pneumoconiasis is the deposition of dust! carbon particles in
lungs through air inhalation. It is also known as anthracosis
(carbon), silicosis (silica) or asbestosis (asbestos).
Etiology! Occurrence

Dusty air containing carbon! silica/ asbestos

Near factory/coal mines.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Hard nodules in lungs

Nodules my have black/ brown/ gray colour

Nodules may produce cracking sounds on cut

Presence of carboni other exogenous pigment in intercellular spaces or in cytoplasm of alveolar cells and
macrophages.

Formation of granuloma around the foreign particles including the infiltration of macrophages, lymphocytes, giant cells and fibrous tissue proliferation.

CRYSTALS
Deposition of different kinds of crystals in tissues like uric acid,
sulfonamides and oxalates etc. The uric acid and urates when
deposits in tissues it is known as gout.
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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

GOUT
Gout is a disease condition in which urates and uric acid
deposited in tissues characterized by intense pain and acute
inflammation.

Etiology

Common in poultry due to deficiency of uricase enzyme.

Deficiency of vitamin-A

Absence or inadequate amount of uricase

Macroscopic and microscopic features

White chalky mass of urates and uric acid.

Deposition of urates/ uric acid on pericardium, kidneys

etc.

Dialation of ureter due to excessive accumulation of urates.

Presence of sharp crystals in tissue

Crystals are surrounded by inflammatory cells including

macrophages, giant cells and lymphocytes

84

Chapter

Inflammation and Healing

INFLAMMATION

Inflammation is a complex process of vascular and cellular

alterations occurs in body in response to injury. The term
inflammation has been derived from a Latin word inflammare,
means to set on fire. The inflammation is considered as an
important event in body for implementation of existing defence
mechanisms in circulating blood to dilute, naturalize or kill the
irritantj causative agent. Thus, it is said that the immunity is
the resistance of body, while inflammation is the implementation
of that immunity. It is beneficial to body except chronic
persistent and immune origin. Inflammation starts with
sublethal injury and ends with healing.
Etiology

Any irritantj injury

Bacteria, virus, parasite, fungus etc.

Trauma
Physical or chemical injury

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Inflammation is characterized by 5 cardinal signs

Redness
Swelling.

Heat

Pain

Loss of function
Acute inflammation is characterized by more intense vascular changes like congestion, oedema, hemorrhages, leak85

Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

age of fibrinogen and leucocytes.

Chronic inflammation is characterized by more proliferative and/or regenerative changes such as proliferation of
fibroblasts and regeneration of epithelium alongwith infiltration of leucocytes.

TERMINOLOGY IN INFLAMMATION

Inflammation may occur in each and every organ/ tissue

depending upon the type of injury and irritant. The inflammed
organ is called most often with a suffix as /litis" i the detail
nomenclature is as under for different organs/ tissues.
Abomasum
Abomasitis
Artery
Arteritis
Bileduct
Cholangitis
Bone & bone marrow
Osteomyelitis
Osteitis
Bone
Encephalitis
Brain
Bronchitis
Bronchi
Bursitis
Bursa
Typhlitis
Caecum
Cervicitis
Cervix
Colonitis
Colon
Conjunctivitis
Conjunctiva
Cellulitis
Connective tissue
Keratitis
Cornea
Ingluvitis
Crop
Pachymeningitis
Durameter
Otitis
Ear
Endocarditis
Endocardium
Esophagitis
Eosophagus
Epididymitis
Epididymis
Eustachitis
Eustachian tube
Otitis externa
External ear
Blepheritis
Eyelid
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Inflammation and Healing

Eyes
Fascia
Fat
Gall bladder
Gizzard
Glans penis
Gums
Heart
Inner part of uterus
Internal ear
Intestine
Iris
Joints
Kidney & pelvis
Kidney
Lacrimal gland
Larynx
Ligament
Lip
Liver
Lungs

Ophthalmitis
Fascitis
Steatitis
Cholecystitis
Ventriculitis
Balanitis
Gingivitis
Carditis
Endometritis
Otitis interna
Enteritis
Iritis
Arthritis
Pyelonephritis
Nephritis
Dacryadenitis
Laryngitis
Desmitis
Cheilitis
Hepatitis
Pneumonitis/ Pneu
monia
Lymphadenitis
Lymphangitis
Meningitis
Otitis media
Stomatitis
Myositis
Myocarditis
Rhinitis
Neuritis
Omasitis

Lymph nodes
Lymph vessels
Meninges
Middle ear
Mouth cavity
Muscle
Myocardium
Nasal passage
Nerve
Omasum
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Text Book o[Veteri1lllry Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Ovary
Oviduct
Palates
Pancreas
Pericardium
Peritoneum
Pharynx
Piameter
Pleura
Prepuce
Rectum
Reticulm
Retina
Rumen
Salivary glands
Sinuses
Skin
Spermatic cord
Spinal cord
Spleen
Stomach
Synovial membrane of joints
Tendon
Testes
Tongue
Trachea
Ureter
Urethra
Urinary bladder
Uterus
Vagina
Vein

88

Oophoritis
Salpingitis
Lampas/ palatitis
Pancreatitis
Pericarditis
Peritonitis
Pharyngitis
Leptomeningitis
Pleuritis
Posthitis
Proctitis
Reticulitis
Retinitis
Rumenitis
Sialadenitis
Sinusitis
Dermatitis
Funiculitis
Myelitis
Splenitis
Gastritis
Sinovitis
Tendinitis
Orchitis
Glossitis
Tracheitis
Ureteritis
Urethritis
Cystitis
Metritis
Vaginitis
Phlebitis

Inflammation and Healing

Vertebra
Vessel
Vulva

Spondylitis
Vasculitis
Vulvitis

PATHOGENESIS OF INFLAMMATION
Inflammation starts with sublethal injury and ends with healing;
in between there are many events take place which are described
as under:
Transient vasoconstriction
The blood vessels of the affected part becomes constricted for
a movement as a result of action of irritant.
Vasodialation and Increase in permeability
The blood vessels become dialated. Endothelium becomes more
permeable and releases procoagulant factors and prostaglandins.
Fluid and proteins corne out due to leakage in endothelium.
Fluid contain water, immunoglobulins, complement component,
biochemical factors of coagulation and mediators of
inflammation.
Blood flow decrease
Due to stasis of blood in blood vessel, there is increase in leakage
of fluids/ cells out side the blood vessels. It gives rise to
congestion/ hyperemia. There is margination of leucocytes also
known as pavementation.
Cells in perivascular spaces
Due to pseudopodia movement, leucocytes corne out from the
dialated blood vessels through intact and swollen endothelium
and this process is known as "diapedesis". Cells also corne out
through break in blood vessel and this process is called as
"rhexis".
Leucocytes degranulate in perivascular tissue spaces.
Leucocytes when reaches in tissue spaces, they release chemical
mediators of inflammation, antimicrobial factors in tissues such
as cationic proteins, hydrogen peroxide, hydrolytic enzymes,

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

lysozymes, proteases, kinins, histamine, serotonin, heparin,

cytokines, and complement.
Irritant is removed and damaged tissue healed
By the process of inflammation irritant is neutralized/ removed
or killed. Fluids are absorbed through lymphatics and debris is
removed by phagocytosis. Blood vessel becomes normal.
If the irritant is strong and not normally removed by the

inflammatory process, it remains at the site and covered by

inflammatory cells and after some time by fibrous cells in order
to localize the irritant. e.g. Granuloma.
VASCULAR CHANGES

In inflammation, there is transient vasoconstriction followed

by vasodialation increased capillary permeability and decrease
in blood flow. Circulatory changes are more pronounced in acute
inflammation.
Etiology

Any irritantj injury causing inflammation

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Congestion of the affected organ/ tissue

Edema
Haemorrhage
Congestion of blood vessels
Edema, presence of fibrin net work
Infiltration of leucocytes such as neutrophils, lymphocytes,
macrophages, eosinophils etc.

CELLULAR CHANGES

In inflammation, there is infiltration of leucocytes in the

inflammed area in order to provide defense to the body and to
kill or neutralize the etiological factors.

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Inflammation and Healing

Etiology

Any irritant! injury causing inflammation

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Formation of pus/ abscess if there is increased number of

neutrophils in the inflammed area.

Area becomes hard, painful, swelling/ nodule

Presence of leucocytes in the inflammation area.

Presence of the type of cell may also determine the type of

inflammation.
Cells of inflammation are polymorphonuclear cells, lymphocytes,
macrophages, eosinophils, mast cells, plasma cells, giant cells,
etc.

Polymorphonuclear cells
They are also known as neutrophils (mammals) and heterophils
(birds). Size of these cells vary from 10m-20m. They are attracted
by certain chemotactic factors like bacterial proteins, C 3a, C5a,
fibrinolysin and kinins. These cells are produced in bone
marrow and are short lived only for 2-3 days. Mature cells have
multilobed nucleus and two types granules. Primary granules
are the azurophiIic granules present in lysosomes containing
acid hydro lases, myeloperoxidases and neuraminidases.
Secondary or specific granules are having ladoferiI).~ and
lysozymes. These cells degranulate through Fc receptor binding
with non-specific immune complexes or opsonins .

Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes are produced in primary lymphoid organs like
thymus, bursa of Fabricious and bone marrow and their
maturation takes place in secondary lymphoid organs like
spleen, lymphnodes, tonsils, and mucosa associated lymphoid
tissue etc. These cells may survive for years and in some cases
for whole life of an animal. There are two types of lymphocytes
seen on light microscopy i.e. small and large. Small lymphocytes
are mainly T-helper or T-cytotoxic cells having nuclear cytoplasm
ratio (N:C) high. The larger lymphocytes are having N:C ratio

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

low and are mainly B cells and NK Cells. There are large numbers
of molecules present on cell surface of lymphocytes which are
used to distinguish the type of cells. These are known as markers
and are identified by a set of monoclonal antibodies and are
termed as Cluster of Differentiation (CD system of classification)
e.g. CD4 T- helper cells, CDs T-Cytotoxic cell, CD2 and CDs Pancell marker and CD7 NK cells.
B-Iymphocytes are characterized on the basis of presence of
mature immunoglobulins (IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE, IgD) on their
surface. They comprise only 5-15% of total peripheral blood
lymphocytes. The B - cells having IgM, IgG, IgD are present in
blood while IgA bearing B-Iymphocytes are present in large
numbers on mucosal surfaces. The B-Iymphocytes can be further
divided into Bl and B2 ; Bl are present predominantly in
peritoneal cavity and are predisposed for autoantibody
production while B2-cells are conventional antibody producing
cells.
Natural Killer (N.K. cells) are also present in 10-15% of total
peripheral blood lymphocytes. These are defined as the
lymphocytes which do not have any conventional surface
antigen receptor i.e. TCR or immunoglobulin. In other words,
they are neither T nor B cells. The NK cells do not have CD3
molecule but CD16 and CD56 are present on their surface. These
cells may kill tumor cells, virus containing cells and targets
coated by IgG non specifically. They excret gamma interferon
interIeukin 1 and GM- CSF.
Macrophages
The mononuclear macrophages are the main phagocytic and
antigen presenting cells which develop from bone marrow stem
cells and may survive in body till life. The professional
phagocytic cells destroy the particulate material while antigen
presenting cells (APC) present the processed antigen to the
lymphocytes. They are having horse shoe shape nucleus and
azurophilic granules. They have a well developed Golgi
apparatus and many intra cytoplasmic lysosomes which contain
peroxidases and hydrolases for intracellular killing of

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Inflammation and Healing

microorganism. Macrophages have a tendency to adhere on

glass or plastic surface and are able to phagocyte the bacteria
and tumor cells through specialized receptors. These cells are
also having CD14 receptors for lipopolysacharide (LPS) binding
protein normally present in serum and may coat on Gram
negative bacteria. There are CD64 receptor for binding of Fc
portion of IgG responsible for opsonization, extracellular killing
and phagocytosis. Antigen presenting cells (APC) are associated
with immunostimulation, induction of T-helper cell activity and
communication with other leucocytes. Some endothelial and
epithelial cells may under certain circumstances also acquire the
properties of APC when stimulated by cytokines. They are
found in skin, lymphnodes, spleen and thymus.
Eosinophils
Eosinophils comprise 2-5% of total leucocyte count in peripheral
blood. They are responsible for killing of large objects which
can not be phagocytosed such as parasites. However, they may
also act as phagocytic cells for killing the bacteria but it is not
their primary function. These cells are having bilobed nucleus
and eosinophilic granules. The granules are membrane bound
with crystalloid core. These granules are rich in major basic
protein which also releases histaminase and aryl sulfatase and
leucocyte migration inhibition factor.
Mast cells! Basophils
There are 0.2% basophils in peripheral blood which are having
deep violet blue coloured granules. The tissue basophils are
known as mast cells. They are of two types, mucosal mast cells
and connective tissue mast cells. Basophilic granules present in
these cells are rich in heparin, SRS-A and ECF-A. When any
antigen or allergen comes in contact with cells, it cross links
with IgE bound on the surface of mast cells and stimulate the
cells to degranulate and release histamine which plays an active
role in allergy.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Platelets
Platelets are derived from bone marrow and contains granules.
These cells help in clotting of blood and are involved in
inflammation. When endothelial surface gets damaged, platelets
adhere and aggregate on damaged endothelium and release
substances to increase permeability, attract leucocytes and
activate complement.
Plasma cells
The plasma cells are modified B-Iymphocytes meant for
production of immunoglobulins. Plasma cells have smooth
spherical or elliptical shape with increased cytoplasm and
eccentrically placed cart wheel shaped nucleus. The cytoplasm
stains slightly basophilic and gives a magenta shade of purplish
red. In the cytoplasm, there is a distinct hyaline homogenous
mass called Russell body which lies on the cisternae of the
endoplasmic reticulum. This is the accumulation of
immunoglobulin produced by these cells. Such cells are present
in almost all types of inflammation.
Epithelioid cells
They are the activated macrophages mostly present in
granuloma when macrophages become large and foamy due to
accumulation of phagocytosed material (bacteria) and
degenerated tissue debris. These cells are considered as
hallmark of granulomatous inflammation. They are elongated
with marginal nucleus looking like a columnar epithelial cells
and hence their name "Epithelioid" cells.
Giant cells
The giant cells are multinucleated macrophages fused together
to kill the microorganisms. They are formed by the fusion of
many macrophages to phagocytose larger particles such as yeast
fungi and mycobacteria. They are having many usually more
than one nucleus and abundant cytoplasm. Such cells are formed
when macrophages fails to phagocytose the particulate material.
They are of several types as listed blow.

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Inflammatian and Healing

Foreign body giant cells: They are having many nuclei upto 100
which are uniform in size and shape and resemble the
macrophage nucleus. The nuclei are scattered in the cytoplasm.
Such cells are seen in chronic infectious granulomas of
tuberculosis.

Langhans giant cells: They are horse shoe shaped giant cells having
many nuclei and are of characteristically present in tubercle.
The nuclei resemble with that of macrophages and epitheliOid
cells. The nuclei are mostly arranged at periphery giving horse
shoe shape.
Touton giant cells: They are multinucleated cells having
vacuolation in the cytoplasm due to increased lipid content.
They mostly occurs in xanthoma.
Tumor giant cells: These are larger, pleomorphic and
hyperchromatic cells having numerous nuclei with different size
and shape. Nuclei of such cells do not resemble with that of
macrophages or epithelioid cells. They are not true giant cells
and not formed from macrophages but are found in cancers as
a result of fast division of nuclei in comparison to cytoplasm.
Fibroblasts
Fibroblast proliferates to replace its own tissue and others which
are not able to regenerate. The new fibroblasts originate from
fibrocyte as well as from the fibroblasts through mitotic
division. Collagen fibers begin to appear on 6 th day as an
amorphous ground substance or matrix. They are characteristic
of chronic inflammation and repair. Fibroblasts are elongated
cells having long nuclei sometimes looking like the smooth
muscle fibers. The proliferation of fibroblasts is extremely active
in neonates and slow and delayed in old animals. The fibroplasia
can be enhanced by removal of necrosed tissue debris and by
fever.
CHEMICAL CHANGES,
There is a long list of chemical mediators responsible for acute
inflammation. These are endogenous biochemical compounds,
which can increase the vascular permeability, vasodilation,

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

chemotaxis, fever, pain and cause tissue damage. Such chemical

mediators are released by cells, plasma or damaged tissue and
are broadly classified as: cell and plasma derived chemical
mediators of inflammation.

CELL DERIVED MEDIATORS

Vasoactive amines

Histamine: Histamine is found in basophilic granules of mast

cells or basophils and in platelets. It is released through stimuli
due to heat, cold, irradiation, trauma, irritant, chemical and
immunological reactions and anaphylotoxins C3a, C5a and C4a.
Histamine is also released due to action of histamine releasing
factors from neutrophils, monocytes and platelets. It acts on
blood vessels and causes vasodilation, increased vascular
permeability, itching, and pain.
Serotonin (5-Hydroxy-tryptamine): It is present in tissues of
gastrointestinal tract, spleen, nervous tissue, mast cells and
platelets. It is also acting on blood vessels to cause vasodilation
and increased permeability but its action is mild in comparison
to histamine.
Arachidonic acid metabolites
Arachidonic acid is a fatty acid, which either comes directly
from the diet or through conversion of linoleic acid to
arachidonic acid. Arachidonic acid is activated by C5a to form
its metabolites through either cyda-oxygenase or lipa-oxygenase
pathways. Cyda-oxygenase is a fatty acid enzyme which acts
on arachidonic acid to form prostaglandin endoperoxidase
(PGG) which is further transformed into prostaglandins like
PGD2, PGE 2, PGF 2; thromboxane A2 (Tx A 2) and prostacydin
(PGI2). Prostaglandins act on blood vessels to cause vasodilation,
increased permeability bronchodilation except PGF2a, which is
responsible for vasodilation and bronchoconstriction.
Thromboxane A2 is a vasoconstrictor, bronchoconstrictor, and
causes aggregation of platelets leading of increased function of
inflammatory cells. Prostacylin is found to be responsible for
vasodilation, bronchodilation and inhibitory action on platelet

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Inflammation and Healing

aggregation. Lipo-oxygnese acts on arachidonic acid to form

hydroperoxy eico-satetraenoic acid (SHPETE) which is further
converted into S HETE a chemotactic agent for neutrophils and
leucotrienes (LT) or slow reacting substance of anaphylaxis
(SRS-A). The leucotrienes include an unstable form leucotriene
A (LTA), which is soon converted into leucotriene B (LTB), a
chemotactic and adherence factor for phagocytic cells, and
leucotriene C, D and E (LTC, LTD, LTE) causing contraction of
smooth muscles leading to vasoconstriction, bronchoconstriction
and increased vascular permeability.
Lysosomal components
Lysosomal granules are released by neutrophils and
macrophages to cause degradation of bacterial and extracellular
components, chemotaxis and increased vascular permeability.
These lysosomal granules are rich in acid proteases, collagenases,
elastases and plasminogen activator.
Platelet activating factor (PAF)
Platelet activating factor (PAF) is released from IgE sensitized
mast cells, endothelial cells and platelets. It acts on platelets for
their aggregation and release, chemotaxis, bronchoconstriction,
adherance of leucocytes and increased vascular permeability.
In low amount PAF causes vasodilation while in high
concentration it leads to vasoconstriction.
Cytokines
Cytokines are hormone like substances produced by activated
lymphocytes (Lymphokines) and monocytes (Monokines).
These are glycoprotein in nature with low molecular weight (87SKD) and composed of single chain. They differ from hormones
which are specifically produced by endocrine glands to maintain
homeostasis through endocrine action while cytokines are
prod uced by many different cell types and acts on different
cells of body with very high functional activity. They cause
autocrine, paracrine and endocrine action leading to tissue repair
and resistance to infection. Cytokines are broadly classified as
interleukins, interferon, cytotoxins and growth factors.
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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Interleukins (IL)
Interleukins are cytokines required for cell to cell interaction
among immune cells. They are numbered serially in order to
their discovery; however, their actions are different and not
related with each other.

51. Typeof Size

Source
N interleu MW
kin
o.
(KD}
1. Interieuk 17 Macrophages,
Langerhans cells, Tin-I
cells, B- Cells,
(IL-la,
Vascular
IL-l~
endothelium,
and ILFibroblasts,
IRA)
Keratinocytes

Target! Action

T-cells, B-ceIIs,
NeutrophiIs,
Eosinophils,
Dendritic cells,
Fibroblasts,
Endothelial cells,
Hepatocytes,
Macrophages.
T- helper-l cells (Th-l) T-ceIIs, B-cells, NK
Cells.

2. Interleuk
in-2
(IL -2)
3. Interleuk
in-3
(lL-3)

15

25

Activated T-cells, Th-l

cells, Th-2 cells,
Eosinophils, Mast
cells.

4. Interieuk
in-4
(IL - 4)

20

Activated Th-2 cells.

98

Stimulates growth
and maturation of
bone marrow stem
cells, Eosinophilia,
Neutrophilia
Monocytosis,
Increases
phagocytosis,
Promotes immunoglobulin secretion by
B- cells.
B-Cells, T-cells,
Macrophages,
Endothelial cells,
Fibroblasts, Mast
cells, IgE Production
in allergy, Down
regulate ILl, IL6, and
TNF-a.

Inflammation and Healing

5. Interleuk
in-5
(IL-5)
6. Interleuk
in-6
(IL-6)

18

Th-2 cells, Mast Eosinophils, Increases Tcells, Eosinophils Cell, cytotoxicity

26

7. Interleuk
in-7
(IL-7)

25

Macrophages, Tcells, B-cells,

Bone marrow
stromal cells,
Vascular
endothelial cells,
Fibroblasts,
Keratinocytes,
Mesangial cells.
Bone marrow,
Spleen cells,
Thymic stromal
cells.

8. Interleuk
in-8
(IL-8)
9. Interleuk
in-9
(IL-9)
10. Interleuk
in-10
(IL-10)

Macrophages

39

Th-2 cells

19

11. Interleuk
in-11
(IL-11)

24

12. Interleuk
in-12
(IL-12)

75

T-cells, B-cells,
Hepatocytes, Bone
marrow stromal cells,
Stimulates acute phase
protein synthesis, Acts as
pyrogen.

Thymocytes, T-cells, Bcells, Monocytes,

Lymphoid stem cells,
Generates cytotoxic Tcells.
T-CeIIs, Neutrophils.

Growth of Th-cells,
Stimulates B-cell,
Thymocytes, Mast cells.
Th-1 cells, NK cells,
Th cells, Bcells,Macrophage Stimulates B cells,
s,Keratinocytes, Thymocytes, Mast cells.
Th-2cells
Growth of B-cells,
Bone marrow
stromal cells,
Megakaryocyte colony
Fibroblasts
formation, Promotes the
production of acute phase
proteins.
Activated
Th-1 cells activity, T-cell
proliferation and
macrophages
cytotoxicity, NK cell
proliferation and
cytotoxicity Suppresses
IgE production, Enhances
B-cell immunoglobulin
production.
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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and SelfAssessment

13. Interleuk
in-13
(IL-13)

10

Th-2cells

14. Interleuk
in 14
(IL-14)

53.

T-cells, Malignant Bcells

15. Interleuk
in-15
(IL-15)

15

Activated
macrophages,
Epithelial cells,
Fibroblasts.

16. Interleuk
in-16
(IL-16)
17. Interleuk
in-17
(IL-l7)
18. Interleuk
in-18
(IL-18)
19. Interleuk
in-19
(IL-19)

13

T-cells (CDs cells)

17

CD4 cells

20. Interleuk
in-20
(IL-20)

Macrophage

Macrophage

Activated
keratinocytes

100

B-Cells, Macrophages,
Neutrophils, Inhibits
macrophage activity,
Stimulates B-cell
proliferation,
Stimulates
neutrophils.
Enhances B-cell
proliferation,
Inhibits
immunoglobulin
secretion.
T-cells, NK cells,
Proliferation of both
cytotoxic and helper
T-cells,
Generates LA!( cells
T cells, CD4 cells,
Chemotactic for
lymphocytes
Promotes the
production of
IL-6, IL-8.
Induces y-interferon
production
Inhibitll1flammatory
and immune
responses, suppress
activities ofThl and
Th2 cells
Proliferation of
keratinocytes and
their differentiation,
modulate skin
inflammation

Inflammation and Healing

21. Interleuk
in-21
(IL-21)

22. Interleuk
in-22
(IL-22)
23. Interleuk
in-23
(IL-23)
24. Interleuk
in-24
(IL-24)
25. Interleuk
in-25
(IL-18)
26. Interleuk
in-26
(IL-26)
27. Interleuk
in-27
(IL-27)

28. Interleuk
in-28
(IL-28)
29. Interleuk
in-29
{IL-29}

Activated T-cells

Regulation of
haematopoiesis and
immune responses,
promotes production
of T-cells, fast growth
and maturation of NK
cells and B-cells
population
Activated T-cells
Induction of acute
phase responses and
proinflammatory role
Monocytes, activated Induces y interferon
dendritic cells
production and Th1
lymphocyte
differentiation
Th2 cells
Tumor suppression

Th2cells

T- cells

CD. cells

Virus induced
peripheral blood
mononuclear cells
Virus induced
peripheral blood
mononuclear cells

101

Stimulates release of
1L-4, IL-5 and IL-13
from non lymphoid
accessory cells
Proinflammatory role,
cutaneous and
mucosal immunity
Rapid clonal
expansion of naive Tcells and CD. cells,
induces proliferative
response and
cytokines production
by Ag specific
effector/ memory Th1
cells
Immunity to viral
infection (antiviral
activity)
Immunity to viral
infection (antiviral
activity)

Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Interferons
Interferons are glycoproteins having antiviral action and inhibit
the virus replication in cells. These are of 5 types like alpha (a.),
beta (P), gamma (y), omega (ro), and tau (1).
SI.
Interferon Source
No.
1. Interferon Lymphocytes,
alpha
Monocytes,
(IFN- ex)
Macrophages
2. Interferon Fibroblasts
beta

3.

4.

5.

(IFN-P)
Interferon Th-1 cells,
Gamma
Cytotoxic Tcells, NK cells,
(IFN-y)
Macrophages

Interferon
Omega
(IFN-ro)
Interferon
tau

Lymphocytes,
Monocytes
Trophoblasts
Trophoblasts

Action
Inhibit viral growth, activate
macrophages
Inhibit viral growth, Activates
macrophages
Stimulates B-ce1Is, Production,
Enhances NK Cells activity
Activates macrophages and
phagocytosis. Promotes antibody
dependent and cell mediated
cytotoxicity.
Virus infected cells to check viral
growth
Activate Macrophages
Virus growth, Immunity to fetus
through placenta.

(IFN-1.)

Tumor necrosis factor or cytotoxins

Tumor necrosis factor or cytotoxins are produced by
macrophages and T-cells and are associated with apoptosis in
tumors. Tumor necrosis factor beta (TNF-P) is produced by Thelper 1 cells and activates CDs + T -cells, neutrophils,
macrophages, endothelial cells and B-Iymphocytes. Tumor
necrosis factor alpha (TFN-a) is produced by macrophages, Tcells, B-celIs and fibroblasts and it activates macrophages and
enhances immunity and inflammatory reaction.

Chemokines
Chemokines are small proteins divided into two a and b
subfamilies. Alpha- chemokines include IL-8, which is produced
by fibroblasts, macrophages endothelial cells, lymphocytes,

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Inflammation and Healing

granulocytes, hepatocytes and keratinocytes. It acts as

chemotactic agent for basophils, neutrophils, and T-cells. The
neutrophils get activated and release their granules and
leucotrienes. There is increased respiratory burst. Besides, it
also acts on basophils and lymphocytes. Macrophage
inflammatory protein MIP-1 of b-chemokines are produced by
macrophages, T and B-Iymphocytes, mast cell and neutrophils.
It acts on monocytes, eosinophils, B and T-lymphocytes. Betachemokines includes macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP1), monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP) and RANTES
protein. The MCP is produced by macrophages, T-cells,
fibroblasts, keratinocytes and endothelial cells and activates the
monocytes and stimulating them for respiratory burst and
lysosomal enzyme release. RANTES is released by Tlymphocytes and macrophages and it acts as chemotactic agent
for monocytes, eosinophils, basophils and some T-cells.
(;rolVth factors
Many cytokines are also known as growth factors which act on
cells and stimulate them to proliferate thus they play very
important role in inflammation and healing. These are
glycoprotein in nature, which controls the proliferation and
maturation of several blood cells. The growth factors also include
interleukin 3,7,11, and 15. The granulocyte colony stimulating
factor (G-CSF) is produced by fibroblasts, endothelial cells and
macrophages. It acts on granulocyte progenitors and regulate
their maturation and production of superoxide. Macrophage
colony stimulating factors (M-CSF) are the glycoproteins
released by lymphocytes, macrophages, fibroblasts, epithelial
cells and endothelial cells. They act on monocyte progenitors
for their proliferation and differentiation and promotes their
killing activity. Granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating
factor (GM-CSF) is released from macrophages, T-Iymphocytes,
endothelial cells and fibroblasts and facilitates phagocytosis,
antibody dependent cell cytotoxicity (AOCC) and superoxide
production. It activates eosinophils to enhance superoxide
production and macrophages for increased phagocytosis and
tumoricidal activity. Transforming growth factor (TGF) are five

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

related proteins (fGF-B1, B2' B3 in mammals; B4 and Bs in poultry)

released from neutrophils, macrophages, T-and B-Iymphocytes
and they inhibit the proliferation of macrophages, T- and Blymphocytes and stimulates the proliferation of fibroblasts.
PLASMA DERIVED MEDIATORS
Plasma derived mediators of inflammation are kinins, clotting,
fibrinolytic and complement systems; each of them has initiators
and accelerators in plasma depending upon their need through
feed back mechanism. During inflammation Hagman factor
(Factor XII) is activated through leakage in endothelial gaps in
increased permeability of blood vessels. The activated factor
XII acts on kinin, clotting and fibrinolytic systems and end
product of these systems activate complement to generate C3a
and C5a, which are potent mediators of inflammation.

Kinin system: Through activation of factor XII, kinin system

generate the bradykinin which causes contraction of smooth
muscles. The activated factor XII (XIIa) acts on prekallikrein
activator which in turn converts the plasma prekallikrein into
kallikrein.
Factor XII

Contact

XII a

Kinin
System

Clotting
System

~Bradykinin

Fibrin

Fibrinolytic
System

Plasmin

Finn Split
Products

c3
104

Complement system
Csa

Inflammation and Healing

The bradykinin is formed from kininogen through the action

of kallikrein. The bradykinin acts on smooth muscles leading
to their contraction. Bradykinin is also found to be responsible
for vasodilation, increased vascular permeability and pain.

Clotting mechanism: The activated Hagman factor (XIla) initiates

the cascade of clotting system and activates factor XI into XIa
which is along with factor VIla changes factor X into Xa. Factor
Xa along with factor Va converts prothrombin into thrombin
which acts on fibrinogen to form fibrin responsible for clotting
of blood.
Clotting system
(a) Extrinsic mechanism

xu

.J, Surface phenomenon

Adctivated factor XUa

Factor XI

.J,<E--------'-

Activated XIa

'1=J

Ca+ c

Activated factor IX a

Factor~

.J,

C.a+ +. phospholipId
Activated factor VIIIa
Factor X

.J;E Ca+ +
Activated ~:tor Xa
Factor V

-P

PhospholipId

Fact~~rit

Fac~

Activated factor Ua
Fibnnogen

Fibrin (soluble)

Factor XII,
Ca++

Fibrin polymer (Insoluble)

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

(b) Intrisic mechanism

Factor
Tissue thromboplastin
Ca++. Factor VII

Activated factor Xa

Fact~rrit

F~~

Factor IIa

Fibrinolytic system
Plasminogen activator released from endothelial cells and
leucocytes and acts on plasminogen present as a component of
plasma proteins to form plasmin. The plasmin is responsible
for breakdown of fibrin into fibrinopeptides or fibrin split
products, conversion of C3 to C3a and stimulates the kinin system
to generate bradykinin.
Complement system
Complement is activated through classical and alternate
pathways; the classical pathway include activation of complement
through antigen-antibody complexes while the alternate
pathway gets activated via non immunologic agents such as
bacterial toxins. Complement system on activation generates 3
anaphylotoxin-through either of pathway including C3a, C5a
and C4a which are responsible for release of histamine from
the mast cells, increased vascular permeability and chemotaxis
for leucocytes. The complement components are activated by
antigen antibody complex and forms AAC1423 which causes
opsonization and enhances phagocyosis. C567 acts as
chemotactic factor for phagocytic cells. AAC 1.7 renders the cell
susceptible for lymphocytotoxicity by T-cell. The complement
AAC 1-9 causes lysis of erythrocytes and Gram negative bacteria.
However, Gram positive bacteria are resistant to complement
lysis.
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Inflammation and Healing

Antigen- antibody complex (AA)
On cell surface

C2x
Kinin like product

AAC I42

~C3a

C3
Anaphylotoxin

AAr14~s ~ Csa
C6

Anaphylotoxin

AACI423S6

I C ~C567
Chemotactic factor
7

AAC

I_9

Cell lysis

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

PHAGOCYTOSIS
Phagocytosis is the process of engulfment and digestion of
particulate matter by certain cells of body (Phagocytes;
Phagocytic cells). Mainly there are two types of the cells which
perform the phagocytosis including polymorphonuclear
neutrophils (PMN) or microphages and monocytes or tissue
mononuclear cells also known as macrophages. The process of
phagocytosis is almost similar by these micro and macrophages
and involves 4 stages.
I. Chemotaxis
The phagocytic cells, neutrophils and monocytes, are present
in circulating blood while there are several tissue macrophages
found in inflammation. Vasodilation and decreased blood flow
leads to disturbances in blood stream resulting in margination
of leucocytes. At that time endothelial cells of blood vessels
express certain proteins known as selectins and integrins that
bind with neutrophils. Since they are attracted by certain
chemical mediators, these cells are directed to migrate towards
the chemical mediators, this directed migration of phagocytic
cells is known as chemotaxis. Various chemotactic agents for
different phgocytic cells are as under:
Chemotactic agents
C3a, C Sa, C567, Leucotriene B4, Bacterial
proteins, LPS.
C3a, C Sa, C567, Bacterial products
Neutrophilic cationic protein Cytokines,
Kinins
ECF-A, Parasitic proteins, Complement
C3a, C Sa.

Phagocytic cells
Neutrophils
Macrophagesj
monocytes
Eosinophils

The chemotactic agents diffuse at the site of tissue damage to

attract the phagocytic cells. However, large dose of chemotactic
molecules may make the phagocytic cells insensitive to
chemoattraction and such non-responsive cells may migrate
from the damaged area after completion of phagocytosis.

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Inflammation and Healing

II. Adherence and opsonization

The phagocytic cells and foreign particle like bacteria both are
suspended in body fluid with negative charge that repel each
other. The negative charge on foreign particle is neutralized by
coating of positively charged protein and such proteins are
immunoglobulins (IgG) and C 3b, the complement component.
Thus, the particle coated with (IgG or C3b) reduced its surface
charge and it is attracted towards phagocytic cells. The
molecules (IgG or C3b) coating on particulate matter to facilitate
phagocytosis are known as opsonins and this process is termed
as opsonization. This opsonin word is derived from Greek
language means sauce, implying that it makes the particles more
tastier to phagocytic cells. The phagocytic cells are also having
receptors for Fc portion of IgG and C3b protein that facilitates
the adherence of the particles on the surface of the cells. Another
mechanism is trapping of particulate material through
pseudopodia movement of the phagocytic cells.
III. Ingestion
The phagocytic cell forms pseudopodia around the particles to
cover it from outside. The particle is bound to the surface of
cells through opsonization and is drawn inside the cytoplasm
through engulfment. The phagocytic cell forms vacuole through
enveloping the particle which is known as phagocytic vacuole.
The plasma membrane covering phagocytic vacuole breaks and
the ingested particle lies free in cytoplasm of phagocytic cell.
The lysosome present in cell cytoplasm binds with phagocytic
vacuoles to form phagolysosome or phagosome.
There is degranulation on the particle and liberation of
hydrolytic enzymes and antibacterial substances to kill the
ingested particle.
IV. Digestion
The ingested particles are destroyed by the phagocytic cells
through two separate mechanisms, the respiratory burst and
by action of lysosomal enzymes

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Respiratory Burst
Soon after the ingestion of particulate material phagocytic cell
increases its oxygen consumption nearly 100 fold and also
activates the cell surface enzyme NADPH-oxidase. This activated
enzyme converts NADPH to NADP+ with release of electrons.
NADPH - Oxidase
NADPH +0 2
NADP++ 20+H+
One molecule of oxygen accepts a single donated electron,
leading to the generation of one molecule of superoxide anion.
NADP+ increases the hexose monophosphate shunt and converts
sucrose to a pentose, carbon dioxide and energy for utilization
of the cellular functions. Two molecules of superoxide anions
interact to generate one molecule of hydrogen peroxide under
the influence of enzyme superoxide dismutase.
Superoxide dismutase
2(20-) + 2 H+

H 20 + O
2

Superoxide anions do not accumulate in the cell because under

..the influence of dismutase enzyme they rapidly convert into
hydrogen peroxide. However, there is accumulation of
hydrogen peroxide in the cells which is also converted into
ba,ctericidal compounds the hypohalids through the action of
myeloperoxidase.
Myeloperoxidase

Hypochloride kills bacteria by oxidizing their proteins and

enhancing the bactericidal activities of the lysosomal enzymes.
Lysosomal enzymes
Once the phagolysosomes are formed, the lysosomal enzymes
are released in the particulate matter, that can kill the bacteria.
Many Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria are destroyed
by the lysosomal enzymes. However, there are certain bacteria
like Brucella, Listeria which are so resistant that they even grow
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Inflammation and Healing

inside the cell and may become fatal to the cell. Dying neutrophils
release elastases and collagenase which act as chemotactic factors
for macrophages. The macrophages destroy the particulate
material/ bacteria by both oxidative and non oxidative
mechanisms. In cattle, macrophages after activation synthesize
the nitric oxide synthatase. This enzyme acts on L-arginine by
using oxygen and NADPH to produce nitric oxide and citrulline.
Nitric oxide is not highly toxic but it reacts with superoxide
anions released during respiratory burst to produce very toxic
derivatives such as N02, N 20 3 ONOO and N03 which can kill
the ingested bacteria and cause severe tissue damage.
Macrophages are also used by the body as scavenger cells to
remove the dead or dying cells.
When the foreign particulate material persists for longer period,
macrophages accumulate in large number around it to kill and
remove from the system. The phagocytosed particles are so
potent that they kill the macrophages also. Then after destruction
of macrophages it is rephagocytosed. This continuing
destruction of macrophages leads to excessive release of
lysosomal enzymes and reactive oxygen and nitric oxide
metabolites resulting in chronic tissue damage and chronic
inflammation. In such situation, macrophages become elongated
looking like epithelial cells and such cells are termed as
epithelioid cells. If these cells are also unable to destroy the
ingested material then they combine/ fuse together to form
multinucleated giant cells.
TYPES OF INFLAMMATION
Inflammation is classified according to the duration in acute,
subacute and chronic form. The acute inflammation is
characterized by the presence of more vascular alterations while
chronic inflammation is identified on the basis of presence of
more proliferative changes, fibrosis and less vascular alterations.
SI. No. Changes
Acute
+++
Vascular changes
1.
+
2.
Proliferative changes

111

Subacute

Chronic

++
++

+
+++

Text Book a/Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Sel/ Assessment

On the basis of the presence of exudate, the inflammation is

divided into catarrhal, serus, fibrinous, suppurative,
eosinophilic, lymphocytic, haemorrhagic, granulomatous etc.,
described as under:

CATARRHAL INFLAMMATION
Catarrhal inflammation occurs on mucus surfaces al1d is
characterized by the presence of increased amount of mucIn as
principal constituent of exudates e.g. Catarrhal enteritis, catarrhal
rhinitis.
Etiology

Mild irritant on mucous membrane e.g. Rotavirus infection in calves.

Cold exposure causes excessive mucous discharges from

nasal mucosa.
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Congestion

Presence of increased amount of slimy, stringy mucin along

with stool.

Mucus nasal discharge, if respiratory mucosa is involved

Mucous vaginal discharges, in uterine disorders or as

physiological phenomenon.

Increased number of goblet cells on mucous surface.

Increased amount of mucin, which takes basic stain.

Hyperplasia of epithelial cells on mucous surface.

Infiltration of neutrophils, lymphocytes and macrophages.

SEROUS INFLAMMATION
Serous inflammation occurs due to any mild irritant and is
characterized by the presence of serum/ plasma as main
constituent of the exudates.
Etiology

Mild irritants e.g. Chemicals

Physical trauma

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Inflammation and Healing

Infection
Virus e.g. Pox, FMD
Bacteria e.g. Pasteurlla multocida

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Congestion

Watery exudate in cavity / vesicle/ iri intercellular spaces

On rupture of vesicle clear fluid comes out

Congestion
Presence of serus exudate-acidophilic in tissue.
Infiltration of neutrophils/ lymphocytes/ mononuclear
cells.

FIBRINOUS INFLAMMATION
Fibrinous inflammation is characterized by the presence of fibrin
as main constituent of the exudates.
Etiology

Chemicals

Thermal injury

Bacteria e.g. Corynebacterium diphtheriae

Viruses e.g. Herpes virus, influenza virus

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Organ becomes firm and tense.

Surface of organ lost its shine.

Produces adhesions in between two layers or two organs.

Congestion

Presence of fibrin network (thread like) on the surface or

in the organ.

Infiltration of inflammatory cells like neutrophils,

lymphocytes and macrophages.
False membrane/ crupous membrane present, which can be
removed easily e.g. fibrinous membrane over heart and liver
due to colisepticemia in birds.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

SUPPURATIVE INFLAMMATION
Suppurative inflammation is characterized by the presence of
neutrophils (polymorphonuclear cells) as principal constituent
of the exudates.

Etiology

Bacterial infection e.g. Staphylococci.

Chemicals e.g. Turpentine.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Presence of pus in lesion

Pus is white yellow/greenish, thin, watery or viscid/

material.

When pus present in a cavity it is known as abscess. While

the presence of pus diffusely scattered throughout the su~
cutaneous tissue is known as Phlegmon or cellulitis.

Congestion
Presence of neutrophils as main constituent of the exudate.
Liquifactive necrosis of the cells/tissue.

HEMORRHAGIC INFLAMMATION
Hemorrhagic inflammation is characterized by the presence of
erythrocyte as principal constituent of the exudate.

Etiology

Extremely injurious chemicals e.g. phenol.

Bacterial infection e.g. Anthrax, H.S.
Viral infection e.g. R.P., Blue tongue

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Colour of organ/ tissue becomes red/ cyanotic.

Exudate contains clot of blood.

Petechial, echymotic haemorrhages on the surfaces of organs.

Mucous membranes become pale/ anemic.

Presence of erythrocytes out side the blood vessels in extracellular spaces along with neutrophils/ lymphocytes/
macrophage.
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Injlammatian and Healing

Serous/ serofibrinous exudates.

LYMPHOCYflC INFLAMMATION
Lymphocytic inflammation is characterized by the presence of
lymphocytes as principal constituent of the exudate.
Etiology

Viralf Bacterial infections

Toxic conditions

Macroscopic and microscopic features

No characteristic gross lesion; sometimes there is formation of small modules on serosa of the affected organ.

Enlargement of lymphnodes

Congestion

Presence of white/ gray lymphoid nodules in organ.

Presence of lymphocytes in abundant number as principal

constituent of the exudate.

Congestion.

Accumulation of lymphocytes around the blood 'Vessels,

"Perivascular cuffing"

Aggregation of lymphocytes leading to lymphofollicular

reaction ..
GRANULOMATOUS INFLAMMATION
Granulomatous inflammation is a chronic condition,
characterized by the presence of granuloma in the organs. The
granuloma consists of central caseative necrosis surrounded by
lymphocytes, macrophages, epithelioid cells, giant cells and
fibrous connective tissue.
Etiology

Chronic bacterial infection e.g. Tuberculosis.

Fungal infections e.g. Blastomycosis.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Presenc~ of hard, tiny, nodules in the organ.

Lungs become hard, patchy.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Lymphnodes become hard and fibrus.

Later the affected organ calcified and gives cracking sound
on cut.
Presence of granuloma in the tissue/ organ.
Central caseative necrosis, surrounded by epithelioid cells,
macrophages, lymphocytes, giant cells and covered by fibrous connective tissue capsule.
Caseative area contains causative organisms also, which
can be demonstrated by special staining e.g. Tuberculous
organisms by Acid-fast staining.
Calcification of necrosed area at later stage looking black/
violet colour on H & E stain.

EOSINOPHILIC INFLAMMATION

It is characterized by the presence of eosinophils as the main

constituents of the exudates.
Etiology

Allergy/Hypersensitivity

Parasitic diseases
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Congestion

No characteristic gross lesion

Presence of eosinophils in abundant numbers

Congestion
Accumulation of eosinophils around the parasites and/ or
blood vessels.

HEALING

Healing is characterized by the body response to injury in order

to restore normal structure and function of the damaged organ/
tissue. It is of two types.
Regeneration
Healing is by proliferation of parenchymatous cells leading to
complete restoration of the original tissue

116

Differential features of various types of inflammation

Granulomato
us
Macroscopi 1. Congestion 1. Congestion 1. Organ
1. Presence of 1. Colour of
1. No
1. Presence of
becomes firm pus in lesion organ/ tissue characteristic hard, tiny,
c features 2. Presence of 2. Watery
2. Pus is white becomes red/ gross lesion; nodules in the
increased
exudate in
and tense.
amowltof
2. Surface of yellow/
cyanotic.
sometimes
organ.
cavity/
there is
2. Lungs
slimy, stringy vesicle/ in
organ lost its greenish, thin, 2. Exudate
mucin along intercellular shine.
watery or
contains clot formation of become hard,
3. Produces
of blood.
small modules patchy.
with stool.
spaces
viscid/
3. Mucus
3. On rupture adhesions in material.
3. Petechial,
on serosa of 3.
nasal
of vesicle clear between two 3. When pus echymotic
the affected
Lymphnodes
layers or two present ina
become hard
discharge, if fluid comes
haemorrhages organ.
and fibrous.
respiratory
out
organs.
cavity it is
on the
2.
4. False
known as
surfaces of
Enlargement 4. Later the
mucosa is
affected organ
involved
abscess. While organs.
of
membrane/
4. Mucous
the presence 4. Mucous
lymphnodes calcified and
crupous
vaginal
membrane
of pus
memb.anes
3. Presence of gives cracking
present, which diffusely
discharges, in
become pale/ white/ gray sound on cut.
lymphoid
uterine
can be
scattered
anemic.
nodules in
disorders or
removed
throughout
as
easily e.g.
the
organ.
fibrinous
subcutaneous
physiological
phenomenon.
membrane
tissue is
over heart and known as
liver due to
Phlegmon or
colisepticemia cellulitis.
in birds.
Catarrhal

Serous

Fibrinous

Suppurative Hemorrhagic Lymphocytic

Eosinophilic
1. Congestion
2. No
characteristic
gross lesion

Catarrhal
Microscopi 1. Increased
c features number of
goblet cells on
mucous
surface.
2. Increased
amount of
mucin, which
takes basic
stain.
3. Hyperplasia
of epithelial
cells on
mucous
surface.
4. Infiltration
of neutrophils,
lymphocytes
and
macrophages.

Serous

Fibrinous

1. Congestion
2. Presence of
serus exudateacidophilic in
tissue.
3. Infiltration
of
neutrophils/
lymphocytes/
mononuclear
cells

1. Congestion
2. Presence of
fibrin network
(thread like)
on the surface
orin the
organ.
3. Infiltration
of
inflammatory
cells like
neutrophils,
lymphocytes
and
macrophages.

Suppurativ
e
1.
Congestion
2. Presence
of
neutrophils
as main
constituent
of the
exudate.
3.
Liquifactive
necrosis of
the cells/
tissue.

Hemorrhagic Lymphocytic

Granulomatous

1. Presence of 1. Presence of
lymphocytes granuloma in the
in abundant tissue/ organ.
2. Central caseative
number as
necrosis,
principal
constituent of surrounded by
the exudate. epithelioid cells,
DUlcrophages,
2.
Accumulatio lymphocytes, giant
cells and covered
nof
lymphocytes by fibrous
/
macrophage. around the connective tissue
capsule.
2. Serus/
blood
serofibrinous vessels, "Peri 3. Caseative area
exudates.
vascular
contains causative
cuffing"
organisms also,
which can be
3.
Aggregation demonstrated by
special staining e.g.
of
lymphocytes Tuberculous
organisms by Acidleading to
lymphofollic fast staining.
ular reaction. 4. Calcification of
necrosed area at
later stage looking
black/ violet
colour on H&E
stain.

1. Presence of
erythrocytes
out side the
blood vessels
in
extracellular
spaces along
with
neutrophils/
lymphocytes

Eosinophilic
1. Presence
of
eosinophils
in abundant
numbers
2.
Congestion
3. Accumulation of
eosinophils
around the
parasites
and/or
blood
vessels.

Inflammation and Healing

Macroscopic and microscopic features

No significant gross lesion

Proliferation of parenchymal cells

Hyperplasia of the cells

Repair

Repair is the replacement of injured tissue by proliferation of

fibrous tissue.
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Pink/ red granules (granulation tissue) appear on healing

part. These are the indication of formation of new blood
vessels.

It can be seen just beneath the scab.

Formation of granulation tissue i.e. fibroblasts, angioblasts,
histiocytes, macrophages and parenchymal cellS of organ.

Fibroblasts are elongated fibrillar cells with ovoid hyperchromatic nuclei.

Mitosis is frequently observed.

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Chapter

10

Concretions
CONCRETIONS
Concretions are solid, compact mass of material endogenous
or exogenous in origin found in tissues, body cavities, ducts or
in hollow organs. Concretions are stone like bodies commonly
occur in urinary system, gall bladder and gastrointestinal tract.
Concretions of endogenous origin are known as calculi while
those formed from exogenous material are known as
piliconcretion (Hair), phytoconcretion (plant fibers) and
polyconcretion (Polythenes).
Calculi
Calculi are formed due to deposition of salts around the
nucleus/ nidus consisting of either fibrin, mucus, desquamated
epithelial cells or clumps of bacteria. Due to the gradual and
repeated precipitation of salts, calculi becomes laminated. In
the formation process of calculi the inner structural arrangement
gets shrinkage producing a rough superficial surface. Calculi
formation is more common in urinary system and in gall
bladder of man and animals; however, they may also occur in
salivary gland, pancreas and intestines.
URINARY CALCULI
Urinary calculi are formed in renal tubules, pelvis or in urinaty
bladder which may carried fiway through urine and may cause
obstruction in ureter or urethra. Urinary calculi is also known
as urolith and the process of formation of calculi is termed as

urolithiasis.

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Etiology

Vit A deficiency
Bacterial infection e.g. E.coli, Micrococci, Streptococci.
Sulfonamide therapy
Hormonal therapy
Hyperparathyroidism

Macroscopic and microscopic features

May vary in size from 1 mm to several mm

Mostly rounded, pearl like, laminated.

Brown, grey and yellowish in colour.

Enlargement and fibrosis of kidneys.

In kidney sections tiny, laminated bodies of concretion.

Hydronephrosis
Chemical composition of urinary calculi may vary in various species of animals.
Horse- Calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate, magnesium
carbonate

Ruminants- Calcium phosphate, magnesium phosphate, aluminium phosphate, calcium oxalate.

Pigs- Ammonium phosphate, magnesium phosphate, calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, magnesium phosphate, magnesium oxalate.
Dogs- Calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate, sodium urate,
ammonium urate.

BILIARY CALCULI

Biliary calculi are formed in gall bladder and bile ducts and are
also known as cholelith. These are common in man; however,
in cattle and pigs gall stones are also seen. They are semisolids
but become hard and brittle on drying.

Etiology

Bacteria
Sand particles

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Concretions

Particles of ingesta/ intestinal contents

Desquamated epithelium

Macroscopic and microscopic features

In gall bladder and bile duct

1 mm to 3-4 cm in diameter.

Their number vary from 1 to many

Obstructive jaundice

Cholecystitis and cholangitis

In sections, concentric layers of cholesterin, bilirubin, calcium carbonate and coagulated material.

Cholecystitis, cholangitis.
SALIVARY CALCULI

Salivary calculi are formed in excretory ducts of the parotid,

sublingual and submaxillary salivary glands. Size of such calculi
vary upto 25-30 mm diameter. They are made up of salts like
calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate, magnesium carbonate,
sodium carbonate, calcium carbonate, around the plant fibers.
Salivary calculi also known as sialolith.
PANCREATIC CALCULI

Pancreatic calculi or pancrealolith are rare in occurrence in

animals but may be found in cattle. Pancreatic calculi is gray in
colour with size upto few centimeter. They are made up of
calcium carbonate, calcium oxalate and calcium phosphate
around a nidus of cholesterol or fatty acids.
ENTERIC CALCULI

Enteric calculi or enterolith are common in horses, which occur

mostly in large intestine 'colon'. In horse, a nidus is surrounded
by wheat and rye bran containing magnesium phoshphate. The
nidus may be a piece of metal or sand on which concentric layers
are deposited. They may be looking like a ball in round or oval
in shape. Colour of enterolith may vary from grayish to dark
brown. In dogst bone in diet may provide a nidus and such
concretions are ~own as coproliths.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

PILICONCRETIONS

Piliconcretions are hair balls occur due to excessive licking of

skin in calves or in adults. Due to licking, animals swallow large
amount of hairs taking a shape of ball due to movements of
stomach. Mostly, the hair balls are found in stomach or in colon.
PHYTOCONCRETIONS

Phytoconcretions are formed around the food materials and

may occur in stomach and intestine of animals and in crop of
poultry. They may cause obstruction of bowel. They are also
known as phytobezoars.
POLYCONCRETIONS

They are made-up of polythenes and excessive deposition of

salts around them. They may vary in size from few centimeters
to several centimeters and weighed upto kilograms. They cause
obstruction leading to death of animals.
Such concretions are observed in cattle wandering on street in
cities and in zoo animals. The polythene containing vegetable
extra or green leaves and food materials are thrown away on
roads, which is easily available to the animals. Polythene is not
degraded in stomach and remained there to form a nidus,
around which the salts are deposited and takes the shape of
calculi leading to obstruction of digestive tract passage.

124

Chapter

11

Immunity and
Immunopathology
IMMUNITY

Immunity is the resistance of body against extraneous etiological

factors of disease, which is afforded by the interaction of
chemical, humoral and cellular reactions in body. This is an
integral part of the body without, which one cannot think of
life. During the process of evolution, nature has provided this
defence mechanism in body of all living creatures particularly
of higher animals and man that protects them from physical,
chemical and biological insults. It can be classified as natural or
paraspecific and acquired or specific immunity.
Natura1f paraspecific immunity

There are some species resistant for a particular disease due to

presence of natural resistance against them e.g. Horse, pig, cat
are resistant to canine distemper virus; dogs are resistant to
feline panleucopenia virus, chickens are resistant to anthrax.
Even within species, there is natural resistance that protects
some individuals while others are susceptible e.g. Indian Deshi
cattle Zebu (Bas indicus) is quite resistant to piroplasmosis in
comparison to Bas taurus. Besides, there are the mechanisms or
barriers in body provided by nature, which are:

Skin and mucous membrane prevent organisms from gaining entrance in body

Mucous prevents from infections by trapping and keep

them away.

Saliva, gastric juice and intestinal enzymes kill bacteria

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Text Book of Veterinary PatJwlogy :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Tears, nasal and GI tract secretions are bactericidal due to

presence of lysozymes.
Phagocytic cells such as neutrophils kill bacteria through
phagocytosis.
Macrophages kill organisms through phagocytosis
Natural antibodies acts as opsonins and helps in phagocytosis.
Interferons have antimicrobial properties. They are hostf
species specific and arrest the viral replication.
Interleukins, cytotoxins and growth factors stimulate the
immune reactions and inflammation
Natural killer cells kill targets coated with IgG.

Acquired! specific Immunity

Acquired immunity develop in body as a result of prior
stimulation through antigen. It is specific to a particular antigen
against which it was developed. It can be restimulated on second
or subsequent exposure with antigen and thus, it has memory
for a particular antigen. It differs from natural immunity in
respect of prior stimulation, specificity and memory. It can be
classified as humoral and cell mediated immunity.
Hd.moral Immunity
The immunity present in fluids of body mainly in blood. There
are antibodies in serum of blood, which protect body from
diseases. It is specific to particular antigen. Antibodies are
formed in blood as a result of exposure of the foreign substances
including bacteria, virus, parasite and other substances.

Antigen is foreign substance, which is able to stimulate the

production of antibodies in body. They may be of high molecular
weight protein, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids. Simple
chemicals of low molecular weight are not able to induce
immunity. However, they may be conjugated with a large
molecular weight molecules such as protein then they become
antigenic and induce antibody production, such substances are
termed as haptens.

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Immunity And Immunopathology

Antibodies are protein in nature present in serum and produced

as a result of antigen. Antibodies are specific to antigen. Most
of the microorganisms have several antigenic determinants and
antibodies are produced against each antigenic determinant
specifically. The antibody response to antigen can be enhanced
if the antigen is released slowly in body. There are several
substances like oils, waxes, alum, aluminium hydroxide, which
may be added with antigen so that it is released slowly in body
to increase the antibody production. Such substances are known
as adjuvants. Antibodies are also known as immunoglobulins
as they are the part of globulins. They are glycoprotein in nature
and are of 5 types IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD and IgE.
Immunoglobulin G (IgG)
It is the main antibody found in high concentration (75%) in
serum with a mw 150 KD. It is produced by plasma cells in
spleen, lymphnodes and bone marrow. It has two identical light
chains and two gamma heavy chains. The light chains may be
of kappa or lamda type. IgG is the smallest immunoglobulin
which may pass through blood vessels with increased
permeability. It has the capacity to quickly bind with foreign
substances leading to opsonization. Its binding with antigen
may also activate the complement.
Immunoglobulin M (IgM)
This is about 7% of total serum immunoglobulins. It is also
produced by plasma cells in spleen, lymphnodes and bone
marrow. It is pentamer, five molecules of conventional
immunoglobulin with mw 900 KD. These five molecules are
linked through disulfide bonds in a circular form. A cysteine
rich polypetide of 15KD mw binds two of the units to complete
circle and is known as T chain. It is produced in body during
primary immune response. It is considered to be more active
than IgG for complement activation, neutralization of antigen,
opsonization'and agglutination. IgM molecules are confined to
the blood and have no or little effect in tissue fluids, body
secretions and in acute inflammation.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Immunoglobulin A (IgA)
It is secreted as dimmer (mw 300 KD) by plasma cells present
under body surfaces like intestinal, respiratory and urinary
system, mammary gland and skin. Its concentration is very little
in blood. IgA produced in body surfaces is either secreted on
surface through epithelial cells or diffuse in blood stream. IgA
is transported through intestinal epithelial cells having a
receptor of 71 KD which binds with the secretary component
covalently to form a secretary IgA. This secretary component
protects IgA in the intestinal tract from digestion. It cannot
activate the complement and cannot perform the opsonization.
IgA can neutralize the antigen and agglutinate the particulate
antigen. IgA prevents adherence of foreign particles/ antigen
on the body surfaces and it can also act inside the cells. It is
about 16% of total immunoglobulins present in serum.
Immunoglobulin E (IgE)
It is also present on body surfaces and produced by plasma
cells located beneath the body surfaces. It is in very low
concentration in serum. It can bind on receptors of mast cells
and basophils. When any antigen binds to these molecules, it
causes degranulation from mast cells leading to release of
chemical mediators to cause acute inflammation. It mediates
hypersensitivity type I reaction and is responsible to provide
resistance against invading parasitic worms. It is of shortest
half life (2-3 days) and thus is unstable and can be readily
destroyed by mild heat treatment. It is 0.01 % of total
immunoglobulin in serum with 190 KD molecular weight.

Immunoglobulin D (IgD)
IgD is absent in most domestic animals. However, it is present
in very minute amount in plasma of dog, non human primates
and rats. IgD can be detected in plasma. However, it can't be
found in serum due to lysis by proteases during clotting. It is
only 0.2 % of total immunoglobulin in serum with mw 160 KD.
On the basis of their function, antibodies are classified as:

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Immunity and Immunopathology

Antitoxins have the property to bind with toxins and neutralise them.
Agglutinins are those antibodies, which can agglutinate
the RBC's and/ or particulate material such as bacterial cells.
Precipitins can precipitate the proteins by acting with antigen and inhibit their dissemination and chemical activity.
Lysins can lyse the cells or bacteria through complement.
Opsonins have the property to bind with foreign particles, non specifically leading to opsonization, making the
foreign material palatable to phagocytic cells.
Complement fixing antibodies bind with antigen and fix
the complement for its lysis.
Neutralizing antibodies are those, which specifically neutralizes/ destroy the targetj antigen; merely binding with
antigen can't be considered as neutralizing antibodies.

Immune response
The antigen when enters in body of animal is trapped, processed
and eliminated by several cells including macrophages, dendritic
cells and B-cells. There are two types of antigen in body i.e.
exogenous and endogenous. The exogenous or extra cellular
antigens are present freely in circulation and are readily
available for antigen processing cells.
The endogenous or intracellular antigens are not free and are
always inside the cells such as viruses. But when these viruses
synthesize new viral proteins using biosynthetic process of the
host cells, these proteins also act as antigen and are termed as
endogenous or intracellular antigens.
The processing of antigen by macrophages is comparatively less
efficient as most of the antigen is destroyed by the lysosomal
proteases. An alternate pathway of antigen processing involves
antigen uptake by a specialized population of mononuclear cells
known as dendritic cells located throughout the body specially
in lymphoid organs. Such dendritic cells have many long
filamentous cytoplasmic processes called dendrits and lobulated

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nuclei with clear cytoplasm containing characteristic granules.

Antigen presenting cells process the exogenous antigen and
convert into fragments to bind with MHC class II molecules.
Such processed antigen along with MHC class II molecule and
certain cytokines such as IL-1 is presented to antigen recognizing
cells (T-helper cells). Macrophages also regulate the dose of
antigen to prevent inappropriate development of tolerance and
provide a small dose of antigen to T- helper cells. However, if
the antigen is presented to T-Cells without MHC class II
molecule, the T cells are turned off resulting into tolerance. On
an average, an antigen presenting cell possesses about 2x105
MHC class II molecules. A T-Cell require activation by 200-300
peptide- MHC class II molecules to trigger an immune response.
Thus, it is estimated that an antigen-presenting cell may present
several epitopes simultaneously to T-helper cells. A counterpart
of T- helper cells also exists and known as suppressor T-cells
(T. cell) which suppresses the immune response. The viral
encoded proteins, endogenous antigens are handled in a
different manner from exogenous antigens. Such antigens are
bound to MHC class Ia molecules and transported to the cell
surface. Such antigen and MHC class Ia molecule complex
triggers a lymphocytic response i.e. T-cytotoxic cells (Tc-cells).
These cytotoxic T-cells recognize and destroy virus infected
cells. However, there is some cross priming leading to cell
mediated immune response by exogenous antigens and humoral
immune response by endogenous antigens. Some lymphocytes
also function as memory cells to initiate secondary immune
response.
On antigen exposure, there is a latent period of about four to

siX days and only after that serum antibodies are detectable.
The peak of antibody titre is estimated around 2 weeks after
exposure to antigen and then declines after about 3 weeks.
During this primary immune response, majority antibodies are
of IgM type where as in secondary immune response, it is always
predominated by IgG.

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Immunity and Immunopathology

Antigen

!
!

Extracellular
(Exogenous)

Intracellular
(Endogenous)

APC
(Macrophages
Dendritic cells
B-cells)

APC
(Macrophages
Dendritic
cells, B-cells)

Antigen sensitive
cells (B-CeIlS)~

Antigen sensitive
cells (T-cells)

M';"-c?;I~IJ'
Memory cells
(B cells)
Effecter cells
(Tc cells)

Ab producing
(Plasma cells)

Antigen elimination

IMMUNOPATHOLOGY

Immunopathology includes the disorders of immune system

characterized by increased response or hypersensitivity,
response to self antigens (autoimmunity) and decreased
responses (Immunodeficiencies).

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HYPERSENSITIVITY
It represents an accelerated immune response to an antigen
(allergen), which is harmful to body rather than to provide
protection or benefit to the body. Such violent reactions may
lead to death. This condition is also known as allergy or atopy.
The hypersensitive reactions can be classified into four classical
form including anaphylaxis (Type I), cytotoxic hypersensitivity
(Type-II), Immune complex mediated hypersensitivity (Type
III) and delayed type hypersensitivity (Type-IV) reaction.

ANAPHYLAXIS OR TYPE-I HYPERSENSITIVITY

Anaphylaxis or type I hypersensitivity reaction is rapidly
developing immune response to an antigen characterized by
humoral antibodies of IgE type (reagin). These reagins sensitize
b~ophils/ mast cells to release chemical mediators (Histamine,
Serotonin, Prostaglandins, CFA for neutrophils and eosinophils)
of inflammation leading to acute inflammatory reaction.

Etiology

Administration of drugs

Administration of serum

Bite of insects, bee etc.

Dust, pollens etc.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Bronchial asthma.

Wheel and flare reaction on skin.

Oedema, congestion, erythema, itching on skin.

Rhinitis
Congestion, pulmonary oedema, emphysema, constriction
of bronchioles.

Edema, congestion, haemorrhage on skin

CYTOTOXIC OR TYPE II HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTION

Cytotoxic reactions are characterized by lysis of cells due to
antigen- antibody reaction on the surface of cells in the presence
of complement.

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Immunity and Immunopathology

Etiology/ Occurrence

Blood transfusion

Hemolytic anemia

Infections such as Equine infectious anemia, rickettsia, parasites (trypanosomiosis, babesiosis)

Thrombocytopenia
Drugs such as penicillin,
cephalosporins.

phenacetin,

quinine

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Anemia
Jaundice
Haemoglobinuria
Erythrophagocytosis
Lysis of erythrocytes/ agglutination of erythrocytes.
Increased number of hemosiderin laden cells in spleen.

IMMUNE COMPLEX MEDIATED

HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTION

OR

TYPE-III

Type-III hypersensitivity reaction is characterized by the

formation of immune complexes as a result of antigen - antibody
reaction and their deposition in body tissues leading to
inflammatory reaction.
Etiology

Immunoglobulins

Tumor antigens, nuclear antigens

Environmental pollutants e.g. pesticides

Infections such as Leishmaniasis

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Arthus reaction is focal area of inflammation, necrosis at

the site of infection.

Serum sickness is necrotizing vasculitis, endocarditis and

glomerulonephritis.

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Chronic Immune complex disease is renal failure due to

glomerulonephritis, vasculitis, chroiomeningitis and arthritis.

Deposition of immune complexes in wall of blood vessels.

Deposition of immune complexes in glomeruli.
Infiltration of inflammatory cells such as neutrophils,
macrophages and lymphocytes.
Lesions of glomerulonephritis, polyarthritis.

DELAYED TYPE HYPERSENSITIVITY (DTH) OR TYPE IV

HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTION
DTH reaction is mediated by sensitized T-Iymphocytes and is
the manifestation of cell- mediated immune response.
Etiology

Tuberculin reaction

Graft versus host reactions

Granulomatous reaction
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Formation of nodules, which are hard, painful to touch.

Rejection of transplants/ grafts.

Heavy infiltrations of mononuclear cells particularly of Tlymphocytes and macrophages.
Congestion and oedema
Lymphocytic infiltration is more common around the blood
vessels
Lymphofollicular reaction.

AUTOIMMUNITY
In autoimmunity (auto=self) the immune response is generated
against self antigens. It is an aberrant reaction that serves no
useful purpose in body. Rather, the immunity developed against
self antigens destroys the tissues of body causes inflammation
leading to death.

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Differential features of various types of Hypersensitivity

Reaction
Immune
Delayed Type
Cytotoxic or
Complex
Hypersensitivity
Type II
orT~I
Mediated or
(DTH) or Type
Hypersensitiv Hypersensitiv
IV
T~III
ity Reaction ity Reaction Hypersensitivity Hypersensitivity
Reaction
Reaction
Macrosc 1. Bronchial
1. Anemia
1. Arthus reaction 1. Formation of
is focal area of
nodules, which
asthma.
2. Jaundice
opic
inflammation,
are hard, painful
features 2. Wheeland 3.
flare reaction Hemoglobinur necrosis at the
to touch.
on skin.
ia
site of infection. 2. Rejection of
3. Edema,
2. Serum sickness transplants/
congestion,
is necrotizing
grafts.
vasculitis,
erythema,
itching on
endocarditis and
skin.
glomerulonephrit
4. Rhinitis
is.
3. Chronic
Immune complex
disease is renal
failure due to
glomerulonephrit
is, vasculitis,
chroiomeningitis
and arthritis.
1. Deposition of 1. Heavy
Microsc 1. Congestion, 1.
infiltrations of
pulmonary
Erythrophago immune
opic
complexes in wall mononuclear
features edema,
cytosis
of blood vessels. cells particularly
emphysema, 2. Lysis of
constriction of erythrocytes/ 2. Deposition of of T-lymphocytes
and
bronchioles.
agglutination immune
2. Edema,
complexes in
macrophages.
of
2. Congestion and
congestion,
erythrocytes. glomeruli
3. Inffitration of oedema
haemorrhage 3. Increased
3. Lymphocytic
number of
inflammatory
on skin
infiltration is
hemosiderin cells such as
more common
laden cells in neutrophils,
macrophages and around the blood
spleen.
lymphocytes.
vessels
4.
4. Lesions of
glomerulonephrit Lymphofollicular
is, polyarthritis. reaction.
Anaphylaxis

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Etiology! Occurrence

Hidden antigens e.g. spermatozoa

Alteration of antigens e.g. Infections, mutations, chemicals

bind with normal body proteins recognized as foreign.

Cross reaction between antigens of self and foreign

Forbidden clones of immunocytes

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia.

Anti-glomerular basement membrane (GBM) nephritis

Lymphocytic thyroditis

Lupus erythematosus- antinuclear antibodies.

Hemolytic anemia

Leukopenia
Presence of antinuclear antibodies
Infiltration of lymphocytes! macrophages (Lymphocytic
thryroditis).
In anti-GBM nephritis, there is immune complex mediated
glomerulonephritis.

IMMUNODEFICIENCY
The alterations in immune system, which decrease the
effectiveness or destroy the capabilities of the system to respond
to various antigens are designated as immunodeficiency. This
precarious situation may be attributed to poorly developed
immunocompetence or depressed immunity as a result of genetic
and environmental factors. Immunodeficiences are thus
classified as congenital or primary and acquired or secondary.

Congenital immunodeficiency
In this type of immunodeficiency, the defect in immunity is
genetically determined and is present in animals since their
birth.

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Immunity arzd Immunopathology

Etiology/ Occurrence

Defect in basic cellular components e.g. stem cells

Defective genes

Defect in enzymes

Defective expression of cell components.

Types
Combined immunodeficiency syndrome (CIS)

Absence of stem cells of immunocytes

Agammaglobulinemia

Absence of T and B cells in blood, leucopenia

Defects in T -lymphocytes

Thymic hypoplasia

B-cells are normal and adequate amount of

immunoglobulins present in blood

Absence of T-dependent regions in lymphnodes

In Danish cattle, exanthema, alopecia, parakeratosis occurs

due to T-cell defect with A- 46 lethal trait gene.
Defects in B- lymphocytes

In equines - equine agammaglobulinemia

Normal T-cell count, absence of B-cells, absence of all classes

of immunoglobulins

'X' linked defects in gene occurs in males

Absence of primary lymphoid follicles in germinal centres

in spleen and lymphnodes.

Selective IgA, IgM and IgG deficiency may also occur.

Transient hypogammaglobulinemia in new born calves.

Partial T and B cell defects

Partial presence of T and B-Iymphocytes.

Recurrent infections, eczema, purpura.

Due to 'X' chromosome linked genetic defect.

Poor platelet aggregation

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Deficiency of complement

Rare, associated with abnormal regulation of immune responses leading to autoimmunity

Complement component C 1 C2 and C3 are deficient and

deficiency is associated with systemic lupus erythematosus, polyarteritis nodosa, glomerulonephritis, rheumatoid
arthritis.

Cs, C6, C7 and Cs deficiency leads to recurrent infections

Absence or deficiency of C3 makes animal susceptible to
bacterial infections due to lack of opsonization, chemotaxis and phagocytosis

Defects in phagocytosis

Neutropenia, leucopenia

Defects in neutrophils, macrophages, platelets, melanocytes

and eosinophils

Defective chemotaxis, phagocytosis and bactericidal activity

Persistent bacterial infections, pyogenic infections

Associated with autosomal recessive gene defect and is

also known as "Chediak Higashi syndrome"
ACQUIRED OR SECONDARY IMMUNODEFICIENCY
An animal can acquire the suppression of immune system due
to drugs, diseases, deficiency of nutrition, neoplasm or
environmental pollution which is clinically manifested by
increased susceptibility to infections, vaccination failures,
recurrent infections and occurrence of new diseases and
neoplasms.
Etiologyj Occurrence
Drugs

Corticosteroids, azathioprines, alkalating agents, cyclophosphamide, cyclosporin A, antibiotics

Azathioprines used to suppress graft rejection

Cyclophosphamides and chlorambucil affect the DNA reduplication of T- and B- lymphocytes leading to immuno-

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Immunity and Immunopathology

suppression with no affect on macrophages

Cyclosporin A depresses CMI responses
Aspirin decreases phagocytosis and lymphocyte functions
Antibiotics like gentamicin, chloramphenicol, cephalosporin
etc. causes decrease in immunity.

Infections

Bovine herpes virus-1 (BHV-1) decreases CD4+ and CDg+

cells in blood.

Equine herpes virus (EHV- 1) causes reduction in T-cell

functions

Marek's disease virus acts as lymphocytolytic agent in lymphoid follicles of spleen, bursa and thymus.

Bovine viral diarrhoea virus reduces CD4 + and CDg+ Tlymphocytes, B-Iymphocytes, neutrophils and IL- 2 in cattle.

Respiratory syncytial virus inhibits lymphoproliferative

responses in sheep and cattle leading to increased susceptibility to Pasteurella multocida infection.

Blue tongue virus infects CD/ and CDg+ lymphocytes and

causes their destruction.

Canine parvovirus causes depletion of lymphoid cells.

Canine distemper virus activates the T-suppresser cells (T.
cells) leading to suppression of immunity.

Infectious bursal disease virus selectively affects Blymphocytes leading to increased susceptibility of birds

Infectious laryngotracheitis virus infects macrophages and

causes their destruction.

Feline leukemia virus causes lymphoid depletion, glomerulonephritis, defects in macrophages and complement.

Feline immunodeficiency virus causes neutropenia, lymphopenia and inhibits the T- and B- cells co-operation.

Bovine immunodeficiency virus replicates in macrophages

and CD/ lymphocytes leading to their destruction and
immunosuppression. It also causes lymphadenopathy,
lymphocytolysis, reduction in lymphokine production.
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Text Book o/Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Sel/ Assessment

Trauma! surgery

Trauma or surgical interventions reduces specific immune

responses and functional capacity of phagocytic cells.

Such defects are transient and may reverse after healing

of trauma/ surgery.

Surgical operation/ trauma increases the number of Tsuppressor cells (T. cells), which in tum depresses the immunity.
Environmental pollution

Pesticides used in agriculture, animal husbandry and public health operations remains in ecosystem and food items
for longer period and enters in body of animals and man
through food, air, water and affects the immune system
leading to its depression and increased susceptibility to
infections.

Heavy metals are common contaminants of pesticides, fertilizers and are inadvertently accumulated in soil, plant,
water, which enters directly or indirectly in the animal's
body. These heavy metals (lead, mercury, cadmium) may
exert their immunotoxic effects leading to immunosuppression.

Mycotoxins such as aflatoxin, ochratoxin, zearalenone etc

also affect the immune system of animals leading to its
suppression resulting increased susceptibility to infectious
diseases.

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Chapter

12

Pathology of Cutaneous
System
DEVELOPMENT AL ANOMALIES
Congenital icthyosis
Congenital icthyosis is scaly epidermis which resembles with
skin of fish and occurs due to a simple autosomal recessive
homozygous gene in calves. This condition is characterized by
scaly, horny, thick epidermis divided into plates by deep
fissures. Microscopically, there is thick keratin layer over the
epidermis.
Epitheliogenesis imperfecta
Epitheliogenesis imperfecta is a congenital defect characterized
by discontinuity of epithelium on skin leaving patches without
squamous epithelium mostly at feet, claws and oral mucosa.
Such defect may occur in calves which succumb to infection after
birth or such foetus may abort. This disease condition is
inherited as an autosomal recessive trait.
Congenital alopecia
Alopecia or hairlessness on the skin with complete lack of hair
follicles has been observed in dog and other animals. Such hair
less sites may follow a regular pattern or occurs in patches.
This is a hereditary defect recognized in certain breeds.
Congenital albinism
Albinism is absence of melanin pigmentation due to deficiency
of tyrosinase. This congenital abnormality is encountered

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sporadically due to a recessive trait in most species. The

melanocytes are present but there is lack of melanin synthesis
due to tyrosinase deficiency.
Congenital cutaneous asthenia
The collagen fibers are irregular in size and orientation and
beco~e fragmented due to disorganization of fibrils within the
fibers. This condition occurs due to a deficiency in procollagen
peptidase responsible for formation of collagen. This condition
leads to hyperelasticity and fragility of skin and hypermotility
of joints in cattle, sheep and dogs.
ACANTHOSIS NIGRICANS
This is increased amount of melanin in skin along with
hyperkeratosis. This condition commonly occurs in dogs, at
ventral abdomen and medial surface of legs.
Etiology

Hormonal imbalance

Tumors of testicles and pituitary gland

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Colour of skin becomes black

Dry and scaly skin due to hyperkeratosis

Proliferation of melanocytes and melanoblasts.

Black/ brown colour pigment intracellular/ extracellular.

Cells appear as black or brown globular mass.

Melanin granules are minute, dirty brown in colour and

spherical in shape.

Hyperkeratinization.
DERMATITIS
Dermatitis is the inflammation of skin characterized by
hyperemia, erythema, serus exudation and infiltration of
neutrophils and mononuclear cells.

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Pathology of Cutaneous System

Etiology

Bacteria, Viruses, Chemicals, Allergy, Trauma, Fungi and

their toxins.
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Erythematous patches on skin

Swelling of skin, itching sensation leads to damage/ scratch

due to rubbing.

Loss of hairs, patches on skin, alopecia.

Hyperemia
Serous exudate
Infiltration of neutrophils and mononuclear cells.
Presence of fungus in skin scrapings.

VESICULAR DERMATITIS
Vesicular dermatitis is excessive accumulation of clear fluid in
dermis and epidermis leading to vesicle/ blisters formation. It
is also known as hydropic dermatitis.
Etiology

Sunburn

Heat
Foot and Mouth Disease virus

Pox virus

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Oedematous fluid in dermis and epidermis resulting in

thickening of skin

Hyperemia, vesicles.
Break of vesicles leads to clear fluid discharge.

Hyperemia
Accumulation of clear fluid in epidermis and dermis, which
is characterized by clear spaces or takes light pink stain of
eosin.
Some cells show hydropic degeneration.

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Infiltration of leucocytes.

PARASITIC DERMATITIS (ACARIASIS)

Acariasis or mange is caused by mites and characterized by

hyperkeratosis and inflammation of skin leading to itching,
rubbing and scratching.
Etiology

Mites
Sarcoptes scabei
Psoroptic sp.
Demodectic sp.
Chorioptic sp.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Hyperkeratosis of skin, dry and scaly appearance of skin.

Hemorrhage/ trauma due to rubbing/ scratching as a result of intense itching.

Absence of hairs on lesions.

Hyperkeratinization of skin.

Hyperemia
Infiltration of neutrophils, lymphocytes, macrophages,
eosionophils
Presence of mites at the site of lesions

ALLERGIC DERMATITIS

This is the inflammation of skin sensitized to certain substances,

known as allergens. Such inflammation can be seen as a result
of delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH) reaction.

Etiology

Chemicals (DNCB/ DNFB).

Tuberculin reaction.

Allergic reaction

Soaps, detergents, organic chemicals

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Pathology of Cutaneous System

Parasites- fleas

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Hyperemia, Erythema

Edematous/ nodular swelling, hard to touch.

Hot, painful
Atopy with vesicular rash, pruritus, serus exudate.
Infiltration of eosinophils and mononuclear cells,
macrophages, lymphocytes.
Hyperemia, Edema, necrosis

GANGRENOUS DERMATITIS
Gangrenous dermatitis is the inflammation of skin alongwith
formation of gangrene caused by fungal toxins and characterized
by sloughing of skin, dry gangrene with break in epidermis.
Etiology

Fusarium sp. toxins

Rice straw feeding- Degnala disease

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Presence of gangrenous inflammation on extremities such

as legs, udder, ears, tail, scrotum.

Sloughing of skin leaving raw surface.

Sloughing of hoofs with haemorrhage

Inflammation of skin and invasion by saprophytes causing

dissolution of cells/ tissue

Infiltration of mononuclear cells at the periphery of the

lesion.
EQUINE CUTANEOUS GRANULOMA
There is development of chronic, ulcerated and bloody
granuloma on limb of horses due to wire cuts or other cutaneous
injury.

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Etiology

Skin cuts/ injury

Habronemiasis
Phycomycosis

Hyphomyces destruens
Entomorphthora coronata

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Granulation tissue in wound.

Presence of yellowish/ white specks.

Summer sores/ Bursatti.

Tissue composed of newly formed fibrous tissue, with large
number of capillaries, infiltration of eosinophils
Presence of necrotic masses stains deep red with H&E
Presence of helminths in section- cutaneous habronemiasis
Presence of septate hyphae of fungus

MISCELLANEOUS LESIONS OF SKIN

Papule: Focal Hyperplasia of stratum spinosum epithelium
leading to hard nodular eruption on skin.
Vesicle: A cavity in epidermis containing fluid and covered by
a thin layer of epidermis elevated from the surface.
Pustule: A vesicle filled with pus.
Acanthosis: Thickening of epidermis due to hyperplasia of
stratum spinosum/ prickle cell layer.
Hyperkeratosis: Thickening of keratin layer stratum corneum.
Parakeratosis: The retention of nucleus in keratin layer.
Bulla/bleb: Cavitations in epidermis filled with fluid and larger
than vesicle.
Erosionf Excoriation: Superficial loss of epithelium.
Fissure: Linear defect in epidermis, which may be crusted at
mucocutaneous junctions.

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Pathology of Cutaneous System

Abscess: A circumscribed cavity filled with pus.

Ulcer: A break in the continuity of the epidermis exposing
dermis.
Urticaria: A circumscribed area of swelling/ oedema involving
dermis
Folliculitis: Inflammation of hair follicles.
Acne: Enlargement of sealed off hair follicles or sebaceous glands
and rupture through the epidermis. It leaves a rounded hole in
the epidermis and a canal down to the dermis.
Eczema: Eczema is a form of allergic dermatitis of obscure
etiology and characterized by erythema, vesicular rash, serus
exudate and pruritus.

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Chapter

13

Pathology of Musculoskeletal
System
PATHOLOGY OF MUSCLES
EQUINE RHABDOMYOLYSIS
It is also known as Azoturia or Monday Morning Disease. The

disease occurs in well fed horse after a gap of holiday. Suddenly

after walking few steps, the horse is unable to move further
and feels pain with intense sweating and hardening of muscles.
Etiology

Accumulation of lactic acid in muscles

High glycogen storage

Lack of oxygen supply

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Hardening of muscle just like wood

Urine is dark brown with myoglobin-myoglobinuria

Tonic spasms in muscles

Atrophy of affected muscles in chronic cases

Necrosis of muscle fibers

Edema
Hyaline degeneration.
Invasion of sarcolemma by macrophages and lymphocytes
Degeneration and necrosis of tubular epithelium in kidneys.

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WHITE MUSCLE DISEASE

Extensive coagulative necrosis of muscles is observed in calves
possibly due to deficiency of vitamin E during 6 month of age.

Etiology

Vitamin E deficiency

Selenium deficiency

Stress

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Colour of muscle becomes pale pink, yellowish red, grey

or white.

Muscle becomes dry, inelastic and firm.

Urine is brownj red or chocolate brown in colour because

of myoglobin.

Coagulative necrosis of muscles.

In some muscle cells, cloudy swelling can be observed.

Neutrophils, macrophages, lymphocytes and eosinophils

may present.

Calcium may be deposited in necrosed areas.

ACUTE MYOSmS
Acute myositis is the acute inflammation of skeletal muscles
characterized by the presence of serous, fibrinous or
haemorrhagic exudates.

Etiology

Trauma

Vitamin Ej Selenium deficiency

Clostridium chauvoei, the cause of black leg in cattle

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Muscles become extremely moist.

Colour becomes red, consistency is firm and tense.

Swelling and accumulation of gas in muscles, crepitating

sound on palpation.

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Pathology ofMusculoske1etal System

Muscle dark red/ black with gas mixed exudates.

Presence of serous, fibrinous and/or haemorrhagic exudate.
Infiltration of neutrophils, macrophages, lymphocytes, etc.
Degenerative and necrotic changes in muscles.
Presence of Gram positive rods in exudate.

HEMORRHAGIC MYOSITIS
Haemorrhagic myositis is characterized by the presence of large
amount of blood and inflammation in muscles. It lIlay occur
due to trauma and muscle rupture.
Etiology

Trauma

Clostridial infections
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Area becomes red/ cyanotic.

On cut, large amount of blood comes out from muscles.

On touch, the affected area is hard and painful to touch.

Regionallymphnodes may become enlarged and swollen.

Extravasation of blood in between the myofibrils.

Infiltration of neutrophils, macrophages and lymphocytes

in connective tissue between the muscle cells.
CHRONIC MYOsmS
Chronic inflammation of muscle is characterized by necrosis,
calcification and proliferation of fibrous connective tissue. In
case of tuberculosis and pseudotuberculosis, there are multiple,
focal nodules containing caseation and fibrous capsule.
Etiology

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis

Trichinella spp. infection

Sarcosporidia spp. infection

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Macroscopic features

Muscles become hard to touch

Nodules can be seen.

On cut the lesions of caseation and calcification observed.

Caseative necrosis, infiltration of macrophages,

lymphocytes and proliferation of fibrous tissue.

Calcification can also be observed.

In cases of pseudotuberculosis infiltration of neutrophils
is seen.
Extensive infiltration of eosinophils in sarcoporidia infection.

PATHOLOGY OF BONES
FIBROUS OSTEODYSTROPHY

Fibrous osteodystrophy occurs as excessive action of parathyroid

hormone on bones and characterized by bone resorption with
replacement by fibrous tissue, increased osteoid formation which
does not get sufficient minerals for deposition and formation
of cysts.

Etiology

Hyperparathyroidism

Dietary deficiency of calcium or excess of phosphorus

Vitamin-D deficiency

Excessive bran feeding (Disease in horses of flour millers).

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Lack of calcification in bone

Resorption of calcium from bone, fibrosis

Bone becomes shoft, flexible and deformed

Rubbery jaw due to involvement of facial bones

Fibrous tissue hyperplasia in bones.

Enlargement of Haversian canals.

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Pathology ofMusculoskeletal System

Boney tissue is replaced by fibroblasts, with osteoclastic

giant cells lining the remaining bone tissue.

RICKETS
Rickets is failure of adequate deposition of calcium in bones of
growing animals caused by deficiency of calcium and vitaminD and characterized by bending of limbs, enlargement of ends
of long bones and skeletal deformities.
Etiology

Vitamin D deficiency

Calcium deficiency

Deficiency of phosphorus
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Bending of legs, bow legs

Pot belly
Enlarged costochondral articulation
Softening of bones
Increase in proliferating cartilage adjacent to the area of
ossification and its disorderly arrangement.
Disorderly penetration of cartilage by blood vessels
Increased area of uncalcified osteoid tissue
Fibrosis of marrow

OSTEOMALACIA
Osteomalacia is also known as adult rickets. It occurs in bone
of adults caused by deficiency of vitamin D and calcium and
characterized by softening of bones.
Etiology

Vitamin-D deficiency

Calcium-phosphorus ratio disturbance

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Softening of bones

Irregular diffuse thickening of bones

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Bone deformities
Increase in osteoid tissue with failure of calcification
Increase in osteoclastic activity

OSTEOPOROSIS
Osteoporosis is atrophy of bones caused by possibly hormonal
imbalance and characterized by inadequate deposition of
calcium, brittleness of bones due to its increased porosity.
Etiology

Hormonal imbalance

Vitamin C deficiency

Copper deficiency
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Inadequate calcium deposition

Bone becomes brittle and porous

Increased fragility of bones

Widening of Haversian canals

IncreC'!-sed activity of osteoclasts

Decrease in zona compacta and thickness of bone trabeculae

OSTEOPETROSIS
Osteopetrosis is enlargement of bone caused by fluorosis or
avian leukosis virus and characterized by increase in bony tissue.
It is also known as marble bone disease.
Etiology

Avian leukosis virus of retroviridae family

Fluorosis

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Enlargement of bone towards outside and inside.

Reduced marrow cavity

Bone becomes brittle, marbelling of bones.

Cartilage is also calcified, surrounded by osteoid tissue.

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OSTEOMYELITIS
Osteomyelitis is the inflammation of bone with bone marrow
caused by trauma and pyogenic bacteria and characterized by
destruction, replacement and excessive growth of new bone
adjacent to the infected part.
Etiology

Hematogenous infection

Direct infection through trauma/ fracture

Actinomyces pyogenes, A. bovis

Staphylococcus aureus

Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Metastatic abscess in bone marrow

Excessive growth of bone in adjacent area.

Exostosis or endostosis.

Infiltration of neutrophils

Proliferation of osteoid tissue

Demonstration of bacteria in pus

BONE FRACTURE AND REPAIR
Fracture is the break in the continuity of bone due to trauma. A
fracture may be simple or compound depending on the severity
of trauma. Healing of fracture occurs by reunion of the broken
ends of bone through development and proliferation of
fibroblasts, angioblasts, osteoid tissue and infiltration of calcium
salts.
Etiology

Trauma

Accidents-automobile accidents.
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Fracture can be identified by break in bcmes.

Healing of fracture is characterized by development of

callus at the site of reunion of break ends of bone.

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Callus may be soft or hard.

Proliferation of fibroblasts, angioblasts and metaplasia of
connective tissue to osteoid tissue.
Areas of calcification in osteoid tissue

PULMONARY OSTEOARTHROPATHY
Pulmonary osteoarthropathy is a rare disease of dog, sheep,
cat, horse, and lion caused by prolonged anoxia and
characterized by cough, dyspnea, respiratory disturbances and
formation of new bone leading to thickening and deformity of
limbs.
Etiology

Prolonged anoxia

Toxaemia

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Pneumonia

New bone formation just beneath the periosteum in long

bones.

The proliferation of bone is irregular leading to rough surface.

Bone becomes enlarged twice to its normal size.

Heart worms in case of dogs.

Bronchogenic carcinoma

Granulomatous lesions of tuberculosis

Chronic bronchiectasis

Hyperplasia of osteoid tissue with no indication of any

kind of neoplastic growth in bones.
SPONDYLITIS
Spondylitis is the inflammation of vertebrae caused by bacterial
fungi and characterized by caseation, intra osseous abscess
formation granulomatous lesions and fibrosis.

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Etiology

Brucella abortus, Br. ovis, Br. meletensis

Actinomyces bovis
Coccidioidomyces sp.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Intraosseous abscess

Granuloma encapsulated by fibrous tissue involving one

or two adjacent vertebrae.

Local enlargement of bone.

Granulomatous lesions with caseation

Proliferation of osteoid tissue

Infiteration of neutrophils in intraoseous abscess.

PATHOLOGY OF JOINTS
ARTHRITIS
Arthritis is the inflammation of joint caused by bacteria, virus,
chlamydia, mycoplasma and immune complexes and
characterized by serus, fibrinous, purulent or ankylosing lesions
in joints.
Etiology

Bacteria- E. coli, Erysipelas rhusiopathae, Streptococus sp., Shigella sp. Corynebacterium ovis, Brucella sp.

Mycoplasma- Mycoplasma mycoides, Mycoplasma sinoviae

Virus- Reovirus (Tenosynovitis in birds)

Antigen antibody complexes

Trauma

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Swelling of joints with increase in synovial fluid.

Difficulty in movement

In chronic cases fusion of two bony processes leaving no

joint (ankylosing)

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Synovial fluid diminishes, becomes dirty, thick in chronic

illness
Presence of increased number of leucocytes in synovial
fluid.
Serous, fibrinous or purulent exudate in joints.
Thickening of synovial membrane
Presence of plasma cells and immune complexes in synovial fluid.

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14

Pathology of Cardiovascular
System
DEVELOPMENT AL ANOMALIES
Persistent right aortic arch

This is a developmental anomaly of aorta in which the aorta

develops from right arch present on right side of trachea and
oesophagus. The ductus arteriosus forms a ring around trachea
and esophagus by connecting aorta and pulmonary artery. This
ring causes partial obstruction of trachea and/or esophagus.
Patent ductus arteriosus

The ductus arteriosus is a short blood vessel which connects

pulmonary artery to aorta in foetal life for diversion of blood.
Normally soon after birth this duct is sealed and remains in the
form of a ligamentum arteriosum. But sometimes this ductus
arteriosus remains open and blood is continuously shunted
between aorta and pulmonary artery and may led to congestive
heart failure, pulmonary hypertension and cyanosis due to
mixing of venous and arterial blood.
Interventricular septal defects

In foetal life, there is no partition in ventricles and there is only

one chamber which is divided into two right and left by inter
ventricular septum. But when interventricular septum does not
develop completely and due to defect in formation of complete
partition, there is mixing of blood from both chambers. It is
responsible for thickening of myocardium, roughening of
endocardium and cyanosis.

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Transposition of aorta
When there is a shift in position of aorta and pulmonary artery
i.e. the aorta arises from right ventricle and pulmonary artery
from left ventricle. This results in arterial blood in right and
venous blood in left side and has no clinical significance.
However, it may create problems when aorta arises from venous
ventricle and pulmonary artery from arterial side.
Tetrad of Fallot
Tetrad of Fallot includes 4 developmental defects of
cardiovascular system and is also known as tetralogy of Fallot.
i.
Inter ventricular septal defect
ii. Pulmonary stenosis is characterized by narrowing of lumen of pulmonary artery at its origin due to fibrous tissue
causing 'jet' effect.
iii. Hypertrophy of right ventricle
iv. Transposition of aorta.
v. Ectopia cardis
When heart lies outside the thorax under the subcutaneous tissue
of lower cervical region.
Interatrial septal defect
There is a developmental defect in inter atrial septa and remains
as incomplete partition of atrium. It produces continuous
overload on the right side of heart leading to pulmonary
hypertension and hypertrophy of right side myocardium.
However, a small defect in septum may persist throughout the
life of animal without causing any clinical illness.
CARDIAC FAILURE
Cardiac failure is the inability of heart to maintain adequate
blood supply leading to death. It can be divided into two types:
Acute and chronic heart failure.
Acute cardiac failure

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Acute cardiac failure is sudden failure of contraction of heart

leading to death within minutes.
Etiology

Anoxia
Drugs/ poisons

Shock
Cardiac temponade
Myocardial necrosis
Sudden occlusion of aorta and/ or pulmonary artery.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Cardiac temponade

Occlusive thrombus

Pulmonary congestion

Dialation of heart particularly of right ventricle

Myocardial necrosis

Centrilobular necrosis in liver "nut meg liver"

In prolonged cases, congestion and oedema in visceral

organs.
CHRONIC CARDIAC FAILURE
Chronic cardiac failure is the inability of heart to maintain
balance between its output and venous return of blood. It can
be further divided into two left and right sided heart failure.
LEFT SIDED HEART FAILURE
Left sided heart failure is caused by myocardial damage and
characterized by congestion and oedema in lungs with
hypertrophy of alveolar lining cells.
Etiology

Myocardial degeneration/ necrosis

Aortic and mitral valve disease

Hypertension
Macroscopic and microscopic features
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Congestion and oedema in lungs

Chronic dialation of heart
Congestion of alveolar vessels

Edema in lungs
Hypertrophy of alveolar lining cells
Alveolar macrophages contain hemosiderin pigment also
called "heart failure cells"

RIGHT SIDED HEART FAILURE

Right-sided heart failure is caused by a disease of lungs or
pulmonary vasculature and mostly occurs after a left sided heart
failure.
Etiology

Left sided heart failure

Pulmonary lesions, congestion

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Congestion of visceral organs

Subcutis oedema and ascites

Pulse in jugular vein

"Nutmeg appearance"in liver due to centrilobular necrosis.

Atrophy, necrosis and fibrosis in liver

Congestion in visceral organs.

PERICARDITIS
Pericarditis is the inflammation of pericardium, the upper layer
of heart. It may be serus, fibrinous or suppurative depending
on the type of exudate.
Etiology/ Occurrence

Pasteurellosis

Salmonellosis in poultry.

Hydropericardium syndrome in poultry

Gout in poultry

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Traumal Foreign body e.g. Traumatic reticulo pericarditis

(TRP).

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Deposition of fibrin in between pericardium and heart gives

an appearance of "bread and butter".

In chronic- cases, pericardium becomes thick due to excessive fibrosis.

Accumulation of fluid (clear, serus) in pericardial sac is

termed as Hydropericardium.

Presence of blood in pericardia I sac is known as

hemopericardium and the excessive accumulation of blood
leading to heart failure is termed as cardiac temponade.
. Accumulation of pus in pericardial sac is called as

pyopericardium.

Presence of gas in pericardial sac in termed as pneumoperi-

cardium.

Hyperemia and haemorrhage in pericardium

Deposition of fibrin, formation of fibrin network, infiltration of neutrophils, macrophages and lymphocytes.

MYOCARDITIS
Myocarditis is the inflammation of myocardium, the middle
layer of heart. It may be suppurative, eosinophlic or lymphocytic
depending on the type of the exudates.
Etiology

ToxinsI Poisons

Bacterial Virus

Parasites

Drugsl Chemicals
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Colour of myocardium may become dark red or cyanotic

due to accumulation of blood.

In suppurative myocarditis, one can find abscesses in myo-

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cardium from where yellow/green pus oozes out.

Yellowish white streaks of necrosis in myocardium.
Presence of cyst encapsulated by fibroplasia due to cysticercosis.
Hyperemia and haemorrhages in myocardium.
Infiltration of neutrophils, eosinophils or lymphocytes.
Coagulative necrosis of muscle fibers.
In chronic cases, proliferation of fibrous connective tissue.

ENDOCARDITIS
Endocarditis is the inflammation of the endocardium, the inner
layer of heart.
Etiology/ Occurrence

Chronic septicemic diseases like caused by Actinomyces

pyogenes, Erysipelothrix rhusiopathe

Staphylococci
Streptococci

Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Clostridial infections.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Lesions in heart valves or wall of atrium/ ventricles.

Presence of thrombi on endocardium.

Vegetative/ cauliflower like growth on endocardium either in valves (Valvular vegetative endocarditis e.g. Swine
erysepalas) or in wall (Mural vegetative endocarditis).

Dilation of heart chambers.

Infiltration of thrombocytes, neutophils, macrophages and

lymphocytes.

Masses of bacterial organisms can be seen.

Underlying endocardium and myocardium shows the presence of fibrin network and infiltration of RBC, neutrophils
and macrophages.

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BRISKET DISEASF/ HIGH ALTITUDE DISEASE

Brisket disease is a condition of slow cardiac failure, which occurs
at 2500 meters sea level or aoove where pressure of air is low.

Etiology

Low oxygen in environment

Decreased atmospheric pressure of air

In native cattle morbidity rate is only 2% and in imported

cattle at hills it is upto 40%.
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Dilation of heart

Hypertrophy of ventricular wall

Chronic passive congestion in visceral organs

Edema in sternal region in between forelegs.

Nut meg liver due to chronic passive congestion

Polycythemia
Hypertrophy of muscle fibers in myocardium.

MULBERRY HEART DISEASE

It is characterized by firm contraction of heart and petechial

hemorrhage on pericardium giving the appearance of mulberry.

Etiology

Not known

May be enterotoxaemia/ poisoning

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Contraction of heart with petechial haemorrhage on pericardium looking like mulberry "Mulbery heart disease"
Hydropericardium, hydroperitoneum and pulmonary

oedema

Edema fluid has high protein content resulting in clot formation

Congestion of fundic portion of stomach.

Congestion on serosa of visceral organs.

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ARTERIOSCLEROSIS
Arteriosclerosis is hardening of arteries causing 3 types of
diseases in arteries depending on their size and etiological factors
viz., Atherosclerosis, medial sclerosis and arteriolosclerosis.
ATHEROSCLEROSIS
Atherosclerosis is characterized by hardening and thickening
of intimal layer of large arteries and aorta due to proliferation
of connective tissue, hyaline degeneration, infiltration of fat!
lipids and calcification. These intimal changes may lead to loss
of elasticity of artery (Athere means mushy substance).
Etiology

Exact cause is not clear

Hypercholesterolemia and hyperlipidemia

Hypertension

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Fatty streaks running parallel in the direction of the artery.

Intimal layer of aortal coronary arteries is elevated due

to plaques which are white/ yellow, fibrous and occluding the lumen of vessel.
Occlusion of artery may lead to ischemia and infarction.
Macrophages are filled with lipid droplets including cholesterol, fatty acids, triglycerides and phospholipids.

Fragmented internal elastic lamina in the intimal layer of

artery

Proliferation of altered smooth muscles may become metaplastic to macrophages.

Deposition of mucoid ground substance and collagen fibers

Hyalinization of connective tissue "Fibrous plaques".
Presence of some fat droplets in between the lesion

MEDIAL SCLEROSIS
Medial sclerosis involve medium sized muscular arteries and

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characterized by fatty degeneration and hyalinization of

muscular tissue of medial arteries leading to necrosis. This is
also known as Monckeberg medial sclerosis.
Etiology

Old age

Excessive administration of epinephrine (adrenaline).

Nicotine
Vitamin D toxicity.
Hyperparathyroidism

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Hardening of medium sized arteries

Hyaline, fatty changes and calcification of arterial wall

Fatty changes, hyalinization of muscular layer of medium

sized arteries.

Necrosis of myofibrils

Calcification

ARTERIOLOSCLEROSIS
Arteriolosclerosis affects arterioles in kidneys, spleen and
pancreas and is characterized by hyperplasia of intimal cells of
arterioles producing concentric lamellations occluding their
lumen.
Etiology

Hypertension
Macroscopic and microscopic features

No characteristic macroscopic lesion.

Atrophy of organ, hardening.

Proliferation of cells present in intima of blood vessels

Swelling and necrosis of cells in medial layer leading to

occlusion of lumen

Calcification in chronic cases.

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ARTERITIS
Arteritis is the inflammation of arteries characterized by
infiltration of neutrophils, lymphocytes and macrophages in the
media and intima of arterial wall.
Etiology

Chemicals
Thermal
Virus e.g. Equine viral arteritis
Pyogenic bacteria.
Parasite e.g. Strongylus vulgaris

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Hyperemia

Conjunctivitis, oedema of eye

Presence of thrombi in artery

Presence of thrombi in artery involving intimal layer.

Equine viral arteritis virus causes infiltration of

lymphocytes and macrophages in media.

Occlusion of 14men of arteries due to thickening of wall.

In parasitic arteritis, parasitic thrombi may present along

with inflammatory reaction in intimal layer.

ANEURYSM
Aneurysm is dilation of an artery or cardiac chamber leading
to formation of sac.
Etiology

Aflatoxin

Infectious emboli

Weak vessel wall due to rupture.

Fracture or necrosis of medial layer of large blood vessel.

Arteriolosclerosis

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Macroscopic and microscopic features

Fracture or necrosis of medial layer of large blood vessels

permitting parallel blood circulation till the next division of
blood vessel is called as Dissecting aneurysm or false aneurysm.

Formation of sac in artery due to dilation, also known as

True aneurysm.

Rough intimal layer

Wall of blood vessel damaged with inflammatory exudate.

PHLEBITIS
Phlebitis is the inflammation of veins characterized by presence
of inflammatory exudate, thickening of the wall and dilation of
the lumen.
Etiology/ Occurrence

Naval infection in calves

Uterine infections

In jugular vein due to improper intravenous infection.

Varicose veins are dilated and elongated veins following

irregular and tortuous course

Telangiectasis is marked dilation of veins particularly of sinusoidal capillaries in one or more lobules in liver.

Macroscopic feature
Wall of vein is thickened.
Vein contain large thick necrotic material
Lumen dialated
Inner surface of vein is rough and hyperemic.
Infiltration of neutrophils in the wall of veins
Sometimes calcification may also present.
Wall of vein becomes thick due to inflammatory cells and/
or proliferation of fibrous tissue.

LYMPHANGITIS
Lymphangitis is the inflammation of lymph vessels characterized

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by aggregation of lymphocytes around lymphatics, oedema of

dependent parts and distension of lymphatics.
Etiology/ Occurrence

Corynebacterium avis causes caseous lymphangitis and lymphadenitis

Equine epizootic lymphangitis

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Distension of subcutaneous lymph vessels, nodules of lymphoid aggregates

Edema due to failure of lymphatic drainage.

Lymphoid aggregation around lymphatics.

Lymphatics distended

Edema of dependent tissue.

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15

Pathology Respiratory System

PATHOLOGY OF UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACf
In many infectious diseases, there is inflammation of mucosa of
upper respiratory passage leading to nasal discharge which is
catarrhal, purulent or fibrinous depending on the type of
infection. The infection may extend to lower parts of respiratory
tract and reach in lungs causing pathological alterations. Rhinitis
is the inflammation of nasal mucosa. Sinusitis is the inflammation
of sinuses e.g. Frontal sinusitis in dehorned cattle. The larvae of
botfly Oestrus ovis enters in nasal passage and migrate upto
frontal sinuses and turbinate bones and cause mucopurulent
inflammation. Similarly leeches (Dinobdella ferox) is known to
cause nasal cavity inflammation in domestic animals and suck
blood. Rhinitis caused by Bordetella bronchiseptica in pigs and
characterized by mucopurulent exudate, disappearance of nasal
septum, retarded growth of snout and plugging of passage by
solidified exudate and dead tissue. This condition is known as
porcine atrophic rhinitis. Epistaxis is bleeding from nasal
passage due to trauma, neoplasm and ulcerative lesions as a
result of infections. Pharyngitis is the inflammation of pharynix
while laryngitis is the inflammation of larynx.
NASAL POLYPS
Nasal polyps are the inflammatory condition of respiratory
mucosa resembling neoplastic growth caused by fungus and
characterized by formation of new growth simulating benign
neoplasm in nasal passage.
Etiology

Rhinosporidium sceberi, a fungus most commonly prevalent

in southern India.

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Macroscopic and microscopic features

Formation of a single polyp in respiratory mucosa, pedunculated, elongated, fills nasal cavity.

Cauliflower like growth n:tay cause bleeding.

Fibrous covering by mucous membrane and heavily

infilterated by neutrophils, lymphocytes, eosinophils,
macrophages around fungus.
NASAL GRANULOMA
Nasal granuloma is the gramlomatous inflammation of
respiratory mucosa in nasal cavity caused by blood flukes and
characterized by the presence of granulomatous growth filling
the nasal passage causing obstruction.
Etiology

Schistosoma nasalis, a blood fluke.

Type II hypersensitivity reaction of nasal mucosa to plant

pollens, fungi, mites etc.
Macroscopic and micr~copic features

Nasal pruritus

Small tiny nodules on nasal mucosa later becomes cauliflower like growth filling the cavity and causing obstruction.

Edema in lamina propria

Infiltration of eosinophils, mast cells, lymphocytes and
plasma cells and absence of epithelioid cells.

Proliferation of fibroblasts.
The lesion is covered by squamous epithelium.
Mucous glands may have metaplastic pseudostratified columnar epithelium.

TRACHEITIS
Tracheitis is the inflammation of trachea. In canines, it is
tracheobronchitis while in poultry it is manifested by
laryngotracheitis.

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Etiology

Canine tracheobronchitis caused by adenovirus, influenza

virus and herpes virus.

Avian infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT) is caused by herpes virus.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Canine tracheobronchitis or kennel cough includes congestion of trachea and presence of catarrhal exudate.

In poultry, haemorrhage in trachea and caseous plug in

trachea towards larynx causing obstruction.

Inclusion bodies in tracheal and bronchial epithelium in

canines

Haemorrhagic tracheitis, presence of intra nuclear basophilic inclusions in tracheal epithelial cells in infectious
laryngotracheitis.
BRONCHITIS
Bronchitis is the inflammation of bronchi, characterized by
catarrhal, suppurative, fibrinous or haemorrhagic exudate.
Etiology

Bacteria e.g. Pasteurella

Virus e.g. Infectious bronchitis in poultry

Parasites
Allergy/Inhalation of pollens etc.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Coughing, dyspnoea

Mucous exudate in lumen

Congestion and/ or haemorrhages in bronchi

Presence of caseaous plugs at the point where bronchi enters in lungs in infectious bronchitis of poultry.

Mucous exudate alongwith inflammatory cells in the lumen of bronchi.

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Hyperplasia and/or necrosis of bronchiolar epithelium

Accumulation of mononuclear cells in the bronchial mucosa and in peribronchiolar area.

PATHOLOGY OF LUNGS
ATELECT ASIS

Atelectasis is the failure of alveoli to open or the alveoli are

collapsed and thus do not have air.
Etiology

Obstruction in bronchi/ bronchiole

Pleuritis
Atelectasis neonatorum in new born animals. In the absence of respiration, lung alveoli remain closed and thus
sink in water indicating still birth.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Dull red in colour, hard area of lung like liver in consistency

Atelectic lung sinks in water.

Compressed alveoli.

Absence of air spaces

Collapsed bronchioles

In inflammatory condition, exudate compresses alveoli

EMPHYSEMA

Emphysema is the increase in amount of air in lungs

characterized by dilation of the alveolLIt may be acute or chronic
and focal or generalized.
Etiology

Bronchitis

Atelectasis in adjoining area of lung

Pneumonia

Allergy to dust, Pollens etc

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Pathology Respiratory System

Pulmonary adenomatosis

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Lungs are enlarged and flabby

Imprints of ribs can be seen. Colour of lungs becomes pale.

Cut surface is smooth and dry.

Alveoli are distended.

Some alveoli may rupture and form giant alveoli.

Alveolar wall becomes thin due to stretching.

Mild bronchitis.

Hyperplasia of lymphoid tissue.

PULMONARY EDEMA
In pulmonary edema, there is accumulation of serous fluid in
alveoli of lungs.
Etiology

Bacteria

Virus
Allergy

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Lungs become enlarged

Weight of lungs increases

Cut surface releases fluid and frothy exudate in trachea

and/ or bronchi.

Serous fluid accumulation in alveoli of lungs

Fluid may also be seen in some bronchij bronchioles.

Infiltration of inflammatory cells.

Congestion of lungs.
PNEUMONIA
Pneumonia is the inflammation of .lungs characterized by
congestion and consolidation of lungs. The pathological lesions
in lungs are produced in a similar way irrespective of the type
of etiological agent and includes various stages like congestion,
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red hepatization, grey hepatization and resolution.

Stage of congestion: This stage of lung is characterized by active

hyperemia and pulmonary oedema. The capillaries are distended
with engorged blood and alveoli are filled with watery serous
exudate. This requires 2 minutes to few hours to initiate the
congestion.
Stage of red hepatization: This stage of lung is characterized by
the consolidation of lungs due to accumulation of blood in blood
vessels (congestion). The consolidated lungs are firm and
looking like liver and hence the name" red hepatization". Such
affected lung always sinks in water. Alveoli are filled with serous
or serofibrinous exudate giving hardness to lungs. In
inflammatory condition, the neutrophils, macro phages and
lymphocytes along with erythrocytes infilterate the affected
area of lungs. This stage of red hepatization takes 2 days for
development of firmness of lung.
Stage of grey hepatization: The lung remains hard but due to
lysis and removal of erythrocytes, it becomes grey or less red
in colour. Firmness/ hardness of lung remains same and thus,
the name grey hepatization. There is increase in infiltration of
inflammatory cells like macrophages, lymphocytes, epitheliOid
cells depending on the virulence of etiological agents.
Stage of resolution: After a week, the recovery starts in the
form of resorption of fluid; autolized cells and debris is removed
by phagocytic cells. The causative organism is neutralized or
removed from the lungs through immunity of body. After few
days the lung parenchyma becomes normal and starts
functioning. If the causative agent is more virulent, it may cause
death of animal due to respiratory failure or may cause
permanent lesions like formation of scar, carnification,
granuloma etc. There are various types of pneumonia caused
by bacteria, virus, fungi, parasites, allergens, chemicals and all
such affections of lungs are classified as under.
BRONCHOPNEUMONIA
Bronchopneumonia is the inflammation of lungs involving
bronchi or bronchioles along with alveoli. It is thought to be
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spread through bronchogenous route and is the common type

of pneumonia in animals.
Etiology

Virus
Bacteria

Chemicals
Mycoplasma
Chlamydia
Parasites

Fungus
Mainly through bronchogenous route

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Congestion and consolidation of anterior and ventral parts

of lungs (Lobular pneumonia).

Patchy lesions on one or several lobes and adjacent area

shows emphysema.

Mediastinallymphnodes are swollen.

Congestion, oedema or haemorrhage in lung.
Infiltration of neutrophils, mononuclear cells in and around
bronchioles/ bronchi.

Catarrhal inflammation of bronchi.

Proliferation of bronchiolar epithelium

INTERSTITIAL PNEUMONIA
Interstitial pneumonia is the inflammation of the lungs
characterized by thickening of alveolar septa due to serous/
fibrinous exudate alongwith infiltration of neutrophils and/or
mononuclear cells and proliferation of fibroblasts. It is also
known as lobar pneumonia.
Etiology

Bacteria

Virus

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Chlamydia
Parasites
Mainly through hematogenous route

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Lungs are pale or dark red in colour.

Edema, dripping of fluid from cut surface

Alveoli may have serous or fibrinous exudate.

Thickening of alveolar septa due to accumulation of exudate, inflammatory cells and in chronic cases, proliferation of fibrous tissue.

Infiltration of mononuclear cells in alveolar septa.

FIBRINOUS PNEUMONIA
Fibrinous pneumonia is the inflammation of lungs characterized
by the presence of fibrin in alveoli or bronchioles and may give
rise to hyaline membrane formation over the surface of alveoli
or bronchiole.
Etiology

Bacteria

Virus
Parasites
Toxin/ Poisons

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Antero-ventral portion of lung is congested and consolidation.

Colour of lungs become deep red due to congestion

Surface of lungs is covered by fibrin sheet.

Interlobular septa are prominent due to accumulation of

plasma and fibrin.

Principal exudate is fibrin, fills alveoli, bronchioles and

bronchi.

Congestion and/ or haemorrhages

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Pathology Respiratory System

Infiltration of neutrophils, macrophages and giant cells

Formation of eosinophilic false membrane of fibrin over
the surface of alveoli and bronchiole and then known as

"hyaline membrane pneumonia".

VERMINOUS PNEUMONIA
Verminous pneumonia is caused by parasites and characterized
by the presence of lesions of broncho-pneumonia along with
parasites or their larva.
Etiology

Metastrongylus apri in pig.

Dictyocaulus filariae in sheep and goat
D. viviparus in cattle and buffaloes.
Capillaria aerophila in dogs and cats.
D. arnfieldi in horse and donkeys.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Multiple petechial haemorrhage in lungs at the site of parasite penetration.

Mature worms in alveoli, bronchioles and bronchi.

Mucopurulent exudate in alveoli/ bronchi.

Pulmonary oedema, -emphysema.

Dilation of bronchiole/ bronchi

Lesions of chronic suppurative bronchiolitis

Focal areas of inflammation in the vicinity of parasites and

around bronchioles.

Hyperplasia of bronchiolar epithelium.

Infiltration of eosinophils and lymphocytes.

ASPIRATION PNEUMONIA
Aspiration pneumonia is caused by faulty medication through
drenching which reaches in lungs instead of target place
(digestive track) and characterized by necrosis and gangrene
of lung paranchyma.
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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Etiology

Drugs, food, foreign body and oil drench which reaches

in lungs through trachea.

Paresis of throat predisposes the animal for aspiration

pneumonia.
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Congestion and consolidation of anterior and ventral portion of lung.

Affected part becomes green/ black in colour, moist gangrene.

Affected lungs are often foul smelling.

Presence of foreign body like heads of wheats, parts of

com, oil, milk etc.

Thrombosis of blood vessels.

Necrosis in lungs.

Presence of saprophytes, leucocytes and bacteria cause liquefaction and gangrene.

Gangrenous lesions surrounded by intense inflammation.

Congestion

MYCOTIC PNEUMONIA
Mycotic pneumonia is caused by a variety of fungi and
characterized by the presence of chronic granulomatous lesions
in lungs.
Etiology

Aspergillus fumigatus

Blastomyces sp.

Cryptococcus sp.

Coccidioidomyces immitis
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Nodules in lungs

On cut, cheese like caseative mass comes out from nod-

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Pathology Respiratory System

ules.

Caseation involves both bronchiole and alveoli.

Such lesions may also present in trachea, bronchi and air
sacs.
Presence of granulomatus lesions i.e. caseative necrosis,
macrophages, epithelioid cells, lymphocytes, giant cells,
fibroblasts etc.
Presence of branched hyphae of fungi in the necrosed area.

TUBERCULOUS PNEUMONIA
Tuberculous pneumonia is caused by Mycobacterium sp. and
characterized by the presence of chronic granulomatous lesions
in the lungs.
Etiology

Mycobacterium tuberculosis
M. bovis

Macroscopic features

Grey, white or light yellowish nodules in lungs.

Nodules are hard, painful and/or calcified.

Animal carcass is cachectic, weak or emaciated.

On cut, the cheesy material comes out from the nodules.

Presence of tubercle/ granuloma in lungs which comprises

a central necrosed area surrounded by macrophages, epithelioid cells, lymphocytes, Langhan's giant cells and covered by fibrous covering.

Acid-fast rod shaped bacteria may present in necrosed area.

Central area may be calcified.

OVINE PULMONARY CARCINOMA (PREVIOUSLY

PULMONARY ADENOMATOSIS)
Pulmonary adenomatosis is a slow viral disease of sheep and
characterized by metaplasia of alveolar squamous epithelium
to cuboidal and/ or columnar epithelium leading to glandular
appearance of alveoli.
181

Differential features of various types of Pneumonia

Macroscopic
features

Bronchopneumonia
1. Congestion and
consolidation of
anterior and ventral
parts of lungs
(Lobular pneumonia).
2. Patchy lesions on
one or several lobes
and adjacent area
shows emphysema.
3. Mediastinal
lymplUlodes are
swollen.

Interstitial
1. Lungs are
pale or dark
red in
colour.
2. Edema,
dripping of
fluid from
cut surface

Fibrinous
1. Anteroventral portion
oflungis
congested and
consolidated.
2. Colour of
lungs become
deep red due
to congestion
3. Surface of
lungs is
covered by
fibrin sheet.
4. Interlobular
septa are
prominent due
to
accumulation
of plasma and
fibrin.

Verminous
1. Multiple
petechial
haemorrhage in
lungs at the site
of parasite
penetration.
2. Mature
worms in
alveoli,
bronchioles and
bronchi.
3.
Mucopurulent
exudate in
alveoli!
bronchi.
4. Pulmonary
oedema,
emphysema.

Aspiration
1. Congestion
and
consolidation
of anterior
and ventral
portion of
lung.
2. Affected
part becomes
green! black
in col.our,
moist
gangrene.
3. Affected
lungs are
often foul
smelling.
4. Presence of
foreign body
like heads .of
wheats, parts
of corn, oil,
milk etc.

Mycotic
1. Nodules in
lungs
2. On cut,
cheese like
caseative mass
comes out
from nodules.
3. Caseation
inv.olves both
bronchiole and
alveoli.
4. Such lesions
may also
present in
trachea,
bronchi and
air sacs.

Tuberculous
1. Grey, white or
light yellowish
nodules in lungs.
2. Nodules are
hard, painful
and! or calcified.
3. Animal carcass
is cachectic, weak
or emaciated.
4. On cut, the
cheesy material
comes out from the
nodules.

Microscopic
features

1. Congestion, Edema
or haemorrhage in
lung.
2. Infiltration of
neutrophils,
mononuclear cells in
and around
bronchioles / bronclu.
3. Catarrhal
inflanunation of
bronchi.
4. Proliferation of
broncluolar
epithelium

1. Alveoli

may have
serous or
fibrinous
exudate.
2.
Thickening
of alveolar
septa due to
accumulatio
n of exudate,
inflammator
y cells and
in chrOlUC
cases,
proliferation
of fibrous
tissue.

1. Principal

exudate is
fibrin,fills
alveoli,
bronchioles
and bronchi.
2. Congestion
and/or
haemorrhages
3. Infiltration
of neutrophils,
macrophages
and giant cells
4. Formation
of eosinophilic
false
membrane of
fibrin over the
3.
surface of
Infiltration alveoli and
of
bronchiole and
mononuclea then knOWll as
"hyaline
r cells in
alveolar
membrane
septa.
pnewnonia" .

1. Dilation of
bronchiole/
bronchi
2. Lesions of
chronic
suppurative
broncluolitis
3. Focal areas of
infIanunation in
the vicinity of
parasites and
around
bronchioles.
4. Hyperplasia
of bronchiolar
epithelium.
5. Infiltration of
eosinophils and
lymphocytes.

1. Thrombosis 1. Presence of 1. Presence of

of blood
vessels.
2. Necrosis in
lungs.
3. Presence of
saprophytes,
leucocytes
and bacteria
cause
liquefaction
and
gangrene.
4.

Gangrenous
lesions
surrowlded
by intense
inflanlmation
5. CongestiOil

granulomatus
lesions i.e.
caseative
necrosis,
macrophages,
epithelioid
cells,
lymphocytes,
giant cells,
fibroblasts etc.
2. Presence of
branched
hyphae of
fungi in the
necrosed area.

tubercle/
granuloma in
lungs which
comprises a central
necrosed area
surrounded by
macrophages,
epithelioid cells,
lymphocytes,
Langhan's giant
cells and covered
by fibrous
covering.
2. Acid-fast rod
shaped bacteria
may present in
necrosed area
3. Central area may
be calcified.

Text Book o{Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Etiology

Retrovirus

Pulmonary adenomatosis virus

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Multiple focal areas of consolidation in lungs.

Imprint of ribs on lungs.

Congestion and hardening of mediastinal lymphnodes.

Metaplasia of alveolar epithelium leading to formation of

glandular structures in alveoli.

Metaplasia of simple squamous epithelium to cuboidal or

columnar epithelium which gives alveoli a gland like look.

Mild inflammatory reaction.

Proliferation of fibrous tissue.

HYPERSENSITIVITY PNEUMONITIS
Hypersensitivity pneumonitis is the inflammation of lung caused
by an allergic reaction of antigen (allergen) and characterized
by interstitial pneumonia, emphysema, hyaline membrane
formation and hyperplasia of alveolar epithelium.
Etiology

Allergens

Parasites - Dictyocaulus viviparous

Moldy hay
Fungus- Aspergillus sp.

Macroscopic and micrqscopic features

Lobes may contain small grey foci

Presence of yellow and dense mucus in lumen of bronchi

Excessive accumulation of air in lungs due to emphysema

Presence of worms/ larvae.

Extensive infiltration of lymphocytes, monocytes and

eosinophils around the bronchi and bronchioles.

Accumulation of catarrhal exudate in bronchi/ bronchiole.

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Pathology Respiratory System

Emphysema as a result of widening of alveoli.

Hyperplasia of bronchiolar musculature.
Inflammatory cells in interalveolar septa may form small
granulomas.
Formation of hyaline membrane over alveolar and
bronchiolar epithelium.

PNEUMOCONIOSIS
Pneumoconiosis is the granulomatous inflammation of lungs
caused by aerogenous dust particles of sand, silica, beryllium,
carbon or asbestos. It is also known as anthracosis.

Etiology

Silica
Asbestos
Beryllium
Bauxite
Graphite
Carbon
Bronchogenous/ aerogenous administration of particles
inhaled with air, mostly around mines/ factories.

Generator smoke.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Dense fibrous nodules in lungs.

Presence of carbon particles in tracheal bronchi mixed with

mucous exudate.

Granuloma formation around the particles of silica/ asbestos infilterated by macrophages, lymphocytes and giant cells

Silica produces cellular reaction 'Silicosis'.

Beryllium granuloma looks like tubercule without caseation.

Asbestosis is characterized by the presence of club shaped

filaments bearing cells in lesion.

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Text Book o/Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

PATHOLOGY OF AIR SACS

AIR SACCULITIS
Air sacculitis is inflammation of air sacs caused by E.coli,
Mycoplasma, reovirus etc. and characterized by thickening of
the wall of air sacs and presence of cheesy exudates.
Etiology

Escherichia coli
Mycoplasma gallisepticum

Avian reovirus

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Thickening of the air sac wall, which becomes dirty and

cloudy.

Presence of cheesy exudate in air sacs, congestion of lungs.

Fibrinous pericarditis

Liver is covered with thin fibrinous membrane.

Oedema and infiltration of neutrophils and lymphocytes

in air sacs

Caseous exudate in lungs and air sacs.

PATHOLOGY OF PLEURA
PLEURITIS
Pleuritis is the inflammation of pleura characterized by serous,
fibrinous or purulent exudate. It is also known as pleurisy.
Etiology

Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Mycoplasma mycoides
Haemophilus suis

Organisms responsible for pneumonia/ traumatic pericarditis may also cause pleuritis.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Congestion of pleura

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Pathology Respiratory System

Serous, fibrinous or purulent exudate.

Accumulation of clear fluid in pleural thoracic cavity is
called as hydrothorax.
Presence of blood in thoracic cavity is known as
Hemothorax.
Suppurative exudate in thoracic cavity is known as pyothorax.
Presence of air in pleural cavity is termed as pneumothorax, while presence of lymph in pleural cavity is called as
chylothorax.
Tuberculous pleuritis is characterized by small nodules on
pleura and is known as "pearly disease".
In chronic cases, development of fibrous tissue causes adhesions and is known as adhesive pleuritis.
Congestion of blood vessels
Infiltration of neutrophils and lymphocytes.
Thickening of pleura due to oedema
Proliferation of fibroblasts producing adhesive lesions.

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Chapter

16

Pathology of Digestive System

DEVELOPMENT AL ANOMALIES
Epitheliogenesis imperfecta of tongue
Abnormal smooth surface of tongue due to small filiform
papillae. It occurs as a defect in autosomal recessive gene and
occurs in Holstein-Friesian cattle. This is also known as smooth
tongue.
Cleft palate
This is most common congenital abnormality occurs due to
failure of oral-nasal cavity to divide leaving cleft. It may also
extend towards lips producing 'hare lip' condition.
Mega colon
There is distention of colon which abruptly terminate in rectum
due to mutant gene in dogs.
Duplication of colon

In dog, the colon is duplicated from caecum to rectum and this

defect is associated with malformation in the body of vertebrae
T4 and Ts

Atresia coli
In calf, the absence of colon occurs and the intestine terminates
in blind caecum.

Atresia ani
This is absence of anal opening.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

PATHOLOGY OF MOUTH CAVITY

STOMATITIS

Stomatitis in the inflammation of mucosa of oral cavity. It

includes:

Gingivitis: Inflammation of gums

Glossitis: Inflammation of tongue
Cheilitis: Inflammation of lips
Tonsilitis: Inflammation of tonsil
Palatitis! Lampas: Inflammation of palates
Etiology

Trauma due to nails, wire, or any sharp object like needle

Physical due to hot milk, medicines etc.

Chemical- Alkali/ acids

Microorganisms- Bacteria, virus, fungi

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Catarrhal stomatitis: Mucous exudation in oral cavity.

Vesicular stomatitis: Vesicles in oral mucosal e.g. FMD

Erosive stomatitis: Erosions in oral mucosa e.g. Rinderpest

Fibrinous stomatitis: False membrane in oral mucosa.

Ulcerative stomatitis: Presence of ulcers in oral mucosa e.g.

mucosal disease.

Congestion of oral mucosa

Presence of erosions, vesicles or ulcers

Infiltration of neutrophils, lymphocytes and macrophages

Presence of fibrinous exudate in the form of diphtheritic

membrane.
PATHOLOGY OF ESOPHAGUS AND CROP CHOKE

Choke is complete or partial obstruction of esophagus either

due to any foreign material or pressure from adjoining areas.

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Pathology of Digestive System

Etiology

Beets, turnip, carrots, bone

Abscess tumor of neck area

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Tympany

Gangrene, sapremia and toxaemia

Sac like dialatation IIEsophageal diverticulum"

Perforation due to sharp bone ends

Necrosis gangrene at a point of obstruction

Congestion haemorrhage in perforated cases

ESOPHAGITIS

Esophagitis is the inflammation of esophagus caused by trauma,

parasites etc. and characterized by catarrhal inflammation,
ulceration or stenosis due to fibrosis.
Etiology

Trauma due to foreign bodies

Chemicals- Acids, alkalies

Infection- Mucosal disease virus

Parasite- Spirocerca lupi

Nutritional- Vito A deficiency

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Congestion

Ulcer formation.

Red streaks of catarrhal inflammation.

Stenosis due to fibrous nodules or inflammatory exudate.

Enlargement of glands.

Congestion, haemorrhage

Ulceration

Infiltration of neutrophils, lymphocytes

Sub-epithelial fibrosis/ nodules by Spirocerea lupi.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

INGLUVITIS

Ingluvitis is the inflammation of crop caused by fungi and

characterized by ulcerative or diphtheritic lesions.
Etiology

Candida albicans

Monilia albicans
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Turkis towllike appearance in crop mucosa.

Round and raised ulcers.

In moniliasis, formation of diphtheritic membrane

Necrotic and ulcerative lesions

Fibrinous inflammation with infiltration of mononuclear

cells
PATHOLOGY OF STOMACH
TYMPANY

Tympany is accumulation of gases in rumen due to failure of

eructation as a result of obstruction or due to excessive
production of gases characterized by distended rumen and
dyspnoea. It is also known as bloat.
Etiology

Choke of esophagus

Sudden change in animal feed with high content of legumes.

Excessive lush green fodder

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Rumen is distended due to excessive accumulation of gases

(C02, H 2S, CO)

Distended rumen compresses diaphragm to hinder respiration.

Tarry colour blood, pale liver and rupture of diaphragm.

On rupture of rumen gas comes out (dry tympany).

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Pathology of Digestive System

The gas is trapped in small bubbles in the ruminal fluid

forming fo~ and is not easily removed. This is known
as "frothy bloat", which is produced by saponin and water soluble proteins and due to reduction in surface tension in the absence of fatty acids that favours froth formation.
Haemorrhage in lungs, pericardium, trachea and
lymphnodes
Atelectasis in lungs.

RUMENITIS
Rumenitis is the inflammation of rumen in ruminant animals
caused by change in diet, chemicals or drugs and characterized
by seropurulent exudate or ulcer formation with or without
parakeratosis.
Etiology

Change in diet, corn or alfa-alfa hay.

Chemicals/ drugs e.g. potassium antimony tarterate.

Spherophorus necrophorus infection

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Ulcers
Spherical white nodules of 1-2 cm diameter size.
Sloughing of mucosa.
Seropurulent exudate

Ulcers
Infiltration of lymphocytes and neutrophils
Fibrous nodules due to hyperplasia of fibroblasts
Parakeratosis

RETICULITIS
Reticulitis is the inflammation of reticulum in ruminant animals
caused by trauma/ perforation by foreign body including sharp
object like needles, wires, etc. and characterized by abscess
formation, adhesions, peritonitis and pericarditis.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

. Etiology

Foreign body- sharp objects like needles, wires etc.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Perforation of reticulum by foreign body.

Abscessation/ suppuration

Peritonitis, adhesions of reticulum with diaphragm

Pericarditis due to foreign body (traumatic reticulo pericarditis).

Infiltration of neutrophils, macrophages, lymphocytes

Proliferation of fibroblasts producing adhesions.

Liquefactive necrosis.
OMASITIS

Omasitis is the inflammation of omasum in ruminant animals

caused by Actinobacillus sp. and characterized by granulomatous
inflammatory reaction.
Etiology

Actinobacillus ligneiresi
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Granulo.natous nodules in omasum

Typical granuloma formation

Sulfur granules of Actinobacillus in the centre of lesion.

ABOMASITIS

Abomasitis is the inflammation of abomasum in ruminants

caused by chemicals/ drugs, bacteria, virus or parasites and
characterized by congestion, edema and/ or haemorrhagic ulcers.
Etiology

Chemicals/ drugs

Bacteria e.g. Clostridium septicum cause of Braxy

Virus e.g. Hog cholera, Mucosal disease

Parasites e.g. Theileria sp.

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Pathology of Digestive System

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Presence of ulcers (button ulcers in Hog cholera).

Congestion, oedema of abomasal folds, haemorrhage in

braxy.

Catarrhal, haemorrhagic abomasits

Presence of gram positive rods in case of braxy.

Neutrophilic and lymphocytic infiltration.

Congestion and haemorrhages.

Ulceration with lymphocytic infiltration.

IMPACTION OF RUMEN AND RETICULUM

Impaction of rumen and reticulum is common in cattle and

buffaloes caused by heavy carbohydrate diet and characterized
by atony of rumen, indigestion, acidosis and haemorrhage on
serous membranes.

Etiology

Overfeeding of carbohydrate feed.

Lack of water.

Defective teeth or damaged tongue.

Paralysis of rumen.
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Atony of rumen due to lactic acid production.

Rumen is filled with hard, caked undigested food with

foul odour.

Hemoconcentration, anuria, blood becomes dark in colour.

Hemorrhage in lungs.
Desquamation of ruminal epithelium.
Lesions of acidosis/ toxicosis.

GASTRITIS

Gastritis is the inflammation of stomach in non-ruminant animals

having simple stomach caused by chemicals/ drugs, bacteria,
virus, parasite and characterized by congestion, edema,

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Text Book o[VeterinJlry Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

hemorrhage and ulceration. Inflammation of proventriculus in

poultry is termed as proventriculitis.
Etiology

Physical- overfeeding, trauma,

Chemicals- Acid/ alkali

Microorganisms such as bacteria, virus, fungi,

Parasites e.g. Trichostrongyles sp., Hemonchus sp.

Uremia

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Congestion, oedema and haemorrhage of mucosal surface

Thick mucous exudate in stomach

Presence of vesicles/ ulcers on gastric mucosa

Congestion and haemorrhage of gastric mucosa.

Presence of ulcers/ necrosis.

Infiltration of mononuclear cells.
Lymphoid hyperplasia.

PATHOLOGY OF INTESTINES
CATARRHAL ENTERITIS
Catarrhal enteritis is characterized by increased number of
goblet cells, congestion and infiltration of neutrophils and
mononuclear cells in mucosa of intestine.
Etiology

Physical- Foreign bodies and corase feed

Chemical- drugs
Microorganisms-E.coli, Salmonella sp., viruses

Parasites- Coccidia

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Presence of catarrhal exudate in lumen of intestine and

congestion.
..
Thickening of the wall of intestine.

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Pathology of Digestive System

Diarrhoea.
Presence of parasites in lumen of intestine.
Increased number of goblet cells in intestinal villi, reduced
length of villi.

Congestion.
Infiltration of polymorphonuclear and mononuclear cells.

HEMORRHAGIC ENTERITIS

Haemorrhagic enteritis is characterized by inflammation of the

intestines along with haemorrhagic exudates.

Etiology

Bacteria- E. coli, Bacillus anthracis, Salmonella sp.

Virus- Coronavirus, BVD, MD, RP

Parasites- Coccidia
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Hemorrhagic exudate in intestines; blood mixed intestinal

contents.

Petechial or echymotic haemorrhage in mucosa and submucosa of intestine.

Presence of erosions/ ulcers in mucosa.

Hemorrhage in the mucosa of intestine

Infiltration of neutrophils and mononuclear cells.

Erosion or ulcers in intestinal mucosa

Presence of coccidia in the mucosa

CHRONIC ENTERITIS

Chronic enteritis is the chronic inflammation of intestine

characterized by proliferative changes like proliferation of
fibrous tissue, infiltration of mononuclear cells and plasma cells
in lamina propria leading to hardening of intestinal wall.

Etiology

Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in bovines

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Intestinal helminths
E. coli in poultry (Hjarre's disease)

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Thickening of the wall of intestine (Corrugations in Johne's

disease).

Thick mucous cover over mucosa of intestine

Transverse corrugations in the large intestine.

Granulomatous nodules in duodenum.

Small, round, raised necrotic foci on serosal surface of intestine covering whole length of intestine.

Proliferation of fibrous tissue in lamina propria.

Infiltration of macrophages, lymphocytes, plasma cells.

Atrophy of intestinal glands.

NECROTIC ENTERmS

Necrotic enteritis is characterized by necrosis of mucosal

epithelium of intestine leading to erosions/ ulcer formation and
exposition of underlying tissues.
Etiology

Salmonella

Rinderpest, rotavirus, cornovirus, Hog cholera virus.

Coccidia, Histoplasma
Niacin deficiency
Clostridium sp. after coccidial infection in birds.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Necrotic patches in intestines.

Fibrinous deposits over necrotic patches like bran deposits

Swelling of mesenteric lymphnodes

Ulcers in intestine.

Congestion and infiltration of mononuclear cells.

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Pathology of Digestive System

Necrosis and desquamation of intestinal villous epithelium,

leading to exposed underlying tissue.
Ulcers in mucosa.
Proliferation of crypt epithelium, presence of abnormal
epithelium over villous surface.

PARASITIC ENTERITIS
Parasitic enteritis is caused by parasites and characterized by
catarrhal and/ or hemorrhagic exudate in intestine, presence of
oval adult parasite and thickening of the wClll of intestine.
Etiology

Helminths

Roundworms

Tapeworms

Protozoa

Coccidia

Histoplasma
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Presence of parasite helminths in the lumen of intestine.

Thickening of the wall of intestine.

Catarrhal or haemorrhagic exudate in intestine.

Presence of large number of goblet cells in mucosa of intestine.

Congestion and/ or hemorrhage.

Presence of parasite/ ova in the intestinal lumen

Infiltration of eosinophils in mucosa and submucosa of the

intestines.

Coccidia can be seen on mucosal scrapings under microscope.

FIBRINOUS ENTERITIS
Fibrinous enteritis is the fibrinous inflammation of intestine
characterized by presence of fibrinous exudate comprising of
pseudomembrane in the mucosa of intestine.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Etiology

Salmonella choleraesuis

Spherophorus necrophorus
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Presence of diphtheritic membrane over mucosa of intestine.

Button ulcers
Sometimes, diphtheritic membrane covers the faeces.
Congestion and haemorrhage in intestine.
Thickening of intestinal wall due to fibrinous exudate.
Fibrin network in mucosa.

GRANULOMATOUS ENTERITIS
Granulomatous enteritis is caused by bacteria or fungi and
characterized by granuloma formation in the intestines.
Etiology

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Coli granuloma- E. coli in poultry (Hjarre's disease)

Coccidioiodomycosis/ candidiasis.
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Granulomatous about one cm diameter elevated/ raised

areas on the serous surface of intestine.

Thickening of the wall of intestine.

Small, tiny, white necrotic nodules on serosa.
Granuloma formation consisting of central necrosed area
covered by lymphocytes, macrophages, epithelioid cells,
giant cells and fibrous connective tissue
Extensive proliferation of fibrus tissue.
Presence of bacterial fungus in the lesion.

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Differential features of various types of Enteritis

Catarrhal

Macroscopic 1. Presence of
features
catarrhal
exudate in
lumen of
intestine and
congestion.
2. Thickening of
the wall of
intestine.
3. Presence of
parasites in
lumen of
intestine.

Hemorrhagic

Chronic

1. Hemorrhagic
exudate in
intestines; blood
mixed intestinal
contents.
2. Petechial or
echymotic
hemorrhage in
mucosa and
submucosa of
intestine.
3. Presence of
erosions! ulcers
in mucosa.

1. Thickening of
the wall of
intestine
(Corrugations in
JoIme's disease).
2. Thick mucous
cover over
mucosa of
intestine
3. Transverse
corrugations in
the large
intestine.
4.

Granulomatous
nodules in
duodenum.
S. Small. rowld,
raised necrotic
foci on serosal
surface of
intestine
covering whole
length of
intestine.

Necrotic
1. Necrotic

Parasitic

1. Presence of
patches in
parasite
intestines.
helminths in the
2. Fibrinous
lumen of
deposits over
intestine.
necrotic patches 2. Thickening of
like bran
the wall of
intestine.
deposits
3. Swelling of
3. Catarrhal or
mesenteric
haemorrhagic
exudate in
lymphnodes
4. Ulcers in
intestine.
intestine.

Fibrinous

Granulomatous

1. Presence of
diphtheritic
membrane over
mucosa of
intestine.
2. Button ulcers
3. Sometimes,
diphtheritic
membrane
covers the
faeces.

1.
Granulomatous
aboutonecm
diameter
elevated! raised
areas on the
serus surface of
intestine.
2. Thickening of
the wall of
intestine.
3. Small. tiny,
white necrotic
nodules on
serosa.

Microscopic
features

1. Increased
number of
goblet cells in
intestinal villi,
reduced length
of villi.
2. Congestion.
3. Infiltration of
polymorphonuc
lear and
mononuclear
cells.

1. Haemorrhage
in the mucosa of
intestine
2. Infil tra tion of
neutrophils and
mononuclear
cells.
3. Erosion or
ulcers in
intestinal
mucosa

1. Proliferation
of fibrous tissue
in lamina
propria.
2. Infiltration of
macrophages,
lymphocytes,
plasma cells.
3. Atrophy of
intestinal
glands.

1. Congestion
and infiltration
of mononuclear
cells.
2. Necrosis and
desquamation
of intestinal
villous
epithelium,
leading to
exposed
underlying
tissue.
3. illcersin
mucosa.
4. Proliferation
of crypt
epithelium,
presence of
abnormal
epithelium over
villous surface.

1. Presence of
large number of
goblet cells in
mucosa of
intestine.
2. Congestion
and/or
haemorrhage.
3. Presence of
parasite/ ova in
the intestinal
lumen
4. Infiltration of
eosinophils in
mucosa and
submucosa ..J
the intestines.
5. Coccidia can
be seen on
mucosal
scrapings under
microscope.

1. Congestion 1. Granuloma
and
formation
hemorrhage in consisting of
intestine.
central necrosed
2. Thickening of area covered by
intestinal wall lymphocytes,
due to fibrinous macrophages,
exudate.
epithelioid cells,
3. Fibrin
giant cells and
network in
fibrous
mucosa.
connective tissue
2. Extensive
proliferation of
fibrus tissue.
3. Presence of
bacterial fungus
in the lesion.

Pathology o[Digestive System

INTESTINAL OBSTRUCTION
Obstruction of intestines may occur as a result of foreign body,
enterolith, piliconcretions, phytobezoars, polybezoars or due
to hypermotility of intestines leading to intussusception,
volvulus or torsion.
Piliconcretions: Piliconcretions are hair balls mostly found in
stomach/ intestines of those animals having habit of licking.
This vice is more common in suckling calves and in animals
with pica related to phosphorus deficiency. The hairs are
accumulated in stomach which becomes in rounded shape due
to movements of stomach and look like balls. Such hair balls
are not degradable in gastrointestinal tract and may cause
obstruction.
Phytobezoars/ Polybezoars: Concretions formed in
gastrointestinal tract as a result of deposition of salts around a
nidus of undigested plants or polythenes. They may cause
obstruction in gastrointestinal tract.
Foreign bodies: Foreign bodies like rubber balls, nuts, bones,
stones, plastic and rubber materials, polythenes may obstruct
the intestinal tract as they are not degradable in the
gastrointestinal tract.
Hernia: Hernia is presence of intestinal loop in umbilical area,
scrotum or inguinal cavity which causes passive congestion,
oedema and obstruction in intestines.
Intussusception: Intussusception is telescoping of intestine
means a portion of intestine enters in caudal segment due to
violent peristaltic movement. It causes obstruction, passive
congestion and oedema.
Volvulus: In volvulus, the loop of intestine passes through a
tear in mesentry. It causes obstruction at both ends of loop.
Torsion: Torsion is twisting of intestine upon itself causing
obstruction.
Enterolith: Concretions in intestines particularly in horses are
responsible for obstruction of intestinal tract and are responsible
for "colic in horse" and enterocolitis.

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TYPHLITIS

Typhlitis is the inflammation of caecum. It is particularly

important in poultry caused by protozoan parasites and
characterized by haemorrhage, thickening of the wall, presence
of cheesy exudates and/or necrotic ulcers.
Etiology

Eimeria tennella

Histomonas melellgridis
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Haemorrhage in caecum, blood mixed contents.

Thickening of the wall, with congestion and cheesy exudates.

Presence of necrotic ulcers in caecum in case of histomoniasis which is further supported by round, depressed,
yellowish green areas of necrosis in liver.

Congestion, haemorrhage, necrosis

Presence of protozoan parasites

Necrotic hepatic lesions.

HEPATITIS

Hepatitis is the inflammation of liver. It may be acute or chronic.

Acute hepatitis is characterized by the presence of degeneration
and necrosis of hepatocytes and infiltration of neutrophils and
mononuclear cells alongwith hyperemia and/or haemorrhage.
Etiology

Bacteria- Necrobacillosis, Salmonella, E. coli

Virus- ICH
Chemicals- Carbon tetrachloride
Parasites- Fasciola gigantica, Fasciola hepatica

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Enlargement of liver.

Congestion and/or haemorrhage.

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Presence of necrotic patches in liver.

Presence of fibrinous diphtheritic membrane on liver.
Cloudy swelling and/or fatty changes in liver.
Congestion in blood vessels and in sinusoidal area.
Infiltration of neutrophils, macrophages and lymphocytes.
Necrosis of hepatic parenchyma.
In acute toxic hepatitis there is necrosis of hepatocytes.
According to location it can be classified as under which is
helpful in making diagnosis.
Diffuse necrosis covers a considerable area crossing over
the lobular boundaries.
Focal necrosis occupying only a part of lobule e.g. EHV
ind uced aborted foetal liver.
Peripheral necrosis is characterized by necrosis at the periphery of lobule which occurs due to presence of strong
toxins in blood.
Midzonal necrosis have necrosis of cells in midway of periphery and centre of lobule.
Centrilobular necrosis is characterized by necrosis of
hepatocytes around the central vein occurs due to stagnation of blood with toxaemia.
Paracentral necrosis is characterized by necrosis of
hepatocytes at one side of central vein e.g. Rift valley fever.

CIRRHOSIS
Cirrhosis is the chronic inflammation of liver characterized by
extensive fibrosis, hepatic degeneration and necrosis.
Etiology

Bacteria~ Salmonella, Spherophorus necrophorous

Virus- Infectious canine hepatitis

Chemicals- Carbon tetrachloride

Parasites- Fasdola hepatica, F. giantica

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Poisons/ toxins- Aflatoxins

Once cirrhosis of liver starts, it is not checked even after
removal of the cause as the newly formed fibrous tissue
itself acts as an irritant to cause further proliferation of
fibroblasts.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Liver becomes hard and firm.

Surface of liver becomes uneven and nodular.

Size of liver becomes reduced due to atrophy.

Colour becomes yellowish, grey.

Increase in fibrous tissue within and around lobules.

Infiltration of macrophages and lymphocytes.

Central vein is either absent or placed eccentrically.

Hepatocytes show degenerative and necrotic changes.

Biliary cirrhosis is characterized by proliferation of fibrous

tissue around the bile ducts encircling them e.g. Fasciola
giantica.

Glissonian cirrhosis is mostly confined to areas at a short

distance beneath the capsule.

Pigment cirrhosis is associated with yellow discolouration.

Central or cardiac cirrhosis is increase in fibrous tissue around

the central vein as a result of chronic passive congestion.

Parasitic cirrhosis occurs due to damage caused by migration of parasites e.g. Ascaris lumbricoides, Schistosoma sp.
CHOLECYSTITIS

Cholecystitis is the inflammation of gall bladder characterized

by congestion, thickening of wall and infiltration of mononuclear
cells. Cholangitis is the inflammation of bile duct.
Etiology

Parasites- Fasciola sp.

Foreign bod y- Stones

Bacteria- E. coli.

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Pathology of Digestive System

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Thickening of the wall of gall bladder.

On opening of gall bladder, there may be parasites/ stones/

foreign body.

Contents of gall bladder may be watery or thick oily.

Congestion
Proliferation of fibrous tissue in the wall of gall bladder
Infiltration of mononuclear cells
Increased number of mucus secreting cells.

PANCREATITIS
Pancreatitis is the inflammation of pancreas characterized by
necrosis of pancreatic tissue, infiltration of neutrophils and
mononuclear cells and fibrous tissue proliferation.
Etiology

Bacteria

Virus- Reovirus in poultry

Parasites
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Pancreas becomes pale, swollen, oedematous.

In chronic cases, atrophy of pancreas

Pancreas becomes hard, firm, and fibrous.

Necrosis of pancreatic cells.

Edema, infiltration of leucocytes, haemorrhage.

Fibrosis characterized by proliferation of fibroblasts.

PATHOLOGY OF PERITONIUM
Peritonitis is the inflammation_of peritoneum characterized by
suppurative, serofibrinous or nodular lesions.
Etiology

Bacteria- Staphylococci, Mycobacterium sp.

Virus
Neoplasia
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Parasites

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Serofibrinous, fibrinous, suppurative or granulomatous

lesions

Accumulation of clear fluid is known as Hydroperitoneum

or Ascites.

Presence of nodules in tuberculosis is also termed as Pearly

disease".

Serofibrinous, suppurative or granulomatous lesions.

Thickening of peritoneum, adhesions due to fibrosis.

II

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Chapter

17

Pathology of Hemopoitic and

Immune System
DEVELOPMENT AL ANOMALIES
Hereditary anemia
Hereditary anemia has been reported in mice due to defects in
erythropoiesis or reduced vitality of erythrocytes. Erythropenia
along with leucopenia occurs in mouse foetus on 20th day of
gestation due to defective autosomal chromosome 4. Sex linked
anemia in mouse is hypochromic with deficient bone marrow
and occurs in hemizygus males or homozygus females. This
anemia occurs due to deficiency of iron as a result of poor
absorption from gastrointestinal tract.
Autoimmune hemolytic anemia in foals
It occurs due to incompatible blood group antigens of male and

female parents. The mare does not have that blood group antigen
but foetus acquires it from father. The foetal blood exposed to
dam through placental exchanges that leads to induction of
antibody production in mares against foetal blood group antigen.
These antibodies accumulate in colustrum and when foal suck
the milk from mares, they are readily absorbed through G.I.
tract of foals in blood and causes destruction of erythrocytes
leading to anemia.
Congenital defects in lymphocytes
Congenital defects in lymphocytes are classified under stem
cell aplasia/ agenesis leading to combined immunodeficiency
with absence of both T- and B-Iymphocytes in Arabian foals. It
occurs either due to inherited gene defect or there is
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differentiation/ maturation defects in lymphocytes. It is

characterized by agammaglobulinemia, lymphopenia, hypoplasia
of thymus, lymphnodes and spleen.
Chediak Higashi Syndrome
This syndrome is related with defects in phagocytic cells such
as defective neutrophils and monocytes. The defects are in
chemotaxis, engulfment and killing of bacteria and associated
with defective assembly of cytoplasmic microtubules responsible
for degranulation and release of lysosomal enzymes, there is
depression of superoxide anions leading to persistent bacterial
infections.
ANEMIA
Anemia is the decrease in number of erythrocytes or hemoglobin
concentration in erythrocytes per unit of blood and is
characterized by pale mucus membrane, dyspnoea, cardiac
hypertrophy and weakness. Anemia is classified according to
morphological characteristics of erythrocytes and on the basis
of causative factors. Morphologically, anemia is classified as
macrocytic, normocytic and microcytic depending on the size
of red blood cells and normochromic and hypochromic based
on the presence of quantity of hemoglobin in RBC. Macrocytic
anemia is characterized by increased size of RBC and occurs
due to acute blood loss or hemolysis resulting in excessive
production and availability of immature erythrocytes in blood.
Such cells also have reduced amount of hemoglobin and termed
as hypochromic. Macrocytic normochromic anemia is increase
size of RBC with normal hemoglobin and has been observed in
deficiency of folic acid, niacin and vitamin Bt2 Normocytic
anemia are most common in animals occurs due to neoplasia,
irradiation and are also known as aplastic anemia as a result
of aplasia or agenesis of RBC. Normocytic normochromic,
normal size of RBC with normal hemoglobin anemia occurs as
a result of depression of erythrogenesis. Microcytic anemia is
reduction in size of erythrocytes with decreased hemoglobin
(Microcytic hypochromic) and occurs in deficiency of iron and
pyridoxine or chronic blood loss.

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Pathology ofHemopoitic and Immune System

In anemia, the size of RBC varies markedly with some large

and some small size and is known as anisocytosis. The presence
of abnormal shape (elongated, angular, ovoid, distorted) of RBC
is termed as poikilocytosis. In some blood smears, there are
nucleated RBC's which are immature due to increased
production to meet the demand. Sometimes, the erythrocytes
are having minute dark spots known as basophilic stippling
which occurs in acute blood loss. Some erythrocytes stain
unevenly with some dark and light colour spots and are known
as polychromatophilia which is an indication of active
erythrogenesis. The denaturation and precipitation of
hemoglobin leads to appearance of purplish granules in RBC
near the cytoplasmic membrane which are known as "Heinz
bodies". According to etiological factors, the anemia is classified
as hemolytic, haemorrhagic or deficiency anemia.
HEMOLYTIC ANEMIA
Hemolytic anemia occurs due to excessive lysis of erythrocytes
and characterized by icterus, hemoglobinuria, and presence of
nucleated erythrocytes in blood and hemosiderosis in spleen.
Etiology

Infections e.g. Anaplasma spp. Babesia spp., Equine infectious anemia virus

Toxins/ poisons e.g. snake venom, chronic lead poisoning.

Immune mechanisms e.g. autoimmunity against erythrocytes.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Pale mucous membranes

Icterus
Blood is thin, watery.
Hemoglobinurea
Decreased number of erythrocytes
Presence of nucleated/ immature RBC in blood
Hemosiderin laden cells in spleen

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HEMORRHAGIC ANEMIA
Hemorrhagic anemia occurs due to severe haemorrhage,
extravasation of blood and characterized by pale mucus
membrane and hemorrhage in body.
Etiology

Infections e.g. Acute septicemic diseases

Toxins/ poisons e.g. Bracken fern poisoning

Parasites e.g. Hemonchus contortus

Deficiency e.g. vitamin C deficiency

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Petechiae or Echymotic hemorrhage

Pale mucous membrane

Hematuria
Hemorrhage in various tissues/ organs
Macrocytic or normocytic characters of RBC
Poikilocytosis
Hyperplasia of bone marrow

DEFICIENCY ANEMIA
Deficiency anemia occurs as a result of deficiency of iron, copper,
cobalt and vitamins and characterized by pale mucus membrane,
weak and debilitated body and decreased number of
erythrocytes with hypochromasia in blood.
Etiology

Deficiency of iron

Deficiency of copper

Deficiency of cobalt

Deficiency of vitamin B12, Pyridoxine, riboflavin and folic

acid.

Parasitic infestation may lead to deficiency.

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Pathology ofHemopoitic and Immune System

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Pale mucous membrane

Thin watery blood with light red colour

Weak and debilitated carcass

Heavy parasitic load in gastrointestinal tract.

Microcytic hypochromic erythrocytes.

Poikilocytosis

TOXIC APLASTIC ANEMIA

Toxic aplastic anemia is agenesis or aplasia of hemopoietic tissues
in bone marrow and there is lack of erythrocyte production. It
is characterized by the absence of developmental stages of
erythrocytes viz., normoblasts, megaloblasts etc.
Etiology

Radiation e.g. X-rays, g rays, or UV rays

Sulfonamides
Bracken fern toxicity

Uremia
Feline panleukopenia

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Pale mucuos membrane

Weak and debilitated animal

Dyspnoea

Bone marrow becomes yellow/ fatty.

Absence of developmental stages or RBC such as

normoblasts, megaloblasts etc.

Agranulocytosis i.e. Reduction of WBC in circulating blood.

Bone marrow becomes fatty.

AUTOIMMUNE HEMOlYfle ANEMIA
Autoimmune hemolytic anemia occurs as a result of destruction
of erythrocytes by immune mechanisms developed against
erythrocytes.

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Etiology

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia in foals.

Antibodies produced against own RBC of an animal.

Equine infectious anemia

Anaplasmosis

Systemic lupus erythematosus

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Pale mucous membrane

Enlargement of liver, spleen and lymphnodes

Hemoglobinuria

Lameness due to rheumatoid arthritis

Erythrophagocytosis

Demonstration of antibodies against own RBC in sera of

animals.

Active erythropoiesis
Glomerulonephritis

POLYCYTHEMIA
Polycythemia is increase in number of erythrocytes in circulating
blood. It may be relative increase as a result of dehydration or
decrease in plasma volume or absolute due to anoxia.
Etiology

Dehydration due to diarrhoea, vomiting and loss of fluid

in oedemaj inflammation.

Anoxia in high altitudes.

Heart diseases e.g. Patent ductus arteriosus
Severe pulmonary emphysema
Erythroid leukemia

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Dehydration, mucous membrane dry, sticky

Pulmonary emphysema, fibrosis in lungs

Increase hemoglobin concentration

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Differential features of various types of Anaemia

Macroscopic
features

Microscopic
features

Hemolytic
1. Pale mucous
membranes
2. Icterus
3. Blood. is thin, watery.
4. Hemoglobinurea

Hemorrhagic
1. Petechiae or
Echymotic
haemorrhage
2. Pale mucus
membrane
3. Hematuria

1. Decreased number of
erythrocytes
2. Presence of
nucleated/ immature
RBCin blood
3. Hemosiderin laden
cells in spleen

1. Hemorrhage in

various tissues/
organs
2. Macrocytic or
nomlocytic
characters of RBC
3. Poikilocytosis
4. Hyperplasia of
bone marrow

Deficiency
1. Pale mucous
membrane
2. Thin watery
blood with light red
colour
3. Weak and
debilitated carcass
4. Heavy parasitic
load in gastrointestinal tract.
1. Microcytic
hypochromic
erythrocytes.
2. Poikilocytosis

Toxic! Aplastic
1. Pale mucus
membrane
2. Weak and
debilitated animal
3. Dyspnoea
4. Bone marrow
becomes yellow/fatty

Autoimmune Hemolytic
1. Pale mucous
membrane
2. Enlargement of liver,
spleen and lymphnodes
3. Hemoglobinuria
4. Lameness due to
rheumatoid arthritis

1. Absence of

1. Erythrophagocytosis

developmental stages
or RBC such as
nomloblasts,
megaloblasts etc.
2. Agranulocytosis i.e.
Reduction of WBC in
circulating blood.
3. Bone marrow
becomes fatty.

2. Demonstration of
antibodies against own
RBC in sera of animals.
3. Active erythropoiesis
4. Glomerulonephritis

Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Increased number of erythrocytes

Severe damage in lungs, congestion, emphysema, fibrosis

LEUCOCYTOSIS
Leucocytosis is increase in number of leucocytes in circulating
blood caused by various infections. There is also increase in
white blood cells in blood due to neoplastic condition and is
known as Leukemia. As the leucocytes consist of neutrophils,
lymphocytes eosinophils, monocytes and basophils; the increase
in number of neutrophils is termed as neutrophilia, eosinophils
as eosinophilia, lymphocytes as lymphocytosis, basophils as
basophilia and of monocytes as monocytosis.
Etiology

Infections

Bacterial infection- neutrophilia

Viral infections and chronic bacterial infections-lymphocytosis

Parasites- eosinophilia

Allergies- basophilia, lymphocytosis

Macroscopic and microscopic features

No characteristic lesion.

Reactive lymph node hyperplasia.

Enlargement of lymphoid organs such as spleen, thymus

and bursa.

Increase in number of total leucocytes in blood

Increase in absolute lymphocyte, absolute neutrophil, absolute eosinophil counts.
Heperplastic lesions in lymphoid organs.

LEUCOPENIA
Leucopenia is decrease in number of whit~ blood cells. The
leucocytes are neutrophils, lymphocytes monocytes, eosinophils
and basophils. If there is decrease in number of all 5 cells of
leucocytes, it is known as panleucopenia. The decrease in

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Pathology o[Hemopoitic and Immune System

number of neutrophils is termed as neutropenia and lymphocytes

as lymphopenia.
Etiology

Congenital e.g. Chediak Higashi syndrome

Infections e.g. Feline panleucopenia virus, infectious bursal disease virus

Chemicals e.g. Pesticides, heavy metals

Radiation e.g. X-rays

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Atrophy of lymphoid organs

Recurrent infections, vaccination failures, pyogenic disorders.

Edema, hemorrhage in bursa, atrophy of bursa due to fibrosis in IBD infection.

Decrease in total leucocyte count and absolute neutrophil

and absolute lymphocyte counts

Degeneration and necrosis of lymphoid cells in follicles of

lymphoid organ

Edema, necrosis, proliferation of fibrous tissue in bursa in

IBD infection.
PATHOLOGY OF SPLEEN
SPLENITIS
Spleenitis is the inflammation of spleen characterized by
enlargement, infiltration of inflammatory cells, proliferation of
lymphoid follicles, congestion and oedema followed by
proliferation of fibrous tissue.
Etiology

Infections e.g. bacteria, virus

Deficiency of vitamins and minerals

Amyloidosis
Immunodeficiency e.g.environmental pollution

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Macr~copic

and microscopic features

Enlargement of spleen.
Necrotic patches on spleen.
In chronic cases or in immunological disorders.
There is atrophy of spleen due to fibrosis.
Necrotic patches and congestion leading to mottling.
Congestion in spleen.
Proliferation of lymphoid follicles/ cells.
Edema.
In atrophied spleen, proliferation of fibrous tissue, depletion of lymphoid cells/ follicles.

PATHOLOGY OF LYMPHNODES
LYMPHADENITIS
Lymphadenitis is the inflammation of lymphnodes characterized
by enlargement! atrophy, congestion proliferation of lymphoid
cells/ depletion of lymphoid cells, oedema AND fibrosis of
lymphnodes.
Etiology

Infections e.g. Rinderpest

Immunological disorders e.g. immuno-deficiency

Deficiency e.g. Deficiency of protein

Environmental pollution e.g. pesticides, heavy metals

Tumors/ neoplasm e.g. lymphosarcoma

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Enlargement of lymphnodes

Congestion

Edema

In chronic cases- fibrosis

Atrophy
Congestion, edema, proliferation of lymphoid cells.

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Pathology ofHemapoitic and Immune System

In chronic cases, proliferation of fibrous tissue, depletion

of lymphoid cells

PATHOLOGY OF THYMUS
THYMOMA/ THYMIC HYPERPLASIA
It is characterized by congestion and hyperplasia of lymphoid

cells in thymus. The inflammation of thymus in chronic cases is

characterized by atrophy and proliferation of fibrous tissue.
Etiology

Immunological disorders

Environmental pollution e.g. Pesticide, Heavy metals

Toxins/poisons
Aging e.g. in adult poultry thymus regresses

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Congestion, reddening of thymus

Edema
Increase in size
Atrophy, thinning like thread.
Congestion, oedema
Proliferation of lymphoid cells
Depletion of lymphoid cells
Proliferation of fibrous tissue

PATHOLOGY OF BURSA
BURSITIS
Bursitis is the inflammation of bursa of Fabricius in poultry
characterized by edema, congestion, haemorrhage or atrophy
and depletion of lymphoid cells.
Etiology

Infectious Bursal disease virus (Birnavirus)

Environmental pollution e.g. Pesticides, heavy metals.

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Macroscopic and microscopic features

Enlargement of bursa

Congestion and/ or hemorrhage

In chronic cases, atrophy and fibrosis

Edema
Depletion of lymphoid tissue
Degeneration and necrosis of lymphoid cells
Congestion and/or haemorrhage.
Proliferation fibrous tissue.

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Chapter

18

Pathology of Urinary System

DEVELOPMENT AL ANOMALIES
Aplasia
Absence of one or both kidneys. Absence of one kidney is
observed in animals with compensatory hypertrophy of another
kidney and such animals may survive well.
Hypoplasia
The size of kidneys remain small which don't grow properly
due to defect in a single recessive autosomal gene.
Cyst in Kidney
Single or multiple cysts in pig and dog kidney are reported
with tinged yellow in colour. They may arise from nephron
due to its distension. Presence of multiple cysts is also termed
as congenital polycystic kidney.

Type-I cysts are formed due to dilation and hyperplasia of

collecting tubules resulting in spongiform kidneys. In such
neonates cystic bile ducts are also present.

Type-II polycystic kidney is formed due to absence of collecting tubules and developmental failure of nephron. The
cysts are thick walled with dense connective tissue and
may involve one or both kidneys.

Type-III cysts in kidneys occur due to multiple abnormalities during development. Cysts develop from tubules or
Bowmen's capsule with part of glomeruli in cyst. This condition is bilateral and causes considerable enlargement of
kidney due to clear fluid or blood mixed fluid containing
cysts.

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FUNCfIONAL DISTURBANCES
Proteinuria: Presence of protein particularly albumin in urine.
Protein is found as smooth, homogenous, pink staining
precipitate also called as 'cast'. The presence of albumin in urine
is indicative of damage in glomeruli. It is also characterized by
oedema due to protein deficiency.
Hematuria: Presence of blood in urine giving bright red colour.
It may occur due to damage in glomeruli, tubule or
haemorrhage anywhere from glomeruli to urethra. The most
important cause of hematuria is bracken fern toxicity.
Hemoglobinuria: When hemoglobin is present in urine without
erythrocytes due to intravascular hemolysis. The urine becomes
brownish red in colour. It must be differentiated from hematuria
in which intact erythrocytes are present and settle down after
some time leaving clear urine as supernatant. Hemoglobinuria
is caused by various infections such as Leptospira sp., Babesia sp.
or phosphorus deficiency in animals.
Anuria
Absence of urine is known as anuria which may be due to:

Absence of urinary secretion due to glomerulonephritis

Inelastic renal capsule unable to exert sufficient pressure

required for glomerular filtration leading to nephrosis.

Due to Hydronephrosis or calculi urine already secreted

puts back pressure to prevent further secretion.

Low blood pressure

Dehydration
Necrosis of tubular epithelium

Polyuria: Increased amount of urine leading to frequent

urination caused due to diabetes insipedus, hormonal imbalance
and polydypsia. In this condition, waste products are successfully
eliminated.
Uremia: The presence of harmful waste products like uric acid,
creatinine and urea in blood. Normally such waste products
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Pathology of Urinary System

are removed by excretion through kidneys. But due to damage

in kidneys or obstruction by inflammation, neoplasm, abscess
and most importantly by presence of calculi urine remains in
the system and causes uremia. Uremia is characterized by
headache, vomiting, hyperirritability, convulsion, ulcers in oral
cavity and stomach, normochromic and normocytic anemia,
hemosiderosis and thrombocytopenia.
Glycosuria: Presence of glucose in urine. This is also known as
diabetes mellitus, a metabolic disorder. It may occur due to
insulin deficiency. This condition is not common in animals.
However, it may occur in dogs as a result of hypoglycemia. It
may occur in sheep due to enterotoxemia caused by Clostridium
welchii type D.
Pyuria: Presence of pus in urine due to suppurative inflammation
in urinary tract.
Ketonuria: Presence of ketone bodies in urine, which is common
in diabetes mellitus, acetonemia, pregnancy toxemia and in
starvation.
Oligouria: In this condition, there is decreased amount of urine,
which occurs due to glomerulonephritis, obstruction in urinary
passage, dehydration, low blood pressure and tubular damage.
NEPHROSIS
Nephrosis is the degeneration and necrosis of tubular epithelium
without producing inflammatory reaction. It mostly includes
acute tubular necrosis as a result of ischemia or toxic injury to
kidney. Nephrosis is characterized by necrosis and sloughing
of tubular epithelial cells exhibited by uremia, oligouria, anuria.
Etiology

Hypotension

Heavy metals

Mycotoxins e.g. Ochratoxin

Antibiotics e.g. Gentamicin

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Macroscopic and microscopic features

Swelling of kidneys

Capsular surface smooth, pale and translucent.

Vacuolation in tubular epithelium.

Coagulative necrosis.

Sloughing of tubular epithelium

GLOMERULONEPHRITIS

Glomerulonephritis is the inflammation of glomeruli primarily

characterized by pale and enlarged kidneys with potential
hemorrhage, oedema of glomeruli, congestion and infiltration
of inflammatory cells. Due to presence of mesangial
proliferation, it is also called as mesangio-proliferative
glomerulonephritis (MPGN).
Etiology

Streptococci infection

Immune complexes

Environmental pollutants such as - Organochlorine pesticides

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Enlarged kidneys

Edema, pale kidneys

Petechiae on kidneys

Proteinuria, uremia, hypercholesterolemia and increased

creatinine level in blood.

Edema of glomeruli leading to increase in size.

Infiltration of neutrophils, macrophages.

Compression of blood capillaries and absence of erythrocytes.

Thrombosis and necrosis of glomerular capillaries.

Based on type of lesions, it can be divided into 5 subtypes.

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1. Type-I MPGN

Proliferation of mesangial cells.

Deposition of immune complexes containing IgG, IgM, IgA

and C3

Immune complexes penetrate vascular endothelium but not

the basement membrane and are deposited in subendothelial region.

Proliferation and swelling of endothelial cells.

Immune complexes induce production of transforming
growth factor (TGFB}) which increases production of
fibronectin, collagen and proteoglycans leading to thickness of basement membrane; this is also known as "wire
loop"lesions.

2. Type-II MPGN (Membranous)

Deposition of immune complexes in basement membrane

(lamina densa).

Due to uncontrolled activation of complement.

Proliferation of endothelium and mesangial cells.

Demonstration of C3 component, no immunoglobulin.

3. Type III MPGN (Acute Proliferative)

Subepithelial deposits of immune complexes and disruption of basement membrane.

Swelling of epithelium and its proliferation forming "Epithelial cresent".

Demonstration of IgG in subepithelial region.

Congestion and edema of glomeruli.
Infiltration of neutrophils, macrophages and lymphocytes.

4. Chronic glomerulonephritis

Proliferation of epithelial and endothelial cells

Reduplication, thickening and disorganization of glomerular basement membrane.

Lumen of capillaries occluded.

Entire glomerulus is replaced by Hyaline connective tissue.

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5. Focal embolic glomerulonephritis

Focal zone of necrosis in glomeruli

Infiltration of neutrophiIs

Proliferation of epithelial cells and formation of crescent.

INTERSTITIAL NEPHRITIS

Interstitial nephritis is the inflammation of kidney characterized

by degeneration and necrosis of tubular epithelium, edema and
infiltration of inflammatory cells in interstitium.

Etiology

Ochratoxins and atrinin.

Leptospira

Toxins/ poisons e.g. Pesticides.

Herpes virus
Endogenous toxaemia e.g. Ketosis
Immune complexes

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Enlargement of kidneys

Necrosis, congestion and hemorrhage

Edema, congestion, hemorrhage

Necrosis and degeneration of tubular epithelium

Infiltration of inflammatory cells like neutrophils,

macrophages and lymphocytes in interstitium.

Loss of tubules, foci of mononuclear celis, fibrosis in chronic

cases

Immune complexes are deposited in granular form causing degeneration of epithelial cells of tubules and mononuclear cell infiltration.
PYELONEPHRITIS

Pyelonephritis is the inflammation of renal pelvis and

parenchyma i.e. tubules characterized by congestion,
suppurative inflammation and fibrosis.
'

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Etiology

Corynebacterium renale
Staphylococcus au reus
E. coli
Actinomyces pyogenes
Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Congestion, hemorrhage and abscess formation in renal

cortex, pelvis and ureters.

Pyuria- Pus mixed urine in bladder.

Enlargement of kidneys

Congestion, hemorrhage

Suppurative inflammation of pelvis and kidney parenchyma.

Necrosis of collecting ducts.

Purulent exudate in pelvis.

Infiltration of neutrophils, lymphocytes and plasma cells

in interstitium.
NEPHROSCLEROSIS
Nephrosclerosis is chronic fibrosis of kidney characterized by
loss of glomeruli and tubules and extensive fibrosis.
Etiology

Glomerulonephritis

Interstitial nephritis

Arterioloscleresis
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Hard, atrophied kidneys.

Fibrous nodules on kidneys.

Thickening of capsule.

Small white firm kidneys.

Ischemia, tubular atrophy

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Differential features of various types of Nephritis

Macroscopic
features

Microscopic
features

Glomerulonephritis
1. Enlarged kidneys
2. Edema, pale kidneys
3. Petechiae on kidneys
4. Proteinuria, uremia,
hypercholesterolemia and increased
creatinine level in blood.
1. Edema of glomeruli leading to
increase in size.
2. Infiltration of neutrophils,
macrophages.
3. Compression of blood capillaries
and absence of erythrocytes.
4. Thrombosis and necrosis of
glomerular capillaries.

Interstitial
1. Enlargement of kidneys
2. Necrosis, congestion and
hemorrhage

Pyelonephritis
1. Congestion, hemorrhage and
abscess formation in renal cortex,
pelvis and ureters.
2. Pyuria- Pus mixed urine in bladder.
3. Enlargement of kidneys

1. Edema, congestion, hemorrhage

2. Necrosis and degeneration of
tubular epithelium
3. Infiltration of infianmlatory cells
like neutrophils, macrophages and
lymphocytes in interstitium.
4. Loss of tubules, foci of mononuclear
cells, fibrosis in chronic cases
5. Immune complexes are deposited in
granular foml causing degeneration of
epithelial cells of tubules and
mononuclear cell infiltration.

1. Congestion, hemorrhage
2. Suppurative inflanmlation of pelvis
and kidney parenchyma.
3. Necrosis of collecting ducts.
4. Purulent exudate in pelvis.
5. Infiltration of neutrophils,
lymphocytes and plasma cells in
interstitium.

Pathology of Urinary System

Loss of glomeruli and tubules

Extensive fibrosis
Deposition of hyaline mass
Infiltration of mononuclear cells.

UROLITHIASIS
Urolithiasis is the formation of stony precipitates any where in
the urinary passage including kidneys, ureter, urinary bladder
or urethra.
Etiology

Bacterial infections

Metabolic defects

Vitamin A deficiency

Hyperparathyroidism

Mineral imbalance
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Nephrosis, Hydronephrosis

Distension of ureters

Distension of ureters and urinary bladder

Hard enlarged kidneys

Presence of calculi! stone in kidney, ureter, bladder or

urethra.

Presence of crystals/ stone in lumen of tubules.

Degeneration and necrosis of tubular epithelium.

Hemorrhage
Proliferation of fibrous tissue

There are various types of calculi, which differ in size, shape

and composition. Some of them are as under:

Oxalate calculi are hard,lightyellow, covered with sharp spines

found in urinary bladder and formed due to calcium oxalate. It
causes damage in urulary bladder leading to haemorrhage.

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Uric acid calculi are composed of ammonium and sodium urates

and uric acids, yellow to brown in colour, formed in acidic urine,
spherical and irregular in shape and they are not radioopaque.
Phosphate calculi are white or grey in colour, chalky in
consistency, soft, friable and can be crushed with mild pressure.
They are mostly multiple in the form of sand like granules.
They are composed of magnesium ammonium phosphate and
occur as a result of bacterial infection.
Xanthine calculi are brownish red, concentrically laminated,
fragile and irregular in shape. They rarely occur in animals.
Cystine calculi are small, soft with shiny and greasy in
appearance, yellow in colour which becomes darker on air
exposure. Insoluble amino acid cystine precipitates in bladder
to form calculi. Such calculi may cause obstruction of urethra
with cystinuria.
PATHOLOGY OF URETER
URETERITIS
Ureteritis is the inflammation of ureter characterized by
enlargement, thickening of wall due to accumulation of urates,
or calculi, pyonephrosis and pyelonephritis.
Etiology

Tuberculosis

Calculi
Hydronephrosis
Pyelonephritis
Pyonephrosis

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Deposits of whitish/ yellowish urates in ureter in poultry.

Obstructions of ureter due to calculi leads to its enlargement and formation of diverticulum.

Thickening of the wall due to congestion and infiltration

of inflammatory cells.

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Extensive fibrosis with infiltration of mononuclear cells in

chronic cases.

PATHOLOGY OF URINARY BLADDER

CYSTITIS
Cystitis is the inflammation of urinary bladder characterized
by congestion and fibrinous, purulent or hemorrhagic exudates.
Etiology

Urinary calculi

Tuberculosis

Blockage in urethra

Bracken fern poisoning

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Congestion, hemorrhage.

Enlargement of urinary bladder.

Thickening of the wall.

Presence of small nodules on wall.

Thickening of wall due to infiltration of neutrophils and

macrophages.

Granuloma in tuberculosis.

Fibrosis
Presence of neoplasm.

PATHOLOGY OF URETHRA
URETHRITIS
Inflammation of urethra is known as urethritis, which occurs as
a result of catheter injury and calculi. It is characterized by
congestion, obstruction, hydronephrosis and strictures.
Etiology

Calculi
Catheter injury

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Trichomonas foetus infection

Picoma virus infection

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Transient inflammation, congestion and hemorrhage.

Strictures (male), diverticulum (female)

Obstruction due to calculi, presence of calculi

Thickening due to inflammatory exudate.

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Chapter

19

Pathology of Genital System

FEMALE GENITAL SYSTEM
DEVELOPMENTAL ANOMALIES

Agenesis
Absence of ovary, uterus, oviduct and cervix in females. It may
be unilateral or bilateral.
Hypoplasia
Complete or partial lack of germ cells in ovaries. Hypoplasia of
uterus is related with agenesis of gonads. Ovaries of freemartin
are also hypoplastic. Hermaphrodite animal has ovary and
testicular tissue both in the gonads.
Hermaphroditism
In hermaphrodites, there is presence of organs of both sexes in
same individual animal. Both ovarian and testicular tissue occur
in one animal leads to sterility in animal (true hermaphrodite)
while in pseudohermaphrodite the gonadal tissue of only one
sex is present but there is some degree of development of
opposite sex organs.

Uterus unicornis
Uterus unicornis is presence of only one horn of uterus instead
of two, seen in animals with white heifer disease.
White heifer disease
White heifer disease occurs due to a single sex linked gene defect
responsible for white coat colour. In such animals, there are

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normal ovaries, oviduct but uterus is incomplete and may lack

communication with cervix. There is hypoplasia of cervix and
vagina.
Uterus didelphys
Uterus didelphys is the occurrence of two cervix with two
uterine bodies and single or double vagina. It occurs due to
failure of Mullerian ducts to fuse at their distal end. Sometimes
failure of fusion may affect only cervix and there is two cervix
which is termed as Cervix bifida.
CYSTIC OVARIES
Cystic ovaries are defined as an ovary, which contains one or
more clear cysts ranging from one to several centimeters in
size.
Etiology

Hormonal imbalance
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Presence of cysts in ovaries.

Hormonal imbalance of animal leads to sterility, continuous estrus, nymphomania due to follicular cyst.

Lutein cysts may cause pyometra leading to pseudopregnancy.

Follicular cyst
Ova absent several layers of granulosa or a single layer of
epithelium.
Many follicular cysts are present
Lutein cyst covered by fat containing granulosa cells.

OOPHORITIS
Oophoritis is the inflammation of ovary caused by trauma,
infection and characterized by granulomatous or lymphocytic
inflammation of ovary.

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Pathology ofGenital System

Etiology

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Herpes virus

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Hard, nodular lesions in ovary, encapsulated with fibrous

tissue.

Granuloma of tuberculosis through hematogenous infection.

Infiltration of lymphocytes leading to lymphofollicular

reaction in follicles.

Atrophy or absence of ova.

SALPINGITIS
Salpingitis is the inflammation of oviduct or fallopian tube
characterized by congestion, catarrhal or purulent exudate
leading to distended lumen.
Etiology

Mycoplasma

Streptococci
Tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis)

Trichomoniasis (Trichomonas foetus)

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Congestion, abscess formation

Distension of oviduct lumen due to accumulation of serous exudate which is known as Hydrosalpinx.

Accumulation of pus in oviduct is termed as Pyosalpinx.

Fibrosis, hardness

Occlusion of lumen due to inflammatory exudate resulting in sterility.

Inflammatory exudate is toxic to ova as well as sperms

leading to sterility.

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Suppurative inflammation
Infiltration of neutrophils, macrophages and lymphocytes
Proliferation of fibrous tissue
Debris of desquamated cells

METRITIS
Metritis is the inflammation of uterus characterized by
suppurative exudate, hemorrhage and necrosis of uterus.
Etiology

Actinomyces pyogenes
E.coli
Staphylococci
Streptococci
Trichomonas foetus
Campylobacter foetus

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Congestion, catarrhal or purulent exudate

Hemorrhage
Enlargement, oedema
Oozing out of pus from uterus on pressure
Seropurulent exudate in uterine wall.

Edema
Infiltration of macrophages and lymphocytes
Desquamation of lining epithelium

PYOMETRA
Pyometra is an acute or chronic suppurative inflammation of
uterus resulting in accumulation of pus in the uterus.
Etiology

Occurs under the influence of progesterone.

E. coli

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Pathology ofGenital System

Actinomyces pyogenes
Proteus spp.
Staphylococcus aureus
Trichomonas foetus

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Discharge of thin cream like pus from vulva soiling the tail
and perineal region.

Pus discharge is more on sitting position of animal.

Enlargement of abdomen due to distension of uterus.

Uterus looking like as pregnant uterus as a result of accumulation of pus. This condition is also known as Pseudocyesis or pseudopregnancy.

Rention of lutein cyst.

Congestion, infiltration of neutrophils, lymphocytes and

plasma cells.

Necrosis of mucosal epithelium of uterus.

Proliferation of endometrial epithelium.

Edema, glandular hyperplasia.

ENDOMETRITIS
Endometritis is the inflammation of endometrium, the mucosa
of uterus. It may be catarrhal or purulent and may occur after
metritis.
Etiology

Trichomonas foetus

Campylobacter foetus

Staphylococci

Streptococci

Organism enters in uterus as a result of coitus, artificial

insemination or as iatrogenic infection.

Strong chemicals/ medicines administered in uterus.

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Macroscopic and microscopic features

Catarrhal discharge from uterus containing desquamated

cells.

Sterility due to toxic environment of uterus to sperms.

Congestion.
Congestion
Moderate infiltration of lymphocytes, plasma cells and
neutrophils in mucosa.

CERVICITIS
Cervicitis is the inflammation of cervix as a result of either
descending infection from uterus or ascending infection from
vagina and characterized by catarrhal inflammation.
Etiology

Etiological agents are similar as in endometritis.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Congestion

Enlargement of cervix.

Catarrhal inflammation of cervical mucosa.

Hyperplasia of mucous glands with tall mucin containing

epithelial cells.

Presence of mucin in lumen.

VAGINITIS
Vaginitis is the inflammation of vagina characterized by
congestion, granularity as a result of elevations in mucosa. This
is also known as infectious pustular vulvovaginitis in cattle
caused by herpes virus.
Etiology

Mycoplasma bovigenitalium

Bovine herpes virus-1 (BHV-1)

Picoma virus

Trichomonas foetus
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Pathology ofGenital System

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Granular elevation in vaginal mucosa.

Congestion

Prolapse due to limitation.

Accumulation of lymphocytes in sub epithelial region.

Congestion

ABORTION

Abortion is expulsion of dead embryo or foetus before attaining

normal gestation. There are two other terms related to abortion
i.e. stillbirth and premature birth. Stillbirth is defined as
expulsion of dead foetus on its full maturity while premature
birth is birth of a live foetus before attaining full gestation
period.
Etiology

Brucellosis (Brucella abortus, B. meletensis, B. ovis)

Campylobacter foetus

Salmonella abortus-equi- mares

Equine herpes virus- mares

Bovine herpes virus-l- cattle

Chlamydia psittasci

Trichomonas foetus

Listeria monocytogenes (Listeria ivanovii)

Leptospria spp.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Toxoplasma gondii

Mycoplasma mycoides

Fungi- Aspergillus spp., Coccidioides spp. Absidia spp.

Toxins/ poisons

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Expulsion of dead foetus in early stage (3-4 month) of gestation (Trichomoniasis)

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Abortion in middle of gestation (Campylobacteriosis).

Late abortions (7-9 months) occur due to Brucellosis, BHV1 infection.
Liver of foetus has necrotic foci, congestion.
Stomach contents used for confirmation of Etiology.
In some cases of abortion, there is retention of placenta
(e.g. Brucellosis)
Placenta becomes oedematous and necrotic (Placentitis)
If the foetus becomes dead and not expelled outside the
body due to non-opening of cervix, the dead foetus remains in uterus under sterile conditions. Such foetus undergoes autolysis and Iiquified. Liquid material is absorbed
in uterus through lymph or blood and bones/ skin etc.
remain in uterine horn sometimes causing irritation or
damage to endometrium. Such foetus becomes shrunken
with wrinkled skin and dried as mummy and are known
as "Mummified foetus".
Necrotic hepatitis with lymphofoIlicular reaction in foetus
(Brucellosis, BHV-l infection).
Granulomatous lesions (tuberculosis, fungal infection),
lymphofoIlicular reaction (mycoplasma, chlamydia).
Demonstration/ isolation of causative organisms in foetal
stomach contents.
Liver of foetus icteric (leptospirosis)
Endometritis in dam.
Bronchopneumonia in foetus e.g. brucellosis.

RETAINED PLACE NT AI PLACENTITIS

Retention of placenta occurs after abortion or parturition as a
result of inflammation characterized by swelling, edema or
fibrosis which prevent the separation of chorion from
endometrium.
Etiology

Lack of progesterone
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Pathology of Genital System

Infection e.g. Brucellosis, Trichomoniasis.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Retained placenta undergoes autolysis, putrefaction

Toxaemia in dam.
Endometritis, Pyometra
Placenta is oedematous and congested
Infiltration of neutrophils, mononuclear cells.
Proliferation of fibroblasts.

MASTITIS
Mastitis is the inflammation of mammary gland characterized
by oedema, haemorrhage and fibrosis of udder. Mastitis is
always infectious and is a disease of lactating glands. There is
no hematogenous infection and infections enter through teat
canal to cause mastitis.
Etiology

Bacteria e.g. Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus dysgalactiae,

Staphylococcus au reus, Actinomyces pyogenes, Pseudomonas

aeruginosa, Brucella abortus, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, E. coli,
Pasteurella multocida and many more.
Virus e.g. FMD virus, pox virus, BHV-1
Mycoplasma e.g. Mycoplasma mycoides
Fungi e.g. Candida ablicans, Trichosporon spp. Nocardia asteroids, CnJPtococcus neoformans.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Edema of udder

Flakes (coagulated milk proteins) in milk.

Blood mixed milk

Watery dirty grey or dark colour milk in animals, which
are in dry period caused by Actinomyces pyogenes and is
known as "summer mastitis".

Terminal atrophy or shrunken quarter

Gangrene formation

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Congestion, haemorrhage
Infiltration of neutrophils, macrophages, lymphocytes
Necrosis of alveolar epithelium, hyperplasia of epithelial
lining.
Proliferation of fibrous tissue
Increase in WBC count in milk (more than 100/ ml milk).

MALE GENITAL SYSTEM

DEVELOPMENTAL ANOMALIES
Testicular hypoplasia
Testicular hypoplasia occurs in animals with chromosomal
abnormality such as XXY chromosomes or Klinefelter's
syndrome. Hypoplasia is also seen in hermaphrodites and in
animals with cryptorchidism.
Spermatocele
There is failure of development of mesonephric tubules and
does not connect with vas deferens resulting into blind tubules
filled with spermatozoa. Rupture of tubuies may lead to
spermatic granuloma.
Cryptorchidism
The testicle fails to descend in scrotum through inguinal canal
after birth and remains in abdominal cavity. This permanent
retention of testicles in abdominal cavity causes their hypoplasia
leading to lack of spermatogenesis. Such testes are more prone
for development of neoplastic growth.
Phimosis
Phimosis is the failure of extension of penis from its sheath.
Paraphimosis
Paraphimosis is the failure of withdrawal of extended penis.

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Pathology ofGenital System

Hypospadias
In hypospadias, there is urethral opening in ventral side of the
penis.
Epispadias
There is urthral opening on the dorsal side of the penis
Phallocampsis
Phallocampsis is the deviation of penis, which may be spiral
(Cork screw penis) or ventral deviation (rainbow penis).
ORCHITIS
Orchitis is the inflammation of testes characterized by edema,
necrosis and infiltration of neutrophils, macrophages,
lymphocytes and proliferation of fibrous tissue leading to
atrophy in chronic cases.
Etiology

Brucella spp.
Campylobactor spp.
Salmonella spp.
Trichomonas spp.
Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis
Actinomycess pyogenes
Pseudomanas aeruginosa
Actinomyces bovis

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Enlargement of testes, oedema.

Accumulation of serous fluid in scrotal sacl tunica vaginalis

is called as hydrocele.

Enlargement of scrotum.
Congestion
Atrophy and hardening in chronic cases.

Congestion
Infiltration of neutrophils and mononuclear cells
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Necrosis of germinal cells

Proliferation of fibrous tissue and infiltration of mononuclear cells.
Granulomatous lesions in case of actinomycosis and tuberculosis
Aspermatogenesis

EPIDIDYMITIS

Epididymitis is the inflammation of epididymis characterized

by catarrhal or suppurative exudate with necrosis of lining
epithelium.
Etiology

Brucella avis in sheep

Other organisms that cause orchitis which is preceded by

epidiymitis
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Enlargement of epididymis

Edema of scrotum

Accumulation of mucus and/ or purulent exudate in epididymis.

Accumulation of serous exudate in scrotum.

Necrosis of lining epithelium of epididymis

Infiltration of neutrophils, macrophages and lymphocytes

Edema
Formation of granuloma in chronic cases.

FUNICULITIS
Funiculitis is inflammation of scirrhous cord characterized by
enlargement of scrotum due to chronic abscess.
Etiology/ Occurrence

Botryomycosis

Actinomycosis

Castration
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Pathology ofGenital System

Unsanitary conditions

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Enlargement of scrotum

Hard swelling/ chronic abscess

Chronic hyperplastic/ proliferative changes.

Fibroplasia

Infiltration of macrophages, lymphocytes, neutrophils

around sulfur granules forming rosette.
SEMINAL VESICULITIS

Seminal vesiculitis is the inflammation of seminal vesicle

characterized by metaplasia of the columnar epithelial lining to
comfied stratified squamous epithelium.

Etiology

Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Chlamydia psittasci

Mycoplasma bovigenitalium

Actinomyces pyogenes

Corynebacterium renale

Brucella abortus

E. coli
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Melanosis in bulbourethral glands.

Enlargement; hardness of seminal vesicle

Metaplasia of columnar epithelium into severely cornified

stratified squamous epithelium.

Proliferation of melanoblasts/ melanocytes.

PROSTATITIS

Prostatitis is the inflammation of prostate gland by formation

of painful abscess, atrophy, hyperplasia of epithelial cells,
proliferation of fibroblasts and formation of cysts. It occurs in
dogs.
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Etiology

Hormonal imbalance

Pyogenic staphylococci, streptococci

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Presence of abscess encapsulated by fibrous tissue

Enlargement of prostate causing obstruction of urethra

Obstruction in rectal passage

Hematuria
Infiltration of neutrophils and liquefied necrosis.
Chronic inflammation is characterized by hyperplasia of
glandular epithelium, fibroblasts and smooth muscle fibers.
Cystic glandular hyperplasia.
Infiltration of lymphocytes.

BALANOPOSTHITIS
Balanoposthitis is the inflammation of prepuce and glans penis
characterized by phimosis or paraphimosis and pain during
copulation. Balanitis is inflammation of glans penis and posthitis
is inflammation of prepuce.
Etiology

Trichomonas foetus
BHV-l virus
Vesicular exanthema virus
Mycoplasma spp.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Actinomyces ptJogenes
ConJnebacterium renale

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Phimosis and paraphimosis due to pain, adhesions

Congestion

Fibrinopurulent exudate

Lymphocytic infiltration, congestion.

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Chapter

20

Pathology of Nervous System

Nervous system is composed of brain, spinal cord, and
peripheral nerves. The neuron is a basic functional unit of
nervous system. Necrosis of neurons in brain is known as
encephalomalacia while necrosis of neurons in spinal cord is
termed as myelomalacia. If the necrosis occurs in gray matter it
is known as polioencephalomalacia while necrosis of neurons in
white matter is called as leukoencephalomalacia. There are three
types of scavenger cells in nervous system known as microglia,
oligodendroglia and astroClJtes. Microlial cells surround the necrotic
neurons and are known as satellite cells and the process is called
as satellitosis. As the neuron dies, it is engulfed by microglial
cell and this process is termed as neuronophagia. The necrosis of
nerve fibers starts from myelin sheath and this change is called
as demyelination or Wallerian degeneration.
The brain and spinal cord is covered by meninges. The
inflammation of meninges is termed as meningitis.
Meningoencephalitis is used for inflammation of both meninges
and brain. Inflammation of duramater is known as
pachymeningitis and of piamater is termed as leptomeningitis.
Hydrocephalus means accumulation of clear fluid in ventricles
and in sub arachnoid space due to obstruction in drainage.
Hydrocephalus occurs in neonatal calves due to influenza and
parainfluenza virus and is termed as congenital hydrocephalus.
Some nutritional deficiency like vitamin A, folic acid, vitamin
B12, niacin and zinc may also lead to hydrocephalus. Cerebeller
hypoplasia has been observed due to bovine virus diarrhoea,
hog cholera and feline panleukopenia virus. Some other
congenital malformations are as under.

Anencephaly means absence of brain.

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Microencephaly means small size of brain. Cranioschisis is

failure of cranium to fuse which results in hernia of meninges
and known as meningocele. Hernia of meninges and brain is
known as meningoencephalocele.
ENCEPHALITIS
Encephalitis is the inflammation of brain characterized by
purulent/ lymphocytic or proliferative changes.
Encephalomyelitis is the inflammation of brain as well as spinal
cord.
Etiology

Bacteria

Listeria monocytogenes (L. ivanovii) main cause

Haemophius spp.
Pasturella spp.

Virus
Mycoplasma
Strychnine poisoning

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Congestion

Hemorrhage

Small, tiny abscess

Necrosis also known as encephalomalacia.

Involvement of spinal cord leads to encephalomyelitis and

of meninges is termed as meningoencephalitis.

Tiny or micro abscess in cerebrum

Infiltration by neutrophils and lymphocytes.
Perivascular cuffing in Virchow Robin space by
lymphocytes

Necrosis of neurons.
Satellitosis, neuronophagia
Pleocytosis- Increase in number of white blood cells in cerebrospinal fluid.

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Pathology o/Nervous System

ENCEPHALOMALACIA

Encephalomalacia is the necrosis of nervous tissue in brain

characterized by loss of normal architecture and soft friable
liquified mass.

Etiology

Deficiency of copper, thiamine, vitamin-E.

Poisons: Bracken fern, lead, mercury, salt poisoning, enterotoxaemia, mycotoxins.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Encephalomalacia- necrosis in brain.

Myelomalacia necrosis in spinal cord.

Poliomalacia is necrosis in brain gray matter.

Leukomalacia is necrosis in brain white matter.

Soft, friable liquified mass in brain.

Congestion.
Liquefactive necrosis
Surrounded by neurological cells/scavenger cells.
Proliferation of small new capillaries

SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHY

Spongiform encephalopathy is characterized by the presence of

vacuoles in grey and/or white matter.
Etiology

Prion proteins

Scrapie in sheep

BSE in cattle
Macroscopic and microscopic features

No characteristic gross lesion.

Edema of brain or hydrocephalus

Congestion
Vacuolation in white and grey matter
Vacuoles are usually in neurons, glial cells and in myelin

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Vacuoles are more extensive in medulla, pons and mid

brain and gives brain "spongy form".

MENINGITIS

Meningitis is the inflammation of meninges, usually occurs

alongwith encephalitis or encephalomyelitis and characterized
by congestion and infiltration of neutrophils and mononuclear
cells. Pachymeningitis is inflammation of durameter while
leptomenigitis involves the piameter.
Etiology

Virus e.g. swine fever

Trauma
Bacteria e.g. Pasturella, Listeria
Toxoplasma
Leptospira

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Congestion

Thickening of meninges.

Petechial haemorrhage

Infiltration of neutrophils and lymphocytes.

Fibrosis

NEURITIS

Neuritis is the inflammation of nerves alongwith degenerative

changes characterized by edema, infiltration of inflammatory
cells.
Etiology

Toxins

Trauma

Virus e.g. Marek's disease MD

Lead and Mercury

Bacteria e.g. Strangles

Deficiency of vitamin E.

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Pathology ofNeroous System

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Wallerian degeneration

Infiltration of neutrophils and lymphocytes.

More destruction at distal end of the neuron.

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Chapter

21

Pathology of Endocrine
System, Eyes and Ear
PATHOLOGY OF HYPOTHALAMUS
The lesions in hypothalamus may cause diabetes insipedus
characterized by polydypsia and polyuria with low specific
gravity of urine. It occurs due to deficiency of antidiuretic
hormone vasopressin.
Etiology/ Occurrence

Lesions in hypothalamus and/ or pituitary

Adenoma and adenocarcinoma of pituitary

Necrosis of hypothalamic nuclei due to larval migration

PATHOLOGY OF PITUITARY GLAND
HYPERPITUITARISM
Hyperpituitarism is increased secretion of hormone(s) from
pituitary gland such as excessive secretion of somatotropic
hormone may cause gigantism characterized by increased length
of long bones, heavy and thick bones leading to large hands,
feet, skull bones (acromegaly). Hyperpituitarism also increases
adrenal cortical stimulating hormone leading to hyperplasia of
adrenal cortex. Pituitary adenoma or adenocarcinoma is
responsible for hyperpituitarism.
HYPOPITUITARISM
Hypopituitarism is decrease in pituitary hormone secretions due
to atrophy, aplasia or hypoplasia of pituitary. Systemic diseases
such as meningitis of bacterial or viral origin may also cause

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lesions in pituitary e.g. infectious canine hepatitis, hog cholera.

It is characterized by dwarfism, genital hypoplasia and
prolonged gestation period.

PATHOLOGY OF THYROID
HYPERTHYROIDISM
Hyperthyroidism is increased activity of thyroid gland leading
to increased production of thyroxin characterized by
tachycardia, increased basal metabolic rate, bulging of eyeballs
and early maturity. It occurs due to presence of tumor in thyroid.
Other signs included polydypsia, polyuria, and loss of weight,
weakness, fatigue and hyperthermia.

HYPOTHYROIDISM
Hypothyroidism is reduced activity of thyroid gland
characterized by decreased basal metabolic rate, obesity,
retardation of growth and sexual development leading to
cretinism. In adult, it is characterized by myxomatous mucoid
degeneration in subcutaneous region giving floppy and
edematous appearance. Hypothyroidism is caused by aplasia
or hypoplasia of thyroid gland.
Goiter
Goiter is enlargement of thyroid gland, which may be
accompanied by hypo- or hyperthyroidism. The enlargement
of thyroid is due to hyperplasia, inflammation, or proliferation
of connective tissue. The hyperplasia of gland is characterized
by increased height and number to epithelial cells in acini of
gland. It may be caused by deficiency of iodine, thiouracil toxicity
and by use of goiterogenic substances such as soybean and
cabbage. The goiter has been classified into 6 forms described
as under:
Hyperplastic goiter
Due to iodine deficiency, there is hyperplasia of thyroid gland
with reduction in thyroxin production. It occurs due to increased
level of thyrotropic hormone from pituitary gland.
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Pathology of Endocrine System, Eyes and Ear

Familial goiter
There is hyperplasia of thyroid gland with reduced thyroxin
secretion caused by defective or absence of enzymes responsible
for thyroxin synthesis. It is not related with iodine deficiency
but have congenital basis of occurrence
Colloid goiter
Colloid goiter is enlargement and distention of acini filled with
colloid and flat epithelium caused by deficiency of iodine.
Adenomatous goiter
This is characterized by nodular enlargement of thyroid gland,
with one or many hard nodules of variable in size and are
characteristic adenoma of gland.
Toxic goiter
Toxic goiter is characterized by exophthalmus due to
hyperthyroidism, enlargement of thyroid due to hyperplasia,
and occurs as a hypersecretion of thyrotropic hormone from
pituitary.
Equine goiter
Equine goiter is caused by excessive iodine levels in feed and
occurs in new born foals with weakness from a goiterous mare.
These foals are having enlarged thyroid gland.
LYMPHOCYTIC THYRODITIS
Lymphocytic thyroditis is characterized by infiltration of
lymphocytes in gland causing destruction and is caused by
autoimmune mechanism. The infiltration of lymphocytes is so
severe that gives lymphofollicular appearance.
PATHOLOGY OF PARATHYROID GLAND
HYPOPARATHYROIDISM
Hypoparathyroidism is decreased activity of parathyroid gland
characterized by decreased concentration of blood calcium and

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tonic spasms of muscles. It occurs due to infection, neoplasms,

low calcium diets and hypersecretion of thyrocalcitonin.
HYPERPARATHYROIDISM

Hyperparathyroidism is the increased activity of parathyroid

gland characterized by weakness, polydypsia, polyurea,
hypercalcemia nephrocalcinosis, demineralization of bones,
metastatic calcification in soft tissues and fibrous
osteodystrophy. It may occur in adenoma or adenocarcinoma
of parathyroid and hyperplasia of gland. Hyperparathyroidism
is also associated with renal disease and chronic hypocalcemia
to produce more parathormone hormone.
PATHOLOGY OF ADENAL GLANDS
HYPOADRENOCORTICISM

Hypoadrenocorticism is decreased activity of adrenal cortex

characterized by atrophy, necrosis and decreased hormones
leading to low blood pressure, decreased blood volume,
hypoglycemia,
gastrointestinal
malfunction
and
hyperpigmentation in skin. It may occur in tuberculosis,
histoplasmosis, amyloidosis, neoplasms and drug toxicity.
HYPERADRENOCORTICISM

Hyperadrenocorticism is increased activity of adrenal cortex

characterized by hyperplasia and neoplasia of the gland leading
to alopecia, muscle weakness, pendulous abdomen, obesity,
polyuria, polydipsia, lymphopenia, eosinophilia, neutrophila and
excessive secretion of 17- ketogenic steroids.
PATHOLOGY OF PANCREAS

Pancreatic islets or islets of Langerhans' are responsible for

production of insulin, deficiency of which may cause
hyperglycemia or diabetes mellitus. It is characterized by
polyuria, glycosuria, hyperglycemia, polydypsia, loss of
secretary granules in b-cells of pancreatic islets. It is caused by
inflammation of pancreas causing excocrine pancreatitis. This
condition may lead to arteriosclerosis in blood vessels of animals.

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PATHOLOGY OF PINEAL GLAND

The pineal gland is responsible for secretion of melatonin
hormone which inhibits gonadotropic hormone synthesis and
release by pituitary and thus plays an important role in seasonal
estrus/ reproductive capacity of animals. Degeneration and
necrosis of gland may cause its decreased function but are not
well reported. Adenoma of gland may be associated with
increased sexual libido and activity.

PATHOLOGY OF EYE

Blepheritis is the inflammation of eyelids while conjunctivitis is

used to describe the inflammatory condition of conjunctiva and
keratitis for cornea. Inward turning of eyelid is known as
entropion which may result in keratitis or conjunctivitis.
Conjunctivitis is also caused by double row of eye lashes
(disctichiasis).
DEVELOPMENT AL ANOMALIES

Aphakia is the absence of lens.

Microphakia is the small size of lens.
Hypoplasia of optic nerve is underdeveloped optic nerve with
absence of optic nerve layer and ganglion cell layer of retina.
Agenesis of optic nerve is absence of optic nerve.
Coloboma is the congenital defect in the continuity of one of
the tunics of the eye i.e. iris.
Congenital anophthalmos is the absence of the eye which may
occur due to vitamin A deficiency in dam.
Congenital microphathalmos is the decreased size of eyes and
may occur due to maternal vitamin A deficiency
Congenital opacity of cornea occurs in cattle and dogs due to
effect of inherited recessive gene trait
Hemeralopia is day blindness which may occur in dogs due to
single autosomal recessive gene.

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KERATOCONJUNCTIVITIS
Keratoconjunctivitis is the inflammation of cornea and
conjunctiva characterized by congestion of eyes, blindness,
opacity and corneal edema.

Etiology

Penetrating foreign objects e.g. Awns of wheat

Moraxella bovis
Mycoplasma spp.
BHV-1, poxvirus
Rickettsia conjunctivae
Chlamydia spp.
Thelazia spp.
Allergy

Macroscopic features

Congestion of conjunctiva leading to redness "pink eye".

Edema, pain
Increased lacrimation (Decreased lacrimation also causes
conjunctivitis)

Corneal opacity

CATARACT
Cataract is opacity of lens and is classified as under:

Subcapsular cataract is the opacity of lens due to abnormal

proliferation of lens epithelium in anterior end as a result of
injury.
Posterior polar cataract is opacity of lens due to abnormal
growth of lens epithelium at posterior face of lens
Cortical cataract is opacity of lens due to disorganization of
the lens fibers.
Nuclear cataract is the increased density of fibers of lens at the
centre and occurs in old animals.

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Pathology of Endocrine System, Eyes and Ear

Morgagnian cataract is the liquefaction of cortical substance

and has not been observed in animals.

Congenital cataract is seen in neonatal animals and occurs due

to failure of closure of primary lens vesicle at the periphery of
lens vesicle and is associated with Chediak - Higashi syndrome.
RETINITIS
Retinitis is the inflammation of retina caused by trauma, iritis,
iridocyclitis and choroiditis. When it is associated with
inflammation of choroids, it is known as chorioretinitis. It may
lead to detachment of retina. Iritis is inflammation of iris.
Iridocyclitis is the inflammation of iris and uvea. Choroiditis is
inflammation of choroid.
The chorioretinitis is characterized by glaucoma occurs in canine
distemper, feline panleukopenia, toxoplasmosis, tuberculosis,
COCcidioidomycosis, deficiency of vitamin A and bracken fern
poisoning.
GLAUCOMA
Glaucoma is the intraoccular hypertension due to occlusion of
the filtration angle and is caused by trauma, iridocyclitis,
intraoccular hemorrhage and neoplasm. It may be unilateral or
bilateral. It is characterized by enlargement of eye ball, opaque
cornea and increase aqueous humor.
PATHOLOGY OF EAR

OTITIS EXTERN A
Otitis externa is inflammation of external ear caused by
Actinomyces bovis, parasites and fungus and characterized by
granulomatous inflammation.
Etiology

Actinomyces bovis
Psoroptes communis - mite
Otobius megnini - tick

Fungi- (otomycosis)

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Grass of wheat awns

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Swelling and congestion leading to obstruction of ear canal.

Excessive production of thick, tenacious and brownish wax.

Granulomatous lesions filling the external auditory meatus

Granulomatous lesions of actinomycosis in subcutaneous

region around the cartilage.
OTITIS MEDIA
,Otitis media is inflammation of middle ear including tympanic
cavity and eustachian tube.

Etiology

Infections from otitis externa or nasopharynx

Mites
Awns of wheat
Pasteurella spp.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Occlusion of eustachian tube

Purulent inflammation

Suppurative inflammation
OTITIS INTERNA
Otitis interna is the inflammation of inner ear including
membranous and osseous labyrinth. This is also known as

labyrinthitis.
Etiology

Infection from otitis media

Mycoplasma spp.

Mumps
Measles

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Pathology of Endocrine System, Eyes and Ear

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Disturbance in equilibrium

Deafness
Suppurative inflammation.

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Chapter

22

Neoplasm
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The word neoplasm has been derived from Greek language
means "New formations or new growth" (Neo=new,
plasm=growth). Thus, the neoplasm can be defined as "A mass

of tissue formed as a result of abnormal, excessive,

uncoordinated, autonomous and purpose less proliferation of
cells". The oncology is branch of science which deals with the
study of tumours (Oncos=tumour, logos=study). The neoplasm
is a new growth of cells that proliferate continuously without
control, have resemblance to their embryonic stages and without
any orderly arrangement and that serves no useful function of
body. The growth of tumour persists in the same excess even
after cessation of the stimuli/ etiology. A neoplasm is thus,
characterized by the following key points.
1. Continuous growth
2. Resemblance to embryonic cells
3. No structural arrangement
4. No useful function
5. No clear etiology
The historical moments in the oncology are given in Table 1.1.
The tumours are reported even thousand years B.C. in the
records of India and Egypt but Johannes Muller in the year
1838 was first to demonstrate that the tumour is composed of
cells. In 1858, R. Virchow described cellular characteristics and
in 1889 Hardley transplanted a neoplasm from one rat to
another. Tyzzer established the genetic relatedness of tumours

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Table 1.1. Historical milestones in neoplasms

51.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

11.
12
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22
23.
24.
25.
26.

Name of Scientist
Development in area of neoplasms
&Coul!try
Surgical removal of intestinal tumour
500BC Jeevak (India)
1838 Muller (Germany) Cellular nature of neoplasms
Animal tumours have simiIar cellular
1858 Leblanc (France)
coml'9Sition
1858 R. Virchow
Cellular characteristics of tumours
1876 Novinsky (Russia) Transplantability of canine venereal tumour
1889 HardIey
Transplantation of neoplasm from one rat to
another
1903 Jenson (Denmark) Reproduction of mouse mammary gland tumour
through serial passage.
1905 Bombay Veterinary Hom Cancer in bullocks
College Scientists
1907 Tyzzer
Genetic relatedness of tumours in inbred mice
1908 Ellerman and Bang Transmissibility of avian lymphoid tumours
!(Denmark)
Transmission of Rous sarcoma of chicken by
1910 Rous
cell-free suspensions
1910 Ounev (France)
Tumours experimentally produced by Xradiation
1912 Murphy
Growth of rat tumours on chicken
chorioallantoic membrane
1914 Yamagiwa Oapan) Carcinogenicity of coal tar by long-term
al'lllication to skin of rabbits
1924 Little and Strong
Development of inbred strains of mice for
,genetic analysis of tumours
1932 Shope
Viral etiology of rabbit papilloma
1933 Warburg
High rate of anaerobic glycolysis in tumour cells
Virus induced renal carcinoma of frog
1936 Lucke
1936 Bittner
Viral agent in milk causing mammary gland
carcinoma of mice
1943 Gross
Tumour specific antigens
1947 Berenblum
Two stages in chemical carcinogenesis: initiation
and promotion
1951 Gross
Virus etiology of mouse lymphoma
1962 Epstein and Barr
Herpes virus from Burkitt's lymphoma
Retrovirus as etiology of feline lymphosarcoma
1964 Jarrett
1969 Friedrich-Freksa
Chemical carcinogenesis induced altered
LeIlzymeyatterns in liver
1973 CM Singh !India} Bovine lymyhosarcotnal1euI<emia1ttimffaloes
Year

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Neoplasm

in inbred mice in 1907 while in 1914 Yamagiwa found tar as one

of the important cause of cancer in rabbits. Rous in the year
1910 described Rouse Sarcoma in fowls with a viral etiology. In
1932 Shope described papilloma due to transmissible viral agents
while in 1936 Bittner's milk factor was associated with
transplanted cancer in baby mice.
To understand the neoplasms, their characteristics and
pathology, it is advisable to have a general idea about the growth
disturbances. The neoplasm is also one of the growth
disturbances or development related diseases. In brief, the
important growth disturbances are defined as follows:
Agenesis
Complete absence of growth of an organ/ tissue.
Aplasia
Congenital disturbance with complete failure of development
of an organ or tissue. Only primitive structure or rudimentary
structure is present.
Hypoplasia
Failure of an organ to develop to its normal size.
Atrophy
Reduction in size of an organ/ tissue less than its former normal
size. The reduction of size is either due to decrease in number
or size of cells of an organ.
Hypertrophy
Increase in size of an organ or tissue due to increase in the size
of cells of that organ.
Hyperplasia
Increase in size of an organ or tissue due to increase in the
number of cells of that organ.

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Metaplasia
Substitution of one cell type by another type of cells. e.g.
Squamous metaplasia of oesophageal glands of poultry in
Vitamin A deficiency (nutritional roup).
Dysplasia
Abnormal development of cells in a tissue/ organ.
Anaplasia
Reversion of cells to a more primitive or embryonic and less
differentiated type.
In comparison to tissue growth as in case of hyperplasia or
hypertrophy, a neoplastic growth does not obey the laws of
the healing or normal tissue growth. The cells of a neoplasm
continue to multiply indefinitely irrespective of any structural
or functional requirements and form an ever increasing mass
of tissue.
The macroscopic appearance of tumours is characterized by
different size, shape, colour and consistency which depends on
many factors such as location, type of tumour, blood supply,
rate of growth and length of time tumour present in body. The
size of a tumour varies from one mm to several centimeter
diameter. The common warts/ papilloma over skin have smaller
size while certain tumours have many centimeter diameter such
as uterine tumours etc. The weight of tumour also varies from
few milligram to several kg. A tumour of 48 kg was removed
from uterus of a cow. The different shape of tumours are round,
spherical, elliptical or multi lobulated. Some tumours have crab
like structures which are formed as a result of its invasion to
the surrounding tissue. The colour of tumours may be grayish
white, yellow, red, brown or black. If tumour has fatty tissue it
looks like yellow in colour while hemorrhage or congestion
may give the pink or red colour to tumour; melanoma or
melanosarcoma are characterized by black colour. The
disintegration of hemoglobin gives brown colour to tumour
due to presence of hemosiderin. The consistency of a tumour
depends on the type of tissue involved. The tumour of bone is

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Neoplasm

hard while connective tissue tumours are firm and dense or

sclerotic. Brain tumours are mostly soft. If there is necrosis in
mass of tumour it becomes soft and liquefied. In certain tumours,
there are oedematous fluid which gives it watery consistency.
Some tumours have mucin leading to its slimy consistency.
Microscopically, the tumour is composed of cells which
resembles the type of tissue/ organ involved. The appearance
of cells vary on degree of malignancy. In benign tumours, the
cells are of adult type while in malignant tumours these cells
are having characteristics of embryonic stages. This reversion
towards embryonic type is also known as anaplasia. The more
anaplastic cells we see in a tumour more malignancy will be
there. However, it will depend on the degree of anaplasia which
have following characteristics:
Enlargement of nucleus: The nucleus of tumour cell is
enlarged which is indicative of a rapid cell growth and towards
embryonic stage of the cell.

1.

2. Multiple nuclei in a cell: The tumour cells having multiple

nucleus are indicative of rapid cell division and such cells are
known as tumour giant cells. Such cells are formed because of
the fact that nucleus is dividing more rapidly than cytoplasm.
3. Enlargement of nucleolus: The increased size of nucleolus
is also an indication of rapid cell growth; sometimes it becomes
2-3 times larger in size than normal.
4. Increase number of mitotic figures: If one finds more
number of mitotic figures in a field under microscope, it is an
indication.of malignancy. More number of mitotic figures, the
more severe malignancy will be there.
5. Hyperchromasia of the cell: The neoplastic cell takes
intense colour and if it is more embryonic, it takes more intense
colour and nucleus stains dark with hematoxylin.
6. Embryonic type cells: The neoplastic cell loses its
resemblance to adult cells. The cell growth is not under control.

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Classification, difference between benign and malignant

neoplasms
The classification of neoplasms is summarized in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2. Classification of benign and malignant neoplasms
I
(i)

Tissue of origin
Benign
Neoplasms of one parencymal cell type

Epithelial neoplasms

1.

Squamous epithelium

Papilloma

2.

Transitional epithelium

Papilloma

3.

Glandular epithelium
Basal cell layer
Melanoblasts
Hepatocytes

Adenoma

4.
S.

6.
7.
(ii)
1.
2.
3.
4.
S.
6.
7.

Malignant

Melanoma
Liver cell
adenoma

Placenta

Squamous cell
carcinoma
Transitional cell
carcinoma
Adenocarcinoma
Basal cell carcinoma
Melanocarcinoma
Hypatocellularcarcino
ma
Choriocarcinoma

Non-epithelial neoplasms (mesenchymal)

Adipose tissue
Fibrous tissue (adult)
Fibrous tissue (embryonic)
Bone
Cartilage
Smooth muscle
Skeletal muscle

Lipoma
Fibroma
Myxoma
Osteoma
Chondroma
Leiomyoma
Rhabdomyom

Liposarcoma
Fibrosarcoma
Myxosarcoma
Osteosarcoma
Chondrosarcoma
Leiomyosarcoma
Rhabdomyosarcoma

8.
9.
10.

11.
12.
13.

14.
IS.
II.

III.

Blood vessels
Lymph vessels

Hemangioma
Lymphangiom
a
Meningioma
Meninges
Lymphoid tissue
Lymphoma
Neurofibroma
Brain nerve sheath
Brain nerve cell
Ganglioneuro
ma
Blood cells (lymphocytes) Mesothelium
Mixed neoplasms
Mixed salivary
Salivary gland
neoplasm
Neoplasms of more than olle germ layer
Gonads
Mature
teratoma

268

Hemangiosarcoma
Lymphangiosarcoma
Invasive meningioma
Malignant lymphoma
Neurogenic sarcoma
Neuroblastoma
Leukemia
Mesothelioma
Malignant mixed
salivary neoplasm
Immature teratoma

Neoplasm

1.
2.
3.
4.

Benign
Malignant (cancer)
Preneoplastic conditions
Neoplastic like malformations

1. Benign neoplasms
Neoplasms that are well differentiated, grow slowly by
expansion and do not invade below basement membrane are
called as benign neoplasms. They remain localized, encapsulated
and can be removed by surgery. They are classified with
addition of a suffix-oma to the cell type. e.g. Fibroma,
Chondroma, Adenoma, Papilloma.
2. Malignant neoplasms
Neoplasms whose cells are anaplastic, metastasize and invade
the adjacent tissues and destroy normal tissue. They are also
called as cancer "like crab". They can adhere to any part of
body. They are classified with suffix as carcinoma or sarcoma.
Ectodermal origin- Carcinoma, Mesodermal origin- Sarcoma.
e.g. Lymphosarcoma, Adenocarcinoma, Squamous cell
carcinoma.
Some tumours are highly undifferentiated they are referred as
"undifferentiated malignant tumours".
Table 1.3. Difference between benign and malignant tumours
Sl.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.
7.

8.
9.
10.

11.

Benign
Slow
Circumscribed/
covered
Mode of growth
Expansion
Differentiation
Good
Absent
Metastasis
Recurrence on surgery Rare
Microscopic features
Resembles with
tissue of origin
Retained
Basal polarity
Pleomorphism
Absent
Absent
Tumour giant cells
Anaplastic
Often absent

Characteristics
Growth rate
Growth limits

269

Malignant
Rapid
Unrestricted
Invasion
Anaplasia
Frequent
Frequent
Poor resemblance
with tissue of origin
Often lost
Present
Present
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3. Preneoplastic conditions
There are some preneoplastic lesions which predisposes the
subsequent development of cancer. These are as follows:
a. Chronic inflammatory conditions of liver of old dogs have
multiple nodules which are considered preneoplastic nodules and neoplastic cells do arise from such nodules. Such
dogs have higher incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma.
b. Intraepithelial neoplasia are restricted to the epithelium only
without infiltration in adjacent tissue. On cytology there
are malignant features of the cells but with no invasion
and they remain confined to epithelium. e.g. Uterine cervix, Solar keratosis, Bowen's disease of skin, Oralleucoplakia
c.
Role ofpre neoplastic lesions in squamous cell carcinoma, transitional cell carcinoma of bladder and malignant melanomas of skin and oral cavity is well established.
d. Some benign tumours like multiple adenoma of large intestine becomes malignant (adenocarcinoma) after sometime.
4. Neoplasia like malformations
A hamartia is a tissue defect of cells normally found in a
particular area. Hamartoma is a tumour characterized by
excessive focal overgrowth of mature cells in an organ. Chorista
is a tissue defect of structures not found normally in that area.
Choriostoma is tumour of such structures. Teratoma are made
up of a number of parenchymal cell types arising from more
than one germ layer.

ETIOLOGY
1. Instrisic or predisposing factors

(i) Heredity
Some chicken are susceptible for leucosis whole others are
resistant for leucosis.
(ii) Age
Neoplasms are more common in old age.

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(iii) Pigmentation
In white horses Melenosarcoma is common. Squamous cell
carcinoma is common in hereford cattle.
(iv) Sex
No difference, tumours of genital tract are common in females.
2. Extrinsic factors
(i) Physical factors
Radium or UV-rays, X-rays, ionizing radiation
(ii) Chemical factors
A. Initiators
1. Coal-tar
2. Naturally occurring products e.g. Aflatoxins, Actinomycin D, Mitomycine, Safrole
3. Alkalating agents e.g. cyclophosphamide, chlorambucil,
nitrosourea.
4. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons- Tobacco, smoke, pollutants, methylcholanthrene, banzapyrene, benzanthracene
5. Aromatic amines- h-naphthylamine bezidine
6. Azodyes
7. Acylating agents- acetyl imidazole
8. Vinyl chloride monomer
9. Arsenic
10. Metals- Nickel, lead, cobalt, chromium
11. Insecticides- Aldrin, Dieldrin, Chlordane

B. Promoters
1. Phenols
2. Hormones- Estrogen
3. Drugs- Phenobarbital
4. Artificial sweetners- Saccharine
5. Colouring/ flavouring agents, preservatives
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(iii)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Virus
Papilloma virus
Polyoma virus
Adeno virus - Hamsters- Sarcoma
Poxvirus- Rabbit- Myxomatosis
Hepdna virus- Hepatitis B virus
Retrovirus
Herpes virus

NEOPLASTIC CELL GENESIS (CARCINOGENESIS)

Cell differentiation
Specialized cells derived from less specialized cells (embryonic
cells) is controlled by specific gene. Cells become differentiated
so that the genes that control embryonic characters are switched
off and genes for more differentiated characters are activated.
In neoplastic cells, the presence of abnormal genes (genetic
mechanisms) or normal genes expressed at abnormal level
(epigenetic mechanism) favour proliferation over differentiation.
Genetic mechanisms
Mutation in a somatic cell nucleic acid occurs to provide a stable
and monoclonal population of cells.
Epigenetic mechanism
Genome is normal in cancer cell but transcription and translation
is abnormal which is responsible for abnormal growth of cells.
In most tumours genetic mutation or genetic rearrangement
occurs like DNA transcribe to mRNA and mRNA translated to
protein (enzymes) which direct cells for proliferation. Changes
occur in DNA as a result of direct chemical or radiation damage
or there is insertion of viral genes to host DNA that induces
cell proliferation through neutralizing normal growth controlling
gene.
Tumours do not arise from completely differentiated cells such
as ne'urons or keratinized epithelial cells, but stem cells
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Neoplasm

(pluripotential) must be present for the growth of tumour.

Neoplastic cells do not dedifferentiate"but fail to respond to
normal signals for differentiation.
II

VIRAL ONCOGENESIS
Oncogenes are the transforming genes present in host tumour
cells of animal and man. It is also present in certain viruses.
Experimentally, when they are incorporated in cells in culture
it transforms the cells to multiply. When such genes are present
in normal cells that are known as cellular oncogenes (c-oncs) or
proto-oncogenes, which are present in a wide range of cells and
has a physiological role of proliferation of cells through protein
product.
Proto-oncogenes are converted into active oncogenes through
following mechanisms:
1. Point mutation: Change in a single base pair of the nucleic acid.
2. Translocation: Transfer of one segment of chromosome
to another chromosome.
3. Gene amplification: Extra copies of c-oncs are inserted
leading to increased number of oncogenes.
4. Inappropriate expression of proto-oncogenes: When the
expression of oncogenes is not in proper way and it gives
rise to the products responsible for formation of tumours.
5. Integration of viral DNA into host cell DNA: Integration of viral DNA into host cell DNA causes adjacent gene
activated for growth of the cell without control.
Cellular oncogenes of host cell can transcribe its copies in viral
genome (retroviruses) and then it is- known as v- oncogenes (vones). So e-ones or v-ones are closely related genes and have
high degree of homology.
Antioncogenes
Antioncogenes are genes that suppresses the cellular
proliferation. By inactivating antioncogene we can produce
cancers. So neoplastic growth occurs either as a result of
activation of oncogene or due to inactivation of antioncogene.

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How the viruses cause cancers

1. A direct effect of gene (v-ones).
2. A viral factor that affects a host gene (e-ones).
3. A factor that inactivates the antioncogene.
4. Genes that do not affect the cell growth but influence the
expansion/ metastasis.
There are many RNA and DNA viruses which can cause cancers.
1. Retrovirus
It produces cancers through 3 mechanisms.
i.
RNA of Rous Sarcoma Virus utilizing reverse transcriptase
converts into DNA (proviral DNA) which incorporated in
host cell DNA. The sre gene of the virus is thus responsible for transformation of the cells.
ii. Proviral DNA of avian leucosis virus has no oncogenes.
However, it carries a viral RNA segment known as "Long
Terminal Repeat (LTR)"present at the end of viral genome.
This LTR has segments of promoters and enhancers, which
activate transcription of viral genome to mRNA and activates the adjacent normal cell gene for growth and production of slow tumours. Gene (myc) of ALe virus is amplified and plays a role is transforming the cells.
iii. Some virus has a protein that transactivate the gene of
proliferation and thus it increases the proliferation of gene
to divide the cells.

2. Papova virus
These are the DNA viruses having two main genera Papilloma
and Polyoma. Papilloma virus has sre, raj, mye oncogene which
produces warts/ benign tumours. These warts regress through
cell mediated immune response. Polyoma produces multiple
nodules in body.
3. Hepadna virus
Hepadna virus has hap oncogene causing hepatocellular
carcinoma. It includes hepatitis-B virus and duck hepatitis virus.
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4. Herpesvirus
DNA virus e.g. Marek's disease virus which causes polyneuritis
and malignant lymphoma in poultry. This is the only virus for
which a vaccine is available to control cancer.
Possible viral induced tumours
1.

Pulmonary adenomatosis of sheep

It is progressive respiratory distress characterized by emaciation

and proliferation of glandular cells. In this the squamous
epithelium becomes metaplastic to cuboidal or columnar.
Metastasis occurs in lymph nodes, skeletal muscles, kidneys and
peritoneum.

2.

Nasal adenocarcinoma of sheep.

3.

Equine cutaneous histiocytoma

The sre gene product of rouse sarcoma virus synthesizes protein

kinase (60 kD) enzyme which stimulates DNA synthesis leading
to mitosis. All vertebrate possess a cell gene related to sre gene;
which also produce similar protein kinase.
Over 20 retroviral oncogenes (v-ones) have been identified. All
have relatives in normal cells (proto oncogenes).
Some of the oncogenes are:
1. Rous Sarcoma Virus - sre
2. Avian Leucosis Virus - mye, myb, erb-B, erb-A
3. Feline Leukemia Virus - pim-l, mye
4. Papilloma virus- sre,raf,mye
5. Hepadna virus- hap
6. Reticuloendotheliosis- reI
7. Avian sarcoma virus- yes, ros
8. Feline sarcoma virus- fes, jms
NEOPLASTIC CELL METABOLISM

Normal regulation of programmed protein synthesis is lost in

neoplastic cells. Gene expression and mRNA translation is being
directed towards:
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1.
2.
3.

Purine synthesis to meet the requirement of mitosis

Defective sodium pump (ATPase) due to abnormal receptor
molecules and surface glycoproteins on neoplastic cells.
Increased glycolysis
a. Increased glycolysis may occur due to damage in self
replicating DNA of mitochondira. e.g. Carcinogenic
metabolite of benzopyrene have affinity to mitochondrial DNA.
b. Enhanced glycolysis is also related to over production of inorganic phosphorus due to high rate of ATP
hydrolysis. Inorganic phosphorus is required to phosphorylate glucose to glucose-6-phosphate.

ATP ADP + Pi
c.

Stimulate glycolysis

Hydrolysis
Abnormal enzymes on cell surface may promote glycolysis. ATPase (Sodium pump, Na-K-dependent
ATPase) is inefficient in cancer cells. Additional ATPs
are required to pump out Na+ which produces ADP
and inorganic phosphorus that further stimulates glycolysis.

NEOPLASTIC CELL STRUCTURE

1. Anaplasia
Neoplastic cells are having anaplastic characters. More anaplasia
represents more undifferentiated neoplasm.
2. Loss of contact
Neoplastic cells loss contact with neighbouring cells due to
decreased adhesiveness. It helps in invasion and metastasis.
Such cells bear more negative charge on surface, decrease in
calcium content and presence of abnormal glycoprotein and
glycolipids. Fibronectin is present on normal cell surface but it
is absent or decreased in neoplastic cells. Fibronectin forms
matrix for stabilization of cells and absence of matrix destabilizes
tumour cells. Fibronectin suppresses invasiveness, absence of
which increases invasiveness.

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3. Neoplastic cell lack contact inhibition

Normally cell growth is inhibited after the fulfillment of function
i.e. healing of wound due to contact and exchange of information
which establishes check on cell growth. But in cancer cell such
contact does not work because of absence of gap junctions.
Vitamin A promotes proliferation of gap junctions and thus this
vitamin helps in checking the growth/ spread of tumours.
4. Abnormal cytoskeleton of cells
Abnormal microfilament leads to defective actin polymerization
while abnormal microtubules causes abnormal polymerization
of tubulins leading to abnormal shape. Besides, unstable
chromosome movements cause abnormality in cytoskeleton.
5. Chromosomal defects
Malignant cells are usually aneuploid i.e. cells having more or
less than diploid number of chromosomes. This gives a
pathologic karyotype in the form of chromosomal breaks or
translocations. e.g. Plasmacytoma (tumour of B-Iymphocytes)
in which translocation of segments of chromosome 15 occurs to
chromosome 12. This translocate carries the gene for production
of monoclonal antibody in mice.
Thus gene for antibody production can be transported to
chromosomes with gene of growth. The process of monoclonal
antibody production is based on this principle.
SPREAD OF NEOPLASMS
I. Expansbn
Benign tumours are encapsulated and surrounded by fibrous
tissue and hence they do not infiltrate in neighbouring tissue.
However, they expand as their growth increases.
II. Distant spread! metastasis
Metastasis is the spread of tumours by invasion in such a way
that detached tumour mass may form secondary tumour at the
site of lodgment. Most of the malignant tumours metastasize

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except malignant tumour of central nervous system and basal

cell carcinoma of skin. There are several methods of metastasis,
which are as under:
1. Infiltration
Neoplastic cells infiltrate or invade the surrounding tissue.
Various factors responsible for invasion are:
a. Growth of new cells so as to increase the size.
b. Lack of contact inhibition in malignant tumour cells.
c. Motility of malignant cells.
d. Secretion of lytic enzymes by some malignant cells.
e. Role of chemotactic factors and activation of complement.
2. Lymphatic spread
In general, epithelial tumours like carcinomas spread through

lymphatic route. Cancer cells invade the wall of lymphatics which

is known as lymphatic permeation and form tumour emboli.
These cells are lodged in sub capsular sinus of lymph node and
may grow. Nearest lymph node initially act as barrier filter
and kill the tumour cells but later it provides fertile environment
for growth of tumour cells. Sometimes lymphatic metastasis do
not develop due to obliteration of lymphatics by inflammation;
this is known as skip metastasis. Obstruction of lymphatics by
tumour cells also disturbs the lymphatic flow and is responsible
for metastasis at unusual sites. This is termed' as retrograde
metastasis. e.g. 1. Carcinoma of prostate to supra clavicular
lymph node, 2. Metastasis in adrenals from lung cancer.
3. Hematogenous spread
Metastasis through blood is common route for most of the
sarcomas (connective tissue tumours). However, some
carcinomas (lung, mammary gland, thyroid, kidney) may spread
through blood. Common sites of lodgment of tumour cells are
liver, lungs, kidneys, brain and bones. Cancer cell invade the
wall of capillaries to form tumour emboli. Blood borne
metastasis appear as multiple and rounded nodules scattered
in. the organ.

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Neoplasm

4. Transcoelomic spread
The tumour cells invade serosal wall and enters in coelomic
cavity and then tumour cells implant at another place. e.g.
Peritoneal cavity- carcinoma of stomach/ ovary.
5. Spread along epithelial lined surfaces
Intact epithelium and mucous coat are quite resista:nt to
penetration by tumour cells. The neoplasms of epithelium spread
along the line of basement membrane without damaging it. e.g.
1. Spread of tumour through fallowpian tube from ovaries to
endometrium, 2. Spread of tumour through bronchus to aveoli.
6. Spread via Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
Tumour of meninges may spread through cerebrospinal fluid
as the detached tumour cells metastasize at other sites in central
nervous system through CSF.
7. Implantation
It is very rare method of spread of tumours. In this the tumour
cells are implanted at another site inadvertently. e.g. 1. Surgeon's
scalpel, needle, sutures may transfer tumour cells from one to
another place in body. 2. Cancer of lower lip may metastasize
to upper lip.

Process of metastasis
The process of metastas~ includes 5 steps.
1. Penetration (Invasion):
The tumour cells penetrate or infiltrate in the adjoining tissue
particularly in vascular space/ cavity.
2. Separation:
A group of tumour cells separate from primary tumour due to
their lack of adhesiveness.
3. Dissemination:
The separated cells reach at distant places through stream of
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blood/ lymph or in cavity through amoeboid movement with a

speed of 6.2 llm/ min.
4. Establishment:
At new site the tumour cells adapt in new environment for
lodgment.
S. Subsequent Proliferation:
As the tumour cells lodge and adapt in new environment, it
starts unrestricted growth at new site and forms secondary
tumours.
TUMOUR IMMUNOLOGY
In some animals growth of neoplasm is very fast that leads to
early death. In others, tumour growth is slow and the animal
may survive several years. When malignant tumour is clinically
manifested it takes 6 month to 1 year to cause death.

There are many systems/ functions in the body which works

together to fight with neoplastic cells. These are described as
under:
1. Nonspecific lysis and phagocytosis
Most tumour cells are phagocytosed by polymorphonuclear cells
and macrophages. On contact, macrophages insert cytoplasmic
processes into the tumour cells and transfer lysosomal enzymes
into the cytoplasm of cancer cell leading to death of cell. Because
in caJ:lt':er cell decreased catalase and glutathione contents makes
them susceptible to oxidative injury by macrophages. On the
contrary reactive oxygen metabolites of neutrophils "respiratory
burst"are mutagenic and may act as tumour promoter.
~atural

killer cell

A population of immature lymphocytes which bears Fc receptor

that causes lysis of neoplastic cells or virus infected cells.
Antibodies
Antibodies against tumour antigens also restrain the growth of
tumour.

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Escape of neoplastic cells from immunological destruction

1. Delayed immunostimulation
The tumour antigens appear late on the anaplastic/ neoplastic
cell surface'causing delayed immune response.
2. Antigenic modulation
Frequent change in antigenic determinants over neoplastic cell
surface may escape the cell from immune response.
3. Antigenic overload
There are too many antigenic determinants on the neoplastic
cell surface that leads to immune tolerance.
4. General Immunodeficiency
Neoplasia, in general, causes immunosuppression in body.
5. Specific immunodeficiency
There is lack of recognition of tumour antigens on neoplastic
cells by the immunocytes that leads to suppression of specific
immune response.
6. Humoral antibodies
Antibodies binds with tumour antigens and blocks the effect of
more potent anti neoplastic action by another source.
Tumour antigens
Tumour cells develop certain biochemical alterations on their
surface (protein change) that makes the "tumour"antigens".
Tumour antigens are useful in differentiating between neoplastic
or pre neoplastic cell. These tumour antigens may evoke immune
response in body by humoral or cell mediated mechanism which
may inhibit the tumour cell growth.
Types of tumour antigens
1. Fetal antigens and alpha fetoproteins produced by embryonic cells.

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2.

It is produced by liver cells but after birth it's production

3.
4.

is stopped normally.
Differentiation antigen as in normal cells.
Viral antigens on cell surface. e.g. Retrovirus

Tumour antigens induced selective CMI response which

destroys the malignant cells. During cytological or histological
examination of biopsy material, if one finds lymphocytes along
with cancer cells, the prognosis is considered as good.

Propionibacterium acnes (Corynebacterium parvum), BCG and

filterate of G- bacterial cultures are used to stimulate the reticuloendothelial system against tumours. Macrophages attract and
attach on tumour growth and remove it through phagocytosis.
e.g. In ocular squamous cell carcinoma, intra tumour injection
of BCG reduces growth by 71 %.
In early tumour growth, tumour cells excrete some products
that inhibits the macrophages. e.g. Macrophages also release
certain soluble factors that are having anti tumour activities,
such as tumour necrosis factor (TNF) which causes necrosis of
tumour cells. It needs to be activated by P.acnes or LPS of Gbacteria. It affects subcutaneous transplantation of tumour.
BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF NEOPLASTIC CELLS

1. Monoclonal antibody production

Antibody production is done by B-cells but they have short life
span. If fusion/ hybrids are produced between B-cells and
myeloma cells (neoplastic B-cells) then this hybrid cells are
capable of multiplying indefinitely and produce antibody
indefinitely. After fusion they are kept in HAT medium
(Hypoxanthine, aminopterin, thymidine)- either B or myeloma
cell cannot survive, only clones will survive. Myeloma cells are
from BALB/C mice. The clone will grow as tumour in
peritoneal cavity; i/p fluid or ascites fluid have a good
concentration of antibodies which are monoclonal in nature.

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Neoplasm

Advantages
1. High titre of monoclonal antibody.
2. Mono specificity.
3. Immortal clones may produce more quantity of antibody.
4. On mass scale in culture media one can produce even up
to 1000 liters of antibody.
5. Monoclnal antibody is used for confirmatory diagnosis of
diseases.
2. Cell culture
Cancerous cells are used for virus culture as cell lines specific
for different organ/ cell. Such cell lines are serving very useful
purpose as they are used in isolation, identification and
characterization of viruses. Vaccines can be prepared from
viruses using cell culture.
EPIDEMIOLOGY OF NEOPLASMS
Horn caner is commonest neoplasm of cattle in India; however,
it may also occur is buffaloes and sheep. This neoplasm was
first reported in 1905 from Bombay Veterinary College and since
then it has been recorded from every part of the country. Adult
cattle of 5-10 years of age are mostly suffer from horn cancer. It
has been recorded in long horned animals with white coat. The
prevalence of horn cancer was found highest in Kankrej 8.24 %
followed by in Gir (7.33%), Malvi (6.99%), Khillari (2.96) and
others (1.11 %). Working bullocks are comparatively more
susceptible to horn cancer. In ,,_ study of 968430 cattle and
buffaloes during 1966-70, neoplasm of horn has been recorded
in 2652 animals including 2268 cattle and 384 buffaloes. More
than 90% of affected animals were in the age group of 5-10
years.
A survey was carried out from 1995 to 1982 (17 years) on
neoplasms in cattle and buffaloes and the prevalence of different
neoplasms was recorded as squamous cell carcinoma (48.4%),
fibroma (19.61 %), melanoma (6.5%), lymphosarcoma (4.5%) and
papilloma (4.2%). The occurrence of neoplasms in different
animals were as 62.3% in bullocks, 19.4% in cows, 16% in
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buffaloes and 2.3 % in bulls.

In dogs, a survey was conducted from (1940-1951) at Madras
and 325 (13.5%) dogs were found to suffer from venereal
tumour. Among various neoplasms diagnosed in dogs in Hisar
(Haryana) are veneral neoplasm, papilloma, round cell sarcoma,
adenocarcinoma, adenoma and lymphosarcoma. Canine
venereal tumour was found more during summer (57.9%) as
compared to winter (42.1 %). The age group mainly involved
was 1-5 years. Sex wise prevalence was 68.5% in females and
31.5% in males. In another survey, the frequency of different
neoplasms in dogs was recorded as 42.2% of skin, 20.6% of
mammary gland, 23.5% of genitalia and 13.2% of other organs.
A screening was conducted on neoplasms of equines from 1952
to 1973 in southern India, in which 69 horses and one donkey
was found to be affected with neoplasms of skin and glands.
Another survey conducted at Hisar from 1980-1988 suggested
sarcoid as main tumour of horses. In Gujrat, a study of tumours
in horses revealed 30% fibroma, 25% squamaous cell carcinoma,
16% fibrosarcoma, 6% papilloma and 6% melanoma.
CLINICOPATHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF NEOPLASMS
Malignant neoplastic cells kill animals through many effects
which are categorized into local and systemic effects.
1. Local effects
The main local effect is pressure on surrounding tissue. The
tumour causes pain, ischemia, oedema and lymphatic blockade
in surrounding tissue. The lumen of ducts are obstructed due
to pressure from outside tumours. e.g. Squamous cell carcinoma
of respiratory tract causes dyspnoea and hypoxia due to
obstruction in pharynx. Tumors which cause obstruction in
urinary tract or obstruction in bile ducts may lead to death.
2. Systemic effects
a. Cachexia
Cachexia is main characteristic feature of malignant tumours.
In later stages, anorexia occurs in animals leading to loss of
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weight and letharginess. Anorexia occurs due to depression of

appetite centre in brain. A humoral factor is released by tumour
cells that causes suppression of appetite centre in brain.
Cytokines secreted by tumour cells or by altered macrophages
(affected by neoplastic cell) are known as cachectin which causes
suppression of gene that produces lipogenic enzymes responsible
for fat deposition. Neoplastic cells act as amino acid trap and
thus, drain out the essential amino acids leading to regression
of skeletal muscles, liver, pancreas and other organs.
Hepatocytes become atrophied.
b. Hypoglycemia
Hypoglycemia is characteristic feature of tumours of pancreas
and other epithelial tumours. It is characterized by restlessness,
weakness, tremors, episodes of collapse and seizures.
c. Anemia
Anemia is a common feature in all metastatic tumours. It is caused
by:
i.
Hemorrhage through invasion by cancer cells.
ii. Decreased erythropoiesis due to invasion of tumour cells
in bone marrow.
iii. Increased erythrocyte fragmentation as many blood vessels pass though tumours. In highly vascular tumour, there
are more chances of anemia.
iv. In hypersplenism, there is spleenomegaly due to excessive
removal of RBC from circulation.
v. Iron deficiency due to tumour may leads to anemia.
vi. Due to anticancer therapy there is non regeneration of stem
cells. It causes death of stem cells or dividing cells of bone
marrow leading to anemia.
vii. Autoimmune anemia occurs in lymphoid neoplasms.
viii. Suppression of erythropoitin by kidneys.
d. Thrombocytopenia
In tumour patients thrombocyte production is reduced. e.g. In

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viral leukemia, platelet survival rate is reduced from 40-80% in

dogs.
e. Thrombosis
Tumour cells produce procoagulants which are responsible for
intra vascular coagulation and thrombi formation.
f. Hypercalcemia

In most of the malignant neoplasms, hypercalcemia occurs

through 2 mechanism:
i.
In solid tumours due to osteolytic metastasis excessive bone
resorption occurs leading to calcium release that results in
hypercalcemia.
ii. Tumour cell secrete proteins that increases parathyroid
hormone leading to increase in calcium level in blood.
Pseudohyperpara-thyroidism is associated with mammary
gland cancer, fibrosarcoma, lymphosarcoma and adenocarcinoma in dogs and gastric carcinoma in horses.
g. Diarrhoea
Prolonged diarrhoea occurs in malignant neoplasms which is
unresponsive to therapy and non associated with
microorganisms. Neoplastic cell secretes vasoactive intestinal
peptides that cause diarrhoea leading to death of the animal.
h. Fever
Some tumour cells release pyrogens that increases body
temperature which is anti neoplastic in nature. In late stage of
metastatic tumours fever is a characteristic feature.
DIAGNOSIS OF NEOPLASMS
Symptoms and lesions

Clinicopathological effects

Immunological methods by using tumour markers

Gross and microscopic features (histopathological examination)

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Neoplasm

PROGNOSIS OF NEOPLASMS
Grading of neoplasms
Grading and staging are two systems used to determine the
prognosis and choice of treatment. Grading is defined as the
macroscopic and microscopic degree of differentiation of
tumour. Broder's grading is as under:
Well differentiated tumour (less than 25%
Grade I:
anaplastic cells)
Grade II: Moderately differentiated tumour (25-50%
anaplastic cells)
Grade III: Low differentiated tumour (50-75% anaplastic cells)
Grade IV: Poorly differentiated tumour (more than 75%
anaplastic cells)
Sometimes it is very difficult to identify the origin of tumour
due to its poor differentiation. In such cases the common practice
is to classify such tumours as under:

Well differentiated

Undifferentiated

Keratinizing

Non-keratinizing
Staging of neoplasms
Staging means extent of spread of tumour. Solid tumours are
classified for the purpose of surgery. Various methods of staging
of neoplasms are as under:
(i) TNM System
T (primary tumour)
To
No evidence of tumour
Tumour confined to primary site
T1
Tumour invades adjacent tissue
=
Lymph node (penetration/ metastasis)

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(N
No
Nl
N2

= local lymph node)

=

No evidence of tumour
Regional node involvement
Distant node involvement

Metastasis
(M
Mo

= distal lymph node)

~
Stage I
Stage II
Stage III

=
=
=

No evidence of metastasis
In same cavityI place as primary tumour
Distant metastasis
Tl, No, Mo
T1, No,l N 1, M1
T2, N/ N 2, M2

(ii) American Joint Committee (AJC) Staging

It divides all cancers into stage 0 to IV taking into account 3
components: 1) Primary tumour, 2) Nodal involvement and 3)
Distant metastasis

(iii) ABC Staging System

This system is mostly used to intestinal tumours. e.g. colon

cancers. It was proposed by Duke's and thus also known as
Duke's system. This system is helpful for surgical removal of
cancer.
Stage A:
When tumour is confined to sub mucosa and muscle
and has a cure rate 100%.
Stage B:
When tumour has penetrated the entire thickness
of the wall into peri colic tissue and cure rate is 70%.
Stage C:
It is characterized by lymph node metastasis and
reduces the cure rate to 30%.
Animal tumours are classified as epithelial and non epithelial
(Connective tissue tumours).

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Neoplasm

EPITHELIAL TUMOURS
PAPILLOMA

Papilloma is a benign tumour from an epithelial surface and

involves squamous, transitional or columnar epithelium
depending on the tissue of origin.

Etiology

Papilloma virus of papovaviridae family.

Macroscopic features

Size small from few mm to 10 cm diameter from skin

Peduculated or broad based (urinary bladder).

Surface may be smooth or horny.

Some times finger like projections.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Thick layers of epithelium.

Layer of connective tissue present.

Epithelium irregularly arranged.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Histopathological examination
SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA

Squamous cell carcinoma is a malignant tumour of squamous

stratified epithelium. It is a common tumour of cattle in India;
horn cancer is mostly seen in bullocks.

Etiology

Exactly not known

Possibly a virus

Chronic irritation, trauma, paints, solar radiation

Hormonal imbalances- Horn cancer, mostly occur in castrated animals

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Macroscopic and microscopic features

Papillary projections or cauliflower like growth.

Broad base
Soft and grey or pink in colour
Horn cancer invade the frontal sinuses
Eye cancer arises from nictitating membrane of cornea
Stratum germinativum proliferate
Concentric layers of keratin forms pearls ~Epithelial pearls'
Mitotic figures seen
Thickening of prickle cell layer

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Histopathological examination
BASAL CELL CARCINOMA
Basal cell carcinoma is a malignant tumour of basal cells of
Malpigian layer of epidermis or hair matrix. They are also known
as hair cell carcinoma and are locally invasive with no
metastasis.
Etiology

Not known

Common in dogs, horses, cats.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

May occur singly and has broad base

It is subcutaneous, rounded and encapsulated

Firm in consistency
Such skin shows alopecia and ulceration.
Pleomorphic cells- round or cigar shaped
Hyperchromatic nuclei
Cells arranged in columns descended to dermis
Prickle cells are not observed

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Neoplasm

No hair, mitotic figures seen.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Histopathological examination
ADENOMA AND ADENOCARCINOMA
Adenoma is benign and adenocarcinoma is malignant tumour
of glandular epithelium. They may arise from any gland of the
body.
Etiology

Not known
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Adenomas are nodular and encapsulated

Clearly demarcated from surrounded tissues

Pink in colour
Polypoid in shape, may occlude gland or lumen of hollow
organ.
Adenomas are having single layer of columnar or cuboidal epithelial cells
Such cells show papillary projections in adenocarcinoma
Pleomorphic cells, mitotic figures seen
Small nucleus, with fine chromatin and fine nucleoli
Such cells grouped into masses and invasive to basement
membrane.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Histopathological examination
SEBACEOUS GLAND ADENOMA
This is a benign tumour of sebaceous gland in skin and
commonly observed in dogs at head, neck, eyelids, prepuce,
tail and back.

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Etiology

Not known
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Small tumours, lobulated

Grayish yellow in colour

Tumours are greasy in touch.

Large polyhedral cells

Fat droplets in cytoplasm

Nucleus small and round with fine chromatin

Cells are grouped in masses separated by connective tissue stroma.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Histopathological examination
PERIANAL ADENOMA OF DOG
Perianal adenoma is modified benign tumour of sebaceous
glands located at anal ring. These are commonly seen in dogs.
Etiology

Not known
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Single or multilobular/ nodular

Firm, encapsulated

Situated laterally or above the anus.

Epithelial cells arranged in lobules

Polyhedral with giant granular acidophilic cytoplasm

Cells are large and rounded

Malignant tumours characterized by mitotic figures and

anaplasia of the cells.
Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Histopathological examination

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Neoplasm

SWEAT GLAND ADENOMA

Sweat gland adenoma is benign tumour of sweat glands of skin
of face and is common in dogs.
Etiology

Not known
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Solid nodules small in size

Hard to touch
Grey in colour.
There may be columnar or cuboidal cells arranged in gland ular fashion

Acinis may have lumen or solid

Cells have acidophilic and faintly granular cytoplasm

Nucleus round or oval

Secretion accumulated, then cyst adenocarcinoma/ cystadenoma.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Histopathological examination
CHOLANGIOCELLULAR CARCINOMA
Cholangiocellular carcinoma is the tumour of bile duct
commonly occurs in cattle and sheep.
Etiology

Not known

More common in liver fluke infected animals

Aflatoxins

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Small in size and multiple

Round and encapsulated

Yellowish white in colour

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Consist acini lined by columnar cells containing mucin

Cyst like spaces filled with neoplastic cells
Nucleus located at the base of cells
Cells are surrounded by collagenous stroma.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Histopathological examination

HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA
Hepatocellular carcinoma is tumour of hepatic ells and observed
in cattle and sheep.
Etiology

Not known

Aflatoxin

Liver fluke infection.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Single, projected as brownish or greenish nodule

Round or ovoid

Hepatic cells arranged in columns

Cells are large and polyhedral with acidophilic granular

cytoplasm

Nucleus is very large, central and pale staining

Numerous mitotic figures

Tumour giant cells are seen

Divided by connective tissue stroma.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Histopathological examination

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Neoplasm

PAPILLOMA! MALIGNANT DUCT PAPILLOMA OF

MAMMARY GLAND
Papilloma or malignant duct papilloma is a tumour of duct
epithelium of teat canal commonly seen in bitches.
Etiology

Not known
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Tumours are soft' or hard, cystic

Grayish white in colour

Enlarged teats

Hard swelling
Tumour arises from lining epithelium of teat canal

May be single
Cells are cuboidal/ columnar forms papillary projections
Cells contain eosinophilic material
Anaplastic cells have hyperchromasia
Cells arranged in acinar or multi acinar form in malignant
papilloma.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Histopathological examination
ADENOMA AND ADENOCARINOMA OF THYROID
Adenoma of thyroid is common in horses. It is the benign
tumour of thyroid. Adenocarcinoma is malignant tumour of
thyroid commonly seen in old dogs.
Etiology

Goiter
Iodine deficiency may predispose.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Small, rounded and encapsulated tumour

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Adenoma may cause pressure atrophy on rest of the gland

Adenocarcinoma is multiple, unilateral, solid or cystic and
highly invasive.

Formation of acini
Columnar or cuboidal cells forms solid mass
Nucleus oval, hyperchromatic
Mitotic figures are common.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Histopathological examination
GRANULOSA CELL TUMOUR OF OVARY
Granulosa cell tumour arises from ovary mesenchyma and
common in cattle. These tumours are seen in younger animals.
Etiology

Not known
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Single, very large even up to 20 cm diameter

Rounded, lobulated projected on the surface of ovary

Yellow in colour.
Tumour cells are arranged in columns, clusters or compact
alveoli as irregular mass or pseudo glands
In lumen, hyaline acidophilic material
Several mitotic figures are seen.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Histopathological examination
SEMINOMA
Seminoma is a malignant tumour of epithelium of seminiferous
tubules of testes. It is common in dogs and bulls. It is more
commonly seen in castrated and cryptorchid animals.

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Neoplasm

Etiology

Castration or cryptorchidism may predispose.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

White or grey in colour

Lobulated as bulging from testes

Areas of necrosis may be seen.

Epithelial cells are arranged as sheets or islands separated

by thin strands of fibrous tissue

Cells are round, large, uniform in size with acidophilic and

granular cytoplasm

Mitosis are numerous.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Histopathological examination
MELANOMA AND MALIGNANT MELANOMA
Melanoma arises from melanoblasts situated in stratum
germinativum of epidermis. Common in animals specially in
old grey or white horses.
Etiology

Not known

Mostly seen in dark coloured cattle, buffalo, sheep and

goats
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Vary in size few mm diameter to several cm diameter

Black or brown in colour

Rounded, nodular, flat and pedunculated

Firm and smooth

On section, shiny black surface is seen

Malignant melanomas are soft.

Collection of pigment laden cells covered by fibrous tissue

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Cells are polyhedral or oval or elongated

In malignant melanomas, cells are anaplastic and may not
have melanin

Nucleus is large and vesicular

Several mitotic figures are seen

Diagnosis

Symptoms ,and lesions

Histopathological examination
VENEREAL SARCOMA
It is a transmissible venereal tumour in bitches or dogs seen at

glans penis or vagina. Histogenic classification is not clear but

may be a reticuloendothelial in origin.
Etiology

Not known. But it is transmissible in abraded mucous

membrane through coitus
Macroscopic and microsc"pic features

Solitary/ multiple

Spreads like a cauliflower

Pink in colour

Soft in consistency

Ulcerated and blood stained discharge.

Cellular mass, uniform in size and shape

Round and polyhedral cells

Finely granular acidophilic cytoplasm

Numerous mitotic figures

Nucleus large, round' and central hyperchromatic.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Histopathological examination

298

Neoplasm

ADAMANTINeMA
Adamantinomas are tumours arising from enamel organ. It is
more common in cattle.
Etiology

Not known
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Arises from alveolar border of maxilla or mandible

Soft nodule
Round or lobulated
Dense fibrous stroma having epithelial neoplastic
ameloblasts
Arranged in cyst or solid masses.
Columnar epithelial cells with a giant basophilic cytoplasm
Cells arranged in the form of a cyst
Cyst may contain acidophilic debris.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Histopathological examination
CONNECTIVE TISSUE TUMOURS (NON-EPITHELIAL
TUMOURS)
FIBROMA AND FIBROSARCOMA
Fibroma is a benign and fibrosarcoma is malignant tumour of
fibrous connective tissue.
Etiology

Not known

20% of skin tumours are fibropapilloma of gum, vagina,

rectum or glans penis origin
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Hard
Common in horse, dogs

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Size from tiny nodules to large even upto several cm diameter

Congestion
Interlacing bundles of fibrous connective tissue
Nuclei of such cells are spindle shape
Blood vessels, lymphocytes and monocytes are seen
Increased number of mitotic figures (Malignant giant cells)
in fibrosarcoma.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Histopathological examination
MYXOMA AND MYXOSARCOMA
Myxoma is tumour of fibrous tissue capable of producing mucin
and anaplasia. These are observed mostly on subcutaneous,
subserous and submucous surfaces.
Etiology

Unknown

Myxomatosis virus in rabbits

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Rounded, bunch of grapes like structures

Slimy in touch due to mucin content

Present on subcutaneous, subserous or submucosal surfaces.

Spindle shaped cells

Cells lying in basophilic mucinous matrix

Pleomorphism

Several mitotic figures

Infiltration of inflammatory cells.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

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Neoplasm

Histopathological examination

LIPOMA AND LIPOSARCOMA

Lipoma is a tumour of fat cells and seen in subcutaneous,
subserosa, mesentery or submucosa. Lipoma is common in old
aged animals while liposarcoma, the malignant tumour of fat
cells is very rare.
Etiology

Unknown

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Size vary from small nodule (1-2 mm dia) to large big mass
(several cm diameter)

Mostly spherical and lobulated

On section, cut surface is oily

Yellow in colour

Polyhedral cells may have a large fat globule or several

small ones with marginal nucleus.

Connective tissue divides the mass into lobules

In malignancy, anaplastic cells have little fat.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Histopathological examination
CHONDROMA AND CHONDROSARCOMA
Chondroma is a benign and chondrosarcoma is malignant
tumour of cartilage cells. These are rare in animals. In dogs,
chondroma are reported in mammary gland.
Etiology

Not known

Common in sheep, arises from osteochondral junction of

scapula, ribs, humerus and femur
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Chondromas are multinodular

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Encapsulated and rounded

Bluish white in colour
Section shows translucent appearance
Calcification may be observed
Rounded or ovoid cells in bluish matrix
Cells are arranged mostly as single.
Strands of fibrous connective tissue forms lobules
Chondrosarcoma cells are pleomorphic
Several mitotic figures

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Histopathological examination
OSTEOMA AND OSTEOSARCOMA
Osteoma is benign and osteosarcoma is malignant and hard
tumour of bone. This is rarely seen in animals. On skull, scapula
or pelvic bones, they are known as compact osteoma while on
long bones they are called as spongy osteoma.
Etiology

Not known

Rare in occurrence
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Nodular, encapsulated

Found on skull, scapula, pelvic bones or head of long bones.

Round or ovoid in shape

. White, yellow or pink in colour.
Osteoid tissue with lamellar arrangement
Confused with exostosis
Osteosarcoma have pleomorphic cells
Tumour giant cells
Several mitotic figures
Several new blood vessels

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Neoplasm

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Histopathological examination
LEIOMYOMA AND LEIOMYOSARCOMA
Leiomyoma is a benign tumour of smooth muscle found in
different organs like uterus, vagina, stomach, intestines, urinary
bladder, esophagus etc. Such tumours are commonly seen in
cow, dog and poultry. Leiomyosarcoma is malignant neoplasm
of smooth muscles.
Etiology

Not known
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Small size tumours with broad base

Firm, lobulated and pink in colour.

Muscle bundles arranged in all directions and planes

Muscle bundles separated by fibrous tissue with blood

vessels

Nucleus becomes cigar shaped and contain filamentus chromatin

Leiomyosarcoma have anaplastic cells with shorter chromatin

Mitotic figures are common.

Such tumours are invasive to adjacent tissues.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Histopathological examination
RHABDOMYOMA AND RHABDOMYSARCOMA
Rhabdomyoma is a benign and rhabdomyosarcoma is malignant
tumour of skeletal and cardiac muscles and are rare in animals.
Etiology

Not known

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Macroscopic and microscopic features

Found in tongue, chest, sternal muscles, neck region, cardiac muscles

Broad based.
Striated muscles grow on different directions
Fibrous tissue divides the muscle bundles into lobules
In Rhabdomyosarcoma, the anaplastic cells are pleomorphic, polyhedral and spindle shaped.

Presence of tumour giant cells.

DiagnosiS

Symptoms and lesions

Histopathological examination
HEMANGIOMA AND HEMANGIOSARCOMA
Haemangioma is benign while hemangiosarcoma is malignant
tumour of blood vessels.
Etiology

Not known
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Usually single

Vary in size few mm diameter to several cm diameter.

Dark red in colour and confused with haematoma

Bleeding is severe on rupture or injury.

Many capillaries are seen

Usually single cell lined capillaries

Lumen filled with newly formed endothelial cells

Pleomorphism in endothelial cells

Such cells grouped into masses in malignant tumours

Numerous mitotic figures are seen.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Histopathological examination
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Neoplasm

MESOTHELIOMA
Mesothelioma is a tumour of mesothelial lining cells of serous
cavities specially of peritoneum and pleura. Such tumours are
found in thorax and abdomen.

Etiology

Not known

Macroscopic features

Pink in colour and hard

Multiple, nodular and scattered in cavity

Found in thorax and/or abdominal cavity.

Collection of cells resembling epithelial cells

Cells have acidophilic granular cytoplasm and large vesicular nucleus

Numerous blood vessels in tumour

A core of fibrous tissue present

Mitotic figures may be seen.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Histopathological examination
MASTOCYTOMA
Mastocytoma is a tumour of mast cells commonly seen in dogs
in subcutaneous tissue of hind legs.

Etiology

Not known
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Usually single and have a size of about 8-12 cm diameter.

Nodular, pedunculated

Hard, pink or grey in colour

Ulceration over tumour is common.

Pleomorphic mast cells

Inflammatory cells like neutrophiIs and lymphocytes are

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also seen

Darkly stained cells

Cytoplasm is more than in lymphocytes
No or little cytoplasmic granules
Few mitotic figures

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Histopathological examination
LYMPHOMA AND LYMPHOSARCOMA
Lymphoma is a benign and lymphosarcoma is a malignant
neoplasm of lymphoid cells primarily found in lymph nodes.
Etiology

Not known

Possibly a retrovirus
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Tumours in several lymph nodes and spleen.

Obliteration of lymph vessels/ blood vessels.

Common in dogs (canine venereal tumour), cat and cattle.

Enlargement of lymph nodes.

Spleen is enlarged, soft and friable.

Liver enlarged and pale.

Immature pleomorphic lymphoid cells.

Mitotic figures are seen.

Tumour giant cells are seen.

In blood, number of immature lymphoid cell increases and

known as Leukemia.
Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Histopathological examination

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Chapter

23

Viral Diseases
FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE
Foot and mouth disease is a contagious viral disease of cloven
footed animals caused by a picoma virus and characterized by
presence of vesicles in oral mucosa and foot.
Etiology

RNA virus of picomaviridae family

Picorna virus
Serotypes A, 0, C, SAT-I, SAT-2, SAT-3, Asia-I, serotype
, 0' is most common in India.

Pathogenesis
Inhalation is the main route of infection in ruminants; however,
ingestion of contaminated feed and water, inoculation of
contaminated vaccines, insemination with contaminated semen
and contact with fomites such as clothing, instruments etc. may
also transmit the infection. When animal gets infected through
respiratory tract, viral replication starts in pharynx followed
by viremic spread to other tissues and organs like epithelium
of mouth. Viral excretion commences about 24 hours prior to
the onset of clinical form of disease and continues for several
days. The aerosols of infected animals contain large amount of
virus particularly of swine. Large amount of virus is excreted
in milk. In cattle and sheep, virus may be detectable up to 2
years and 6 months of exposure, respectively.
Characteristic symptoms

Fever (102-I04F)

Drooling of saliva

Vesicular mouth lesions

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Lameness due to formation of vesicles on coronets

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Presence of vesicles on tongue, lips, cheeks and palate

Damaged vesicle leaves a raw surface having red areas

due to congestion

Gastroenteritis

Myocarditis- Tigroid appearance

Enlargement of spleen.

Hydropic degeneration in stratum spinosum cells of epidermis

Presence of micro vesicles

Infiltration of neutrophils

Hyaline degeneration and necrosis of muscles of myocardium

Infiltration of neutrophils and mononuclear cells in myocardium.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- eFT, ELISA

Isolation of virus and its typing

Demonstration of virus in affected tissues using

electronmicroscopy
VESICULAR STOMATITIS

Vesicular stomatitis is a contagious viral disease of animals

caused by vesiculovirus and characterized by the presence of
vesicles in oral cavity, necrosis and intercellular oedema. It is
also known as sore mouth of cattle.
Etiology

Vesiculovirus of rhabdoviridae family.

RNA virus with 70-175 nm size, bullet shape

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Viral Diseases

Pathogenesis
Transmitted through insects from infected to susceptible
animals. There is viremia and virus settles in oral mucosa causing
vesicular glossitis.
Oinical Symptoms

Hypersalivation

Rubbing of lips with manger

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Vesicles on tongue

Vesicles on snout of pigs

Intercellular oedema in malpighian layer

Necrosis of epithelial layer

Infiltration of neutrophils and mononuclear cells

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Detection of antibody or antigen using ELISA

VESICULAR EXANTHEMA
Vesicular exanthema is a viral disease of swine characterized
by fever and vesicle formation in snout, lips, nostrils, tongue,
feet and mammary gland.
Etiology

Calcivirus of 35-40 nm diameter

Pathogenesis
The source of infection is infected pig or pork and virus spreads
among susceptible animals through direct contact. Viremia lasts
for 3-4 days and virus localizes in buccal mucosa and skin.
Clinical Symptoms

Fever

Vesicles on mouth, snout, teats, claws

Anorexia
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Rupture of vesicle leads to ulcer

Macroscopic and microscopi~ features

Vesicles on snouts, lips, tongue

Vesicles on coronary band and mammary gland

Rupture of vesicles

Ruptured vesicles covered by brown and dry dead tissue

Ulcer on secondary bacterial infection.

Vesicles, hydropic degeneration on stratum spinosum layer

of epidermis

Infiltration of mononuclear cells

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Detection of antibody or antigen using ELISA

RINDERPEST
Rinderpest is an acute contagious viral disease of cattle and
buffaloes caused by morbillivirus and characterized by erosive
mouth lesions and erosions and hemorrhagic enteritis. It has
been eradicated from India.
Etiology

Morbilli virus of paramyxoviridae family.

RNA virus
Very fragile virus, sensitive to glycerol.

Pathogenesis
Virus enters in body through inhalation, penetrates the
epithelium of upper respiratory tract and multiplies in tonsils
and mandibular and pharyngeal lymph nodes. From there it
enters in blood mononuclear cells, which disseminate the virus
to other lymphoid organs, lungs and epithelial cells of mucous
membrane. The virus has high affinity for lymphoid tissue and
alimentary tract mucosa. In tissues, there is pronounced
destruction of lymphocytes. Viremia develops within 2 to 3 days
after which virus can be demonstrated in lymph nodes, spleen,

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bone marrow and mucosa of respiratory and digestive tract.

There is marked leucopenia due to viral replication and
destruction of lymphoid tissue. Due to destruction of epithelial
lining of mucous membranes, there is presence of erosions in
the form of "Zebra"stripes in caecum, colon and rectum which
is considered characteristic of rinderpest. Intra cytoplasmic and
intra nuclear eosinophilic inclusion bodies are commonly seen
in epithelial cells.
Chafacteristic symptoms

Fever (105-107F)

Diarrhoea, melena

Erosive mouth lesions

Skin eruptions

Conjunctivitis

Mortality up to 80%
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Erosions on oral mucosa

Bran like deposits on erosions, on removal haemorrhagic

raw surface is present

Hemorrhage in intestines leading to Zebra markings"

Petechial hemorrhage in bladder, vagina and other mucous membrane

Congestion of conjunctivae.

Erosions in epithelium of oral and gastrointestinal mucosa

Infiltration of mononuclear cells

Congestion and hemorrhage in intestines

Depletion of lymphoid cells in peyer's patches

Lymphocytolysis in spleen and lymph nodes.

/I

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- AGPT, ClEP, ELISA
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Isolation of virus

MALIGNANT CATARRHAL FEVER

Malignant catarrhal fever is an infectious disease of cattle caused

by herpes virus and characterized by catarrhal and
mucopurulent conjunctivitis, presence of erosions/ ulcers on
nostrils, oral mucosa, intestines and enlargement of lymph
nodes.
Etiology

DNA virus of herpesviridae family

Herpes virus
Pathogenesis
It is caused by herpes virus which is j;trongly associated with
cells. The disease is transmitted through wild beast and sub
clinically infected sheep to cattle. In circulating blood it is
attach&! to leucocytes, especially mononuclear cells. After entry,
the virus attacks and replicates in lymphoid tissues (e.g. lymph
nodes, peyers patches and spleen). Many lymphocytes are
destroyed in germinal centers leading to their depletion. The
incubation period is very long and there is no clear information
about pathogenesis of disease. There is generalized
lymphadenopathy and lympho-pro liferative response involves
Th and Tc cells. There is most constant finding is marked
perivascular coughing of mononuclear cells, mainly monocytes.
Characteristic symptoms

Fever (105-107F)

Drooling of saliva

Ulcerative mouth and nasal lesions

Diarrhoea, dysentery with melena

Conjunctivitis

Enlargement of superficial lymph nodes

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Conjunctivitis, rhinitis

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Viral Diseases

Mucopurulent exudate in eyes and nostrils

Erosions and ulcers on oral and intestinal mucosa
Liver and kidneys enlarged and mottled
Necrosis of epithelium and intense lymphocytic infiltration in mucosa of upper respiratory tract, oral mucosa and
abomasum
Infiltration of eosinophils in mucosa and submucosa of
gastrointestinal tract.

Diagnosis

History of sheep rearing with cattle

Symptoms and lesions

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- AGPI', ELISA

Isolation of virus through co-cultivation of peripheral blood

lymphocytes
BOVINE VIRAL DIARRHOEAl MUCOSAL DISEASE
Bovine viral diarrhoea is a contagious viral disease of cattle
caused by pestivirus and characterized by hypoplasia of
cerebellum, ulcers in oral and nasal mucosa, oesophagus,
abomasum and intestines.
Etiology

Pestivirus of Togaviridae family.

Pathogenesis
The virus spreads by direct or indirect contact with infected
animals. Overcrowding and transportation play an important
role in spread of virus through oral and nasal route. The virus
also spreads through contaminated food and water, urine and
nasal discharge. After entry virus multiplies in lymphocytes
which leads to viremia. From circulation, virus reaches in the
mucous membrane of alimentary tract. In buccal cavity, it causes
inflammation and edema which is manifested by ulcerative
stomatitis and enteritis. However, pathogenesis of the lesions
remains obscure.

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Characteristic symptoms

Fever (105-107F)

Drooling of saliva

Ulcerative mouth and nasal lesions

Diarrhoea, dysentery with melena

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Hypoplasia of cerebellum

Ulcers in oral and nasal mucosa

Ulcers and hemorrhage in mucosa of gastrointestinal tract

Ulcers in esophagus

Hemorrhage in vagina, epicardium and sub cutaneous tissue.

Necrosis, ulcer, and infiltration of lymphocytes in oesophagus.

Hemorrhage in intestines

Ulcers in intestines

Infiltration of mononuclear cells

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- AGPT, ELISA

Isolation of virus
POX

Pox is an infectious viral disease of animals caused by members

of poxviridae family and characterized by the presence of pock
lesions on hair less parts of the skin.
Etiology

Sheep- Ovi pox virus, Capri pox virus

Goat- Capri pox virus

Cow- Cow pox virus

Buffalo- Buffalo pox virus

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Viral Diseases

Camel- Camel pox virus

Swine- Swi pox virus

Pathogenesis
The disease is transmitted by direct contact with affected animals
and through the hand of the milkers, insects and milking
machine. Generally virus enters through small abrasions of skin.
Following incubation period of 3-7 days, the pock lesions appear
on skin which comprises of erythema, followed by papules,
vesicles, pustule and scab; on detach and slough off it may leave
scar.
Characteristic symptoms

Fever (105-107F)

Pock lesions on hairless parts of skin like papule, vesicle,

pustule, scab and scar
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Presence of pock lesions on hair less parts of body including papule, vesicle, pustule, scab and scar.

Cow- Pock lesions on teats

Buffaloes- Face, teats

Sheep and Camel- Whole body

Necrosis of stratum spinosum epithelium of epidermis

Infiltration of mononuclear cells in dermis and epidermis

Presence of intracytoplasmic inclusions

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- AGPT, ELISA

Isolation of virus
INFECfIOUS BOVINE RHINOTRACHEITIS
Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis is an infectious viral disease
of cattle caused by herpes virus and characterized by respiratory
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disease, conjunctivitis, encephalitis in calves and abortions and

mastitis in cows.
Etiology

DNA virus of Herpesviridae family

Bovine herpes virus -1 (BHV-1)

Pathogenesis
The main source of infection is nasal exudate and coughed up
droplets, genital secretions, semen and foetal fluid/ tissues.
Aerosol or droplet infection causes respiratory disease. In
genital from, venereal transmission occurs. In respiratory
disease, after entry virus multiplies in nasal cavity and upper
respiratory tract resulting in rhinitis, laryngitis and tracheitis.
There is extensive loss of cilia in trachea. This leaves the tracheal
epithelium covered with microvilli, which has an adverse effect
on the defense mechanism of respiratory tract. The virus spreads
from nasal mucosa through trigeminal ganglion, resulting in a
non-suppurative encephalitis. Through peripheral leucocytes,
virus may reach to placenta and foetus in pregnant animals
causing abortion. The foetus is highly susceptible to the herpes
virus infection.
Characteristic symptoms

Fever (106F)

Nasal discharge

Abortions in late gestation

Conjunctivitis

Infectious pustular balanoposthitis in bulls

Infectious pustular vulvovaginitis in cows

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Rhinotracheitis, pneumonia, mucopurulent exudate in trachea.

Pustules in vulval vagina, glans penis and prepuce

Ulcers in vulval vagina

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Viral Diseases

Necrotic lesions in liver of aborted foetus

Hyaline membrane pneumonia
Erosions/ ulcers in mucosa of upper respiratory tract
Ulcers on vulval mucous membrane
Infiltration of lymphocytes
Presence of intranuclear inclusions in mucosal epithelium
Necrotic lesions in liver, spleen and kidneys of aborted
foetus

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- AGPT, ELISA

Isolation of virus

ROTAVIRUS INFECTION

Rotavirus causes acute gastroenteritis in neonates of animals

characterized by yellowish watery diarrhoea, shortening of villi,
dehydration, malabsorption and maldigestion.
Etiology

Rotavirus belonging to family Reoviridae

Double stranded RNA

11 segments in genome
Pathogenesis
The disease spreads either through direct contact or through
contaminated water, milk and fomites. The virus infects mature
epithelial cells of the small intestine due to presence of receptors
in the form of beta-galactosidase on the brush border of the
epithelium or the receptors of immunoglobulins (IgG) are
utilized by the virus. Only differentiated columnar epithelial
cell lining of apical half of villi are susceptible. The virus does
not enter and replicate in immature/ proliferating cells in crypts
because these cells lack receptors for the virus. Epithelial cells
develop cisternae (wide spaces) in endoplasmic reticulum with

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swollen mitochondria. The viral particles appear in distended

cisternae and lysosomes. The epithelial cells are vacuolated and
desquamated in the lumen of the intestine. Villi thus become
atrophic and shortened resulting in malabsorption and
mal digestion. The death of affected calves occurs due to
dehydration.
Characteristic symptoms

Fever (104-106F)

Watery yellowish diarrhoea, dysentery with melena

Dehydration

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Congestion of intestines

Presence of desquamated cells mixed catarrhal exudate in

the small intestines

Enlargement of mesenteric lymph nodes

Increased number of goblet cells in villi

Shortening of the length of villi

Fusion of two adjacent villi
Infiltration of mononuclear cells in mucosa and submucosa
Congestion and hemorrhage

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- AGPT, CIEP, ELISA

Isolation of virus
Demonstration of virus antigen in intestinal tissue sections
using immunoperoxidase technique.

CORONAVIRUS INFECTION
Coronavirus infection causes acute gastroenteritis in neonates
of animal characterized by damage in villi as well as crypts
leading to mal digestion, mal absorption, shortening of villi,
haemorrhage in small and large intestines.

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Viral Diseases

Etiology

Coronavirus
Pathogenesis
The disease spreads either through direct contact or through
contaminated water, milk and fomites. The virus infects both
mature and immature epithelial cells of the small intestine.
Epithelial cells of crypts and villi develop cisternae (wide spaces)
in endoplasmic reticulum with swollen mitochondria. The viral
particles appear in distended cisternae and lysosomes. The
epithelial cells are vacuolated and desquamated in the lumen
of the intestine. Villi thus become atrophic and shortened
resulting in malabsorption and maldigestion. The death of
affected calves occurs due to dehydration and loss of blood.
Characteristic symptoms

Fever (104-106F)

Diarrhoea, dysentery with melena

Dehydration
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Congestion of small and large intestines

Presence of mucohaemorrhagic exudate along with desquamated cells in intestine

Enlargement of mesenteric lymph nodes

Increase number of goblet cells on villous surface

Shortening of villi and crypts

Hemorrhage from exposed villi

Fusion of two adjacent villi

Congestion and hemorrhage in mucosa and submucosa

Infiltration of mononuclear cells in mucosa and submucosa

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- CFT, ELISA

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Isolation of virus
Demonstration of virus antigen in intestinal tissue sections
using immunoperoxidase technique

PARAINFLUENZA-3 INFECTION
Parainfluenza-3 virus causes respiratory disease in cattle, sheep
and goat characterized by rhinitis and bronchopneumonia
Etiology
Parainfluenza-3 virus
Secondary invaders
Corynebacterium
Streptococci
Pasturella multocida

Pathogenesis
It is one of the important pathogenesis of both animal and man.
Infection occurs through the respiratory route and virus
multiplies in respiratory epithelium resulting in viremia with
short courses of fever, rhinitis and nasal discharge, lacrimation,
coughing and dyspnoea.

Characteristic symptoms

Fever (105-107F)
Nasal discharge

Sneezing, coughing
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Congestion of nasal mucosa

Mucopurulent exudate in upper respiratory tract

Congestion and consolidation of lungs

Congestion of mediastinal lymph nodes

Lobular distribution of lesions in lungs

Infiltration of mononuclear cells in alveoli around the bronchi

Proliferation of septal cells present in inter alveolar spaces

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Presence of giant cells in alveoli

Presence of intra cytoplasmic and intra nuclear eosinophilic
inclusions

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- AGPT, ELISA

Isolation of virus
Demonstration of viral antigen in respiratory tract epithelium using immunoperoxidase technique.

BOVINE IMMUNODEFICIENCY
Bovine immunodeficiency is an infectious viral diseases of cattle
caused by lentivirus and characterized by lethargyness, abscess
formation,
abomasitis,
lymphosarcoma
and
immunosuppression.
Etiology

Lentivirus of retroviridae family

RNA virus having reverse transcriptase enzyme

Pathogenesis
The virus mainly spreads through insect bites; though the
possibility of vertical transmission cannot be ruled out. The virus
replicates in macrophages and lymphocytes and remains cell
associated as infection is life long leading to lymphocytolysis
and immunosuppression.
Characteristic symptoms

Letharginess

Abscess formation

Mastitis, dermatitis, pneumonia or digestive disorders as

a result of immunosuppression.
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Subcutaneous nodules of lymphoid follicles

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Abscess on skin
Pododermatitis
Lymphadenopathy
Lymphosarcoma
Lymphocytosis or lymphopenia
Lymphocytic encephalitis and meningitis

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Detection of virus antigen/ antibody using ELISA

Demonstration of viral antigen in lymphocytes using

immunoperoxidase technique

Demonstration of virus using electronmicroscopy.

BOVINE LEUKEMIA
Bovine leukemia is an infectious viral disease of cattle caused
by oncornavirus characterized by malignant lymphoma in
lymph nodes, lymphocytosis with immature lymphocytes in
blood. It is also known as bovine lymphoma or malignant
lymphoma.
Etiology

Oncoma virus of retroviridae family

Type C oncorna virus having reverse transcriptase, RNA

virus
Pathogenesis
The virus is transmitted horizontally and infects lymphocytes
leading to their proliferation. The proviral DNA of virus
incorporated in host cell DNA inducing neoplastic growth of
the cells.
Characteristic symptoms

Lymphocytosis

Enlargement of superficial lymph nodes

Weakness, emaciation, cachexia

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Macroscopic and microscopic features

Enlargement of lymph nodes (mesenteric, pelvic and

sublumbar)

Dehydrated, emaciated and cachectic carcass

Immature lymphocytes in blood

Mitotic figures, anaplastic cells in lymph nodes

Heavy lymphocytic infiltration in myocardium

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Detection of antigen/ antibody using ELISA

Demonstration of viral antigen in affected tissue using IFf

or immunoperoxidase technique

Demonstration of virus using electronmicroscopy

EPHEMERAL FEVER
Ephemeral fever is a viral disease of animals characterized by
three days sickness, oedematous lymph nodes,
hydropericardium, hydrothorax, pulmonary emphysema,
tendovaginitis, and congestion of abomasal folds and focal
necrosis of muscle.
Etiology

Vesiculovirus of Rhabdoviridae family

Bullet shaped RNA virus

Pathogenesis
The virus is transmissible through insects and after an incubation
period of 2-10 days, viremia sets in. Thereafter, virus localizes
in the joints, lymphocytes and muscles.
Clinical Symptoms

Three day sickness

Shifting lameness

High fever which subsides after 3 days

Stiffness of joints
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Macroscopic and microscopic features

Hydrothorax, hydropericardium

Edematous lymph nodes

Rhinitis, tracheitis, pulmonary emphysema

Congestion of abomasum

Vascular enlargement! congestion

Emphysema in lungs

Focal necrosis of muscle

Petechiae in peripheral nerves

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Detection of antigen and antibody using ELISA

Demonstration of viral antigen in affected tissues using

immunoperoxidase technique.
BLUE TONGUE
Blue tongue is an infectious viral disease of sheep caused by
orbivirus and characterized by oedema and congestion of face,
congestion and cyanosis of tongue, endothelial hyperplasia and
arteritis.
Etiology

Orbivirus of Reoviridae family

dsRNA virus

Serotype 1, 2, 9, 15, 18, 23 in India

Pathogenesis
Blue tongue is transmitted by biting of insects including
culicoids and other mosquitoes and ectoparasites like Malophagus
ovinus. The infection has also been transmitted by insemination
from an infected male, since virus is present in the semen. After
infection, viral replication starts in hemopoietic cells which
results in viremia and subsequent replication in endothelial cells
of blood vessels throughout the body. The damage of

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endothelial cells leads to development of hyperemia,

hemorrhage, edema and thrombosis.
Characteristic symptoms

Fever (105-107F)
Edema of face

Cyanosffioftongue

Signs of mosquito bite on skin

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Edema and congestion of face, head, neck

Edema and cyanosffi of tongue

Petechial haemorrhage on oral and nasal mucosa

Hemorrhage on coronets leading to pododermatitffi

Hemorrhage in abomasum and intestines.

Hemorrhage and infiltration of mononuclear cells in tongue

Hyperemia of vascular corium of skin in coronets

Hemorrhage in muscles of. coronets

Hemorrhage and infiltration of neutrophils in abomasum

and intestines.
Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigenj

antibody- AGPf, CIEP, ELISA

Isolation of virus

CONTAGIOUS ECfHYMA
Contagious ecthyma ffi a highly infectious viral disease of sheep
and goats characterized by the presence of pustular and scabby
lesions on muzzle and lips.
Etiology

Contagious ecthyma virus belongs to poxviridae family

Similar to pseudo-cow pox virus

Very resffitant virus

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Pathogenesis
Virus transmitted through direct and indirect contact with
contaminated materials like feed, fences, manure, bedding.
Infected lambs may transmit the virus through suckling on teats
and udder of dam. Lesions develop on mouth as papule and
then pustules. These are covered with thick tenacious scabs
covering a raised area of ulceration.
Characteristic symptoms

Pustular and scabby lesions on muzzle, nostrils and lips

Pustular lesions on coronets, ears, anus, vulva, prepura

Morbidity is high, mortality low

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Pustular lesions on muzzle, lips and nostrils

Gastroenteritis

Bronchopneumonia

Ulcers in nasal mucosa, oesophagus, abomasum and small

intestines.
Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Immunodiagnossis- ELISA

Demonstration of antigen in tissue sections using

immunoperoxidase techniques
OVINE PULMONARY CARCINOMA (PREVIOUSLY
PULMONARY ADENOMATOSIS)
(Pulmonary adenomatosis) or Jaagsiekte is an infectious viral
disease of sheep caused by a lentivirus and characterized by
metaplasia of alveolar epithelium to cuboidal or columnar giving
it an appearance of gland.
Etiology

Lentivirus of Retroviridae family

RNA virus, having reverse transcriptase enzyme

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Pathogenesis
It has a very long incubation period (1-3 years). It is transmitted

through direct contact or droplet infection for a long period of

time. The disease may also be vertically transmitted from
mother to lambs. After entry virus multiplies and localizes in
lungs. There is development of oedematous growth in the
alveolar epithelium due to metaplasia. As a result there is
interference of oxygen exchange resulting to hypoxia and
anoxia.
Characteristic symptoms

Chronic nasal discharge

Weakness, wasting
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Nodular foci in lungs

Congestion and consolidation of lungs

Later stages chai"acterized by fibrosis.

Lymphoid follicles in lungs

Proliferation and hypertrophy of alveolar epithelial cells

leading to cuboidal or columnar epithelium giving it a
shape of glaI!d

Thickening of alveolar wall

Adenomatosis in bronchial and mediastinal lymph nodes.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- ELISA

Demonstration of viral antigen in lung tissues using 1FT

or immunoperoxidase technique.
MAEDI/ VISNA
Maedi is an infectious chronic viral disease of sheep caused by
lentivirus and characterized by encephalomyelitis and
pneumonia.
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Etiology

Lentivirus of Retroviridae family

RNA virus having reverse transcriptase enzyme

Pathogenesis
The disease is mainly transmitted through respiratory route.
Mononuclear cells of infected sheep contain virus including
mononuclear cells of colostrums and milk through which lambs
get infected. The virus repli<;ates in the macrophages which leads
to cell associated viraemia and dissemination of the virus to
the brain and other organs. The virus can not be trapped by
antibodies. Antibodies are produced very slowly as a result;
these antibodies are insufficient in selecting antigenic ally
different virions. So the virus can spread between cells much
faster than it can be neutralized by antibodies.
Characteristic symptoms

Chronic nasal discharge

Wasting
Aimless movements

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Lungs have dense and rubbery consistency

Lungs enlarged 2-5 times

Cut surface is dry with no exudate

Congestion of meninges and brain

Enlargement of mediastinal lymph nodes, adhesive pleuritis.

Zones of demyelination with destruction of para ventricular white matter in cerebellum and cerebrum

Gliosis and lymphocytic infiltration in brain and meninges

Thickening of the alveolar wall due to proliferation of

mononuclear cells and fibroblasts

Alveolar lining cells become swollen and becomes cuboidal in shape.

Intra cytoplasmic inclusions in macrophages.

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Diagnosis
Symptoms and lesions

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- ELISA

Demonstration of viral antigen in macro phages and/or

lung tissue using immunoperoxidase technique.
PESTE DE PETITS IN RUMINANTS (PPR)
Peste de Petits ruminants (PPR) is an infectious viral disease of
small ruminants caused by morbilli virus and characterized by
giant cell pneumonia, erosive stomatitis and enteritis.
Etiology

Morbilli virus of Paramyxoviridae family

RNA virus, very frazile virus

Pathogenesis
Infection is mainly trasnsmitted by inhalation through close
contact with infected animals. After entry virus penetrate
retropharyngeallymph nodes and mucosa and multiplies there
that leads to viremia. The virus reaches mucous membrane of
alimentary and respiratory tract where it proliferates and causes
damage to them. There is inflammation of mucosa leading to
enteritis, diarrhoea, dehydration and death in young animals.
Due to inflammation of lungs, giant cell pneumonia and
respiratory distress develops. In PPR, lymphoid necrosis is not
high as in rinderpest. Most of sheep and some adult goats
recover and they carry antibodies that provide life long
immunity.
Characteristic symptoms

Fever (105-107q
Diarrhoea, melena
Erosive mouth lesions
Skin eruptions
Conjunctivitis
Mortality up to 80%

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Macroscopic and microscopic features

Congestion and consolidation of lungs

Hemorrhagic/ erosive enteritis

Erosive mouth lesions

Erosine lesions in large intestine in strips along payers

patches giving rise to "Zebra markings"in large intestine

Giant cell pneumonia

Erosions in oral mucous membrane
Erosions in intestinal mucou~ membrane
Hemorrhage and congestion in intestines
Infiltration of mononuclear cells
Depletion of lymphoid cells in lymph nodes.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- AGPf, CIEP, ELISA

Isolation of virus
Demonstration of viral antigen in lung and intestinal tissue using immunoperoxidase technique.

SWINE FEVER (HOG CHOLERA)

Swine fever is an acute contagious viral disease of pigs caused
by pestivirus of Togaviridae family and characterized by gluing
of eyes, congestion and widespread haemorrhage in visceral
organs.
Etiology

Pestivirus of Togaviridae family

RNA virus

Pathogenesis
Pig is the only domestic animal which is naturally infected by
the virus. Infection is usually acquired by ing~stion but inhalation
is also a possible route. The source of virus is always infected
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pig and its products. In infected pig, virus is found in all

excretions and secretions of body. After ingestion, virus reaches
in the tonsils, where primary multiplication of viras occurs
within few hours of infection. Then virus is transported through
lymphatics and enter in blood capillaries resulting in an initial
viraemia by about 24 hours of infection. As time goes on, virus
spreads to different tissues like Spleen, peripheral and visceral
lymph nodes, bone marrow, peyer's patches. The virus causes
destruction of endothelial cells, lymphoreticular cells,
macrophages and epithelial cells. Virus causes hydropic
degeneration and proliferation of vascular endothelium which
results in occlusion of blood vessels leading to congestion,
hemorrhage and infarction in arterioles, venules and capillaries.
In small and medium sized arteries, thrombosis is also seen. At
early stages, there is leucopenia followed by leucocytosis.
Characteristic symptoms

Fever (105-106F)

Gluing of eyes

Hurdling

Congestion of skin with eruptions

Mortality up to 100%
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Gluing of eyes

Congestion and hemorrhage in kidneys, lymph nodes,

urinary bladder, skin, spleen, lungs and large intestines

Button ulcers in large intestines

Erythema and cyanosis on ventral abdomen and thorax

skin.

Perivascular cuffing in brain by lymphocytes, monocytes

and plasma cells

Intranuclear, round, homogenous acidophilic inclusion in

neurons

Hemorrhage in spleen, lymph nodes and kidneys

Necrosis of mucosa and submucosa in intestines leading

to formation of ulcers and infiltration of mononuclear cells.

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Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- AGPT, CIEP, ELISA

Demonstration of viral antigen in affected tissues using

immunoperoxidase technique.

Isolation of virus

TRANSMISSIBLE GASTROENTERITIS
Transmissible gastroenteritis is contagious viral disease of pigs
caused by corona virus and characterized by vomiting,
diarrhoea, dehydration with high mortality.
Etiology

Corona virus

RNA virus
Pathogenesis
Transmission of virus occurs through inhalation and ingestion.
Virus infects mature enterocytes of intestinal villi causing their
necrosis and desquamation leading to atrophy of villi.
Characteristic symptoms

Diarrhoea

Vomiting

Dehydration

Morbidity and mortality 100%

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Dehydrated carcass

Curdled milk in stomach

Congestion of small intestine

Petechiae in intestines

Shortening and fusion of villi, villous atrophy

Cuboidal epithelium on villous surface

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Absence of microvilli, vacuolation in epithelial cells

Infiltration of mononuclear cells in mucosa and submucosa

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Detection of viral antigen in faeces or antibody in serum

using ELISA

Demonstration of viral antigen in enterocytes using

immunoperoxidase technique

Demonstration of virus using by electronmicroscopy

PSEUDORABIES
Pseudorabies is a viral disease of animals, mainly of swine and
characterized by itching, in coordination, tremors, convulsions,
paralysis and encephalitis.
Etiology

Herpes virus- Herpes suis

DNA virus

Pathogenesis
After intranasal or entry through skin, the virus takes 7-8 days
to localize in peripheral nerves. Where it causes necrosis of
muscles and fascia and travels to spinal cord and brain to cause
encephalomyelitis.
Clinical Symptoms

Fever, itching

In coordination of hind limbs

Tremors, paralysis, convulsions

Scratching due to itching

Respiratory failure leads to death

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Encephalitis

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Scratch wounds due to itching

Enlargement of lymph nodes
Necrosis of nerve fibers and ganglion
Lymphocytic infiltration
Intranuclear inclusion in nerve cells, ganglion and schwann
cells
Focal necrosis of pharyngeal mucosa, tonsils, lymph nodes,
lungs and liver

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Detection of antigen and/or antibody using ELISA

Demonstration of viral antigen in affected tissues using

immunoperoxidase technique.
EQUINE INFLUENZA
Equine influenza is contagious viral diseases of horses caused
by orthomyxovirus and characterized by fever, coughing and
pandemic occurrence of the disease.
Etiology

Influenza A virus of orthomyxoviridae family

Very unstable virus, frequent antigenic drift and shift

Pathogenesis
Virus spreads through inhalation and multiplies in respiratory
epithelium causing erythema, edema and focal erosions. There
is very mild and short viremia.
Characteristic symptoms

Fever (101 - 106F)

Coughing

Nasal discharge

Oedema and pain in superficial lymph nodes

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Macroscopic and microscopic features

Erosions in upper respiratory mucosa

Peribronchitis, bronchitis

Bronchopneumonia

Hyaline membrane formation on bronchiolar and alveolar

epithelium

Peribronchitis, bronchitis and bronchopneumonia

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Detection of antigen/ antibody using hemagglutination,

hemagglutination inhibition test, ELISA

Demonstration of viral antigen in affected tissue using

immunoperoxidase technique

Demonstration of virus in tissue/ secretions using

electronmicroscopy
EQUINE INFECTIOUS ANEMIA
Equine infectious anemia is a viral disease of horses caused by
lentivirus and characterized by icterus, anemia, hyperemia and
oedema of sub cutis of the ventral wall of abdomen, pleura,
heart, spleen and lymph nodes.
Etiology

Lentivirus of Retroviridae family

RNA virus having reverse transcriptase enzyme

Pathogenesis
The disease is transmitted mechanically by the bite of mosquito
(Culex) or biting flies (Stomoxys, Tebanus). It can also be
transmitted by unsterilized needles, comb, saddle, etc. through
minute transfer of blood from infected animal. After entry virus
multiples in various organs. like spleen, kidneys, lymph nodes
and liver. After 30 days of viremia virus attacks erythrocytes
and cause their destruction. It also causes destruction of
endothelial cells of blood vessels, peripheral nerves, meninges,
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and brain tissue leading to the development of nervous signs.

The hemolytic anemia develops due to hemolysis and
phagocytosis of erythrocytes by reticuloendothelial system.
Virus antibody complex may be deposited on the renal
glomerulus causing glomerulonephritis.
Characteristic symptoms

Anemia

Icterus

Chronic wasting/ weakness

Edema of dependent parts of body

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Edema in ventral abdomen

Petechial or ecchymotic haemorrhage on pleura, peritoneum and serosa of visceral organs

Enlargement of spleen, liver and lymph nodes

Increased red marrow in bones specially in long bones.

Congestion, hemorrhage and oedema in visceral organs

Infiltration of immature lymphoid cells in liver, kidneys,

heart etc.

Erythro-phagocytosis in spleen
Dilatation of sinusoids due to congestion and filled with
lymphoid cells.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- ELISA

Demonstration of viral antigen in affect tissues using

immunoperoxidase technique.
EQUINE ENCEPHALOMYELITIS
Equine encephalomyelitis is an arboviral disease characterized
by circling movements, high fever, paralysis, neuronophagia
and perivascular cuffing. This is also known as staggers, borna

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Viral Diseases

disease or forage poisoning.

Etiology

Group A arbovirus of alphavirus

Western, eastern and Venezuelan strains

Pathogenesis
The virus spreads through mosquitoes and birds, reptiles and
rodents are the resinous of the virus. With an incubation period
of 10-15 days, clinical signs of fever and aimless walking appear
in horse.
Clinical Symptoms

Aimless walking, circling movements

Fever
Paralysis

Macroscopic and microscopic features

No characteristics gross lesions

Congestion of meninges and brain

Encephalomalacia

Neuronophagia, chromatolysis

Perivascular cuffing by lymphocytes

Intra nuclear acidophilic inclusion bodies in neurons

Diagnosis

Symptoms, lesions

Detection of antigen or antibody using ELISA

Demonstration of viral antigen in nerve cells using

immunoperoxidase technique.
EQUINE VIRAL ARTERITIS
Equine viral arteritis is an infectious disease of horse, mules
and donkeys characterized by palpebral oedema, abortion,
enteritis and pneumonia.

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Etiology

Pestivirus of Togaviridae family

RNA virus 40-70 run diameter

Pathogenesis
Virus reaches in body through inhalation and viraemia occurs
causing severe damage to small arteries in intestines, lymph
nodes and adrenals that leads to diarrhoea and abdominal pain.
It causes severe myometritis, conjunctivitis and pulmonary
oedema.
Clinical Symptoms

Edema in limbs
Conjunctivitis

Abortion
Diarrhoea

Panleucopenia

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Enteritis

Palpebral oedema

Pneumonia, enlargement of mediastinal lymph nodes

Placentitis
Hydrothorax
Widespread edema in lungs placenta with congestion and
hemorrhage.
Arteritis in cecum and colon-characterized by deposition
of eosinophilic material in media with cellular infiltration

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Detection of antigen and antibody using ELISA

Demonstration of viral antigen in affected tissues using

immunoperoxidase technique.

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AFRICAN HORSE SICKNESS

African horse sickness is an acute viral disease of horses caused
by orbivirus and characterized by fever, conjunctivitis, and
oedema of lungs, heart and neck. This is also known as equine
plague.
Etiology

Orbivirus of reoviridae family

dsRNA with 10 segments

Pathogenesis
Virus enters in body through inhalation and after an incubation
period of 7-10 days, it causes edema in lungs with laboured
breathing. There is several liters of water accumulates in thorax.
Clinical Symptoms

Fever
Dyspnoea
Coughing
Foamy discharges from nostrils

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Hydrothorax

Pulmonary edema

Sub endocardial hemorrhage

Conjunctivitis

Pulmonary edema characterized by separation of interlobular tissue from alveoli

Infiltration of mononuclear cells in inter alveolar spaces

Sub endocardial hemorrhage

Necrosis in liver
Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of antibody or antigen using ELISA

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Demonstration of viral antigen in affected tissues using

immunoperoxidase technique.

EQUINE VIRAL ABORTION (EHV INFECTION)

Equine viral abortion is caused by herpes virus and
characterized by death of foetus, abortion, retained placenta
and post parturient metritis.
Etiology

Equine herpes virus-l of herpesviridae family

DNA virus

Pathogenesis
The virus spreads through inhalation or ingestion of
contaminated material. On entry, virus affects the macrophages
and remains in latency till suitable conditions. It affects the
placenta, foetus causing placentitis and death of foetus near
completion of gestation that results in abortion.
Characteristic symptoms

Abortion in late gestation

Retained placenta

Vaginal discharges
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Necrotic lesions on lung, liver and lymph nodes of aborted

foetus

Metritis
Placentitis
Necrosis in liver of aborted foetus
Intranuclear eosinophilic inclusion bodies in hepatocytes,
spleen, lymph nodes and bronchioles

Interlobular oedema in lungs

Bronchopneumonia

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Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Detection of viral antigen/ antibody using ELISA

Demonstration of viral antigen in affected tissue by

immunoperoxidase technique

Demonstration of virus using electronmicroscopy

RABIES
Rabies is a viral disease of animals mainly affecting carnivores
like d'ogs, wolves, foxes caused by a lyssa virus and
characterized by encephalitis, and presence of intra cytoplasmic
inclusions in nerve cells.
Etiology

Lyssa virus of Rhabdoviridae family

Bullet shaped, RNA virus

Pathogenesis
The source of infection is always an infected animal and method
of spread is almost always by bite of a rabid animal. The virus
may appear in the milk of affected animals but spread through
this means remains doubtful. After entry of the virus, there is
incubation period of 1 week to 1 year with a mean of 1-2
months. Several factors play role in establishing rabies include
virulence of the strain, quantity of infectious virus in saliva and
susceptibility of the species. Length of incubation period
depends on anatomical distance between bite site and the central
nervous system, severity of the bite and amount of infectious
virus in the saliva.
After entry virus first replicates in the muscle cells and sheds
into extra-cellular spaces. Then virus enters into nervous system
at motor end plates and binds to receptors for acetylcholine
(Ach). After reaching peripheral/ central nerves, the virus
spreads within axon of nerve cells to the ventral hom cells of
spinal cord @ 3-4 mm/ hour. Virus multiplication occurs first in
the spinal cord and then spreads to the brain and from where it

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is disseminated throughout the central nervous system. During

dissemination to central nervous system, there is no viremia.
Direct trans neural transfer of virus from cell bodies of neurons
and dendrites to adjacent axon terminals is a mechanism of
dissemination of rabies in the central nervous system. Brain
stem, cerebral cortex and hippocampus are mainly affected by
rabies virus and destruction of these regions gives rise to clinical
symptoms of rabies. There is centrifugal spread via nerves
throughout the body including salivary gland, cornea and
tonsils. The virus replicates rapidly in salivary gland and such
saliva is the major source of infection for susceptible animals.
When there is irritation phenomenon (induced by virus in the
nerve cells) occurs, which causes external i.e. furious form and
when destruction of neurons occurs resulting in paralysis i.e.
paralytic/ dumb form.
Characteristic symptoms

Drooling of saliva

Moving aimlessly

Eating of non food materials

Macroscopic and microscopic features

No characteristic gross lesions except some wooden or non

food items present in the stomach of dog.

In other animals, lesions of bite on skin must be present

Necrosis of neurons, neuronophagic nodules, perivascular cuffing with lymphocytes in brain particularly hippocampus

Proliferation of lymphocytes, plasma cells, glial cells replacing neurons form Babes nodules

Intra cytoplasmic eosinophilic inclusions 'Negri bodies'

Diagnosis

History of bite

Symptoms and lesions

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- IFf, ELISA
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Isolation of virus
Mouse inoculation test

INFECTIOUS CANINE HEPATITIS

Infectious canine hepatitis is an infectious viral disease of dogs

caused by adenovirus characterized by necrotic lesions in liver
and intra nuclear inclusions in hepatocytes.
Etiology

Mastadenovirus of adenoviridae family

DNA virus

Pathogenesis
The excretion of virus occurs in urine and infection spreads
mainly through nasO-:oral and conjunctiva routes. Initial infection
occurs in tonsils and peyer's patches. There is viremia and
infection of endothelial and parenchymal cells in many tissues
leading to hemorrhage and necrosis, especially in the liver,
kidneys, spleen and lungs. Chronic kidney lesions and corneal
clouding "blue eye"result<; from immune- complex reactions.
Characteristic symptoms

Fever (104-106F)

Vomiting, diarrhoea

Icterus
Conjunctivitis

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Enlargement and congestion of liver

Presence of focal necrotic patches

Thickening of the wall of gall bladder

Enlargement of spleen

Hyperemia of conjunctiva

Necrosis of hepatocytes leading to formation of focal

necrotic foci

Infiltration of mononuclear cells

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Intra nuclear inclusions in hepatocytes and Kupffer cells

of liver, kidneys and brain
Congestion, vascular dilatation of sinusoids

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of intra nuclear inclusions in hepatocytes

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- AGPf, CIEP, ELISA

Demonstration of viral antigen in hepatocytes using

immunoperoxidase technique.
Canine Distemper
Canine distemper is an infectious viral disease of dogs caused
by a morbilli virus and characterized by catarrhal and purulent
exudate in nasal mucosa, purulent bronchopneumonia, and
vesicular/pustular dermatitis.
Etiology

Morbillivirus of Paramyxovir.idae family

RNA virus, v~ry frazil virus

Pathogenesis
The route of infection is through inhalation of aerosol droplets
from infected animal. After entry of virus through respiratory
tract, it starts multiplication in respiratory epithelium and
alveolar macrophages. Thereafter virus spreads to the tonsils
and bronchial lymph nodes. Before appearance of clinical
manifestations, the virus circulates in blood associated with
lymphocytes and spreads to various tissue like bone marrow,
spleen, brain and other lymphoid tissues. Viral replication causes
direct damage to neurons and astrocytes. Indirect damage to
oligodendroglial cells results in demyelination which leads to
encephalitis.
In distemper encephalitis and extensive demyelination of
neurons occur in chronic cases as a result of local antiviral
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Viral Diseases

response. The brain macrophages ingest these immune

complexes and infected cells as a result they release free radicals
and other toxic products. These products damage neighbouring
cells especially oligodendroglia and cause demyelination. This
demyelination develops as a result of autoimmune attack. In
this syndrome antibodies are induced against myelin proteins
which causes tissue destruction.
Characteristic symptoms

Fever (105-107F)

Mucopurulent nasal discharge

Vesicles and pustules on abdominal skin

Foot pad becomes hard due to hyperkeratinization

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Catarrhal and purulent exudate in upper respiratory tract

Lobular pneumonia

Congestion and consolidation of lungs

Hyperkeratinization of foot pad skin

Presence of pustules on lower abdomen

Bronchopneumonia characterized by infiltration of

neutrophils in alveoli around bronchioles

Presence of intracytoplasmic and intra nuclear eosinophilic

inclusions in epithelial cells of upper respiratory passage,
bronchioles, urinary bladder, stomach, skin and in circulating neutrophils
Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of intra nuclear and intra cytoplasmic inclusions in hepatocytes, epithelium of bronchioles, skin and
in circulating neutrophils.

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigenj

antibody- AGPT, CIEP, ELISA

Demonstration of viral antigen in hepatocytes and respiratory tract epithelium using immunoperoxidase technique.
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CANINE PARVOVIRAL INFECfION

Parvovirus causes acute gastroenteritis in dogs characterized
by necrotising enteritis and myocardial necrosis
Etiology

Canine Parvovirus of Parvoviridae family

DNA virus

Pathogenesis
Young dogs are mostly affected. Infection enters in body
through oropharyngeal route and virus starts replication in
pharyngeal lymphoid tissues. From here virus is distributed to
other organs and tissues via blood stream. Cells that are in '5'
phase of cell cycle have receptors for virus and are infected and
killed or prevented from entering mitosis. There is development
of characteristic leucopenia involving all white blood cellslymphocytes, neutrophils, monocytes and platelets due to their
destruction.
Rapidly dividing intestinal epithelial cells in crypts are very
susceptible to infection. The loss of cells from villous tips
continues in normal fusion but the failure in replacing th~se
cells with cells from crypts leads to greatly shortened, non
absorptive villi and hence resulting in diarrhoea.
Characteristic symptoms

Fever (104-106F)

Diarrhoea, dysentery with melena

Dehydration

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Congestion of intestines

Presence of mucohemorrhagic exudate mixed with desquamated cells in lumen of intestines

Necrosis in myocardium
Enlargement of mesenteric lymph nodes
Necrosis of villous and crypt epithelial cells
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Dilatation of crypts
Intranuclear inclusions in intestinal epithelium
Infiltration of mononuclear cells in mucosa and sub mucosa of intestines
Myocardial necrosis surrounded by infiltration of mononuclear cells.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of intranuclear inclusions in intestinal epithelial cells

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- AGPT, CIEP, ELISA

Demonstration of viral antigen in intestinal epithelium

using immunoperoxidase technique
FELINE LEUKEMIA
Feline leukemia is an infectious viral disease of cats caused by
oncorna virus and characterized by malignant lymphoma,
lymphocytosis and immunosuppression. It is also known as
feline lymphoma or feline lymphosarcoma.
Etiology

Oncorna virus of retroviridae family

Type C oncorna virus, RNA virus has reverse transcriptase

Pathogenesis
The virus is transmitted horizontally through salivary and nasal
secretions of sick cats. It affects lymphocytes causing their
proliferation leading to production of neoplastic growth.
Characteristic symptoms

Enlargement of superficial lymph nodes

Lymphocytosis

Chronic diarrhoea

Abortion

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Macroscopic and microscopic features

Enlargement of lymph nodes (mesenteric, lumbar)

Enteritis
Anemia
Placentitis
Lymphocytosis
Anaplastic lymphoid cells in lymph nodes

Diagnosis
- Symptoms and lesions

Detection of viral antigen/ antibody using ELISA

Demonstration of viral antigen using immunoperoxidase

technique

Demonstration of virus using electronmicroscopy

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24

Bacterial Diseases
TUBERCULOSIS
Tuberculosis is a chronic bacterial disease of cattle, buffaloes,
sheep, goat and pigs caused by Mycobacterium sp. and
characterized by presence of tubercle nodules in lungs, spleen
and lymph nodes.
Etiology

Mycobacterium tuberculosis
M. bovis

Pathogenesis
Disease spreads through contact with infected animals or their
discharges or morbid tissues. The infected animals release the
organisms through sputum at coughing and contact animals get
infection through droplet inhalation. Besides sputum, faeces,
urine, vaginal discharges, semen, milk, lymph and wound
discharges may act source of infection. It is also transmitted
through contaminated instruments, utensils and beddings. After
entry through inhalation or ingestion, bacilli localizes at the
point of entry and produce typical tubercle in associated lymph
nodes. Mostly pharyngeal and mesenteric lymph nodes are
affected. From lymph nodes, infection may extend across body
cavities, blood vessels and lymph vessels. The inhaled organism
enter in the bronchial tree after lodging in bronchi a tissue
reaction takes place. Neutrophilic infiltration is there and when
neutrophils are necrosed, macrophages come to destroy the
organism but they fail then many macrophages becomes
elongated to form epithelioid cells, the hall mark of
granulomatous inflammation. Some macrophages are joint
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together to form giant cells to destroy the acid fast bacilli. As a

consequence of this some bacilli are phagocytosed and are
destroyed. A zone of lymphocytes, macrophages, epithelioid
cells, giant cells and fibrous connective tissues are formed
around the central necrosed area.
Characteristic symptoms

Low grade fever

Progressive wasting/ weakness, loss of production

Coughing

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Consolidation of lungs

Nodules of tubercle present in lungs containing cheesy

mass

Granulomatous lesions in spleen, lymph nodes, liver and

intestines.

Tubercle on pleura and mesentery (pearly disease).

Granulomatous lesions characterized by the presence of

tubercles in different organs

Tubercle consists of central caseative necrosed area surrounded by macrophages, lymphocytes, epithelioid cells
and giant cells

In older cases central necrosed area is calcified and surrounded by fibrous tissue capsule.
Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Tuberculin testing of animals

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- ELISA

Demonstration of acid fast bacilli in impression smears of

tubercle or in tissue sections of lungs and lymph nodes.
PARATUBERCULOSIS (JOHNE'S DISEASE)
Paratuberculosis is a chronic bacterial disease of bovines, ovines
and caprines caused by Mycobacterium paratuberculosis and

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characterized by dehydration, emaciation, chronic diarrhoea

and thickening of the intestine (corrugations).
Etiology

Mycobacterium paratuberculosis
Pathogenesis
Faeces containing the organism is primary source of infection
which is acquired by ingestion of contaminated feed and water.
It has very long incubation period (15-18 months). The organism
has also been isolated from genitalia and semen of infected bulls.
Following infection, organism localizes in intestinal mucosa and
its associated lymph nodes. The organism penetrate the
intestinal mucosa and set up residence within macrophages. The
organism multiplies intracellularly without killing host cells and
are resistant to intracellular digestion. They grow inside
macrophages and distributed through out body. The primary
site for bacterial multiplication is terminal ileum and the large
intestine leading to decreased absorptive surface, chronic
diarrhoea and malabsorption.
Characteristic symptoms

Chronic diarrhoea

Progressive wasting/ weakness, loss of production

Hide bound condition

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Emaciation, cachexia

Thickening of the intestinal wall

Presence of 'rugae' or transverse folds thickened due to

chronic inflammatory changes

Corrugations cannot be removed even after stretching of

intestinal wall

Lymph nodes (Mesenteric) are also enlarged.

Infiltration of macrophages, epithelioid cells and

lymphocytes in mucosa and sub mucosa

Presence of acid fast bacilli in epithelioid cells

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Absence of caseative necrosis and calcification in cattle.

However, it is present in sheep and goat.
Nests of epithelioid cells in mesenteric lymph nodes.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of acid fast bacteria in rectal pinch

Johnin testing of animals

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- ELISA

Demonstration of organisms in tissue sections using special stains and immunoperoxidase technique.
BRUCELLOSIS
Brucellosis is an infectious bacterial disease of animals caused
by Brucella sp. and characterized by abortion in late gestation
and formation of granulomatous lesions in genital organs, joints
and fetal liver.
Etiology

Brucella abortus

Br.ovis

Br. meletensis

Br. canis
Pathogenesis
The brucella organism spreads through ingestion of
contaminated feed and water with aborted foetal contents or
foetal membrane. It is also transmitted through inhalation and
may pierce the intact or abraded skin or conjunctivae. Congenital
infection may also occur. After entry, bacteria multiply in
reticuloendothelial cells in regional lymph nodes. The organism
enter and travel through intestinal epithelial cells overlaying
peyer's patches by endocytosis and then enters into lymphatics.
The brucella organism has specific affinity with female and male
reproductive organs, placenta, foetus and mammary glands.
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The organism can also localize in other organs like lymph nodes,
spleen, liver, joints and bones. The bacteria proliferates
intracellularly and it has high affinity with erythritol sugar
which is present in abundance in placenta and foetus. This
organism causes abortions in animals in late gestation.
Characteristic symptoms

Orchitis

Accumulation of fluid in scrotum

Abortion in late gestation (7-9 month)

Retention of placenta
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Edema of chorion, thickened and leathery chorion/ placenta

Edema of foetus, serosanguinous fluid in body cavity

Pneumonia, necrotic foci in liver

Enlargement of scrotum in males

Induration of mammary gland in cows.

Infiltration of phagocytic cells, epithelioid cells and

lymphocytes surrounded by fibrous tissue proliferation

Fetal broncho pneumonia

Organism in chorionic epithelial cells

In males, proliferation of fibrous tissue which compresses

or replaces the epididymis.
Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- CFT, SAT, ELISA, DIA

Isolation of bacteria

Demonstration of organisms in tissue sections using special stains.

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HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA

Hemorrhagic septicemia is a highly contagious and infectious

disease of animals caused by Pasteurella multocida and Mannheimia
hemolytica and characterized by oedematous swelling in neck
region,dyspnoea, pneumonia and wide spread haemorrhage in
visceral organs.
Etiology

Pasteurella multodda

Mannheimia hemolytica
Pathogenesis
The disease spreads by ingestion of contaminated feed and
water. The saliva of affected animals contains large number of
organisms during the early stages of the disease. The organism
is normal inhabitant in the terminal bronchioles and alveoli and
it can't invade the lungs because of pulmonary defense but due
to stress like malnutrition, long transportation, climatic changes,
the organism become virulent and destroys the mononuclear
leucocytes of bloods and macrophages of lungs. Due to death
of macrophages vasoactive substances are released to cause
inflammation and fibrin deposition. The other secondary
invaders like PI-3 virus, bovine herpes virus and bacteria cause
significant change. Death occurs due to hypoxia and toxaemia.
It has been reported that primarily there is infection of PI-3
virus which is precipitated by bacteria resulting in septicemia.
Characteristic symptoms

High fever (105-107F)

Edema in throat and brisket region

Dyspnoea
Ghar-ghar sound on respiration

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Edema consisting of gelatinous material in neck and brisket region

Serosanguinous fluid in peritoneal and pleural cavity

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Swollen and enlarged lymph nodes

Pericardial hemorrhage
Haemorrhagic gastroenteritis
Lungs are congested and consolidated Marbling".
Fibrinous bronchopneumonia
Congestion and hemorrhage in lymph nodes, spleen, liver,
kidneys and myocardium
Congestion and haemorrhage in intestinal mucosa and sub
mucosa
Infiltration of neutrophils, macrophages and lymphocytes.
II

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of bipolar bacteria in blood smears on

methylene blue staining

Isolation of bacteria

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- ELISA
BLACK QUARTER

Black Quarter is an acute disease of cattle and sheep caused by

Clostrium chauvei and characterized by lameness, hot painful
swelling in thigh muscles producing crepitating sound on
pressure and accumulation of serosanguinous fluid in affected
area.
Etiology

Clostridium chauvei

Gram positive, anaerobe

Pathogenesis
The organism is transmitted through contaminated soil. Route
of entry is through alimentary tract mucosa after ingestion of
spores in contaminated feed. In case of sheep, the disease is
generally occurs by wound infection. After ingestion and
germination of the spores, the bacteria multiplies in the intestines
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and crosses the intestinal mucosa and enters in general

circulation to get deposited in various tissues/ organs including
skeletal muscles. In skeletal muscles the organism remains in
dormant stage until damage to the muscle sets up an appropriate
anaerobic environment for their germination and proliferation
and release of certain toxins locally which causes necrosis and
gas gangrene of muscles.
Characteristic symptoms

High fever (104-107F)

Swelling in thigh muscles

Crepitating sound on pressure

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Accumulation of serosanguinous fluid in thigh muscles

producing crepitating sound on pressure

The affected area looks like greenish or bluish

Edema of subcutaneous tissue

Affected muscles have porous appearance due to presence

of gas

Black colour of muscles is due to iron sulfide (FeS)

Fibrino hemorrhagic pericarditis, pleurisy and ulcerative

endocarditis.

Degeneration and coagulative necrosis of muscles

Streaks of hemorrhage between fibers

Presence of 'Rod' shaped bacteria, edema and infiltration

of leucocytes.
Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of Gram positive bacteria in exudate

Isolation of bacteria

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- ELISA

Demonstration of organism in muscle tissue section using

special stains.
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ENTEROTOXAEMIA
Enterotoxaemia is an acute disease of sheep, goat and camel
caused by Clostridium perfringens and characterized by
endocardial haemorrhage, gastroenteritis and pulpy kidneys.
Etiology

Clostridium perfringens type D-sheep

Clostridium perfringens type A-camel.

Pathogenesis
The organism is normal inhabitant of gut in animals. When there
is anaerobic condition develops in gut due to over feeding, this
organism starts proliferation and production of toxins. The
toxins are readily absorbed through stomach and intestines to
cause disease in animals.
Characteristic symptoms

Over filled stomach

Sudden mortality

Hyperglycemia
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Enlarged pulpy kidneys

Congestion of abomasum and intestines

Hemorrhage on endocardium and pericardium

Congestion and edema of lungs.

Cloudy swelling and necrosis of tubular epithelium in kidneys

Congestion in liver, spleen and intestines

Endocardial haemorrhage

Oedema in lungs.
Diagnosis

History of over feeding

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of toxin in intestinal/ stomach contents on

mouse inoculation test

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Isolation and identification of causative organism.

BRAXY

Braxy is an acute fatal disease of sheep caused by Clostridium

septicum and characterized by oedema, necrosis and hemorrhage
in abomasum.
Etiology

Clostridium septicum

Pathogenesis
It is a soil borne infection and mostly occurs in sheep vaccinated
with enterotoxaemia vaccine. The organism gets entry through
ingestion of spores. The ingested spores are localized in stomach
and germinate under anaerobic conditions due to over feeding
of lush green feed or high amount of grains leading to
abomasitis.

Characteristic symptoms

Over filled stomach

Sudden mortality

History of enterotoxaemia vaccination

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Edema of abomasal folds

Congestion and hemorrhage in abomasum

Necrosis of abomasal mucosa

Congestion and necrosis in intestines.

Microscopic features

Congestion and hemorrhage of abomasal mucosa

Presence of 'Rod' shaped organism in mucosal epithelium

of abomasum

Necrosis and presence of ulcers in abomasal mucosa.

Diagnosis

History of over feeding and enterotoxaemia vaccination

Symptoms and lesions

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Demonstration of toxin in intestinalf stomach contents on

mouse inoculation test
Isolation and identification of bacteria

TETANUS
Tetanus is a bacterial disease of animals caused by the toxins of
clostridia and characterized by prolonged spasmodic
contractions of muscles, stiffness and immobilization. It is also
known as "lock jaw".
Etiology

Clostridium tetani

Gram positive, anaerobe, rod shaped, produces toxins

Pathogenesis
It occurs as a sequel to a wound that allows the growth of
anaerobic Clostridium tetani, which releases neurotoxins. This
neurotoxin fixes the gray matter of the brain and spinal cord
and causes stiffness of muscles leading to asphyxia and death.
Oinical Symptoms

Convulsions

Immobilization

Stiffness of muscles

Lock jaw
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Presence of wound or history of wound.

Stiffness of muscles

Gram positive organism in wound.

Necrosis in muscles and gray matter of brain.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Presence of wound and bacteria

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SWINE ERYSEPALAS
It is an important disease of pigs caused by a Gram-positive
bacteria and characterized by arthritis, vegetative endocarditis
and rhomboid shaped erythematous skin lesions. It is also
known as Ildiamond skin disease".

Etiology

Erysepalothrix rhusiopathie

Gram-positive, rod shaped, pleomorphic

Pathogenesis
Infection enters through skin or ingestion and causes bacteremia
or septicemia. The organism then localizes in joints, skin and
heart valves to produce lesions.
Clinical Symptoms

Arthritis

Erythema on skin, later sloughing of skin and patches on

abdomen.
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Arthritis

Erythema or sloughing of skin

Vegetative endocarditis- nodular mass of over growth on

valves

Hypertrophy of left ventricle

Infiltration of lymphocytes in joint capsules

Fibrinous exudate with necrosis, leucocytic infiltration and

colonies of bacteria in heart lesions.

Necrosis in skin sections.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesicns

Isolation of bacteria

Demonstration of bacteria in tissue sections using special

stains.
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LISTERIOSIS

Listeriosis is an acute infectious disease of animals caused by

Listeria sp. and characterized by congestion of meninges and
brain, presence of micro abscess in brain and lymphocytic
leptomeningitis.
Etiology

Listeria monocytogenes (L. ivanovi)

Pathogenesis
Listeria is transmitted by ingestion of contaminated materials.
Silage is considered as one of the important organism. Besides,
it is normal inhabitant of bowl of many animals. There are certain
predisposing factors including nutritional deficiencies, silage
feeding, weather change and long duration flood etc. The
organism penetrates the epithelial cells of intestines, conjunctiva,
urinary bladder etc. The organism has a lucein rich protein on
their surface known as internalins, which is required for
penetration into epithelial cells. Internalins bind with E-cadherin
on host epithelial cells. They multiply in epithelial cells, destroy
the cells and are released then they are phagocytosed by
macrophages and multiply there. The activated macrophages
can phagocyte and kill bacteria. The centripetal movement of
bacteria in trigeminal nerve eventually make them to reach
medulla oblongata. The listeria organism is excreted in faeces
in animals even in absence of disease.
Characteristic symptoms

High fever (105-107F)

Circling movements

Abortion

Torticollis
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Congestion and/ or haemorrhage in meninges

Foci of softening/ micro abscess in medulla

Small necrotic foci/ abscess in visceral organs.

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Microabscess in brain
Infiltration of mononuclear cells and neutrophils
Perivascular cuffing by lymphocytes, eosinophils,
histiocytes and neutrophils

Softening of brain/ liquifactive necrbsis.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Isolation and identification of bacteria

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- ELISA

Demonstration of bacteria in tissue sections using special

stains.
SALMONELLOSIS
Salmonellosis is an infectious disease of calves, lambs and piglets
caused by Salmonella sp. and characterized by septicemia, wide
spread hemorrhage on visceral organs, typhoid nodules in liver
and hemorrhagic enteritis.
Etiology

Salmonella enteritidis var. Typhimurium (5. Typhimurium)

Salmonella enteritidis var. Dublin (5. Dublin)
Salmonella enteritidis var. Cholaraesuis (5. Cholaraesuis)

Pathogenesis
It is transmitted horizontally by direct or indirect contact.
Infection is acquired by ingestion of materials contaminated
with faeces of clinically ill animals. After'entry, bacteria adhere
to intestinal cells through fimbriae/ pilli and colonize in small
intestine then they penetrate enterocytes (intestinal cells) for
further multiplication. They cross lamina propria and continue
to proliferate both free and within mqcrophages and are
transported to mesenteric lymph nodes. Further multiplication
leads to septicaemia and spread of the bacteria to various
organs/ tissues like spleen, liver, meninges, brain and joints. It
may cause mild enteritis to fatal enteritis with septicemia.

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Characteristic symptoms

Fever (102-105F)

Weakness, icterus, anemia

Diarrhoea, melena

Dehydration
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Haemorrhage in intestines

Petechiae on kidneys "Turkey egg appearance"

Edema of spleen and lymph nodes

Button ulcers in intestines of piglets

Focal necrosis and reactive granuloma in liver "Typhoid

nodules".

Necrosis and desquamation of intestinal mucosal epithelium

Necrosis in liver and infiltration by neutrophils,

macrophages and lymphocytes

Congestion and edema in spleen and lymph nodes.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Isolation of bacteria

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- SAT, ELISA

Demonstration of bacteria in tissue sections using special

stains.
COLIBACILLOSIS
Colibacillosis is an infectious disease of new born animals caused
by E. coli and characterized by enteritis, swelling of lymph nodes
and peyer's patches, pneumonia and hemorrhage on
endocardium.
Etiology

Escherichia coli

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Pathogenesis

The disease is transmitted through contaminated feed and

water. Discharges of aborted foetus, vaginal discharges,
umbilical infection and intrauterine infection may act as source
of infection for newly born animals. The colonization of
organism in gut depends on the immune status animals. The
cell wall of E.coli consists of lipopolysaccharide which causes
fever mediated through the production of host cytokines
including TNF and IL-1. E.coli also secretes substances that
suppresses phagocytosis by neutrophils. The endotoxins secreted
by E.coli is an ADP- ribosyltransferase which generate excess cAMP to cause diarrhoea and dehydration.
Characteristic symptoms

Fever (103-106F)

Diarrhoea, dehydration

Nasal discharges

Naval ill

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Swollen umblicus

Swelling of joints

Suppurative nephritis

Congestion and hemorrhage in intestines

Congestion of lungs and mesenteric lymph nodes

Hemorrhage in endocardium.

Necrosis and desquamation of mucosal epithelium in intestine

Infiltration of neutrophils and mononuclear cells

Infiltration of neutrophils in kidneys forming micro abscess

Catarrhal bronchopneumonia

Congestion and reactive hyperplasia in lymph nodes.

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Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Isolation of bacteria

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- ELISA

Demonstration of organisms in tissue sections using special stains.

STRANGLES
Strangles is an acute infectious disease of horses caused by
streptococci and characterized by abscess in pharyngeal and
maxillary lymph nodes, pericarditis, pleurisy, suppurative
pneumonia, presence of abscess on liver, kidneys and spleen.
Etiology

Streptococcus equi

Pathogenesis
The disease spreads through inhalation; the most important
source of infection is nasal discharge. The bacteria reaches on
pharyngeal and nasal mucosa and causes acute pharyngitis and
rhinitis. Drainage to lymph nodes leads to formation of abscess.
Guttural pouches are filled with pus. Then infection spreads in
other organs and causes suppuration in kidneys, brain, liver,
spleen, tendon sheath and joints. After an attack, strangles has
subsided and purpura hemorrhagic a may develop due to the
development of sensitivity to streptococcal proteins.
Characteristic symptoms

Fever (104-107F)

Abscess in throat region

Dyspnoea
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Abscess in pharyngeal and sub maxillary lymph nodes

Abscess in liver, kidneys and spleen

Suppurative pericarditis
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Suppurative pneumonia
Empyema.
Infiltration of neutrophils in liver, kidneys, spleen, pericardium and lungs
Degeneration and necrosis in liver along with accumulation of neutrophils
Lymphoid depletion in spleen.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Isolation of bacteria

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- ELISA

Demonstration of organisms in tissue sections using special stains.

GLANDERS

Glanders is an infectious disease of equines caused by

Burkholderia sp. characterized by ulcers in nasal passage, miliary
nodules in lungs, edema of lymph nodes, lymphangitis and
lymphadenitis.
Etiology

Burkholderia mallei
Pathogenesis

The disease is transmitted through ingestion of contaminated

feed and water and also through utensils particularly watering
troughs, contaminated by nasal discharge/ sputum. Rarely
spread through direct contact or grooming tools. Spread through
inhalation can also occur. The organism invades the intestinal
wall and causes septicemia (acute form) or bacteraemia (chronic
. form). The organism may invade the regional lymph nodes by
pharyngeal lymph nodes and proliferate there. The respiratory
mucosa and lungs are most commonly affected but disseminated
lesions may occur. Nasal involvement is indicated by a copious

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and persistent nasal discharge. In cutaneous form there is

development of lesions along the lymphatics resulting in
lymphangitis and lymphadenitis.
Characteristic symptoms

Fever (103-105F)
Dyspnoea

Discharge of pus from lymph vessels and lymph nodes

Ulcer in nasal passage

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Abscess in superficial lymph nodes and discharge of oily

pus from lymph vessels in hind legs

Abscess in lungs and liver

Pleurisy with purulent exudate

Ulcers and deposition of purulent exudate in nasal passage

Enlargement of lymph nodes

Punched out ulcers in lungs.

Centrally aggregates of neutrophils surrounded by

histiocytes in lungs

Infiltration of neutrophils in and around necrotic foci in

liver, kidneys and intestines.

Edema in lymph nodes

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Mallein testing of equines

Isolation of bacteria

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- ELISA, CFT

Demonstration of organism in tissue sections using special

stains.

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ANTHRAX
Anthrax is an acute septicemic disease of animals caused by
Badllus sp. and characterized by sudden death, absence of rigor
mortis, tary colour blood from natural openings and
widespread hemorrhage.
Etiology

Badllus anthracis
Pathogenesis
The infection occurs through ingestion or inhalation of spores/
vegetative forms of the organism or entry of bacteria through
broken skin. After entry the spores germinate and localize for
multiplication and spread by means of lymphatics to lymph
nodes and then in blood stream, causing severe septicaemia.
The bacteria possesses both capsule and exotoxin. Due to
presence of capsule phagocytic cells become unable to destroy
them. The exotoxin is lethal in nature, it causes edema and tissue
damage. The exotoxin has 3 components1. Edema factor (EF) or factor I is adenyl cyclase which causes
increase in cellular c-AMP level that causes electrolyte and
fluid loss.
2. Protective antigen (PA) or factor II is a fragment of exotoxin and has anti-phagocytic activity.
3. Lethal factor (LF) or factor III stimulates macrophages for
production of oxidizing radicals and cytokines. Mainly ILl and TNF- (x, which induce shock and death.
Characteristic symptoms

High fever (105-107"F)

Hemorrhage from natural orifices

Dyspnoea
Tary colour blood
Sudden mortality up to 90%

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Post mortem examination of animals suspected for anthrax

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should not be conducted.

Blood smear examined for anthrax bacilli
Discharge of blood from vagina, anus and mouth
Tary colour of blood
Enlargement of spleen
Widespread hemorrhage on serous surfaces of visceral
organs
Subcutaneous oedema
Anthrax bacilli and spores in blood smear
Spleen shows haemorrhage and accumulation of blood in
red pulp
Hemorrhage in lymph nodes, liver, lungs and kidneys
Degenerative and necrotic changes in kidneys and liver.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of bacteria in blood smear

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- ELISA, AGPT (Ascoli test)

Animal inoculation test causes death of mouse within 24

hrs.
CAMPYLOBACTERIOSIS
Campylobacteriosis is an infectious disease of cattle and sheep
caused by Campylobacter sp. and characterized by early abortion,
suppurative metritis, cervicitis and vaginitis.
Etiology

Campylobacter foetus

Pathogenesis
The bacteria is natural inhabitant of reproductive tract of
bovines. In case of males, it is confined to prepucial cavity and
mucosa of glans penis and distal portion of urethra. In females,
lumen of vagina, cervix, uterus and oviduct harbor the bacteria.

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Infection spreads through coitus or AI due to use of infected

semen. From bull to bull transmission occurs through artificial
. vagina at breeding centers. After entry in females, the bacteria
multiplies in the cervix and reaches to uterine hom and oviduct
within 7-14 days. In the cervix, the organism metabolizes amino
acids and other organic acids. The organism is protected from
phagocytes because it is covered with mucous. This organism
causes abortion at 5 month of gestation because the organism
impairs the supply of oxygen and some nutrients (amino acids)
required for implantation of embryo leading to abortion.
Characteristic symptoms

Abortion in mid gestation (5 month)

Mucopurulent vaginal discharge

Retention of placenta
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Abortions at 4-5 month of gestation

Purulent exudate in uterine discharges- yellowish

Congestion of vagina

Oedema in foetus

Necrotic foci in liver

Oedematous placenta.

Infiltration of neutrophils, macrophages and lymphocytes

in uterine mucosa

Enlargement of uterine glands

Necrosis in placenta

Suppurative endometritis, cervicitis and vaginitis.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Isolation of bacteria

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- ELISA

Demonstration of organisms in tissue sections using special stains.

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ACTINOBACILLOSIS
Actinobacillosis is a disease of cattle caused by Actinobacillus
sp. and characterized by granulomatous lesions in tongue, lymph
nodes and presence of colony of organism (palisade of Indian
club like structures) in between the inflammatory exudate. This
is also known as wooden tongue.
Etiology

Actinobacillus lignieresii

Pathogenesis
The organism is normally present in the oral cavity of cattle
and sheep. Infection occurs when there is traumatic injury of
oral mucosa. When condition become favourable to the
causative organism due to injury, it reaches to regional lymph
nodes and nasal mucosa. The organism has affinity with soft
tissues and thus affects soft tissue of head and neck. There is
acute inflammatory changes and subsequent granulomatous
reaction including necrosis and suppuration.
Characteristic symptoms

Anorexia, pain in tongue due to hardening

Sporadic occurrence

Drooling of saliva
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Enlargement of tongue due to granuloma formation.

Nodular lesions may also appear in rumen, skin, lungs and

liver

Flooding of pus from lesions present in tongue.

Presence of colony of organism palisade of Indian club like

structures surrounded by neutrophils, mononuclear cells
and lymphocytes

Such lesions. are surrounded by fibrous tissue

Muscle tissue of tongue is replaced by fibrous tissue.

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Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Isolation of bacteria

Demonstration of organisms/ colony in tissue sections.

ACfINOMYCOSIS
Actinomycosis is a disease of cattIe, buffaloes and camels caused
by Actinomyces sp. and characterized by suppurative
osteomyelitis of mandible and Miliary nodules in lungs. This is
also known as lumpy jaw.
Etiology

Actinomyces bovis

Pathogenesis
The causative organism is a normal inhabitant of the bovine
buccal cavity and infection occurs through wounds in buccal
mucosa due to sharp edged objects. After entry from buccal
cavity, it causes rarefaction of bone followed by osteomyelitis
characterized by chronic suppurative and granulomatous
reaction.
Characteristic symptoms

Anorexia due to pain in jaw

Abscess in mandible and swelling of jaw

Discharging of pus from lesion

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Lumpy jaw

Swelling of jaw at mandible

Miliary nodules in lungs and mammary gland

Discharging of pus from jaw.

Suppurative osteomyelitis of mandible

Central liquefactive necrosed area which is having colonies of the organism surrounded by mononuclear and lymphocytic cells

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Colonies are known as sulphur granules, bigger in size than

actinobacillosis and may take Gram positive stain.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Isolation of bacteria

Demonstration of organisms/ colony in tissue sections

using special stains.
BOTRIOMYCOSIS (STAPHYLOCOCCOSIS)

Botriomycosis is an infectious disease of animals caused by

staphylococci and characterized by suppurative granulomatous
lesions in udder, jaw, shoulder or sternal region.
Etiology

Staphylococcus au reus

Pathogenesis
The causative agent is transmitted through contamination of
infected animals. The organism possesses number of virulent
factors which include surface proteins for adherence, enzyme
for protein degradation and toxins for host cell damage. S. aureus
has receptors for fibrinogen, fibronectin and vintronectin on
their surface through which it binds with host endothelial cells.
The toxin produced by bacteria contains coagulase, fibrinolysins,
hyaluronidase, hemolysins and endotoxins. The lipases destroy
the skin surface and thus help the bacteria in abscessation.
Characteristic symptoms

Hardening of udder

Papillary projections from jaw

Yellow pus discharge from lesion

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Hard and nodular enlargement of udder

Hard over growth in lower jaw or at shoulder or sternal

region
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Yellow pus discharges from lesions

Enlargement of lymph nodes.
Infiltration of neutrophils, macrophages and lymphocytes
surround the necrotic lesion which contain colony of organism
On Gram's stain, Gram positive cocci are seen.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Isolation of bacteria

Demonstration of organisms in tissue sections using special stains.

NECROBACILLOSIS
Necrobacillosis is an infectious disease of animals caused by
Spherophorus necrophorus and characterized by necrosis of liver,
foot rot, diphtheria and enteritis.
Etiology

Spherophorus necrophorus

Pathogenesis
The causative organism is a common inhabitant of the oral
cavity. It produces a variety of toxins including exo- and
endtoxins which are the cause of necrosis, edema, laryngitis
and dyspnoea. There is formation of diphtheritic membrane
over oral mucosa. In sheep it causes abscess formation in foot.
Characteristic symptoms

Nasal discharge

Coughing
Sneezing
Diarrhoea
Lameness

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Presence of diphtheritic membrane of tongue and phar374

Bacterial Diseases

ynx in calves
On removal of diphtheritic membrane, ulcer is left
Necrotic areas in trachea
Suppurative pneumonia
Necrotic lesions in esophagus, rumen, abomasum, liver,
spleen and heart

Necrotic lesions and gangrenous foot.

Necrosis and infiltration of neutrophils in liver
Necrosis and bronchopneumonia in lungs
Necrosis of epithelium, ulcer and infiltration of neutrophils
in tongue

Congestion in lungs and liver.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Isolation of bacteria

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- ELISA

Demonstration of organisms in tissue sections using special stains.

NOCARDIOSIS
Nocardiosis is a bacterial disease of animals caused by grampositive bacteria and characterized by pneumonia, mastitis,
lymphangitis and lymphadenitis. This is also known as "Bovine

Farcy".
Etiology

Nocardia asteroids

Gram-positive, acid fast, aerobic, filamentus

Pathogenesis
Organism enter via soil contamination of wounds and causes
local subcutaneous oedema which also spreads to lymph nodes.
Lesions may break skin to form abscess and sinuses connecting
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two abscesses. This is pyogranuloma formation.

Clinical Symptoms

Purulent nasal discharge

Discharge from lymphatics and lymph nodes "Farcy"

Mastitis and abortion

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Granulomatous lesions in lungs

Mastitis- hardness of udder

Lymphatics discharging pus

Enlargement of lymph nodes, spleen and liver with abscess.

Granulomatous lesion in lungs- in central area acid-fast

organism surrounded by neutrophils, macrophages,
lymphocytes and giant cells.

Tangled colonies of organism in necrotic debris.

Purulent exudate
Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Isolation and identification of bacteria

Demonstration of organisms in tissue sections using special stains.

PSEUDOTUBERCULOSIS
Pseudotuberculosis is a chronic disease of sheep, goat and camel
caused by Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis and characterized
by pyogranulomatous lesions in lymph nodes. This is also known
as caseous lymphadenitis.
Etiology

Conj1lebacterium pseudotuberculosis or C. ovis

Gram-positive, diphtheroid bacillus

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Pathogenesis
Infection enters through abraded skin or oral mucous
membrane and involves the local lymph nodes. The organism
is intracellular and survive within macrophages due to presence
of a toxic lipid. It terms absecess and caseation in lymph nodes,
lungs, liver, kidney, brain, skin and spinal cord.
Clinical Symptoms

Enlargement of lymph nodes

Discharge of thick green pus from lymph nodes

Nodular lesions on skin (camels)

Paraplegia/ paralysis of hind legs

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Enlargement of lymph nodes

Nodules on skin

Caseous mass on cut of lesion, onion like concentric laminated mass

Discharge of pus
Caseous necrosis surrounded by epithelioid cells,
lymphocytes and covered by fibrous connective tissue
Concentrically laminated mass with no giant cells

Calcification

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Isolation and identification of causative organisms

Demonstration of bacteria in tissue sections using special

stains.
YERSINIOSIS
Yersiniosis is an infectious disease of animals caused by Yersimia
sp. and characterized by abortion in cattle, necrotic hepatitis
and arteritis. This is often confused with brucella induced
abortions in cattle as yersimia serologically cross reacts with
brucella.
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Etiology

Yersinia enterocolitica
Yersinia pseudotuberculosis

Pathogenesis
Yersinia have a protein 'invasin' on their cell wall which binds
with host cell integrins that helps in attachment and
multiplication of organism inside the host cells. It causes
necrosis, pus formation and formation of nodules in liver. This
organism also causes placentitis leading to abortion.
Clinical Symptoms

Abortion in cattle, sheep and goat

Diarrhoea in pigs
Macroscopic and microscopic features

White/ gray nodules on placenta and liver of aborted foetus

Enteritis, ulcers in ileum

Enlargement of mesenteric lymph nodes

Necrotic foci in liver, spleen, lymph nodes and lungs

Necrotic lesions in liver surrounded by macrophages,

lymphocytes, epithelioid cells and covered by fibrous capsule

Necrosis in intestines, spleen, lymph nodes

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Isolation and identification of bacteria

-,.
Immunodiagnostic tests for detection of antigen/ antibody
using SAT/ELISA

Demonstration of organisms in tissue sections using special stains.

BLACK DISEASE

Black disease is an infectious disease of sheep, cattle and

buffaloes caused by Clostridium nouyi and characterized by
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necrotic hepatitis, hydropericardium and black discolouration

of skin.
Etiology

Clostridium nouyi

Gram positive, rod, anaevobes

Predisposed by Fasdola hepatica and Fasdola gigantica infection

Pathogenesis
The damage caused by metacerearialliver fluke in liver provides
anaerobic environment favourable for growth of clostridial
organism. The causative agent is normally present in intestine
and it reaches in liver through metacercariae. The organism
produces alpha and beta toxin which causes hepatic necrosis.
Clinical Symptoms

Fever (105-1 07F)

Sudden death
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Focal or diffused streaks of necrosis in liver along the track

of liver fluke migration

Petechial on endocardium, epicardium with hydropericardium

Black discolouration of subcutaneous/ skin

Necrosis in liver, infiltration of neutrophils

Congestion, hemorrhage

Presence of gram positive rods in necrotic lesions

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Isolation and identification of organism and its toxin

Demonstration of organisms in tissue sections/ smear using special stains.

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BOTULISM
Botulism is a fatal disease of animals caused by toxins of
Clostridium botulinum and characterized by paralysis and sudden
death.
Etiology

Clostridium botulinum

Neurotoxin C1 and C2
Predisposing factor- phosphorus deficiency leading to pica.

Pathogenesis
Disease occurs on ingestion of contaminated materials such as
bone chewing, bone meal, food of animal origin. The preformed
toxins of botulinum in these materials act on peripheral nerve
endings to cause their blockage leading to paralysis.
Clinical Symptoms

Paralysis

Sudden death
Macroscopic and microscopic features

No characteristics gross lesion

No characteristic gross lesion

Diagnosis

History

Symptoms

Very difficult to establish diagnosis.

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25

Chlamydial Diseases
CHLAMYDIOSIS
Chlamydiosis is an infectious disease of animals caused by
Chlamydia sp. and characterized by encephalitis, polyarthritis
and pneumonia in calves and abortions in cows and sheep.
Etiology

Chlamydia psittacii
Pathogenesis
Chlamydial infection spreads through inhalation of
contaminated dust from infected birds. Organism multiplies in
lungs and through blood it spreads to liver, spleen, kidneys,
brain, joints and placenta to cause pathology.
Characteristic symptoms
Calves

Fever, dyspnoea

Nasal discharge, hypersalivation

Swelling of joints
Cows and Sheep

Abortion at 7_9th month of gestation

Subcutaneous edema in foetus

Macroscopic and microscopic features
Calves

Serofibrinous peritonitis

Enlargement of spleen

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Congestion of brain and spinal cord

Edema of synovial tissues
Congestion and consolidation of lungs

Cows and Sheep

Abortion

Subcutaneous oedema in foetus

Enlargement of lymph nodes, spleen

Fibrino purulent exudate in placenta

Lobular pneumonia

Congestion of brain and spinal cord

Fibrinous exudate in synovial fluid

Fibrino-purulent placentitis

Bronchopneumonia

Epithelization of alveolar cells

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Detection of antigen/ antibody using ELISA

Demonstration of chlamydial organism in synovial fluid,

foetal stomach contents and lung tissue using special stains
and immunoperoxidase techniques.

Demonstration of chlamydia! inclusions in tissue sections/

impression smears.

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26

Rickettsial Diseases
ANAPLASMOSIS
Anaplasmosis is an infectious disease of animals caused by a
rickettsia and characterized by icterus, enlargement of spleen,
pale tissues, thin watery blood and petechiae over serous
membranes.
Etiology

Anaplasma centrale
A. marginale
A. avis

Pathogenesis
The disease is transmitted through bite of tick (Boophilus),
biting flies (Tabanus) and also in some cases due to mosquitoes.
It is intra cellular organism and multiplies inside the erythrocytes
by binary fission. The infected erythrocytes are engulfed by
the cells of reticuloendothelial system (spleen, bone marrow).
The process of erythrophagocytosis cause extra vascular
haemolysis leading to anemia. It also causes autoimmune
reaction leading to lysis of erythrocytes.
Characteristic symptoms

High fever (105-107P)

Anemia
Icterus
Macroscopic features
Anemia, icterus
Enlarged and yellow liver
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Petechiae on epicardium
Enlargement of spleen
Catarrhal exudate in intestines
Gall bladder distended with granular bile.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Presence of organism in erythrocytes

Hemorrhage in liver, kidneys and myocardium

Necrosis in kidneys

Haemosiderosis in spleen.
Diagnosis

Demonstration of organism in blood smear

Symptoms and lesions

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- ELISA

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27

Mycoplasmal Diseases
CONTAGIOUS BOVINE PLEUROPNEUMONIA (CBPP)
Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) is an infectious
disease of cattle caused by Mycoplasma sp. and characterized by
cuprous pneumonia, pleurisy and dilation of lymph vessels.
Etiology

Mycoplasma mycoides

Pathogenesis
The infection spreads through inhalation of droplets from
infected animals. The recovered animals act as source of infection
at least for a period of 3 years. After entering through
respiratory tract the organism reaches to bronchioles. It may
remain in retropharyngeal gland from where it may spread in
whole body. The organism from bronchioles enter into
interlobular septa and causes inflammation followed by edema
which causes dilation and subsequent thrombosis of lymph and
blood vessels prior to development of pneumonic lesions. Death
occurs due to anoxia and toxaemia.
Characteristic symptoms

Fever (104-106F)

Dyspnoea

Nasal discharge
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Congestion and consolidation of lungs with fibrinous adhesions in pleura

Serofibrinous exudate in thoracic cavity

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Dilation of lymph vessels in lungs

Marbled appearance on cut surfaces of lungs.
Thrombosis, ischemia and necrosis surrounded by fibrosis
Thickening of alveolar septa due to serofibrinous exudate
Congestion and consolidation of lung due to thickening of
outer alveolar septa
Serofibrinous pericarditis.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Isolation of mycoplasma, nipple shaped colony on media

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody using ELISA

Demon,stration of organisms in tissue sections using

immunoperoxidase technique
CONTAGIOUS CAPRINE PLEUROPENUMONIA (CCPP)
Contagious caprine pleuropenumonia (CCPP) is an infectious
disease of goats caused by Mycoplasma sp. and characterized by
catarrh of upper respiratory tract, unilateral or bilateral
pleuropneumonia, pleurisy and pericarditis.
Etiology

Mycoplasma mycoides
Pathogenesis
The disease is readily spread by inhalation but organism does
not survive for long period out side the animal body and its
pathogenesis is just like CBPP.
Characteristic symptoms

Fever (103-106F)
Dyspnoea

Nasal discharge

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Mycoplasmal Diseases

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Rhinitis and catarrh of upper respiratory tract

Congestion and consolidation of lungs

Pleurisy with gelatinous exudate

Fibrinous pericarditis

Edema and congestion of bronchial and mediastinal lymph

nodes.

Adhesions of lungs with pleura

Congestion, infiltration of mononuclear cells in inter alveolar spaces; formation of lymphoid aggregates

Deposition of fibrin in alveoli

Fibrinous pericarditis
Oedema and congestion in lymph nodes.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Isolation of mycoplasma, nipple shaped colony on media

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- ELISA
'
Demonstration of organisms in tissue sections using

immunoperoxidase technique
MYCOPLASMAL ABORTION
Mycoplasmosis specially abortions in cattle due to mycoplasma
is a disease of adult cattle caused by several species of
Mycoplasma sp. and characterized by abortions in pregnant
animals, mastitis and pneumonia and polyarthritis in foetus.
Etiology

Mycoplasma mycoides

M. bovigenitalium
Pathogenesis
Pathogenesis is not exactly known. However, this organism is
considered to be non-pathogenic for animals. But in a state of

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immunosuppression, it may cause illness as opportunistic

pathogen.
Characteristic Symptoms

Abortion in cattle

Mucous discharge from vagina

Hard swelling of udder in mastitis

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Abortion in cattle

Bronchopneumonia in foetus

Edema of placenta

Lymphoid infiltration and aggregation of lymphocytes in

placenta, uterus and in mammary gland.

Lymphofollicular reaction in lungs and liver in foetus.

Diagnosis

Serological examination-detection of antibody or antigen

Isolation of mycoplasma using ELISA

Demonstration of organism in tissue sections using

immunoperoxidase technique

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28

Spirochaetal Diseases
LEPTOSPIROSIS
Leptospirosis is an infectious disease of animals caused by
spirocheate Leptospria sp. and characterized by widespread
haemorrhage in visceral organs, nephritis, icterus, hepatitis and
anemia.
Etiology

Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae
L. pomona

Pathogenesis
The organism is transmitted through direct contact with urine
of infected animals or ingestion of urine contaminated feed or
water. It can also be transmitted through aborted fetuses and
infected uterine discharges. The organism enters through
abraded skin and mucous membrane and reaches in blood and
multiplies rapidly in blood producing septicemia and high rise
in body temperature. Thereafter the organism localizes in the
kidneys leading to acute or chronic nephritis. In kidneys, it
multiplies in proximal convoluted tubules (PCf) and is excreted
in urine which acts as source of infection.
Characteristic symptoms

High fever (105-107"F)

Anemia
Icterus
Abortion, mastitis
Hemoglobinuria

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Macroscopic and microscopic features

Anemia, icterus

Hemoglobinuria

Blood mixed milk

Hemorrhage in liver, kidneys, lungs and lymph nodes

Enlargement of spleen and kidneys

Abortion

Grayish white foci on visceral organs.

Necrosis and hyperplasia of kupffer's cells in liver

Necrosis of tubular epithelium and formation hyaline in

tubules of kidneys along with lymphocytic infiltration

Haemosiderosis in spleen

Encephalitis.
Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstrations of leptospira in urine samples under dark

field microscopy

Isolation of leptospira

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- ELISA

Demonstration of organism in tissue sections using special

stains

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29

Prion Diseases
SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHY
Spongiform encephalopathy is an infectious disease of animals
ca used by prion proteins and characterized by presence of
vacuoles in brain.
Etiology

Prion proteins

Sheep- Scrapie or Ovine spongiform encephalopathy

Cattle- Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (Mad cow disease)

Pathogenesis
Scrapie is also known as ovine spongiform encephalopathy. The
principle means of transmission of disease is from infected
mother to their lambs early in life; placental transmission has
also been reported. The incubation period of disease is very
long (2-5 year). The clinical form is restricted in adults. The
prion proteins (prP) occur normally in the central nervous system
of all domestic animals and man bounded with neuronal surface.
Animal susceptible to prion disease have a gene (PrP gene)
which encodes for normal"Prion protein (PrP)" or cellular prion
protein (PrPc). In scrapie prion protein (PrPsc)/ scrapie
associated fibril protein (SAl) is generated which are resistant
for protease digestion. Accumulation of PrPsc in neural tissues
appears to be the cause of the pathology in prion disease. When
prion protein contaminated meat and bone meal are fed to the
cattle as part of their concentration, the agent (prion) got
introduced into cattle. Prion protein (PrP) on reaching brain
slowly and progressively converted into and abnormal form
II

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(PrP sc) and this abnormal protein causes development of lesions

including vacuolation in nerve cells.
Characteristic symptoms

No characteristic symptom

Circling movements of animal

Itching in skin in sheep suffering from scrapie

Macroscopic and microscopic features

No gross lesion

Presence of large vacuoles in the cytoplasm of neurons in

medulla oblongata, midbrain and spinal cord

Brain looks like sponge

Inflammatory changes like infiltration of cells, congestion,

haemorrhages are absent

Occasionally accumulation of lymphocytes in Vircho-Robin

spaces.
Diagnosis

History of case

Symptoms and lesions

Vacuoles in neurons

Histopathological examination of brain tissue

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30

Fungal Diseases
RINGWORM
Ringworm is a fungal disease of skin affecting animals
characterized by popular skin lesions in circular form
discharging serus exudate.
Etiology

MicrospOf"Um canis- dogs

M. gypseum- dogs, horse, pig
Trichophyton verrucosum- bovines
T. equinum- horses

Pathogenesis
The fungi enter in skin through abrasion and the hyphae appear
in stratum corneum after germination and invade the hair
follicles. The hyphae growth and spore formation in stratum
corneum leads to hyperkeratosis and the fungus spreads
centrifugally from the point of primary invasion leading to ring
shaped lesion.
Characteristics Symptoms

Ring shaped lesions on skin

Serum's discharge from lesions

Hyperkeratosis, severe itching

Loss of hairs
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Ring shaped lesions on skin of face, around eyes, neck and

shoulder

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Loss of hairs with raised, dry, crusty and grayish white

masses
Hyperkeratosis
Presence of hyphae in hair follicles
Hyperkeratosis of skin

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of hyphae in hair follicles/ skin scrapings

Demonstration of fungus in lesions using Wood's lamp

Isolation of fungus in SDA media

CANDIDIASIS
Candidiasis is a fungal disease of animals causE!,d by Candida
albicans and characterized by a variety of manifestations including
mastitis, chronic pneumonia, vaginal discharges, abortion and
oesophagitis.
Etiology

Candida albicans

Yeast like cells, oval, 3.S-S.Sm size

Pathogenesis
The fungus may enter through inhalation, ingestion or through
abraded mucous membrane. It causes rumenitis and
oesophagitis in calves with chronic lesions. It is thought to occur
as a result of heavy antibacterial therapy and may cause mastitis,
pneumonia and/ or abortion.
Characteristic Symptoms

Cutaneous granulomatous lesions in dogs and cats

Difficulty in ingestion

Hard udder

Vaginal discharges/ abortion

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Fungal Diseases

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Chronic pneumonic lesions- nodules in lungs

Oesophagitis

Cutaneous nodular lesions

Rumenitis

In tissue sections presence of candida as round or oval

budding cells with pseudomycelia.

Chronic granulomatous lesions

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of candida in skin scrapings or lesions

Isolation of fungus
RHINOSPORIDIOSIS
Rhinosporidiosis is a fungal disease of cattle and buffaloes
caused by Rhinosporidium sp. and characterized by polypoid
growth on nasal mucosa and dyspnoea.
Etiology

Rhinosporidum seeberi

Pathogenesis
Fungus enters through abraded skin/ mucous membrane and
causes hyperplasia of stratum spinosum.
Characteristic Symptoms
- Dyspnoea

Sneezing
Mucopurulent nasal discharge

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Nasal polyps from small size to several centimeters in diameter filling whole nasal cavity.

Papular lesions on conjunctival sac, ears and vagina.

Fibromyxomatous lesion with numerous blood vessels

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Presence of white specks consists of sporangia filled with

endospores.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Microscopic examination of nasal polyps

Demonstration of causative fungi in tissue sections using

special stains
ASPERGILLOSIS
Aspergillosis is a fungal disease of animals characterized by
granulomatous pulmonary lesions, abortion and lobar
pneumonia in foetus.
Etiology

Aspergillus fumigatus

Dark green conidia

Pathogenesis
Aspergillus enters in body through mouldy grains or inhalation.
In lungs fungi causes chronic granuloma formation leading to
nodules with caseation and fibrosis.
Characteristic Symptoms

Nasal discharge

Sneezing/ coughing

Abortion in ewes
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Tubercle like granulomatous lesions in lungs

Abortion in ewes and cattle

Lobar pneumonia in aborted foetus

Granulomatous lesions in lungs

Fungus can be demonstrated in lesions

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Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Microscopic examination of tissue sections to demonstrate

fungus using special stain
BLASTOMYCOSIS
Blastomycosis is a systemic fungal disease of animals caused by
Blastomyces dermatitidis and characterized by chronic
granulomatous lesions in skin and other internal organs including
lymph nodes, liver, spleen, kidneys, lungs and intestines.

Etiology

Blastomyces dermatitidis

Yeast like bodies in tissues

Pathogenesis
Organism causes chronic granulomatous inflammation of skin
and internal organs.

Characteristic Symptoms

Nodules on skin

Debilitating condition of animal

Lameness
Swelling and hardness of superficial lymph nodes

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Presence of nodules on skin, lymph nodes, lungs, kidneys

and liver

Papule or pustule on skin

Presence of yeast like bodies in chronic granulomatous lesions

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Identification of fungus in tissue sections using special

stains

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COCCIDIOIDOMYCOSIS
Coccidioidomycosis is a systemic fungal disease of animals
characterized by granulomatous lesions in lymph nodes and
lungs.
Etiology

Coccidioides immitis

Spherical bodies- sporangia

Pathogenesis
Desert rodents normally inhabit the fungus and excrete large
number of spherules through faeces in soil, which germinate
and multiply in soil after rain. When the ground dries, large
number of arthroconidia are produced and released in air.
Animals get infection through air during grazing that produces
lesions in lungs and lymph nodes.
Characteristic Symptoms

Nasal discharge

Sneezing or coughing

Nodular lesions on skin

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Nodular lesions in lungs and lymph nodes

Thick, yellow, gelatinous pus in lesion

Abscess wall shows granulation tissue

Granulomatous lesions in mediastinal, bronchial, submaxillary, retropharyngeal and mesenteric lymph nodes

Granulomatous lesions in lungs

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of fungus in tissue sections using special

stains

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CRYPTOCOCCOSIS
Cryptococcosis is a systemic fungal disease of animals
characterized by nervous disorders including encephalitis,
meningitis and presence of granuloma in eyes, sinuses and nasal
septum.
Etiology

Cryptococcus neoformans

Spherical or ovoid shape, thick walled, single or budding,

3-8 mm diameter.

Pathogenesis
The organism is normally found in soil. Cryptococcosis occurs
in animals through inhalation or implantation. In cows, it can
enter through teat canal. It slowly reaches to the central nervous
system due to its tropism to nervous tissue. Presence of capsule
saves the orgarusm from phagocytosis.
Characteristic Symptoms

Nervous signs including in coordination of movements,

staggering gait.

Sneezing or coughing
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Encephalitis

Pneumonia

Granuloma in nasal mucosa and meninges

Granulomatous lesions in eyes, sinuses and nasal septum

Mastitis
Enlargement of lymph nodes
Encephalitis and meningitis
Pleocytosis
Granulomatous lesions in lymph nodes
Presence of cryptococcus in tissue sections

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Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of fungus in tissue sections using special

stains

Isolation of fungus
HISTOPLASMOSIS
Histoplasmosis is a systemic fungal disease of animals
characterized by chronic pneumonia, spleenomegaly,
hepatomegaly, leucopenia and ulcers in intestines.
Etiology

Histoplasma capsulatum

Intracellular, chlamydocondia- round, thick walled structure 7-15 m diameter.

Pathogenesis
Air borne infection of histoplasma reaches to the lungs where
it is phagocytosed by the reticuloendothelial cells that
disseminate the infection in different organs/ tissues.
Characteristic Symptoms

Leucopenia
Diarrhoea
Anemia
Sneezing/ coughing
Pyrexia
Dyspnoea
Emaciation
Enlarged abdomen

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Spleenomegaly

Hepatomegaly

Ulcers in intestines

Lymphadenopathy
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Ascites
Organism packed in macrophages
Granulomatous lesions in lungs, liver, spleen and lymph
nodes

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of fungus in macrophages in tissue sections

using special stains

Isolation of fungus
MUCOUS MYCOSIS
Mucous mycosis is caused by Absidia sp. and characterized by
chronic inflammation of lymph nodes, lung, uterus and placenta.
Etiology

Absidia corymbiJera
Pathogenesis
Not clear
Characteristic Symptoms

Abortion

Chronic wasting- progressive weakness

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Granulomatous lesions in lungs, lymph nodes placenta,

uterus

Thick, hard, tubercle like nodules

Cheesy exudate with calcification

Reddish gray exudate with pus flukes in interplacentome

space.

Granulomatous lesions in lungs, lymph nodes

Infiltration of neutrophils, macrophages, lymphocytes,

eosinophils, giant cells.

Calcification of centrally caseative necrosed area.

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Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of fungus in tissues

Isolation of fungus.
DEGNALA DISEASE
Degnala disease is a non-infectious disease of animals caused
by mycotoxins and characterized by dry gangrene on
extremities such as tip of ear, tail and hooves with sloughing of
hooves.
Etiology

Fusarium tricinctum

Mycotoxins of fungus

Paddy straw infested with fungus is source of mycotoxin.

Pathogenesis
Ingestion of mycotoxin in feed causes vasoconstriction leading
to infarction, necrosis at extremities. Saprophytes invade and
form dry gangrene.
Characteristic Symptoms

Dry gangrene on tail, ear, scrotum and hooves

Sloughing of skin

Lameness
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Sloughing of skin from hooves leaving raw wound surface

Gangrene at tail, ears and scrotum

Loss of architectural details

Necrosis

Edema with slight mononuclear infiltration

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Detection of toxin in feed

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31

Parasitic Diseases
TRYPANOSOMIASIS
Trypanosomiasis is an infectious disease of animals caused by
protozoan parasite and characterized by emaciation,
enlargement of spleen and lymph nodes, petechiae on serous
membranes, ulceration on tongue and gastric mucosa and
gelatinous exudate in subcutaneous region.
Etiology

TnJPanosoma evansi

Pathogenesis
The disease is mainly transmitted through bite of flies like
Tabanus, Stomoxys, Haematopota etc. The carrier animals
remain as potential source of infection. The pathogenesis of
disease is not completely known. After entering in mammalian
host, trypanosomes multiply in blood stream by binary fission
leading to parasitemia. The parasites has variable surface
glycoproteins which cause continuous exposure of immune
system leading to hyperplasia of spleen and lymph nodes. In
chronic cases, due to formation of antigen- antibody complexes
glomerulonephritis and vasculitis is seen.
Characteristic symptoms

High fever (105-107P)

Dyspnoea
Paraplegia, emaciation
Edema in dependent parts of body
Conjunctivitis, keratitis
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Macroscopic and microscopic features

Emaciated carcass

Enlargement of spleen and lymph nodes

Gelatinous exudate in subcutaneous region

Ulcerative keratitis

Congestion of abomasum and intestines

Petechiae on kidneys, liver and heart

Ulcers in tongue and abomasum.

Presence of flagellate parasite in blood smear

Hyperplasia of lymphoid follicles in lymph nodes and

spleen

Congestion in intestines

Erosion and ulcers in abomasum.

Diagnosis

Demonstration of protozoan parasite in blood smear

Symptoms and lesions

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- ELISA
THEILERIOSIS
Theileriosis is an infectious disease of animals caused by
protozoan parasite and characterized by enlargement of lymph
nodes, pulmonary edema, hemorrhage in kidneys and liver,
ulcers in abomasum and catarrhal enteritis.
Etiology

Theileria annulata
Pathogenesis
The parasite is transmitted through bite of ticks of genus
Hyalomma. The disease can also be transmitted mechanically
by inoculation of blood and tissue suspension made from spleen,
lymph nodes and liver of infected animals. After entry the
organism at sporozoit stage remains in blood circulation and
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Parasitic Diseases

enters in erythrocytes but they don't multiply. The

multiplication occurs in lymphocytes where it forms schizonts.
Infected lymphocytes are ruptured and schizonts are released
and other lymphocytes are affected. Later some schizonts are
differentiated unto merozoites. The rapidly multiplying
schizonts are causing severe damage to lymphoid cells through
their lysis.
Characteristic symptoms

High fever (105-107F)

Anemia
Enlargement of superficial lymph nodes

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Anemia
Pulmonary oedema
Enlargement of lymph nodes and spleen
Erosions and ulcers in abomasum
Hemorrhage in epicardium
Catarrhal enteritis
Lymphoid depletion
Presence of parasites in erythrocytes or its developmental
stages in lymphocytes
Perivascular lymphoid proliferation
Congestion in intestines
Proliferation of goblet cells.

Diagnosis

Demonstration of protozoan parasite in blood smear/

lymph node biopsy

Symptoms and lesions

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- ELISA
BABESIOSIS

Babesiosis is an infectious disease of animals caused by

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protozoan parasite and characterized by hemoglobinuria,

anemia, petechiae and ecchymoses in serous membranes,
icterus, pulmonary oedema and gastroenteritis.
Etiology

Babesia bigemina

B. bovis

Pathogenesis
The disease is transmitted from sick to healthy animal through
ticks following trans ovarian route. The incubation period of
disease is 5-10 days. After infection, the parasite multiplies in
peripheral blood and there is intra-vascular haemolysis leading
to hemoglobinuria. The infected erythrocytes liberate some
enzymes which interact with the components of blood and leads
to increased erythrocyte fragility, hypertensive shock and
disseminated intra ocular coagulation.
Characteristic symptoms

High fever (105-10:rF)

Anemia, icterus

Hemoglobinuria
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Anemia, icteru~
/

Hemoglobinuria

Enlargement of spleen and liver

Edema in lungs

Petechiae and ecchymoses in kidneys, lungs, liver and

spleen

Congestion in gastrointestinal tract

Presence of pear shaped Babesia organism in erythrocytes

Hemorrhage in liver, kidneys, lungs and spleen

Hemosiderosis in spleen

Necrosis of tubular epithelium in kidneys and presence of

hyaline casts.
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Diagnosis

Demonstration of protozoan parasite in blood smear

Symptoms and lesions

ImmunodiagnosJic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody- ELISA
TRICHOMONIASIS
Trichomoniasis is a protozQan parasitic disease of animals caused
by Trichomonas sp. characterized by abortion, vaginitis, metritis
and balanitis in cattle and gastroenteritis in horses.
Etiology

Trichomonas foetus- cattle

T. faecalis- horses
T. suis- swine
T. gallinae- poultry

Pathogenesis
Following coitus, cow gets infection from bull that causes
vaginitis, endometritis, placentitis, foetal infection and abortion
in early gestation. Abortion followed by pyometra due to
invasion of secondary bacterial infection.
Characteristic Symptoms

Abortion

Retention of placenta

Sterility
Pyometra

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Vaginitis

Gastroenteritis in horses

Metritis- Pyometra

Abortion during 3-5 month of gestation

Balanitis in bulls

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Infiltration of neutrophils in uterus.

Presence of trichomonads in tissue sections of uterus.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of trichomonads in prepuceal washing and

vaginal discharges

Demonstration of trichononades in uterine tissue sections

TOXOPLASMOSIS
Toxoplasmosis is a protozoan parasitic disease of animals
characterized by encephalitis, foetalization of lungs, ulcers in
intestines, necrosis in liver and abortion.
Etiology

Toxoplasma gondii

Immunosuppression predisposes animals and reactivation

of parasites to cause disease.
Pathogenesis
Transmission of parasite occurs through ingestion of
contaminated meat or feed. The sporozoites penetrate intestinal
wall and multiply. Thereafter, they reach to the other organs
through blood stream. In brain it causes encephalitis; infection
may also occur in foetus as congenital that leads to pneumonia,
enterocolitis and skin lesions.
Characteristic Symptoms

Convulsions

Nasal discharge

Nervous signs- staggering gait, incoordination in moments.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Necrosis in brain and liver

Nodules in lungs

Ulcers in intestines

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Parasitic Diseases

Edema in placenta
Lymphocytic infiltration in brain, pancreas, lungs and
myocardium.
Coagulative necrosis in liver
Fetalization of lung alveolar lung epithelium becomes
cuboidal or columnar.
Granulomatous inflammation in intestines.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Serological examination- ELISA

Demonstration of parasites
COCCIDIOSIS
Coccidiosis is protozoan parasitic disease of animals
characterized by gastroenteritis, hepatitis and typhlitis.
Etiology
Cattle
Eimeria bovis
E. zuernii
Sheep and goats
E.ovina
E. paroa
E. intricata
Pigs
E. scrofae
E. suis
E. scabra
Equines
E. leuckarti
Klossiella equi

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Pathogenesis
Oocysts are taken through contaminated water/ feed which
germinate and liberate the sporozoites. Sporozoites infect the
epithelium of intestine and forms schizonts and merozoites that
causes damage to intestines leading to haemorrhage. After
formation of gametes and fertilization oocysts are again formed
and released through stool.
Characteristic Symptoms

Bloody diarrhoea

Emaciation
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Hemorrhage in intestines

Anemia
Hepatic lesions and icterus in rabbits
Coccidia in the epithelial cells of villi in mucosa of intestine.
Eosinophilic inflammation
Hemorrhagic enteritis

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of coccidial parasites in stool, or intestinal

tissue sections.
SARCOSPORIDIOSIS
Sarcosporidiosis is a protozoan parasitic disease of animals
caused by several species of sarcocystis and characterized by
presence of cysts in skeletal and cardiac muscles without much
inflammatory reaction.
Etiology

Sarcocystis cruzi- Cattle

S. gigantean- Sh~ep

S. canis- Dogs

S. capracanis- Goat

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Parasitic Diseases

Pathogenesis
On ingestion the sarcocystis enter through blood vessel by
damaging the endothelial cells of arteriols and capillaries leading
to hemorrhage and anemia, fever occurs during parasitemia
and the parasite lodged in muscles.
Characteristic Symptoms

Fever, emaciation, anemia

'Rat tail' appearance

Muscle twitching, loss of hair in neck, rump

Abortion

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Sarcocyt on oesophagus, cardiac and skeletal muscle

Loss of hairs on neck, tail

Sarcocysts distort myofibrils in cardiac and skeletal

muscle

No or mild inflammatory reaction

Rupture of sarcocyte may cause granulomatous

inflamma tion
Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Histopathological examination of muscles.

SCHISTOSOMIASIS
Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease of animals caused by blood
fluke characterized by formation of granulomatous pseudo
tubercle, cercarial dermatitis and nasal granuloma.
Etiology

Schistosoma nasalis

S. indicum

S. bovis

S. spindale

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Pathogenesis
When the cercariae find a suitable host, they penetrate the skin
of susceptible host usually between the hair follicles and
converted into metacercariae. Metacercariae enter in small
peripheral veins and reach into lungs through venous circulation
where they break the lung parenchyma and migrate directly to
the liver. In intra hepatic portal system, the flukes grow in size
then eventually migrate to the portal, mesenteric or pelvic vein
where they attain their adult form.
Characteristic Symptoms

Dyspnoea

Epistaxis

Dermatitis (Swimmers' itch)

Itching

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Granulomatous growth in nasal passage

Dermatitis

Hemorrhagic ulcers

Micro abscess containing neutrophils and eosinophils surrounding ovum

Granulomatous reaction-eggs surrounded by mononuclear

cells and fibrosis

Endarteritis, periarteritis
Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Examination of lesion and/ or blood for flood flukes.

DISTOMIASIS
Distomiasis is a trematode parasitic disease of animals caused
by Fasciola sp. and characterized by hepatitis, cholecystitis and
icterus.

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Parasitic Diseases

Etiology

Fasciola hepatica
Fasciola gigantica

Pathogenesis
The ova of the parasite are disseminated through faeces, which
germinate and form miracidium. The miracidium penetrates the
body of snails and after several stages, it becomes cercariae
which is attached to plants/ vegetation in water source. This
form is called as metacercariae, which are ingested by the
animals, and reaches in intestine. They penetrate the intestine
and migrate to liver to eventually develop in bile ducts and
gall bladder.
Characteristic Symptoms

Anemia, emaciation

Icterus, diarrhoeal constipation

Edema in lower parts of body

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Necrotic channels in liver

Abscess formation

Presence of parasites in bile duct! gall bladder

Infiltration of eosinophils, lymphocytes and mononuclear

macrophages

Fibrosis/ cirrhosis of liver

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Faecal examination

Liver/ gall bladder examination during necropsy for the

presence of adult flukes

Demonstration of parasitic antigens in faeces, milk and/

or serum using ELISA

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CRYPTOSPORIDIOSIS
Cryptosporidiosis is a protozoan parasitic disease of animals
characterized by chronic diarrhoea in calves, villous atrophy
and infiltration of lymphocytes in mucosa of intestine.
Etiology

Cryptosporidium bauis

Protozoan parasite just like coccidia

Pathogenesis
Oocysts of cryptosporidia enter in body through faecal- oral
route and establish in mucosa of intestine. The merozoites
penetrate villous epithelium causing chronic diarrhoea.
Characteristic Symptoms
Inapparent signs

Chronic diarrhoea
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Congestion of intestines

Enlargement of mesenteric lymph nodes

Villous atrophy

Infiltration of lymphocyte, plasma cells

Intracellular parasite- basophilic

Necrosis
Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Microscopic examination of faecal samples and intestinal

scrapings

Demonstration of parasites in intestinal tissue sections

ASCARIASIS
Ascariasis is a parasitic disease of animals caused by Ascarid
worms and characterized by diarrhoea, jaundice, and
obstruction of bile duct, peritonitis and obstruction of intestinal
lumen.

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Parasitic Diseases

Etiology

Ascaris lumbricoides- Pig

Toxocara canis- Dog
T. cati- Cats, dog
Neoascaris vitulorum- Cattle
Parascaris equorum- Horse

Pathogenesis
The eggs or larvae are ingested through feed/ water. Larvae
invade the intestine and pass through liver to the lungs, enter
in bronchi and trachea and then are swallowed to develop adult
parasite in intestinal lumen. In cattle larvae may also reach to
the foetus through prenatal or trans mammary passage.
Characteristic Symptoms

Diarrhoea

Fever

Constipation

Jaundice
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Presence of adult worms in intestinal lumen

Hepatitis with sub-capsular fibrosis

Granulomatous nodules in kidneys, liver, lung, myocardium and\ lymph nodes

Larvae may migrate in abnormal host - visceral larva migrans in man

Caseaous hepatitis with fibrosis

Eosinophilic enteritis

Hemorrhage in intestines and lungs

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Faecal examination for the presence of parasitic ova

Presence of parasites in intestines during necropsy

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ANCHYLOSTOMIASIS
Anchylostomiasis is a parasitic disease of animals characterized
by dermatitis creeping eruptions, anemia, diarrhoea and
progressive emaciation. This is also known as hook wonn

disease.
Etiology

Anchylostoma caninum- Dog

Bunostomum phlebotomum- Cattle

B. trigonocephalum- Sheep, goat

Globecephalus urosubulatus- Pig

Pathogenesis
Eggs are released in faeces, which hatch under suitable
conditions into larvae that infect the host through skin
penetration or ingestion. Larvae migrate to the lungs and finally
reaches in intestine through cough swallowing. During
migration, they may penetrate placenta and infect foetus or may
appear in milk to infect suckling neonates.
Characteristic Symptoms

Dermatitis

Itching on skin

Coughing

Anemia, melena

Progressive weakness
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Anemia

Lobular pneumonia

Hemorrhage in intestines

Fibrotic nodules in intestines

Dermatitis

Placentitis

Hemorrhage in intestine

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Parasitic Diseases

Blunting and fusion of villi

Fibrosis in intestine
Leucocytic infiltration in lungs and intestines

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Faecal examination for the present of ova

In intestine adult worms are seen during necropsy

Demonstration of parasite in tissue sections

TRICHOSTRONGYLOSIS
Trichostrongylosis is a parasitic disease of animals characterized
by melena, emaciation, progressive weakness, anemia and
death.
Etiology

Hemonchus contortus- stomach worm

H. placei- stomach worm
Ostertagia ostertagi- brown stomach worm
Trichostrongylus axei- hair like worm
T. colubriformis- hair like worm
Cooperia punctata- stomach worm

Pathogenesis
Larvae are ingested through feed or water, which penetrate
the abomasum and attach with mucosa. They take the blood of
host and become mature within 18-19 days. Adult worms live
free in lumen but suck blood from the wall of abomasum. Some
may pierce the mucosa deep to remain in the wall for longer
period that leads to formation of small nodules.
Characteristic Symptoms

Diarrhoea

Melena

Anemia
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Macroscopic and microscopic features

Nodules in gastric wall

Hemorrhage in gastric mucosa

Blood mixed intestinal contents

Anemia

Edema in subcutis

Abomasum may have large number of worms

Mucosa of abomasum becomes haemorrhagic and atrophic

Infiltration of leucocytes specially of eosinophils

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Faecal examination

Identification of parasites from stomach during necropsy

OESOPHAGOSTOMIASIS
Oesophagostomiasis is a parasitic disease of animals
characterized by diarrhoea, anemia, emaciation, cachexia,
prostration and death.
Etiology

Oesophagostomum radiatum

O. columbianum

These are known as nodule worms

Pathogenesis
Eggs pass through faeces and germinate into larvae in soil.
Larvae through contaminated feed/ water reaches in gut of
animal. The larvae penetrate the intestinal mucosa, moult in
sub mucosa and return to the lumen for maturation to become
adult worm.
Characteristic Symptoms

Diarrhoea

Anemia, emaciation, cachexia

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Parasitic Diseases

Prostration and death

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Catarrhal enteritis

Hemorrhage in intestines

Anemia
Nodules in sub mucosa
Parasites in intestines
Catarrhal, haemorrhagic and eosinophilic enteritis
Infiltration of lymphocytes, macrophages and giant cells

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Faecal examination

Demonstration of parasite in intestinal walll lumen

CESTODIASIS
Cestodiasis is a tapeworm parasitic disease of animals
characterized by anemia, haemorrhagic enteritis, abdominal
pain, emaciation and diarrhoea. This is also known as tapeworm
disease or taeniasis.
Etiology

Anoplocephala magna- horse

Moniezia expansa- sheep, goat, cattle, buffaloes

M. benedeni- sheep, goat, cattle, buffaloes

Avitellina centripunctata- sheep, goat, cattle, buffaloes

Diphyllobothrium latum- pigs, dogs

Mesocestoides lineatus- dogs

Dipylidium caninum- dogs

Taenia pisiformis- dogs

Pathogenesis
Adult tapeworms suck the blood from mucosa of intestines
through suckers and hooks causing enteritis and anemia.

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Characteristic Symptoms

Anemia

Blood mixed faeces, diarrhoea

Emaciation, progressive weakness

Jaundice
Abdominal pain

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Haemorrhagic enteritis

Presence of parasites in intestines

Blood mixed intestinal contents

Anemic musculature

Hemosiderin in liver and spleen

Fatty degeneration of brain tissue

Hemorrhagic enteritis
Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Faecal examination

Presence of parasitic segments in intestine of host

CYSTICERCOSIS
Cysticercosis is a parasitic disease of animals characterized by
the presence of cysts in different organs of body. This is caused
by larval stages of the tapeworms and is also known as bladder
worm disease.
Etiology

Cysticercus cellulosae - larvae of Taenia solium

C. bovis - larvae of T. saginata

Coenurus cerebralis - larvae of Multiceps multiceps

Pathogenesis
Cysticercosis is caused by the larval stages of tapeworms, which
forms cysts like bladder in different organs including muscles,
liver, heart etc.
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Parasitic Diseases

Charactedstic Symptoms

No characteristic symptoms

Paralysis of affected organs such as tongue

Convulsions

In sheep- this disease is known as Gid

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Pressure atrophy due to cyst in adjoining tissue/ organ

Presence of cysts up to several millimeter diameter in

muscle, heart, liver, tongue, lungs, brain etc.

Measly beef or pork

Presence of bladder with scolex and hooks in tissue sections surrounded by connective tissue capsules.
Eosinophilic infiltration

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Presence of cysts in different organs during necropsy

ECHINOCOCCOSIS
Echinococcsis is a parasitic disease of animals characterized by
presence of cysts in different organs. This is also known as
hydated cyst disease, which is caused by the intermediate stage
of tapeworm echinococcus.
Etiology

Echinococcus granulosus
E. multilocularis

Pathogenesis
The cysts may affect organ/ tissue which depends on the size
of the hydated cyst.
Characteristic Symptoms

No characteristic symptoms

Depends on organ involved

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Anap~ylactic

shock, allergic reaction

Dyspnoea, diarrhoea, blindness, paralysis

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Presence of cysts up to several centimeter in diameter

Atrophy of adjoining tissue/ organ

Calcified nodules

Cysts are surrounded by inflammatory reaction with

eosinophils, giant cells and fibrous connective tissue
Diagnosis

Presence of cysts in different organs/ tissue during

necropsy

CFf, DTH, HA test

Histopathology

DIROFILARIASIS
Dirofilariasis is a nematode parasitic disease of animals
characterized by presence of parasites in blood, heart and arteries
causing emboli, ascites, hypertrophy of right ventricle and
granuloplatous inflammation in visceral organs. This is also kwon
as "Heart wonn disease" or canine filariasis"
Etiology

. Dirofilaria immitis - dogs

D. repens- dogs
Setaria ceroi- cattle
S. equina- Horses
Dioctophyma renale- Pig, dog

Pathogenesis
Transmission of microfilarial worms occurs by biting
mosquitoes, in which after some developmental stages, infective
larvae enters in body tissues of susceptible hosts. It further
develops in muscles, subcutaneous tissue and reaches up to few
cm in length and enters in circulation to reach in heart.
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Parasitic Diseases

Characteristic Symptoms

Ascites

Hemoptysis

Dyspnoea with short breathing

Weakness,
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Enlargement of right ventricle

Presence of worms in heart

Congestion of lung, liver and spleen

Ascities
Pulmonary emboli due to parasite
Microfilariae in eyes of ho!"se
Microfilariae in blood
Microfilariae in tissue sections with granulomatous inflammatory reaction in kidney

Cystitis

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Blood examination

Demonstration of parasite in tissue sections

Immunodiagnostic tests for detection of parasitic antigen

DRACUNCULOSIS
Dracunculosis is a nematode parasitic disease of animals
characterized by urticarial rashes, low-grade fever, abscess
involving subcutaneous tissue of abdominal wall and legs. It is
also known as guinea wonn disease.
Etiology

Dracunculus medinensis

D. insignis

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Pathogenesis
Infection occurs after ingestion of Cyclops (intermediate host)
in water that leads to release of larvae in intestine. They migrate
to the connective tissue of abdominal wall, where they become
adult and lay eggs, which forms papule and causes itching and
oedema.
Characteristic Symptoms

Intense pruritus, itching in legs and abdominal wall

Edema
Urticaria
Low grade fever

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Edema

Papular eruptions on abdominal wall, legs,

Urticarial swellings

Subcutaneous nodules

Parasites in blood

Neutrophilic infiltration

Congestion, oedema in subcutaneous tissue and abdominal wall

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Blood examination

Demonstration of parasite in tissue sections

PULMONARY NEMATODIASIS
Pulmonary nematodiasis is a nematode parasitic disease of
animals characterized by dyspnoea, coughing, diarrhoea,
stunted growth and nodules in lungs. It is also known as
lungworm disease or verminous pneumonia or dictyocauliasis.
Etiology

Dictyocaulus vlviparus- cattle lung worm

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Parasitic Diseases

D. filaria- cattle lung worm

Filaroides osleri- dog lung worm
F. milksi- dog lung worm
DichJocaulus arnfieldi- horse lung worm

Pathogenesis
Adult parasites remain in trachea, bronchi and bronchioles and
embedded in mucosa. Eggs are laid and swallowed with cough
in the gut. The eggs hatch to produce larvae that come with
faeces. The third stage larvae are ingested by susceptible animal
and penetrate the intestinal wall and migrate to lymph nodes,
where they develop 4th stage larvae. By way of lymphatics and
pulmonary artery, they enter in bronchioles and bronchi to cause
lung lesions.
Characteristic Symptoms

Hacking cough with dyspnoea

Diarrhoea

Retarded growth
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Nodules in lungs

Hemorrhage in bronchiole and alveoli

Granulomatous pneumonia

Presence of worms in tracheal bronchiole

Presence of parasitic sections in lung tissue

Eosinophilic infiltration

Atelectasis and emphysema

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Faecal examination

Parasite in tracheal bronchiole

Demonstration of parasitic sections in lung tissue

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EQUINE STRONGYLOIDOSIS
Equine strongyloidosis is a nematode parasitic disease of
equines characterized by verminous arthritis, aneurysm, saddle
thrombi, anemia and intestinal infarction.
Etiology

Strongylus vulgaris

S. equinus
Pathogenesis
Eggs of parasite pass through faeces; first stage larvae hatched
out and develop up to 3 rd stage, which are ingested through
feed/ water. These larvae penetrate intestine, moult in sub
mucosa and reach in anterior mesenteric artery. After
maturation, the adult parasites return to the intestine particularly
in caecum.
Characteristic Symptoms

Diarrhoea with melena

Abdominal pain

Weakness of the legs

Anemia

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Parasites in blood vessel

Intestinal hemorrhage

Aneurysm
Arteritis
Thrombosis and embolism
Parasitic arteritis infiltrated by eosinophils and
mononuclear cells

Infarction
Proliferation of intima and endothelium

Hemorrhage

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Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of parasites in blood vessel

Eggs in faeces- faecal examination

Histopathological examination
SPIROCERCOSIS
Spirocercosis is a nematode parasitic disease of animals
characterized by vomiting, oesophageal obstruction and
presence of tumour like nodule in aortic wall. This is also known
as oesophageal wonn disease.
Etiology

Spirocerca lupi in dogs

Pathogenesis
Eggs are released in faeces of infected animal and are taken up
by beetles in which they hatch to produce larvae. If eaten by
the host, the larvae penetrate the stomach or intestinal wall
and following the course of arteries migrating through tunica
adventitia and media, the larvae reaches in the wall of aorta
and localizes in adventitia of aorta in upper thoracic portion.
From here, it can migrate to adjacent oesophagus and penetrate
its wall to develop cystic nodule.
Characteristic Symptoms
Vomiting

Oesophageal obstruction

Sudden death
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Tumour like nodule in aorta, oesophagus (near cardia)

Aneurysm in aorta

Hemorrhage due to aneurysm

Sometimes nodule in stomach and lungs

Worm in tunica adventitia or media of aorta

Leucocytic infiltration
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Necrotic tract in aorta

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Faecal examination

Presence of parasite in nodule of oesophagus and aorta

CEREBROSPINAL NEMATODIASIS
Cerebrospinal nematodiasis is a nematode parasitic disease of
animals characterized by loss of balance, incoordination, paresis
of limbs, drooping of ears or eyelid and eosinophilic encephalitis.
It is also known as neurofilariasis, setariasis and lumbar
paralysis and in horses "Kumri".
Etiology

Setaria digitata- sheep, goat, cervids

Pneumostrongylus tenuis- sheep, goat, cervids
Micronema deletrix- horse

Pathogenesis
Adult parasites are harmless while the immature forms occur
in brain and spinal cord of sheep, goat and horses.
Characteristic Symptoms

Paralysis of limbs

Incoordination of limbs

Loss of balance
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Not well known

Encephalomyelomalacia

Presence of parasite in lesion

Encephalomyelomalacia

Eosinophilic infiltration in brain and spinal cord

Degenerative and necrotic lesions in brain and spinal cord

Perivascular cuffing of lymphocytes

Parasite in tissue sections

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Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Microscopic examination of brain and spinal cord

TRICHURIASIS
Trichuriasis is a nematode parasitic disease of animals
characterized by catarrhal, hemorrhagic or necrotizing typhlitis
and colitis. It is also known as whipworm disease.
Etiology

Trichuris ovis- cattle, sheep, goat

Trichuris suis- pig

Pathogenesis
Eggs of parasite are ingested through feed/ water, which hatch
in intestine and liberate larvae that penetrate the mucosa of
caecum and colon.
Characteristic Symptoms

Diarrhoea with melena

Weakness and emaciation

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Catarrhal/ hemorrhagic inflammation of caecum and caIon.

Presence of worms in caecum

Catarrhal, haemorrhagic and/or necrotizing typhlitis and

colitis

Parasite in tissue sections

Eosinophilic infiltration
Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Faecal examination

Histopathological examination of caecum and colon for

demonstration of parasitic section

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TRICHINOSIS
Trichinosis is a nematode parasitic disease of animals
characterized by muscular pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea,
fever, oedema of face, urticarial skin eruptions and enteritis. It
is also known as trichinelliasis.
Etiology

Trichinella spiralis

Pathogenesis
Uncooked or raw pork products are the source of infection.
Infective larvae released from meat and mature in intestine. It
enters in intestinal mucosa and through blood stream it reaches
in muscles (cardiac, skeletal)
Characteristic Symptoms

Muscular pain and fever

Nausea, vomi!ing and diarrhoea

Edema of face

Urticarial skin eruptions

Paralysis

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Catarrhal enteritis

Nodule in muscles containing parasite with calcified area

Parasitic nodules in cardiac muscles

Leucocytosis with eosinophilia

Catarrhal enteritis

Chalk coloured streaks in skeletal muscles

Parasite in muscle section

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Parasites or ova in faeces

Parasitic demonstration in muscles

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Parasitic Diseases

STEPHANOFILARIASIS
Stephanofilariasis is a parasitic disease of animals characterized
by dermatitis, hyperkeratosis and scab formation. This is also
known as hump sore or ear sore.
Etiology

Stephanofilaria dedosi

S. assamensis- hump sore

S. zaheeri- ear sore

Pathogenesis
Transmission of parasite occurs through flies. Poor condition
of animal and high rainfall are predisposing factors in causation
of disease. Disease starts with papular lesions on skin along
with itching.
Characteristic Symptoms

Intense itching

Rubbing with hard object leading to haemorrhage and

abraded wounds

Hump sore
Ear sore

Macroscopic and microscopic features

This is verminous dermatitis also known as 'Cascado'

Papular eruptions, abrasion wounds

Parasite in epithelial layer of skin

Hyperkeratosis and parakeratosis

Presence of parasites in tissue sections of skin surrounded

by inflammatory cells i.e. eosinophils, lymphocytes "and
giant cells

Hyperkeratosis and parakeratosis

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of parasite in skin

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MANGE
Mange is a skin disease caused by arthropod parasite mite and
characterized by intense pruritus, loss of hairs, hyperkeratosis
and thickening of skin.
Etiology

Mites- arthropod parasite

Sarcoptes sp.

Psoroptes sp.

Demodectes sp.

Chorioptes sp.

Pathogenesis
Disease spreads through contact, fomites and rubbing brushes
etc. The mites penetrate the stratum corneum layer of skin and
forms tunnels in epidermis leading to hyperkeratosis and
inflammatory reaction.
Characteristic Symptoms

Intense itching

Red papular eruptions or abrasion wounds in skin

Loss of hairs
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Thickening of skin

Loss of shining of skin and hairs

Hyperkeratosis

Scratch wounds

Eosinophilic dermatitis

Presence of mites in skin sections

Hyperkeratosis and parakeratosis

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Microscopic examination of skin scrapings/ tissue

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32

Avian Inflammation
Inflammation is a process which begins following a sublethal
injury to tissue and ends with complete healing or death. It is
characterized by five cardinal signs. Cardinal signs of
inflammation are:

Redness

Heat

Swelling

1.
2.

Pain

Loss of function
Inflammation is beneficial in most of cases except

In prolonged or unending process

In inflammation of immunological origin i.e. hypersensitivity and autoimmunity.

It provides basic foundation of pathogenesis and pathology.
It is now said that immunity is the resistance of body, while
inflammation is the process by which the immune mechanism are implemented.
The basis of inflammation remains same be it mammal or
birds. For details, one can refer the chapter inflammation.
However, there are some differences in reaction in birds
which are briefly listed below:
Adult bird has greater capacity to react in comparison to
embryos and chicks
In birds, there is increased permeability in venules. While
in mammals it occurs in capillary/arterioles.

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3.

4.

5.

6.

7.
8.

9.

In poultry, Heterophils are the first line of defence and

comes first in inflammation followed by mononuclear cells.
However, in mammals the sequence is not clear.
In poultry, Basophils are seen in significant numbers at
the site in early stage of inflammation. These cells
de granulate to release histamine. However, in mammals
basophils are rarely seen.
Formation of perivascular foci due to infiltration of lymphoid cells causing cuffing around blood vessels. This is
very common in avian inflammatory reaction. However,
in mammals it has been seen only in some specific
inflammations of brain.
Giant cells are the feature of avian inflammation and are
observed in acute and chronic inflammation while in mammals these are seen only in chronic inflammation.
In birds, thrombocytes act as phagocytic cells.
Biphasic vascular permeability response occurs in chicken.
First reaction is mediated by histamine while another reaction is mediated by unknown factors. It has been proved
by treatment with antihistaminic drugs which did not stop
the inflammatory reaction.
In chicken, inflammation caused by phytohaemagglutinin
or concanavalin-A (Con-A) is characterized by skin response with infiltration of heterophils, monocytes and
basophils. While in mammals, there are no neutrophils and
basophils in such reactions.

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Chapter

33

Pathology of Nutritional
Disorders
Pathology of nutritional deficiency diseases are described in
chapter 2 etiology of the book "Illustrated V~terinary
Pathology". However, specific deficiency of nutrition that leads
to development of clinical signs and lesions in poultry are
summarized as under:

VITAMIN DEFICIENCY
1.

Hypovitaminosis A
Vitamin A is considered infection resisting vitamin because
it facilitates the proper development of bursa, immunity
and epithelium on mucosal and skin surfaces.
Deficiency of vitamin A leads to swollen glands in oesophagus i.e. nutritional roup.

2.

Hypovitaminosis D

Rickets
Cage layer paralysis
Deformed rib junctions

3.

Hypovitaminosis E
Encephalomalacia
Chicks push their head beneath the breast "Crazy Chick
Disease"
Muscular dystrophy with white necrotic areas on muscles
Distortion of hock joint

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4.

Hypovitaminosis K
Increased blood clotting time
Blood tinged droppings
Pale bone marrow
Haemorrhage in breast and thigh muscles

5.

Hypovitaminosis C
Case layer fatigue

6.

Hypovitaminosis Bl
Star grazing in chicks
Atrophy of testes
Atrophy of ovary

7.

Hypovitaminosis B2
Curled toe paralysis

8.

Nicotinic acid/ niacin deficiency

Enlargement of joints
Legs bend outwards

9.

Pentothenic acid deficiency

Nodular hyperplasia and cracks at foot pad.
Scabs at commissures of the mouth; eyelids and toes
Stunted growth,
Hypoplasia of spleen

10. Pyridoxine (BJ deficiency

Stunted growth
Encephalomalacia
Jerking movements

11. Folic acid deficiency

Anemia
Retardation of growth
Perosis
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12. Biotin deficiency

Dermatitis

Perosis
Embryonic death
Distorted limbs
Big web between 3rd and 4th phalanges

13.

Choline deficiency
Perosis (Slipped tendon)
Deformity in tibio-tarsal joint
Fatty liver syndrome

14. Vitamin Bt2 deficiency

Stunted growth
Reduced hatchability
Atrophic leg muscles
Hemorrhage

MINERAL DEFICIENCY
1.

Calcium deficiency

Rickets
Nodular swelling at costocondral junctions of ribs
Bending of legs

2.

Phosphorus deficiency

3.

Pica
Manganese deficiency

Perosis
Defective growth of bone (osteodystrophy and chondrodystrophy)

Parrot beak

4.

Zinc deficiency
Perosis

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Scaly limb disease

Immunosuppression

5.

Copper deficiency
Anemia
Improper bone growth

6.

Magnesium deficiency
Stunted growth

7.

Selenium deficiency
Muscular degeneration
Deformity in embryos (absence of beak, eye or limb)

8.

Nickel deficiency
Enlargement of hock joints

9.

Iodine deficiency
Stunted growth

10. Fluorosisf excess of fluorine

Retarded growth
Drop in egg production
Deformity in bones

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Chapter

34

Viral Diseases
RANIKHET DISEASE

Ranikhet disease is a contagious viral disease of poultry

characterized by high mortality petechial hemorrhage in
proventriculus, ulcers and hemorrhage at caecal tonsils and
pneumoencephalitis. It is also known as Newcastle disease.

Etiology

Paramyxovirus

RNA virus-3 types

Lentogenic- mild virulent

Mesogenic- moderate virulent

Velogenic- highly virulent

Pathogenesis
The birds showing respiratory disease shed the virus in air in
the form of droplets of mucus which is inhaled by susceptible
birds. The virus also transmitted through ingestion of
contaminated food and water and reaches in intestines where
its replication occurs. The virus is attached to cells with receptors
mediated by the hemagglutinin glycoprotein. Then the virus
membrane fuses with cell membrane with fusion glycoproteins.
Thus nucleocapsid complex enters in the cell. During replication
glycoprotein is cleaved for the progeny virus particle to be
infective. The virulent viruses invade and replicate in many
tissues and organs resulting in the production of infective virus
throughout the body and cause development of lesions.

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Characteristic symptoms

Yellowish/ greenish diarrhoea

Twitching of neck
Heavy mortality
Early chick mortality
Paralysis
Respiratory distress
Prostration
and mortality

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Velogenic form

Petechial hemorrhage on the tip of the proventriculus papillae.

Hemorrhagic ulcers in intestines particularly at ileocaecal

junction (caecal tonsils).

Petechial hemorrhage on serosal surfaces of visceral or-

gans.
Mesogenic form

Congestion of lungs and brain

Pneumoencephalitis

Mottling of spleen
Lentogenic form

Haemorrhagic lesions are few or absent and low mortality.

Drop in egg production with congestion of ovaries.

Proliferation of endothelial cells of blood vessels in brain.

Cytoplasmic vacuolation in neurons.

Proliferation of glial cells.

Thrombosis in blood vessels of intestine.

Necrosis of mucosa leading to ulcer formation in intestines specially at caecal tonsils.

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Viral Diseases

Proliferation of Kuffer cells in liver.

Congestion in lungs.
Congestion of ovaries and oviduct.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of antigen in brain tissue

Immunological tests such ELISA, AGPT, CIEP for detection antigen/ antibody.
AVIAN INFLUENZA
Avian influenza is a highly contagious viral disease of poultry
characterized by high morbidity and mortality, serofibrinosis
pericarditis, air sacculitis, pneumonia, sinusitis and caseous
exudate in upper respiratory tract. This disease is also known
as fowl plague and occurs in pandemic form.
Etiology

Orthomyxovirus, HP AI- H5N1

RNA virus

Several subtypes based on Hemagglutinin (H) and Neuraminidase (N) antigens.

Pathogenesis
The source of infection is infected bird which excretes virus
from respiratory tract, conjunctiva and faeces. The faecalj oral
route is the main mode of transmission. The avian influenza
virus adsorbs to glycoprotein receptors on the cell surface. The
virus then enters in the cell by receptor mediated endocytosis.
The tissue tropism of virus is involved in its pathogenicity which
is receptor specific. Pathogenicity of virus is due to
hemogglutinin molecule which is cleaved by host proteases and
the cleaved hemagglutinin is deciding factor for viral replication
and for production of infective virion particles. Due to presence
of proteases the virus invades and replicates in tissues and
organs resulting in generalized disease and death.

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Characteristic symptoms

Cyanosis of comb and wattle

Edema of face

Respiratory distress

Convulsions, blindness and paralysis

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Oedema of face.

Hemorrhage on epicardium, breast muscles and inner surface of sternum.

Necrotic foci in spleen, liver, kidneys, intestine and pancreas.

Visceral gout and nephrosis with swollen kidneys.

Sinusitis with caseous or mucopurulent exudate.

Caseous exudates in air sacs.

Perivascular cuffing by lymphocytes in brain, heart, spleen

and lungs.

Coagulative necrosis in kidneys, spleen, lungs, pancreas

and liver.

Edema in myocardium and lungs.

Dialated tubules in kidneys with urate crystalline casts.

Diagnosis

High morbidity and mortality.

Symptoms and lesions

Perivascular cuffing in brain which is absent in Ranikhet

disease.

Demonstration of H and N antigens using HAl HI test.

MAREK'S DISEASE
Marek's disease is a highly contagious disease of poultry mainly
affecting young birds and characterized by thickening of nerves
and malignant lymphoma in gonads and other visceral organs.

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Viral Diseases

Etiology

DNA virus

Herpes virus

Cell associated virus

Produces a tumour specific antigen on the cell membrane

MATSA (Marek's associated tumour surface antigen).
Pathogenesis
Feather follicle cells are the most important source of infection
to the susceptible birds. However, other sources include poultry
house dust and litter. Air borne spread and respiratory tract
infection is most important route of infection. The virus enters
through respiratory tract and it is picked up by the phagocytic
cells that leads to four phase of infection.

Early productive infection causes mainly degenerative

changes i.e. cytolytic changes.

Latent infection which coincides with the development of

immune responses. Mostly T-cell are infected in latency
although B-cells may also involved.

Second-phase of cytolytic productive restrictive infection

coinciding with permanent immunosuppression.

Proliferative phase involving non-productively infected

lymphoid cells which may progress to lymphoma formation. The lymphoproliferative changes constitute the final
responses and may progress to tumour development.
Characteristic symptoms

Lameness, paralysis and hanging wings

Torticollis
Head turns upside down
Tumours on skin

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Thickening of nerves (Sciatic, brachial, vagus) with loss of

cross striations.

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Tumours of malignant lymphoma in ovary/testes, liver,

spleen, lungs, muscles, heart, kidneys, proventriculus and
intestines.

Tumours on skin.
Lymphocytic infiltration in nerves.
Lymphofollicular reaction in visceral organs like gonads,
liver, spleen, lungs and heart.

Lymphocytes are immature and pleomorphic showing characteristic anaplastic changes.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Sexually immature birds mostly affected

Demonstration of MATSA in cells

AGPf using feather follicles as source of viral antigen.

AVIAN LEUCOSIS
A vian leucosis is a cancerous viral disease of poultry
characterized by tumourous growth of blood cells in liver,
spleen, lungs, ovary, kidneys and other visceral organs. Disease
occurs sporadically in adult birds also known as big liver disease.
Etiology

Avian leucosis virus is a RNA virus of retroviridae family

Virus has reverse transcriptase enzyme to convert viral

RNA to DNA which incorporated in cellular DNA.
Pathogenesis
The avian leucosis virus is transmitted vertically from hen to
chicks through eggs as well as horizontally through direct and
indirect contact. It is a malignancy of the bursa-dependent
lymphoid system. The target cells are transformed in the bursa
of most birds, only few birds develop lymphoid leucosis most
of tumours regress and only few enlarges and their cells enter
into vascular system and produce metastatic foci in other visceral
organs.
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Viral Diseases

Characteristic symptoms

Pale comb

Enlarged abdomen

Profuse haemorrhage from feather follicles

Boot like appearance of shank

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Avian leucosis complex includes:

a)

Lymphoid leucosis
Tumours of lymphoblasts in liver, spleen, ovary and other
organs.

Tumours are white/ grey, raised and glistening.

b)

Erythrodblastosis
Immature erythrocytes in blood stream, bone marrow and
liver.
Bone marrow hypertrophied and becomes cherry red in
colour.

c)

Myeloblastosis
Neoplastic growth of granulocytes in liver, spleen and other
organs.

d)

Osteopetrosis
Thickening of the long bones, limbs and ribs due to
overgrowth.
Anaplastic blood cells.
Malignant cells with mitotic figures.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Big liver size with tumours.

Sporadic occurrence in adult birds.

Histopathological examination of affected tissue.

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INFECTIOUS BURSAL DISEASE

Infectious bursal disease is an immunosuppressive disease of
birds caused by birna virus and characterized by lesions in bursa
of Fabricious, lack of B-Iymphocytes, deposition of urates in
kidneys and ureter a!ld hemorrhagic myositis. Morbidity rate
is as high as 100% and mortality is upto 80%.
Etiology

Birna virus

Double stranded RNA virus having two segments.

5 serotypes in India.

Very stable at 60C for 30 min.

Pathogenesis
The virus is transmitted through contaminated feed, water and
droppings of the infected birds. Most common route of infection
is oral route but conjunctival and respiratory routes are also
important. The incubation period is 2-3 days. After infection,
within hours virus is found in macrophages and lymphoid cells
in the caeca, duodenum, jejunum and kupffer cells of the liver.
The virus first reaches the liver then enters in the blood stream
and distributed to different tissues includin~. bursa. There is
development of viraemia. The virus causes destruction of
affected lymphoid cells (mainly B- cells and their precursors) in
the bursa of Fabricious, spleen and caecal tonsils. Bursal
depletion in early life may result in impaired immune responses
which causes immunosuppression leading to lowered resistance
to diseases.
Characteristic symptoms

Symptoms vary due to immunosuppression

Trembling of body

Picking of vent

Watery diarrhoea

Prostration

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Viral Diseases

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Enlargement of bursa of Fabricious.

Gelatinous exudate around bursa.

Hemorrhage in bursa giving it a blackish brown colour.

Atrophy of bursa after 5-7 days of infection.

Urates on kidneys and in ureter with swelling.

Echymotic hemorrhage in muscles of thigh or breast region.

Spleen may become swollen and later on atrophied.

May show lesions of other diseases due to immunosuppression.

Depletion of lymphocytes in bursal follicles.

Edema, congestion and haemorrhage in bursa.

Hyperplasia and vacuolar degeneration of bursal epithelial cells.

Proliferation of fibrous tissue.

Eosinophilic casts in tubular lumen in kidneys.

Edema, congestion, haemorrhage in muscles with necrosis.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Immunodiagnostic tests such as AGPT, ELISA for detection of antigen/ antibody.

Isolation and identification of virus.

INFECfIOUS BRONCHITIS
Infectious bronchitis is a viral disease of poultry caused by
corona virus and characterized by sneezing, coughing,
respiratory rales, cheesy exudates in bronchi, affections of ovary
and oviduct and deposition of urates in kidneys
Etiology

RNA virus belongs to coronaviridae family.

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Very fragile, 100 nm diameter

May be complicated by Mycoplasma, E.coIi, adenovirus
and/ or reovirus

Pathogenesis
The virus is transmitted through inhalation and also through
direct contact from bird to bird. The incubation period of IB is
18-36 hours. After entering through airborne route, virus
replicates in trachea and lungs and causes viraemia. Through
blood stream, it reaches to various organs like kidneys, oviduct
etc where it replicates and causes damage of kidney tubules
which leads to reduced absorption of water, glucose and
electrolytes causing dehydration and acidosis.
Characteristic symptoms

Sneezing, coughing, respiratory rales and dyspnoea

Drop in egg production

Thin shelled eggs

Thin and watery yolk

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Catarrhal or cheesy exudates in trachea, bronchi.

Gaseous plugs in bronchi where it enters in lungs.

Cystic dilation of oviduct

Ova may rupture with thin, watery albumin and yolk.

Enlarged kidneys with deposits of urates, ureters distended

due to urates.

Stones in kidneys in layers.

Hyperplasia of epithelium in trachea.

Congestion, hemorrhage, edema and lymphocytic infiltration in mucosa of trachea and bronchi with necrosis and
desquamation of mucosal epithelium.

Focal accumulation of lymphocytes in oviduct and kidneys.

Lymphoid depletion in bursa.

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Viral Diseases

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Immunological tests to demonstrate antigen in tissue/ antibody in serum

Isolation and identification of virus

INFECfIOUS LARYNGOTRACHEITIS
Infectious laryngotracheitis is a viral disease of poultry caused
by herpes virus and characterized by gasping, blood tinged
nasal discharge, haemorrhage in trachea and deposition of
cheesy exudates in larynx and trachea. The disease mostly occurs
in adult birds.
Etiology

DNA virus belongs to herpes virus group.

Carrier birds may excrete virus in faeces for several

months.
Pathogenesis
The disease is transmitted through ingestion and inhalation.
The in~ubation period of disease is 6-12 days. After infection,
the virus intensely replicates in upper respiratory tract without
viremia. After 4-7 days of exposure virus goes to trigeminal
ganglion from tracheal exposures and remains in latency. After
long period activation of latent virus may occur.
Characteristic symptoms

Watery fluid from eyes

Dyspnoea

Sneezing, coughing and rales

Gasping

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Blood tinged exudate in nostrils.

Cheesy exudate forming plugs in trachea and larynx.

Hemorrhage in trachea.

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Conjunctivitis and swelling of intra orbital sinus.

Bird may become blind.
Necrosis and desquamation of epithelium in tracheal mucosa with congestion and haemorrhage.
Infiltration of lymphocytes in mucosa of trachea.
Presence of eosinophilic intranuclear inclusions in tracheal
epithelium.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Tracheal impression smear may show inclusions in epithelial cells.

Immunodiagnostic test to demonstrate antigen or antibody.

REOVIRUS INFECfION
1. Tenosynovitis (viral arthritis)
Tenosynovitis is a disease of adult birds of heavy breeds or
parent stock caused by reovirus and characterized by swelling
of hock joints, lameness and high morbidity with low mortality.
Etiology

Reovirus, double stranded RNA virus with segmented

genome having 10 segments.

Very stable virus.

May pass from parents to chicks through vertical transmission.

Pathogenesis
After oral infection, the virus settles in joints of the birds. It
causes swelling of joint due inflammatory reaction and rupture
of gastrocnemius muscle tendon.
Characteristic symptoms

Lameness

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Viral Diseases

Swelling of hock joint

Rupture of gastrocnemius tendon

Macroscopic' and microscopic features

Swelling of hock joints and foot pads.

Swelling of synovial sheath of tendons.

Rupture of gastrocnemius tendon.

Purulent or caseous exudate in joint

Epithelial hyperplasia in synovial sheaths.

Follicular infiltration of lymphocytes.

Ulcers on articular surface of joint.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of antigen in tendon/ synovial cells.

Antibody in serum using immunodiagnostic tests.

Isolation and identification of virus

2. Avian Stunting Syndrome
Avian stunting syndrome is a disease of birds affecting mainly
broilers at the age of 2-4 week and characterized by low weight
gain, pasty vent, and atrophy of pancreas.
Etiology

Reovirus- double stranded RNA virus

Very stable virus

Pathogenesis
After oral infection, the lesions are most pronounced in the
mid jejunum. In enterocytes, small virion particles are detected
in the villous epithelial cells. Virus causes necrosis of enterocytes
and there is marked infiltration of macrophages and
lymphocytes into the villi. Then through macrophages, virus
spreads to lamina propria surrounding crypts and multiplication
of virus causes necrosis and loss of crypts. There is villous
atrophy leading to impaired digestion, poor growth and poor

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feathering. It also affects the pancreas causing fibrosis and

atrophy.
Characteristic symptoms

Diarrhoea

Soiling of cloaca with semisolid cement like cheesy mate-

rial'Pasty vent'

Stunted growth of birds

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Stunting of the birds, low weight in about 20-50 % of the

birds

Pasty cement like grey coloured deposition on and around

vent.

Undigested food material in intestine with catarrhal enteritis

Greenish discolouration of liver with distension of gall
bladder.
Pancreas becomes atrophied.
Necrosis and desquamation of villus epithelial cells in small
intestines.
Necrosis of pancreatic islands and proliferation of fibrous
tissue.
Infiltration of lymphocytes in intestine, pancreas, liver and
gall bladder.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Immunodiagnostic tests to demonstrate antigen in intestinal and pancreatic tissues.

Isolation and identification of virus

VIRAL NEPHRITIS
Viral nephritis is caused by an enterovirus characterized by
nephropathy deposition of urates, lymphofollicular reaction and
poor growth in broilers particularly at the age of 1-4 weeks. It
is also known as baby chick nephropathy.
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Etiology

RNA virus belongs to entero virus of picomaviridae fam-

ily.

Two serotypes

Pathogenesis
The disease is transmitted through ingestion of faeces
contaminated materials and eggs. After ingestion, virus is
detected in faeces within 2 days and maximum shedding occurs
at 4-5 days. Virus is widely distributed with maximum titers in
kidneys and jejunum and lower titers in bursa of Fabricious,
spleen and liver. The lesions develop only in young chickens
kidneys.
Characteristic symptoms

Stunted growth of birds

Soiling of cloaca with semisolid cheesy material and urates

Early chick mortality

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Deposition of urates in kidneys with their swelling

Urates deposition on visceral organs

Poor growth of the birds

Catarrhal enteritis

Interstitial nephritis with lymphofollicular reaction.

Protein casts in tubules.

Increased number of goblet cells in intestines.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of virus in intestinal epithelium and kidney tubules using immunodiagnostic tests.

Detection of antibodies in serum

Isolation and identification of virus

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AVIAN ENCEPHALOMYELITIS
Avian encephalomyelitis is a disease of chicks caused by a
picornavirus and characterized by muscle tremors, blindness,
incoordination of movements, grayish spots in muscles of
gizzard and proventriculus and proliferation of microglial cells
in brain. It is also known as epidemic tremors and occurs as an
egg borne disease.
Etiology

RNA virus of enterovirus group in picornaviridae family.

Affinity to nervous system.

Only one serotype.

Pathogenesis
The virus enters through ingestion of faeces contaminated feed
and water. It enters in duodenal mucosa and causes viraemia.
Then the virus settles in different organs like pancreas, liver,
heart, kidneys, muscle, brain and spleen. The virus multiplies
in Perkinje cells and cerebellum and produces lesions.
Characteristic symptoms

Tremors of muscles of head and neck.

Paralysis leading to torticollis.

Opacity leading to blindness.

Morality 10-50%.
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Grayish spots in muscle of gizzard and proventriculus.

No characteristic gross lesion.

Swelling of neurons.

Neuronal degeneration, chromatolysis and nodular microglial proliferation.

, Perivascular lymphocytic cuffing.

Lymphofollicular reaction in heart, liver, pancreas, proventriculus and gizzard.

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Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of antigen/
immunodiagnostic tests.

Isolation and identification of virus

antibody

using

ROT AVIRAL DIARRHOEA

Rotaviral diarrhoea occurs in young birds and characterized

by dehydration, enteritis and poor growth of the birds.
Etiology

Rotavirus (serotype-7)

Double stranded RNA virus with segmented genome (11

segments)

Not related of mammalian rotavirus.

Pathogenesis
The virus in transmitted through faeces of infected birds
through direct or indirect contact. Rotavirus infection is mainly
confined to intestinal tract. The virus multiplies in the mature
villus epithelial cells of small intestine. The infected epithelial
cells are destroyed, resulting in villous atrophy and
compensatory crypt hypertrophy. There is replacement of
mature cells by immature cells deficient in digestive enzymes
and in their ability to transport water and electrolytes leading
to maldigestion, malabsorption and diarrhoea.
Characteristic symptoms

Diarrhoea in chicks at 1-2 weeks of age.

Dehydration and mortality in 5-10% birds.

Reduced growth.
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Catarrhal, enteritis with undigested food material in intestines.

Atrophy of bursa.

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Intestine and caeca contain fluid and gas.

Cracking of feet! digits with feacal crusts.
Reduction in size of villi with necrosis and desquamation
of mucosal villous epithelial cells.
Infiltration of lymphocytes and mononuclear cells in intestinal mucosa.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of antigen in intestinal tissue

Isolation and identification of virus

AVIAN POX

Avian pox is a viral disease of poultry caused by a DNA virus

of pox group and characterized by appearance of characteristic
pock lesions on feather less parts of the body.
Etiology

Pox virus
Four serotypes fowl pox, canary pox, pigeon pox, turkey
pox,
Produces pock lesions on CAM of chick embryo

Pathogenesis
The virus is transmitted through direct contact. A break in the
skin is required for the virus to e~ter the epithelial cells. The
cells of mucosa of the upper respiratory tract and mouth is highly
susceptible for virus. After entering in epithelial cells, it spreads
from cell to cell which is helped by production of epidermal
growth factor causing proliferation of cells. Some virus enters
in blood circulation and causes viraemia. Through circulation it
reaches to certain organs like spleen and liver. In epithelium of
skin, it produces pock lesions.
Characteristic symptoms

Nodules on feather less parts of body i.e. comb, wattle

and face
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Viral Diseases

Yellowish cheese like material in buccal cavity

Swelling of eyelid leading to blindness

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Cutaneous form characterized by papule and scab on comb,

wattle, face and other feather less parts of body.

Yellowish nodules later on becomes blackish.

In diphtheritic form, there is yellowish cheese like material on tongue, palate, laryngeal orifice.

Proliferation of epithelium in stratum spinosum layer of

epidermis

Cells show hydropic degeneration.

Presence of intra cytoplasmic eosinophilic inclusions in cells

of epidermis.
Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of virus inclusions in skin epithelium.

Immunodiagnostic tests for demonstration of antigen/

antibody.
INCLUSION BODY HEPATITIS (IBH)
Inclusion body hepatitis is caused by adenovirus and
characterized by anemia, necrotic and haemorrhagic lesions in
liver and hemorrhage in muscles. It affects mainly growers with
a mortality of about 30%. It occurs due to stress or
immunosuppression in birds.
Etiology

Aviadenovirus

DNA virus of aviadenovirus group

Quite resistant virus and found in all poultry rearing areas.

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Pathogenesis
Not known. However, virus produces basophilic and
eosinophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies in hepatocytes.
Characteristic symptoms

Anemia
Sudden mortality

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Muscles and bone marrow become pale and anemic.

Swollen and mottled liver with petechiae and necrotic foci.

Atrophy of bursa.
Petechiae and ecchymoses in muscles and kidneys.

Urates in ureters.
Hydropericardium.
Intranuclear eosinophilic or basophilic inclusion bodies with
margination of nucleus in hepatocytes.

Necrosis and lymphocytic infiltration in liver.

Lymphofollicular reaction in trachea.
Depletion of lymphoid cells in spleen and bursa.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of inclusions in impression smear of liver.

Blood examination- anemia.

Immunodiagnostic test for antigen or antibody detection.

HYDROPERICARDIUM SYNDROME
Hydropericardium syndrome in caused by adenovirus and
characterized by watery straw colored fluid in pericardial sac,
hepatitis and atrophy of lymphoid organs. Disease occurs in
growers after immunosuppression or stress with 5-10%
mortality.

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Viral Diseases

Etiology

Aviadenovirus

DNA virus

Present in poultry house environment

Quite resistant virus

Affects birds after stress

Pathogenesis
The disease spreads through both vertical and horizontal
transmission. In breeding stocks, virus may remain in latent
phase until onset of maturity and sheds when there is
immunosuppresion or stress. The virus multiplies in intestine
and through circulation reaches in various organs including
pericardium and produces lesions.
Characteristic symptoms

Enlargement of abdomen

Anemia
Sudden mortality

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Straw colored fluid in pericardial sac (8-10 ml fluid).

Atrophy of heart with petechiae on myocardium.

Hemorrhagic and necrotic foci in liver.

Atrophy of bursa and spleen.

Hemorrhage in myocardium, increased distance in

myofibrils due to oedema.

Degenerative changes in myofibrils.

Intranuclear eosinophilic or basophilic inclusions in liver

cells

Infiltration of lymphocytes in liver, heart and kidneys

Lymphoid depletion in spleen and bursa.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

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Fluid in pericardial sac

Isolation and identification of virus
Immunodiagnostic tests for detection of antigen of antibody.

EGG DROP SYNDROME

Egg drop syndrome occurs in adult laying birds caused by
adenovirus and characterized by decrease in egg production,
oedema in oviduct and spleenomegaly.
Etiology

Aviadenovirus

DNA virus

Pathogenesis
The disease is mainly transmitted through vertical transmission.
After infection in laying hens, the virus grows to a limited extent
in nasal mucosa followed by viremia with replication of virus
in lymphoid tissues throughout body specially in spleen and
thymus. Infundibulum of oviduct is consistently affected,
massive viral replication occurs in the pouch shell glands which
coincides with production of thin shell eggs.
Characteristic symptoms

Drops in production of eggs by 35- 40 percent.

Thin shelled depigmented and cracked shelled eggs.

Diarrhoea.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Thin shelled, cracked or depigmented eggs.

Oedema of oviduct, later on atrophy of oviduct.

Spleenomegaly.

Lymphoid aggregates in oviduct, lungs, liver and kidneys.

Degeneration and necrosis of glandular epithelium.

Hyaline changes in muscular layer of oviduct.

Lymphoid hyperplasia in spleen.

Intranuclear inclusions in epithelial cells of tubular glands.

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Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Immunodiagnostic tests for detection of antigen or antibody

Isolation and identification of virus

CHICKEN ANEMIA
Chicken anemia is a viral disease of growers caused by DNA
virus and characterized by watery blood, pale mucous
membrane, reduced body weight and atrophy of bursa and
thymus. It is also known as Anemia dermatitis syndrome.
Disease occurs in birds with stress or immunosuppression. It
may also be transmitted in chicks through vertical transmission.
Etiology

DNA virus

Chicken anemia agent (CAA)

Smallest virus having 24-26 nm diameter

Pathogenesis
The disease is transmitted both horizontally and vertically. In
vertical transmission through hatching eggs and horizontally
by directf indirect contact usually through oral route by
ingestion of infected materials. After entering in chicks, it causes
functional changes in splenic thymocytes and splenic and bone
marrow macrophages. The main site of viral replication are
precursor T-cells in the thymic cortex and hematoblasts in bone
marrow. Destruction of these cells is responsible for
immunosuppression and anemia.
Characteristic symptoms

Pale skin and mucus membrane

Loss of weight

5-10% mortality

Thin watery blood with increased PCV

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Macroscopic and microscopic features

Subcutaneous petechiae.

Pale muscles, week emaciated carcass with reduced weight.

Atrophy of bursa and thymus.

Pale bone marrow.

Depletion of erythroid and myeloid cells in bone marrow.

Depletion of lymphoid tissue in thymus, bursa and spleen.

Infiltration of lymphocytes in liver, heart and kidneys

Perivascular lymphoid infiltration in liver with fibrinoid

thrombi in sinusoids.
Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Immunodiagnostic tests for detection of antigen or antibody.

Isolation and identification of virus

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35

Bacterial Diseases
SALMONELLOSIS
Salmonellosis is caused by G -ve bacteria Salmonella and
characterized by early chick mortality with necrosis and
haemorrhage in liver, heart and spleen and enlarged bronze
coloured liver with focal or diffuse necrosis, marbled spleen
and/ or oophoritis and salpingitis in adults.
Etiology

Salmonella enteritidis var.Galinarum (S. Galinarum).

G-, rod, non lactose fermenter.

White small colonies on MLA and pink on BGA.

Pathogenesis
The organism is transmitted horizontally through contaminated
feed and water and vertically through ovary from hen to chicks.
Its incubation period is generally 4-5 days. After entering
through oral route, the bacteria adhere to intestinal epithelial
cells, which is first step of disease occurrence; adherence occurs
with type I fimbriae and a mannose resistant haemagglutinin.
The virulence of organism depends on the initial degree of
mucosal invasiveness and diarrhoea. In vertical transmission,
the organism enters into the ovary and infects the eggs. When
there is development of chicks, infected yolk serves as source
of infection to the developing embryo and causes disease.
Characteristic symptoms

Diarrhoea

Soiling of cloaca with semisolid cheesy material

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Early chick mortality

Huddling near the source of heat
Cyanosis of comb and wattle in adults

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Chicks

Focal or diffused necrosis in liver.

Semisolid cheesy material in cloaca.

Unabsorbed yolk.

Adults

Copper colour enlarged liver with focal or diffuse necrosis.

Enlarged, mottled spleen.

Catarrhal enteritis.

Necrotic lesions on heart.

Ovaries / testes congested.

Necrotic hepatitis'

Necrosis in myocardium with infiltration of lymphocytes,

heterophils and macrophages.

Congestion in ovary, testicles and oviduct with suppuration.

G -ve organisms demonstrable in central necrotic areas.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Isolation of organism from heart blood and/or liver.

Gram's staining of smears for demonstration of salmonella

organism.
COLIBACILLOSIS

Colibacillosis is caused by E.coli and characterized by various

syndromes like colisepticemia, air sacculi tis, coli granuloma, and
omphalitis in birds depending on the age and type of strain of
E.coli involved.

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Bacterial Diseases

Etiology

Escherichia coli

G -ve Coccobacilli

Pink colony on MLA and white colony on BGA

1. Colisepticemia
Colisepticemia is a disease of young broilers due to bad
management and stress and characterized by fibrinous
pericarditis and hepatitis
Pathogenesis
Faecal contamination of the eggs may result in the penetration
of E. coli through the shell due to creation of negative pressure
inside the eggs. This is considered most important source of
infection. Bacteria may be found in the litter, dust and faecal
matter. Feed is often contaminated with excreta. The bacteria
is normal inhabitant in digestive tract of poultry. Birds with
intact defense is resistant to E. coli but when defense system is
compromised due to bacterial, viral, parasitic infections, toxins,
poor ventilation, dust conditions etc., this infection may cause
disease. Exposure to dust and ammonia results in removal of
cilia of upper respiratory tract which permits the bacteria to
colonize and cause respiratory infection. On entry the bacteria
multiply in blood and produce septicemia.
Characteristic symptoms

Diarrhoea

Soiling of cloaca with semisolid cheesy material

Dyspnoea

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Milky fluid in pericardium

Presence of whitish pseudo membrane over pericardium.

Fibrinous covering over liver.

Fibrinous pericarditis with infiltration of heterophils,

macrophages and lymphocytes.

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Necrosis in liver with fibrinous and purulent exudate.

2. Coligranuloma (Hjarre's Disease)

Coligranuloma is a sporadic chronic disease of adult birds
characterized by the presence of nodule in intestines.
Pathogenesis
The bacteria enter in the intestines through penetration and
settles there to cause chronic inflammation characterized by
formation of nodules in intestines. These nodules are composed
of cheesy material and fibrosis.
Characteristic symptoms

Diarrhoea

Soiling of cloaca with semisolid cheesy material

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Presence of nodules on intestine.

Small millet size or large nodule on duodenum, caecum

and liver.

Sporadic occurrence, chronic disease seen in adults or age

old birds.

Caseous necrotic area in centre covered by macrophages,

lymphocytes and giant cells.

Organisms can be demonstrated on Gram's staining in central necrotic area.

3. Air sacculitis
Air sacculitis is a disease of growers and adults and occurs along
with Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection as Chronic Respiratory
Disease.

Pathogenesis
This organism is normal inhabitant of gut and is continuously
excreted in droppings which contaminate the litter and
environment of the poultry house. Adverse weather conditions
and accumulation of ammonia and poor ventilation with dusty
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environment predisposes birds for E.coli infection as there is

loss of cilia in upper respiratory tract that facilitates the entry
of organisms to cause disease.
Characteristic symptoms

Generally occurs in birds of 5-12 weeks age

Common in overcrowded environment

Gasping
Dyspnoea

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Cloudiness in air sacs.

Increased thickening of air sacs.

Milky fluid in pericardium.

Fibrinous pericarditis.

Suppurative air sacculitis.

4. Omphalitis
Omphalitis is a disease of newly hatched chicks and
characterized by thin, watery, coagulated unabsorbed yolk.
Pathogenesis
This infection is generally associated with inflammed naval or
bacteria can multiply in the hatching eggs following faecal
contamination of the shell. Some other bacteria also cause yolk
sac infection like staphylococcus, pseudomonas, proteus and
clostridia. The bacteria rapidly multiply in the intestine of newly
hatched chicks and infection spreads from chick to chick in
hatchery and brooders.
Characteristic symptoms

Sleepiness

Aggregation near the source of heat

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Presence of unabsorbed yolk

Yolk becomes thin and watery with precipitates

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Yolk sac membrane becomes thickened due to congestion

and exudate

Intestines congested
Focal necrotic hepatitis.
Congestion and infiltration of heterophils in yolk sac membrane.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Isolation of E.coli from heart blood.

Gram's staining of impression smears made from nodules

in coligranuloma.
INFECfIOUS CORYZA
Infectious coryza is a disease of adult birds caused by

Haemophilus paragallinarum and characterized by swollen head,

foul smelling discharge from nostrils and eyes.
Etiology

Haemophilus paragallinarum.

G -ve, bipolar, filamentous, coccoid

Pathogenesis
Source of infection is infected and carrier birds. It ~reads
through drinking water contaminated by nasal discharge.
Airborne infection or direct contact may also play role in
transmission of disease. After entry organism adhere to the
ciliated mucosa of upper respiratory tract. The bacteria contain
the capsule and haemagglutination antigen (HA) which play an
important role in colonization. During proliferation, toxic
substances are released leading to development of lesions.
Characteristic symptoms

Discharge from nostrils and eyes

Swollen face and wattle

Sneezing

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Bacterial Diseases

Dyspnoea

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Swelling of face due to exudate in infraorbital sinuses.

Congestion of nasal mucosa.

Watery discharge from nostrils.

Mucopurulent exudate in trachea.

Fibrinopurulent cellulites

Mesothelial hyperplasia, fibrinous exudates with oedematus

thickening of air sacs.
Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Smear from edematous fluid, stained with Gram's staining for bipolar, G -ve organisms.

Isolation from swabs taken from infraorbital sinuses.

FOWL CHOLERA
Fowl cholera is a contagious disease of poultry caused by
Pasteurella multocida and characterized by cyanotic comb,
swelling of wattles, fibrinous air sacculitis and pneumonia.
Etiology

Pasteurella multocida

G -ve, bipolar, capsulated.

Pathogenesis
Source of infection are infected birds and rats act as reservoir.
The disease mainly spreads through contaminated water and
feed troughs. Birds may also be infected by oral, nasal and
congenital routes. The organism enters through mucous
membrane of the pharynx or upper respiratory tract. After entry
organism produces sufficient quantities of endotoxin to
contribute pathological processes.

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Characteristic symptoms

Cyanosis of comb and wattle

Diarrhoea and soiling of cloaca

Discharge from nostrils

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Bluishness of comb and oedema of wattles.

Petechiae on heart, gizzard muscles and intestinal serosa.

Fibrinous air sacculitis.

Small necrotic (pinpoint size) foci on liver.

Focal area of necrosis in liver with suppuration.

Congestion and heterophilic infiltration in lungs.

Bipolar organisms can be demonstrated in lung and liver.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of bipolar organisms in blood smears/

impression smears stained by methylene blue.

Isolation of organisms.
NECROTIC ENTERITIS

Necrotic enteritis is caused by clostridium, which commonly

occurs after coccidiosis in chickens and characterized by necrotic
patches in intestines, atrophy of spleen and breast muscles.
Etiology

Alpha toxins of Clostridium perfringens type A, C, E and F.

Intestine predisposed by coccidiosis, which provides

anaerobic conditions to Clostridium sp. organisms.
Pathogenesis
The bacteria are present in faeces, soil, dust, contaminated feed
and litter or intestinal contents. Contaminated feed or litter act
as source of infection. The coccidial infection causes damage in
the intestines to produce anaerobic conditions which
predisposes the birds for clostridial infection. After entering

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Bacterial Diseases

through damaged intestines of the birds, the organism

proliferates and liberates toxins which are responsible for
intestinal mucosal necrosis.
Characteristic symptoms

Drooling of saliva

Emaciation in chronic cases

Watery diarrhoea
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Yellowish brown necrotic areas involving whole small intestine.

Small necrotic patches in liver.

Distended gall bladder.

Atrophy of spleen, breast muscles and testes.

Necrosis of villi of intestinal mucosa.

Degeneration and necrosis of hepatocytes.

Atrophy of spleen and bursa as evidenced by proliferation of connective tissue.

Diagnosis

History- It occurs after coccidiosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of G+ rods in the necrotic lesions of intestine and liver

CAMPYLOBACfER HEPATITIS
Campylobacter hepatitis is caused by Campylobacter sp. and
characterized by necrotic hepatitis, hydropericardium, and
catarrhal enteritis.
Etiology

Campylobacter jejuni
C. hepaticus and E.coli mixed infection
Comma shaped, Gram negative

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Pathogenesis
Transmission of disease occurs through faecal contamination
of water, feed, utensils and other fomites. The organism affects
the liver from where it can be isolated. It causes enlargement
of liver besides necrosis and haemorrhage.
Characteristic symptoms

Pale comb

Drop in egg production(25-33% )

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Liver enlarged, friable with necrotic and haemorrhagic

areas.

Rupture of liver with hematoma in abdominal cavity

Hydropericardium

Atrophy of ovaries/ testes

Enlargement of spleen

Pale and watery bone marrow.

Necrosis of hepatocytes and infiltration of heterophils in

liver.

Necrosis of myofibrils and hemorrhage in epicardium.

Catarrhal enteritis.

Comma shaped, Gram-negative organisms in liver sections

and impression smears.
Diagnosis

Demonstration of comma shaped organisms in impression

smears of liver, bile and intestinal mucosa.

Isolation of causative organisms.

STAPHYLOCOCCOSIS
Staphylococcosis is caused by Staphylococcus aureus and
characterized by haemorrhagic or gangrenous dermatitis,
bumble foot, septicemia, arthritis and sternal bursitis.

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Bacterial Diseases

Etiology

Staphylococcus au reus.

G +ve, cocci, Coagulase positive.

Toxins - enterotoxins, leucocidin and hemolysin.

Pathogenesis
The bacteria is often found in the skin, nasal passage, on beak
and foot of apparently normal chickens. When there is injury in
the skin or mucus membrane, it is exposed to the infection.
There is formation of abscess with swelling, heat and some pain.
In bumble foot the undersurface of the foot is first affected.
Characteristic symptoms

InfIammed and haemorrhagic skin

Formation of gangrene- greenish/ blackish disclouration

of skin

Swelling of joints
Hard swelling of foot pad with ulceration

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Dermatitis and gangrene in skin of broilers

Bumble foot characterized by hard, fibrous swelling and

ulceration of foot pad.

Arthritis and synovitis with swelling of joints, caseous mass

in joip.ts.

Endocarditis
Sternal bursa showed deposition of caseous mass.
Suppurative dermatitis with areas of gangrene formation
in skin.
Demonstration of G+, cocci organisms in caseous mass of
the tissue sections.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Isolation of staphylococci.

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Demonstration of organisms in impression smears/ tissue

sections stained with Gram's stain.

TUBERCULOSIS
Tuberculosis is a chronic disease of birds caused by
Mycobacterium avium and characterized by granulomatous
nodules in liver, spleen, intestines, air sacs and lungs. The
disease occurs sporadically in adult birds.
Etiology

Mycobacterium avium

Acid fast bacilli.

30 serotypes, serotype 1 and 2 are pathogenic.

Pathogenesis
The most important source of infection are infected birds which
shed the causative organisms in faeces. It is transmitted through
ingestion of contaminated feed and water. After ingestion, it
causes delayed type hypersensitivity and the activated
macrophages have an increased capacity to kill the organisms.
DTH reaction is mediated by lymphocytes which release
lymphokines that act to attract, immobilize and activate
mononuclear cells from blood at the site where virulent bacilli
or their product exists. Tumour necrosis factor (TNF) alone or
along with interleukin-2 (IL-2) is associated with macrophage
killing of bacteria. Activated macrophages that lack sufficient
microbicidal components to kill virulent tubercle bacilli are
destroyed by the intracellular growth of the organisms. The
toxic lipids and factors released cause disruption of the
phagosome, inhibits phagolysosome formation, interfere with
release of hydrolytic enzymes from the affected lysosomes or
inactivate lysosomal enzymes released into the cytoplasmic
vacuoles.
Characteristic symptoms

Weakness

Emaciation

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Bacterial Diseases

Macroscopic and microscopic features

White, raised, dry and cheesy exudate containing nodules

in liver, spleen, intestines, air sacs and lungs.

Rupture of liver, haemorrhage and clot in abdominal cavity.

Caseative necrosis infiltrated by macrophages,

lymphocytes, epithelioid and giant cells.

This tubercle is covered by proliferation of fibroblasts.

Acid fast bacilli in the central necrosed area

Diagnosis

Demonstration of pea size granulomatous lesions.

Impression smear from necrotic lesion and acid fast staining to demonstrate the acid fast bacilli.

Tuberculin testing with avian tuberculin on skin of wattle

or comb. 0.2 ml II D tuberculin and reaction observed after 48 hrs as hot, painful swelling at the site of injection.

Histopathological examination of affected tissue and demonstration of acid fast bacilli using special stains.

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Chapter

36

Chlamydial Disease
ORNITHOSIS
Ornithosis is caused by Chlamydia and characterized by
enlargement of liver and spleen, serofibrinous pericarditis, air
sacculitis and enteritis. This is also known as chlamydiosis,
psittacosis and is more common in parrots, pigeons and other
psittacine birds.
Etiology

Chlamydia psittaci group B

Size 0.3 to 1.5 m

Disease spreads from wild birds

Pathogenesis
The disease mainly spreads through inhalation of contaminated
dust. After entering into body, the organism multiplies in the
lungs, air sacs and pericardium. Through hematogenous spread,
the organism reaches in the liver, spleen and kidneys where
further replication occurs along with the production of reticulate
and elementary bodies.
Characteristic symptoms

Greenish diarrhoea

Decrease in egg production

Decreased fertility and hatchability

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Enlargement of spleen and liver with necrotic foci.

Serofibrinous pericarditis.

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Air sacculitis, depositions of cheesy material.

Greenish intestinal contents with catarrhal enteritis.
Necrosis and lymphoid aggregations in liver.
Serofibrinous pericarditis.
Catarrhal enteritis.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Organism can be demonstrated in smears of spleen, liver,

air sacs and stained with Giemsa stain

Red coccoid elementary bodies

Demonstration of chlamydial inclusions in liver cells in

impression smear or tissue sections using special stain.

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Chapter

37

Mycoplasmal Diseases
Chronic Respiratory Disease (CRD)
Chronic respiratory disease is caused by Mycoplasma
gallisepticum and E.coli in birds under poor management and
characterized by cloudy air sacs with thickening of their wall,
accumulation of cheesy material in air sacs and lungs.
Etiology

Mycoplasma gallisepticum
E. coli
Bad management like poor ventilation and inclement
weather conditions
Disease occurs more during winter and rainy season.

Pathogenesis
The disease is transmitted through direct contact of susceptible
birds with infected carrier birds. It spreads through
contaminated air, dust, droplets or feathers. It can also spread
through infected eggs. The organism itself is not pathogenic
but due to other pathogens like viruses of Ranikhet disease,
Infectious bronchitis and Infectious bursal disease and the
pathogenic strains of E.coli and Haemophilus paragallinarum may
predispose the birds and make them susceptible for mycoplasma
infection. Other factors include nutritional deficiency, excessive
environmental dust and ammonia leads to the development of
clinical signs and lesions.
Characteristic symptoms

Gasping

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Gargling sound during respiration

Frothy exudate in eyes with conjunctivitis

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Congestion of trachea in conjunction with cloudiness in

air sacs and bronchial mucosa.

Hemorrhage in trachea.

Elongation of tracheal glands.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and circumstantial evidences

Lesions in air sacs and lungs.

Immunological tests such as ELISA, tube agglutination plate

agglutination test.

Isolation of causative organisms

Demonstration of organisms in tissue sections using special stains.

INFECTIOUS SYNOVITIS
Infectious synovitis is a disease of adult birds caused by
Mycoplasma synoviae and characterized by the presence of thick,
creamy or cheesy material in synovial sac of hock joint, foot
pad, keel bone and in air sacs.
Etiology

Mycoplasma synoviae

Some times complicated by Pasteurella gallinarum

Pathogenesis
It is transmitted through direct contact or through contaminated
air, dust, droplets or feathers. After entry the organism causes
mild respiratory disease and through hematogenous route, it
reaches to different articular parts and respiratory tissues
causing arthritis, respiratory distress, anemia and vasculitis.
Characteristic symptoms

Swelling of foot pad and joints

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Mycoplasmal Diseases

Pale comb
Sulfur colour faeces

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Thick cheesy material in synovial sac of hock joints, foot

pad, keel bone and air sacs.

Greenish discoloration of liver.

Hydropericardium

Lymphoid aggregation in synovial membrane, liver and

air sacs.

Catarrhal enteritis in duodenum.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of mycoplasma in synovial exudate.

Isolation of mycoplasma and other causative organisms

Immunological tests such as ELISA and plate agglutination test

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Chapter

38

Spirochaetal Disease
SPIROCHETOSIS

Spirochetosis is caused by a spiral shaped organism Borrelia

anserina and characterized by greenish diarrhoea, enlarged and
mottled spleen, small necrotic patches on liver and linear
hemorrhage in proventriculus. This disease is transmitted by a
tick Argas persicus and thus also known as #tick fever"or #tick

paralysis".
Etiology

Spirochete Borrelia anserina

Spiral shape 8-24m long and 0.2 to 0.3 m wide microorganism having 8-11 spirals.

Stained with aniline dyes

Pathogenesis

Soft ticks of genus Argas are the main reservoir of the organism.
Borrelia anserina can survive for long period either in birds or in
environment. Birds become infected from saliva introduced by
the tick on bite. After entry, the spirochaete reaches in blood
circulation and cause septicemia with an abrupt and marked
elevation of body temperature.
Characteristic symptoms

Greenish diarrhoea

Cyanosis of comb

Jaundice

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Macroscopic and microscopic features

Greenish diarrhoea with greenish intestinal contents.

Cyanosis of comb.

Enlargement of spleen with mottling.

Enlargement of liver with small necrotic foci.

Linear hemorrhage in proventriculus.

Presence of ticks on skin/ feather follicles.

Necrosis of hepatocytes.

Necrosis and depletion of lymphoid tissue in spleen and

hemosiderosis.

Catarrhal enteritis.
Perivascular gliosis in brain.
Hemorrhagic dermatitis.
Organism can be ~een in liver sections by silver stain.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of spirochete in blood smears.

Demonstration of ticks on skin during external examination.

Demonstration of ticks in poultry house or on neighbouring plants.

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39

Fungal Diseases
ASPERGILLOSIS
Aspergillosis is a fungal disease of poultry caused by different
species of Aspergillus sp and characterized by granulomatous
nodules in lungs, thickening of air sacs and presence of fungal
growth in lungs and air sacs in early age of chicks. It is also
known as Brooders pneumonia.
Etiology

Aspergillus fumigatus
A Jlavus
A nidulans
A. glaucus
A niger
A. candidus

Pathogenesis
The disease is transmitted through inhalation of spores. The
spores are deposited on conjunctiva, nasal and tracheal mucosa,
lungs and air sacs and cause granuloma formation. Through
hematogenous route it reaches in brain, pericardium, bone
marrow, kidneys and other tissues. In brain, it produces lesions
in meninges causing large superficial white plaques leading to
ophthalmitis and iridocyclitis.
Characteristic symptoms

Dyspnoea

Accumulation of cheesy material in eye lids

Mortality vary from 2-50%

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Macroscopic and microscopic features

Lesions in chicks 5-7 days of age.

Raised, pinhead size yellowish nodules in lungs.

Thickening of air sacs.

Growth of fungus in lungs and air sacs.

Necrotic foci in liver, spleen, kidneys and proventriculus.

Granulomatous lesion in lungs.

Presence of fungus in lungs and air sacs on microscopic

examination.
Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Demonstration of fungus in impression smear of lungs

Cultures of fungus on SDA and its identification.

Demonstration of fungus in lung tissue sections using special stains

FAVUS
Favus is a fungal disease of birds caused by Trichophyton sp.
and characterized by deposition of thin, white flour like material
on comb and skin of other featherless parts of body. It is also
known as while comb disease.
Etiology

Trichophyton magnini

Pathogenesis

The disease is transmitted through contact or through contact

with fomites. After superficial invasion of stratum corneum by
hyphae, it causes epidermal hyperplasia and hyperkeratosis.
Characteristic symptoms

Thin white flour like material deposits on comb

Thickening of skin

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Fungal Diseases

Macroscopic and microscopic features

White, flour like material deposits on comb and skin

Necrotic foci on trachea and oesophagus.

Scab formation on skin.

Fungus in skin scab and scrapings of skin

Granulomatous lesions in skin.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Presence of fungus and its identification.

Isolation and identification of fungus

CANDIDIASIS
Candidiasis is a fungal disease of poultry which occurs
sporadically and caused by Candida sp. and characterized by
Turkish towel like appearance of crop, oesophagus and ulcers
in mouth and oesophagus. It is also known as thrush.
Etiology

Candida albicans

Monilia albicans
Pathogenesis
The fungus is acquired by ingestion of contaminated materials.
Then the fungus becomes part of normal flora of mouth,
oesophagus and crop. When there is immunosuppression, the
fungus proliferates and penetrates epithelial surface leading to
the stimulation of the epithelial hyperplasia and diphtheritic
membrane formation.
Characteristic symptoms

S~nted growth of birds

Ruffled feathers
- Macroscopic and microscopic features

Turkish towel like lesions in crop and/ or oesophagus.

Congestion in proventriculus.
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Ulcers in mouth and esophagus.

Granulomatous lesions in crop and esophagus.
Fungal colony in tissues.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Fungus in impression smears of affected organ/ tissue.

Isolation and identification of fungus.

HISTOPLASMOSIS
Histoplasmosis is a sporadic fungal disease of birds caused by

Histoplasma sp. and characterized by granulomatous lesions in

liver and other parts of body.
Etiology

Histoplasma capsulatum

Pathogenesis
Infection spreads through inhalation of spores present in soU
or dusty environment of the poultry house. The fungus settles
in lungs and proliferates within the macrophages and spreads
in other visceral organs.
Characteristic symptoms

Diarrhoea

Soiling of cloaca with semisolid cheesy material

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Presence of round, raised, rough granulomatous lesions

on liver, spleen and other organs.

Granulomatous lesions in liver.

Presence of round or oval yeast like fungal spores in tissues.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Isolation and identification of fungus.

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Fungal Diseases

Demonstration of fungus in affected tissue using special

stains

AFLATOXICOSIS
Aflatoxicosis is a toxic condition of poultry widely prevalent in
all parts of the country caused by fungal toxins and characterized
by hepatic lesions, immunosuppression and cancer.
Etiology

Fungal toxins of Aspergillus jlavus and Penicillium puberlum

and several other fungi.

Aflatoxin Bt' B2, Gt, G2

Pathogenesis
After ingestion aflatoxin, under goes biotransformation into
highly reactive metabolites which binds with nucleic acids and
reduce protein synthesis and causes immunosuppression. These
metabolic alterations cause enlargement of liver, spleen and
kidneys and atrophy of bursa of Fabricious, thymus and
testicular tissues.
Characteristic symptoms

Enlargement of abdomen

Anemia
Drop in egg production
Spasms of neck muscles and arched back
Retarded growth of birds

Mac~oscopic

and microscopic features

Enlargement of liver
Necrotic foci in liver.
Congestion and hemorrhage in liver.
Tumourous nodules in liver.
Atrophy of spleen.
Hemorrhage in muscles.
Loose attachment of mucosa of Gizzard.
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Loss of production of eggs.

Necrosis in hepatic parenchyma.
Proliferation of bile duct epithelium.
Fibrosis in liver.
Hemorrhage in muscles and myocardium.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Detection of toxins in poultry feed/ tissues of affected

birds using TLC or flurotoxinometer.

Immunodiagnostic tests for detection of aflatoxins in feed

and tissues- ELISA, DIA
OCHRATOXICOSIS
Ochratoxicosis is a toxic condition {)f poultry caused by a fungal
toxin and characterized by nephrosis, visceral gout, pale bone
marrow and haemorrhage in intestines.
Etiology

Ochratoxins produced by Aspergillus ochraceous and several other species of Aspergillus and Penicillium sp.
Pathogenesis
Ochratoxin is found in maize and in most of the small grains
contaminated with moulds. It inhibits protein synthesis,
produces acute proximal tubular epithelial necrosis in kidneys
and inhibits normal renal uric acid excretion.
Characteristic symptoms

Anemia

Increased clotting time

Loss of pigmentation
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Enlargement of kidneys

Deposition of urates on kidneys

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Fungal Diseases

Hemorrhage in kidneys
Ureters distended due to accumulation of urates.
Haemorrhage in duodenum.

Anemia
Pale bone marrow.
Atrophy of lymphoid organs
Ascites
Nephrosis, deposition of urates.
Infiltration of heterophils and fibrosis.
Hemorrhage in intestinal wall.
Lymphoid depletion in bursa, thymus and spleen.

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Detection of ochratoxin in poultry feed/ tissues using TLC/

HPLC methods.

Immunodiagnostic tests for detection of toxins in feedELISA, DIA

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Chapter

40

Parasitic Diseases
ROUNDWORMS (NEMATODES)

1. Ascaridia galli
A. galli is the common roundworm of poultry seen in intestines
at the time of necropsy. This parasite may cause retardation of
growth, loss of egg production, catarrhal enteritis and
sometimes mortality due to obstruction of gut.

Etiology

A. galli parasites are grey, thread like 5-10 cm in length.

Eggs are elliptical with thick and shiny wall.

Pathogenesis
Transmission occurs through faecal- oral route. The eggs may
survive for several months in litter and they take at least 10-15
days to develop the infective stage. The eggs of parasites hatch
in proventriculus or intestine to develop fully grown parasite
within 40-50 days.
Characteristic symptoms

Growth retardation

Anemia
Decreased egg production

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Anemia

Emaciat'ion

Presence of A. galli in intestines

Catarrhal enteritis
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Presence of parasitic section in the lumen of intestine

Catarrhal enteritis
Eosinophilic infiltration in mucosa and sub mucosa

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Presence of parasites in gut at necropsy

Examination of droppings for parasitic ova.

2. Syngamus trachea

Affects growers

Causes emaciation

'Y' shape red worms present in trachea

3. Gongylonema ingluvicola

Worms in crop under mucosa

Causes emaciation and retardation of growth

4. Dispharynx nasuta and Tetrameres pattersoni

Diarrhoea, emaciation

Hemorrhage in proventriculus

Worms in proventricular glands

5. Cheilospirura hamulosa

Emaciation

Necrotic nodules in gizzard, presence of worms

Hemorrhage in gizzard
6. Heterakis gallinarum

Emaciation

Typhlitis

Presence of worms in caeca

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Parasitic Diseases

7. Capillaria sp. in intestine

TAPE WORMS (CESTODES)
Avian cestodes are thin, white tape worms present in gut causing
enteritis and melena leading to retardation of growth.
Etiology

Davainea proglottina (3 mm in length)

Choanotaenia infundibulum, Raillietina tetragona and R.
echinobothrida (25-30 cm in length)

Pathogenesis
Transmission occurs through slugs, flies and ants infected with
segments of parasites. It penetrates mucosa of intestine to cause
hemorrhagic enteritis and forms nodules visible from out side
of the intestines.
Characteristic symptoms

Emaciation

Weakness

Red droppings due to mixing of blood

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Catarrhal and haemorrhagic enteritis

Granulomatous nodules in wall of intestine

Catarrhal and haemorrhagic enteritis

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Presence of parasite in gut at necropsy

Presence of parasitic segments in droppings

FLAT WORMS (TREMATODES)
Trematodes are flat worms rarely found in birds. Some of the
important flat worms are:

1.
2.

Prosthogonymus macrorchis
Echinostoma revolutum
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3.
4.
5.

Echinoparyphium recurvatum
Prosthogonymus indicus
Catatropis indica

Ectoparasites
Common ectoparasites including ticks, mites and lice of poultry
are:
1. Ticks
a. Argas persicus
b. Aegyptianella pullorum
2. Mites
a. Dermanyssus gallinae- Red mite
b. Syringophilus bipectinatus- Feather mite
c. Knemidocotes gallinae- Feather mite
d. K. mutans- Scaly leg mite
e. Cytodites nudus- Air sac mite
Protozoan parasites
1. Coccidiosis
Coccidiosis is caused by protozoan parasites of Eiemeria sp. and
characterized by hemorrhagic enteritis and mortality in chickens.
Etiology
Intestinal form
Eimeria acervulina
E. necatrix
E. maxima
E. brunetti
E. preacox
E. mitis
E. hagani
E. mivati

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Parasitic Diseases

Caecal coccidiosis
E. tenella

Pathogenesis
Oocysts with sporozoites are ingested by birds through
contaminated feed, water or litter. The sporozoites are released
and penetrate epithelial cells of villi and develop into round
bodies (trophozoites). It then grows to form first generation
schizont, nuclei of which have sickle shape and known as
merozoites. The merozoites after breaking schizonts can start
second cycle to form second generation schizonts. After 2-3
cycle, the merozoites develop sexual phase to form male (micro
gametocytes) and female (macro gametocytes) cells. The micro
gametes penetrate and fuse with macro gametes resulting in
fertilization and formation of oocysts which are liberated in
intestinal lumen and pass out along with faeces. A single
ingested oocyst can develop into millions of oocysts in a bird.
Characteristic symptoms

Emaciation and anemia

Retarded growth

Blood mixed droppings

Mortality upto 50%

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Haemorrhagic enteritis

Typhlitis

Thickening of intestinal wall

Catarrhal and hemorrhagic enteritis

Presence of coccidia in intestinal sections

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Examination of droppings or intestinal scrapings for the

presence of coccidia.

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HISTOMONIASIS
Histomoniasis is a disease of growers caused by protozoan
parasite Histomonas sp. and characterized by necrotic ulcers in
caeca and necrotic foci in liver. It is also known as black head
disease.
Etiology

Histomonas meleagredis

Round, vacuolated cytoplasm with single nucleus.

Pathogenesis
Transmission of protozoan parasite occurs through faecal
contamination of feed and water or through earthworm, flies
and eggs of Heterakis gallinarum. Parasite enters in wall of caeca
and causes lesions.
Characteristic symptoms

Diarrhoea with sulphur colour faeces

Icterus

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Necrotic ulcers in caeca

Circular, concave, green necrotic foci (1 em diameter) in

liver

Necrosis in liver
Presence of protozoan parasite (unicellular 8-13
four flagella)

~l,

with

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Microscopic examination of caecal contents/ scrapings.

TRICHOMONOSIS
Trichomonosis is a protozoan parasitic disease characterized
by formation of yellow round nodules in esophagus and crop
of pigeons.

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Parasitic Diseases

Etiology

Trichomonas gallinae
Pathogenesis
Organism is transmitted directly from infected birds to newly
hatched pigeons. Small yellowish necrotic lesions develop in
oral cavity specially on soft palate after 3-14 days of infection
which further spreads to esophagus, crop, proventriculus, liver,
lungs and intestines.
Characteristic symptoms

Emaciation

Accumulation of greenish fluid or cheesy material in mouth

and crop

Pendulous crop
Macroscopic and microscopic features

Yellow, button shaped necrotic foci in mouth, oesophagus

and crop

Necrosis
Presence of protozoan parasites in sections of oesophagus
and crop

Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Microscopic examination of nodules through smears or

sections.
HEXAMITIASIS
Hexamitiasis is a protozoan parasitic disease of turkey poults
of about 4-6 weeks characterized by diarrhoea and mortality.
Etiology

Hexamita meleagridis

Almond shaped parasite

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Pathogenesis
The source of infection is adult carrier birds. On ingestion it
produces catarrhal enteritis with bulbous areas containing watery
contents on duodenum and jejunum.
Characteristic symptoms

Diarrhoea

Loss of weight and death

Macroscopic and microscopic features

Bulbous nodules in intestine

Presence of protozoan parasites in cecum, duodenum and

bursa
Diagnosis

Symptoms and lesions

Microscopic examination of lesion/ caeca for parasites

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41

Vices and Miscellaneous

Disease Conditions
CANNIBALISM
Cannibalism is a bad habit of birds in which the birds attack
their fellow birds and eat their flesh. It is done through sharp
end of beak, which causes deep wounds specially on vent.
Sometimes the wounds are so deep that leads to death of
affected bird. Two types of cannibalism vices are common i.e.
vent pecking and feather pecking.
Cause! Predisposing Factors

Over crowding

Genetic predisposition

Hemorrhage in external genitalia

Protein deficiency (arginine and methionine deficiency)

Loss of feathers

Wounds

Prolapse of cloaca
Egg Eating: Sometimes a bird develops habit of eating its own
eggs. This problem may start with the presence of broken eggs
in poultry house and birds develop a taste for it.
Pica: Birds eat non food items such as feathers, litter material,
threads, mud, bangle etc. It may occur due to phosphorus
deficiency, parasitic load in gut, new litter material or poor
managemental conditions.
Heat Stroke: The presence of thick layers of feathers on body
of bird and absence of sweat glands on skin makes the birds

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more susceptible to heat stroke in summer season. Inadequate

water supply, absence of trees/ vegetation around poultry
houses, overcrowding, poor ventilation, etc. may predispose
the birds for heat stroke which is characterized by open beak;
panting, paralysis, congestion and hemorrhage in brain along
with dehydration.
Prolapse of Ooaca: The prolapse of cloaca has been observed
due to fusariotoxins which increases the peristalsis in layers. It
may enhance the cannibalism in birds.
Impaction of Crop: Sometimes birds may eat litter material,
grass, feathers, fibrous food, nails, pieces of sticks, stumps of
feathers which causes impaction in crop. If the nail having sharp
edge, it may penetrate and cause ingluvitis and/ or
proventriculi tis.
Egg Bound Condition: Egg bound condition is inability of a
layer bird to expel a normal egg. It may occur in new laying
hens due to paralysis of nerves of oviduct or its inflammation
that leads to prolapse. The egg remains in oviduct and death
occurs in such birds. Sometimes, eggs from ovary do not reach
in oviduct and drops in peritoneal cavity leading to egg borne
peritonitis.
Toxic Fat Syndrome: In this condition, birds show accumulation
of water in abdominal cavity, pericardial sac and in
subcutaneous tissue giving jelly like appearance. This is also
known as "chick oedema disease"or "water belly". It may be
associated with phosphorus deficient soybean diet, toxic factor
associated with fat in feed and carbon monoxide, dioxin or salt
poisoning.
Gout: Gout is deposition of uric acid and urates in kidneys,
heart, ureters and other internal organs. It may occur due to
excess of protein, deficiency of vitamin A, infectious burs~l
disease, infectious bronchitis, aflatoxicosis, orchratoxicosis and
other diseases involving kidneys. In this conditions, one may
find chalky/sandy material on toU(~h on the surface of the
organs.

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Vices ancl Miscellaneous Disease Conditions

Fatty Liver and Kidney Syndrome: Fatty liver and kidney

syndrome (FLKS) is characterized by pale or yellowish liver
with petechiae, pale heart and kidneys and hydropericardium.
It may occur due to biotin deficiency, inadequate feeding,
protein deficiency and stress as a result of noise, excessive cold
or heat, power failure etc.
Fatty Liver Syndrome: It is characterized by enlarged,
yellowish, friable liver with rupture and internal hemorrhage.
This condition is associated with faulty diet or stress of high
egg production.
Blue comb Disease: This is also known as avian monocytosis
and is characterized by bluish colour of comb, increased number
of monocytes in blood, deposition of urates in kidneys, and
atrophy of spleen. The exact cause is not known but supposedly
occurs due to some nutritional factors or viral etiology.

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Chapter

42

Pathology of Diseases of Wild

and Zoo Animals
The pathology of diseases of wild and zoo animals is almost
similar to that occur in domestic animals due to same etiological
agent. It is, therefore, only name, cause of disease and a brief
description is given here. For details of the pathological
alterations, readers are requested to consult the diseases
described elsewhere in this book. Some of the important clinical
manifestations and pathological lesions of bacterial, viral,
parasitic and non-infectious diseases of wild and zoo animals
are listed below:
1.

Theileriosis in Gaur (Bos gaurus)

Fever
Clay coloured faeces
Champing of jaws
Blood positive for Theileria sp.

2.

Babesiosis in tiger

Fever

Constipation

Blood positive for Babesia sp.

Red colour urine

3.

Babesiosis in leopard

Edema in lungs

Icterus
Enlargement of spleen
Hemoglobinuria
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4.

5.

6.

Babesia in blood smear

Anaplasmosis in leopard and white tiger

Anaplasma marginale

Leucocytosis

Muscle tremors

Staggering gait

Fever and depression

Trypanosomiasis in tiger, jaguars, wild cats, lion, jackal,
sambar and wolf

Convulsions, pyrexia and opacity

Congestion in lungs, liver, kidneys and brain

Blood positive for trypanosomes

Hemorrhage in liver, kidneys and lungs

Amoebiasis in non-human primates and lion

Entamoeba histolytica

Mucous mixed faeces

Melena

7.

Balantidiosis in monkeys and rhinos

Balantidium coli

Diarrhoea, dysentery and melena

8.

Coccidiosis in Indian vulture

Isospora gtJPsi

9.

Coccidiosis in Bulbul
Isospora pyenonotae
1. pyenonotus

10. Sarcosystosis in Gaur

Sarcosysts in cardiac and skeletal muscle

11. Trichomoniasis in birds

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Pathology of Diseases ofWild and Zoo Animals

12. Gastrointestinal parasites in wild animals

Strongyle, Trichuris, Ascaris, Moniezia, Toxocara,

Anchylostoma, Oesophagostomum, Hymenolep, Paragonimus sp., Cooperia Diphylobothrium sp., Fasciola,
Paramphistomum, Strongyloids, Bunostomum, Dicrocoelium, Mullerius

Schystosoma, Murshidia, Thelazia, Grammocephalus

(hookworm), Anchylostoma

Syphacia and Aspicularis are pin worms of squirrel

13. Microfilariasis in wild birds (Myna, Koel)
14. Ectoparasites

Melophagus ovinus in hog deer

Ctenocephalides felis in leopard

Hematomyzus in elephants

Psoroptic mange in rabbit

15. Hydatidosis in Bison
16. Diabetes
17. Dystocia in elephant, Giraffe and Hyaena
18. Tumours

Fibroscarcoma in panther

Fibrolipoma in elephant

Histiocytic cell sarcoma in gnu

Squamous cell carcinoma in tiger

Malignant mesothelioma in lion

Fibroma in rhino and monkey

Adenocarcinoma in hog deer, sloth bear and monkey

Seminoma in monkeys

Adenoma in monkeys
19. Amyloidosis- Swan
20. Pneumonia- Wild buffalo bull
21. Leucosis- zoo birds
22. Colisepticemia, cannibalism and tuberculosis in pheasants
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23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
2S.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
3S.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
4S.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.

Suppurative pericarditis in monkeys

Intussusception in elephant
Traumatic reticulopericarditis in deer
Pneumoconiasis wild mammals
Enterolith in tiger and zebra
Tuberculosis in wild ruminants, rhino, tiger and pheasants
Johne's Disease in wild ruminants, rhino and tiger
Necrobacillosis in sambar
Botryomycosis in zebra
Salmonellosis in rhino and ostrich
Pasteurellosis in beer, hippopotami and pigeon
Clostridial infection in bear
Hematuria in wolf
Anthrax in rhino
Pox in chimpanzee
FMD in gaur
Rabies in wild ass
Malignant catarrhal fever in hangul
Feline leukemia in lion
Aspergillosis and candidiasis in peacocks, wild herbivores,
black beer
Pneumomycosis in flamingo
Dermatophytosis in bear
Aflatoxicosis in ducks
Chronic metritis in elephant
Enteritis in elephant
Tetanus in elephant
Dropsy in elephant
Ulcerative keratitis in rhino
Cataract in captive pheasants
Ascites in panther
Phytobezoars in deers
50S

Chapter

43

Pathology of Diseases of
Laboratory Animals
The laboratory animal diseases are having special significance
as many veterinarians are employed in laboratory animal houses
of public institutions or pharmaceutical companies. Else, the
Veterinary Scientists must be aware of the diseases of laboratory
animals so that they can screen the animals before start of their
experiment. Mainly the laboratory animals include rabbits, mice,
guinea pigs, rats, etc. The special features of pathological
alterations in specific diseases are described in the following
text but only names of common disease are given which were
described earlier elsewhere in this book or in Illustrated
Veterinary Pathology.
RABBIT DISEASES
I. PARASITIC DISEASES
1. Coccidiosis
a. Intestinal- E. megna, E. media

Diarrhoea

Presence of oocysts in faeces

b. Hepatic

Eimeria stiedae

Common in weaners below 5-7 weeks of age. Angora

weanlings are more susceptible.

Enlarged liver
Presence of oocysts in faeces

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2. Mange
a. Psoroptic or sarcoptic mange

Alopecia

Severe pruritus

Poor body weight gain

Poor fur quality

Poor reproduction
b. Otoacariasis/ ear cancer

Caused by Psoroptes cuniculi

Shaking of head frequently

Intense pruritus and exudation in affected ear

Spread rapidly from one rabbit to other

3. Tapeworm

Taenia pisiformes

Weight loss, enteritis

4. Toxoplasmosis

T. gondii

Fever, respiratory distress and paralysis

Death

II. BACTERIAL DISEASE

1. Pasteurellosis

Pasteurella multocida

Snuffers- Sneezing yellowish discharge from eyes and nose.

Conjunctivitis
Pneumonia
Otitis media (middle ear)

Septicemia

2. Tyzzer's disease

Caused by Clostridium piliformis

Diarrhoea and bled ding from anus

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Leucopenia and elevation of serum enzymes (SGPT)

Multifocal necrosis in liver and I.nyocardium

3. Rabbit Syphilis (Vent disease)

Caused by Treponema cuniculi

Infertility, scab formation, small blisters, seeping ulcers

with continuous discharge.

Loss of hairs around vulva and penis

In advance causes lesions on lips, nose and eyelids

4. Enteritis
a. Simple enteritis (weanling diarrhoea)

Most common in age group of 5-10 weeks

Caused by sudden change in type and composition of feed,

stress and transportation.
b. Mucoid enteritis

Etiology not known

Indiscriminate feeding of antibiotics

c. Enterotoxaemia

Clostridium spp.

Carbohydrate overload

Death is due to dehydration as a result of diarrhoea.

5. Mastitis

Caused by Staphylococcus sp. and Streptococcus sp.

Red swollen mammary glands

Lactating animal may die if not treated properly.

III. VIRAL DISEASES

1. Pox
Pock lesions on ears, legs, tongue, hairless parts of the

body
2. Myxomatosis (big head/ Mosquito disease)

Highly infectious transmitted by mosquitoes

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Edema of head, ears, mucopurulent discharge from eyes

In severe cases pneumonic symptoms
Subcutaneous swelling may be observed containing mucoid gelatinous mass

Death within a week

IV. FUNGAL DISEASES

Dermatomycosis (Ringworm)
a. In indoor cages

Microsporum sp.

Epidermatophyton sp.
b. Out door cages

Trichophyton sp.

Circular raised patches in grey yellow on nose, face, ear

and feet

v. MANAGEMENTAL DISEASES
a. Sore pad/ sore hock/ sore feet

Due to dirty wet cages and rough hutch floor.

b. Hind quarter paralysis

Due to sudden jerkey movements, mishandling of rabbit

Affected animals have no control on defaecation and urination

c. Hair ball

Due to habit of licking/ chewing of own hairs or fur

Develop when animal has infection of mange, dermatophyte or just before kindling

Ingested hair get accumulated in stomach and may block

normal passage of food

Severe pain

d. Wool shedding

Unusual shedding of hairs/ wool due to deficiency of vitamin A, Mg, Zn and Cu.

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Baldness

e. Heat stroke

In summer when temperature rises more than 36C

Dehydration and death

PATHOLOGY OF MOUSE DISEASES
BACTERIAL DISEASES
1.

Salmonellosis
Caused by Salmonella enteritidis var. Typhimurium
Necrotic patches on liver and spleen

2.

Tyzzer's disease
Caused by Bacillus piliformis

Diarrhoea

3.

Arthritis
Caused by Streptobacillus moniliformis

VIRAL DISEASES
1.

Mouse pox

2.

Epizootic diarrhoea of infant mice (infantile diarrhoea)

Rotavirus

In 7-10 days old

3.

Reovirus-3 infection

Jaundice and emaciation

PATHOLOGY OF RAT DISEASES

1.

Labyrinthitis

Streptobacillus sp.

Mycoplasma sp.

2.

Salmonellosis

Hepatitis

3.

Leptospria icterohaemorrhagie

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Icterus
Nephritis

4.

Tularemia- Pasteurella tularensis

5.

eRD (Rat and Mice)

Caused by Mycoplasma pulmosis sp., Pasteurella sp. and

Pseumococcus sp.

Pneumonia

PATHOLOGY OF HAMSTER DISEASES

Relatively free from infection

1. Wet tail

Most severe disease

Severe diarrhoea

Caused by E.coli

PATHOLOGY OF GUINEA PIGS DISEASES

1. Salmonellosis... Salmonella enteritidis var. Typhimureum, S.
Dublin, S. Enteritidis
2. Pseudotuberculosis- Yersinia pseudotuberculosis
3. Pasteurellosis- P. pneumotropica, P. multocida, Manheimia

4.

haemolytica
Brodetella bronchisepitca- Acute pneumonic symptoms

5.

Streptococcal pneumonia

Fungal Diseases
Ringworm caused by Microsporum gypseum and/ or Trichophyton
sp.
Viral Diseases
1. Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus
2. Salivary gland virus
3. Adenovirus
4. Sendai virus

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44

Cytopathology
Cytopathology deals with interpretation of cells from animal
body that either exfoliate/ desquamate spontaneously from
epithelial surface or are obtained from organs/ tissues through
biopsy. Histopathology is based on interpretation of distortions
in tissue architecture, and the cytopathologic diagnosis rests
upon alterations in morphology of a single or group of cells.
Scope
Cytopathologic diagnosis has numerous applications in diagnosis
of animal diseases.

1. Diagnosis and prognosis of neoplasms: Cytopathologic

interpretations are helpful is diagnosis and prognosis of cancers
in animals specially in urinary tract neoplasms, lymphoma,
ovarian cancer, mammary gland tumour horn cancer and tumour
of reproductive tract.
2. Identification of benign neoplasms: With the help of imprint
smears or exfoliative cells, one may diagnose and identify the
extent of alterations in tumour cells e.g. fibroadenoma verses
carcinoma of eyes.
3. Diagnosis of infectious diseases: It is helpful in diagnosis
of various infectious diseases of animals including bacterial and
viral disease e.g. rotavirus infection in calves. One can
demonstrate rotavirus antigen in desquamated cells in faeces.
Cytopathologic diagnosis can be performed through two method
viz., exfoliative and interventional cytopathology.
1. Exfoliative cytopathology
In includes the examination and interpretation of cells shed off

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from epithelial surfaces in body cavities or body fluids, cells

obtained through scraping, brushing and/ or washing of mucosal
surfaces are also included in exfoliative cytopathologic
diagnosis. Exfoliative cytopathology is based on the fact that
the rate of exfoliation is enhanced in disease state thereby
yielding a larger number of cells for study. Samples from
different organs that can be obtained exfoliative
cytopathological diagnosis are listed in Table.
Table. Types of samples from different organs! body sites for
exfoliative cytopathologic diagnosis in animals
Site
1. Urinary tract

Sample
- Urinary sediment
- Bladder washing
- Prostatic massage-secretions in
dogs

2. Gastrointestinal tract

- Endoscopic lavage
- Fecal sediment
- Rectal washings
- Rectal pintch
- Buccal smears

3. Respiratory tract

-Sputum
- Bronchial washing

4. Female genital tract

- Vaginal smears
- Cervical smears
- Vaginal discharges
- Endometrial washings

5. Male genital tract

- Prepucial washings

6. Body fluids

- Cerebrospinal fluid
- Synovial fluid

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CytopatJwlogy

- Amniotic fluid
- Seminal fluid
2. Interventional cytopathology
Interventional cytopathology includes the samples obtained
from aspiration or surgical biopsy. In veterinary sciences,
however, there is limited scope of aspiration interventional
cytopathology except in few diseases such as in theileriosis
lymph node aspirate is useful in diagnosis. But surgical biopsy
is comparatively common in the diagnosis of tumours in animals.
It includes fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) and imprint
cytology.
A. Fine Needle Aspiration Cytology: Fine needle aspiration
cytologic procedures are useful in palpable lesions in animals
e.g. enlargement and hardness of superficial lymph nodes The
FNAC technique is quick, safe and painless and carried out
without any anesthesia. However, it should be performed by a
trained personnel otherwise multiple attempts or repeated
procedure cause inconvenience and pain to animal. This method
of diagnosis is cost effective and provides first hand information
to the veterinary clinician. Fine needle ranges from 25 (0.6 mm)
to 20 (0.9 mm) gauge with a length of 25 mm may be used.
Needles of upto 200 mm length are used for aspiration from
internal organs Syringes of 10-20 ml capacity are suitable but
the grip of syringe and needle should be such that it does not
leak during aspiration. The needle is inserted into the targeted
organ through skin puncture. On reaching the lesions, the
plunger of syringe is retracted and at least 10 ml of suction is
applied while moving the needle back and forth in the lesions.
The direction angle of the needle may be changed to access
different areas of the lesions. Aspiration is terminated when
aspirated material or blood visible at the basel hub of the needle
are more than adequate. Material drawn into the barrel syringe
is sometimes not recoverable and thus becomes useless for
cytopathological diagnosis. Aspirated material is recovered by
detaching the needle from syringe and filling the syringe with
air. The syringe and needle are then reconnected and the
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aspirate is placed on one end of a glass slide. Aspirate deposits

on the slide are inspected with naked eyes. Semisolid particulate
aspirates are crush-smeared by pressing between two glass
slides. Other material may be pulled just like blood smears on
to slide. These smears are either wet fixed or air dried. Most
cytopathologists use both type of smears. Wet fixation in done
in 95% ethanol for 10-15 min and then transported to laboratory
while air dried smears are wrapped and directly sent to
laboratory.
B. Imprint cytology: In this touch preparations from cut
surfaces of superficial cut; excised lesions are prepared. Imprints
are also prepared from draining sinuses and/ or ulcerated areas.
The main advantage of imprint smear examination is that the
cell distribution reflects the tissue architecture thus aiding in
interpretation. It is useful in quick diagnosis of several animal
and poultry diseases.
Crush smear cytology: Crush smear preparations of
particulate tissue material are helpful in diagnosis of tumours.
It provides the recognition of tissue architecture in addition to
better cytological details.

C.

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45

Appendices
Appendix I
TECHNIQUES OF POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION
(NECROPSY)
Necropsy is examination of animal after death. It helps in
diagnosis of diseases and their control. It is said that "Necropsy
is a message of wisdom from dead to living". Necropsy include
systemic examination of dead animal, recording of pathological
lesions, their interpretation to make diagnosis of disease.
Sometimes it is difficult to arrive any conclusion merely based
on gross examination of dead animal. Then one should seek
the help of laboratory examinations such as Histopathology,
Microbiology, Immunology and Toxicology for confirmation.
Necropsy examination is an integral part of disease investigation.
Therefore, veterinarian must have the knowledge of the
techniques of post-mortem examination, recording of lesions,
collection of proper material for laboratory and most importantly
their correlation to arrive at conclusive diagnosis. The technique
of post-mortem examination is as under:
POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION OF LARGE ANIMAL

Place animal on left side (Ruminants).

Place horse on right side and dog on vertebral column.

Make midventral incision with knife from chin to anus .

- Surround the prepuce, scrotum/ mammary gland. _

Remove skin dorsoventrally. Remove skin at face, neck,

thorax and abdomen.
"

Cut the muscles and fascia in between scapula and body;

remove fore legs.

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Raise hind legs, cut the coxofemoral ligament.

Examine sl c tissue, muscles, superficiallymphnodesprescapular, prefemoral supramammary, etc.
Open abdominal cavity by cutting muscles and peritoneum.
Open thoracic cavity by cutting xiphoid cartilage at sternum; lift ribs and press them to break at joints with vertebral column.
Examine the visceral organs in both cavities:
Heart, Lungs, Trachea,
Oesophagus, Mediastinal
lymphnodes, Diaphragm

Thorax

Abdominal cavity
Ruminants

Rumen, Reticulum,
Omasum, Abomasum

Other animals

Stomach

In all animals

Liver, Pancreas,
Intestines, Mesenteric
lymphnodes, Spleen,
Kidneys, Ureter

Pelvic cavity

Urinary bladder, uterus

POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION (POULTRY)

Dip the dead bird in antiseptic solution or in water; to

avoid feather contamination.

Keep the bird on post-mortem table at vertebral column

and look for any lesion or parasite on skin.

Examine the eyes, face and vent.

Remove skin through a cut with knife and with the help of
fingers. Expose thymus, trachea, esophagus in neck.

Break the coxofemoral joint by lifting the legs. Examine

the chest and thigh muscles.

Cut on lateral side of chest muscles. Lift the chest muscle

dorsally and break bones at joints with thorax. Cut bones

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Appendices

at both sides and remove muscles, bones to expose thorax, abdomen.

Examine different organs.
Cut proventriculus and pull the organs of digestive tract
out. Separate liver, spleen, intestines, cecum, proventriculus, gizzard, etc.
Expose bursa just beneath the cloaca.
Cut beak at joint, examine mouth cavity and expose
esophagus and trachea.
Remove skin of head and make a, square cut on skull to
expose brain.
Take a forceps and place in between thigh muscles, remove fascia and expose the sciatic nerve.
Separate each organ, examine them for the presence of lesion.

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Appendix II

STEPS IN POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION

Post-mortem examination should be conducted only after
receiving of a formal request from the owner of animal having
details of anamnesis and date and time of death. Without formal
written request, one should not do post-mortem examination
of animal. The post-mortem record includes the aspects of
animal identification, illness, therapeutic and preventive
measures adopted and date and time of death. This information
provided by the owner or person requesting post-mortem,
which helps in post-mortem examination and recording of
lesions to make a conclusive diagnosis.
Various steps in post-mortem examination are as under:
1. External examination
Animal should be examined externally before opening the body
for the presence of lesions on body surface. Eyes, ear, anus,
vulva, mouth, nares etc. should be specifically examined for
the presence of blood and any other lesion. If the blood is coming
out from natural orifices, it should be examined for the presence
of anthrax bacilli and such carcasses must not be opened for
post-mortem examination. Following points should be taken
into consideration while conducting external examination.

Trauma, wound, fracture, cuts, etc.

Fungal infection e.g. ringworm

Parasitic infestation e.g. mange, lice, ticks

Side of animal is lying down on earth.

Discharges from openings.

Burn, ulcers, erosions etc.

2. Subcutaneous tissue and musculature
Examine the subcutaneous tissue and musculature after removal
of skin for the presence of lesions such as:

Congestion, hemorrhage, oedema, nodule, anemia, icterus.

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Appendices

Fat deposits
Necrosis on muscles, hardening, calcification.

3. Abdominal and thoracic cavity

Just after opening the carcass, one should o~serve the presence
of any lesion in abdominal and thoracic cavity and following
points must be kept in mind.

Accumulation of fluid (serus, serosanguinous, blood, pus

etc.)

Fibrinous or fibrous adhesions.

Parasites
Abscess, tumor etc.

4. Respiratory system
Organs! tissues to be examined
External nares, nasal passage, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs,
air sacs (poultry) mediastinallymphnodes.
Lesions to be observed

Discharge from external nares.

Growth (granuloma/ polyp) in nasal passage if there is

blood mixed nasal discharge.

Trachea and Brollchi- Congestion, haemorrhage, presence

of caseous exudate, frothy exudate etc.

Lungs- Congestion, consolidation, nodules, presence of

exudate on cut surfaces, edema, atelectasis, emphysema,
hemorrhage, necrosis.

Mediastinal lymphllodes- Edema, hardening, calcification,

congestion, haemorrhage.
5. Cardiovascular system
Organsj tissues to be examined

Heart, aorta, arteries, veins and lymphatics

Lesions to be observed

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Fluid, blood, pus etc. in pericardial sac

Adhesions, fibrin, fibrosis
Congestion, haemorrhage, necrotic foci
Hardening of blood vessel, obstruction, thrombi
Presence of parasites
Post-mortem clotf thrombi.

6. Digestive system
Organs! tissue to be examined
Mouth cavity, esophagus, crop, proventriculus, gizzard
(poultry), rumen reticulum, omasum, abomasum (ruminants),
stomach, intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, colon,
rectum), cloaca, vent (poultry), anus, liver, pancreas, gall
bladder, mesenteric lymphnodes etc.
Lesions to be observed

Erosions, ulcers, vesicles

Congestion, hemorrhage, oedema

Necrosis
Icterus
Abscess/ pus
Perforation, needles or hard objects in reticulum.
Intussusception, torsion, volvulus
Parasites
Atrophy, hardening, nodules
Contents, catarrhal, blood mixed, digested/ undigested
feed material, thickening of wall of intestines.
Cut surface of liver for parasites, lesions in bile duct.

7. Cardiovascular system
Organs! tissue to be examined

Kidneys, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra

Lesions to be observed

Congestion, haemorrhage, infarction, oedema.

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Appendices

Necrosis, hardening, nodules

Deposition of salts, calculi
Obstruction

8. Genital system
Organs! tissue (female)

Ovaries, oviduct, uterus, cervix, vagina

Male

Testicles, Epididymis, penis, prepuce

Lesions to be observed

Cysts in ovary

Congestion, haemorrhage, oedema

Foetus in uterus, pus, fluid

Necrosis, overgrowth, nodules

Atrophy, adhesions, granularity

9. Immune system
Organs! tissue to be examined

Spleen, lymphnodes, bursa and thymus (poultry), bone

marrow

Peyer's patches, GALT, RALT

Lesions to be observed

Size, shape, atrophy, hardening.

Edema, congestion, haemorrhage

10. Nervous system
Organs! tissue to be examined

Brain, spinal cord, nerves, meninges

Lesions to be observed

Congestion, hemorrhage, hematoma

Oedema, swelling

Abscess

Hypoplasia

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

11. Miscellaneous observation

Adhesions in pleuraIf peritoneal cavity

Any other left over information pertinent to post-mortem

examination/ diagnosis
12. Post-mortem diagnosis

Diagnosis should be made on the basis of above findings

which involve any system or organ. The most involved organ
based diagnosis should be written with suggestion of etiological
factors or etiology based diagnosis.

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Appendices

Appendix III

WRITING OF POST-MORTEM REPORT

Post-mortem report consists of two parts post-mortem record
and post-mortem examination as given in the format on next
page. The first part i.e. post-mortem record is having information
related to animal and is supplied by the owner or person
requesting post-mortem examination. Actually, it is a part of
request form of the case for post-mortem examination. This is
necessary for the identification of animal. It should be filled in
before conducting post-mortem examination. The proper record
will be helpful in establishing accurate diagnosis based on postmortem examination.
POST-MORTEM RECORD
Species: Here one should write the species of animal such
as bovine, porcine, equine, poultry, etc.

1.

2.

Date: Date of the post-mortem examination.

3. Case no.: The serial number of your post-mortem book. It

shows cumulatively how many animals are examined by you in
necropsy.
4. Breed: Mention the breed of animal, if known or supplied
in the request form, such as Murrah buffalo, Jersey cattle, etc.
5. Age! Born: Age of animal or its date of birth. h case the
exact age is not known then mention young, adult or chick,
grower, adult in case of poultry.
6.

Sex: Sex of animal (male or female).

7. Identification number/ mark: It must be filled with utmost

care; the number (tattoo number or brand number) should be
the same as on animal. If the identification number is not
available/ illegible then write the characteristic mark of animal.
8. Owner: Here, the name of owner with complete address
must be filled clearly. The address should be complete enough
so that the report can reach the owner through post also.

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9. Referred by: In this column, the name of Veterinary

OfficerI any other officer who referred the case for post-mortem
examination should be written. Sometimes owner himselfl
herself is interested in post-mortem examination of animal; in
such case the name of owner should be written.
10. History of the case: This includes the clinical illness of
animal, duration of illness, epidemiological data, tentative
diagnosis, therapeutic and preventive measures adopted. This
is very important and information of this column has an
important role in making the diagnosis.
11. Reported date and time of death: It should have the exact
date and time of death of animal. Sometimes, it is difficult to
note the exact time then one can write morning, noon, evening,
midnight etc. to approximate the timings of death of animal. In
some large farms, it is very difficult to record information with
regard to each individual animal/ bird so here one can write
"previous night" as time of death.
12. Date and time of post-mortem examination: Pathologist
conducting post-mortem examination should write here the
exact time and date of the post-mortem examination.
The above information is very important to arrive any conclusive
diagnosis. The correct information enhances the specificity of
post-mortem diagnosis. Some points might be looking like
insignificant but one should not overlook them and write as
correct as information hel she can gather from the owner's
request letter I form.
POST-MORTEM REPORT
POST-MORTEM RECORD
1. Species:

2. Date:

4. Breed:

5.

Agel

3. Case No.:
Born:

6. Sex:

7. Identification No.:
8. Owner with address:

9. Referred by:

10. History of the case:

11. Reported date &

Time of Death:

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Appendices

12. Date and Time of post-mortem examination:

POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION
1. External appearance:
2. Subcutaneous tissue and musculature:
3. General observations after opening the carcass:
4. Respiratory system:
5. Cardiovascular system:
6. Digestive system:
7. Urinary system:
8. Genital system:
9. Immune system:
10. Nervous system:
11. Miscellaneous observations:
12. Post-mortem diagnosis:

Date:
Place:

Signature of officer conducting post-mortem

POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION

It includes the observations made by the pathologist conducting

post-mortem examination. This part of report should be filled
in as soon as possible after the post-mortem examination. It is
advisable that one should record some points on a small paper
or diary during post-mortem examination and fill them in report
after the conduct of post-mortem examination.
External appearance: Record the lesions observed in intact
animal before its opening. One should place on record the side
of animal lying down, lesions on skin, external parasites, trauma
etc.

1.

2. Subcutaneous tissue and musculature: The observations

made after removal of skin, on subcutaneous tissue and muscle
should be included in this column.
3. General observations after opening the carcass: It contains
the general information or lesions present in abdominal and
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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

thoracic cavity such as accumulation of fluid, pus, blood, clot of

blood, post-mortem changes such as pseudomelanosis, etc.
4. Respiratory system: Record the lesions observed in
respiratory system right from external nares, nasal passage,
trachea, bronchi and lungs alongwith mediastinallymphnodes.
5. Cardiovascular system: Record the lesions present in heart,
aorta, arteries, veins and lymphatics.
6. Digestive system: Record the lesions observed in digestive
tract from month cavity, esophagus, crop, proventriculus,
gizzard (poultry), rumen, reticulum, omasum abomasum
(ruminants), stomach, intestines, rectum, anus, cloaca, vent
(poultry), liver, pancreas, gall bladder etc.
7. Urinary system: Place on record the lesions present on
kidneys, ureter and urethra.
8. Genital system: Record the lesions present in ovaries,
uterus, oviduct, cervix and vagina in females and testes, penis
etc. in males. Be careful in recording lesions in this column as it
should match with the sex of animal written in post-mortem
record section.
9. Immune system: Record the lesions present in spleen,
bursa, thymus, lymphnodes, respiratory associated lymphoid
tissue (RALT), gut associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) etc.
Careful recording of lesions in these organs will be helpful in
diagnosis.
10. Nervous system: Place on record the lesions present in
brain, spinal cord and nerves. Most of the pathologists overlook
this system and often not taken pain to examine the brain. It
should not be done and every effort should be made to examine
and place on record the lesions present in this system.
11. Miscellaneous observations: Here one can record any
missing observation which has not been covered above.
12. Post-mortem diagnosis: This is very important. Based on
the history and lesions present in different systems, pathologists
by using his experience and conscience conclude the diagnosis.

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Appendices

He/ she may also write suggestions alongwith diagnosis or

some points to suggest the diagnosis and/ or contain the disease
in other animals.
13. Signature of officer conducting post-mortem: Each and
every report must be signed by the officer doing post-mortem
examination. Without signature of competent officer, it has no
validity.
14. Place and date: The person signing the post-mortem report
must also write date and place of post-mortem examination.

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Appendix IV
COLLECTION, PRESERVATION AND DISPATCH OF
SPECIMENS FOR LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS
Tissue samples are collected from dead or live animals for
laboratory examination to confirm the tentative diagnosis.
Purpose

Diagnosis of disease or for identification of new disease.

Confirmation of tentative diagnosis.

Prognosis
To observe the effect of treatment and give directions for
future therapy.

Precautions

Collect the tissues as early as possible after death of animal.

Representative tissue/ sample should be collected.

Sharp knife should be used for cutting

Collect the tissues directly in fixative.

Size of tissue should not be more than 1 cm for histopathology in 10% formalin.

Hollow organs should be taken on paper to avoid shrinkage.

Hard organs like liver, kidneys etc. should be collected

along with capsule.
COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS FOR BACTERIOLOGICAL
EXAMINATION

Collect the tissues under sterile condition.

Sterilize knife/ scalpelj spatula on flame or in boiling water.

Surface sterilized by hot spatula

Cut with knife and collect sample from inner tissue.

Body fluids/ blood should be collected in sterilized sy-

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Appendices

ringe or in Pasteur pipette.

Specimens should be collected directly in media (liquid
media-nutrient broth, peptone water, tetrathionate broth
or even in normal saline solution/ phosphate buffer saline).
Seal, pack and transport the collected material to laboratory in ice/ under refrigeration conditions.

BACTERIAL DISEASES
Abscesses

Swab in sterile conditions/ pus in vials

Collect material from margin of abscess

Actinobacillosis! Actinomycosis

Tissues from affected parts in 10% formalin.

Pus in sterile test tube/ from edge of lesion

Slides from Pus for sulphur granules.

Anthrax

Blood smear from tip of the ear

Blood for cultural examination

Muzzle piece for biological test.

Mark the specimen as "Anthrax suspect"

Black Quarter/ Black leg

Smear from swelling

Affected muscle piece in ice.

Brucellosis

Serum after 3 weeks of abortion

Foetal stomach tied off

Swabs from uterine discharge

5 to 10 ml milk in ice

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

,Glanders

Smear from discharge

Lun~ liver and spleen in 10% formalin

Serum

Johne's disease

Bowel washings in sterile bottle

Smear from rectal mucosa

Mesenteric lymphnode in 10% formol saline

Leptospirosis

Serum 21 days after abortion

Milk/ urine in vials (1 drop of formalin in 20 ml)

Liver, kidney tissue in 10% formalin

Listeriosis

Half brain in ice

Half brain in 10% formalin

Mastitis

10 ml milk in sterile vial in ice

Pasteurellosis

Heart blood

Lung, spleen and mediastinallymphnodes in ice.

Affected tissues in 10% formalin.

Salmonellosis

Liver, spleen, kidney and intestine tied off in ice.

Strangles

Smear, swab of pus in ice.

Erysipelas

Blood
Spleen, kidney, liver in ice.

534

Appendices

Vibriosisf Campylobacteriosis

Foetal stomach tied off

Vaginal mucosa in ice.

In pig, intestine and liver in 10% formalin.

Colibacillosis

Heart blood in sterile vial.

Tissues from intestine and lymphnodes in 10% formol saline.

Tuberculosis

Lungs, mediastinal and bronchial lymphnodes in ice and

in 10% formalin.
COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS FOR VIROLOGICAL
EXAMINATION

Collect tissue under sterilized condition

Body fluids/ blood in sterilized syringe or in Pasteur pipette

Tissues in buffered glycerin

PBS pH 7.2- 50%

Glycerin- 50%
Avoid samples in glycerin from sensitive viruses e.g. Rinderpest, canine distemper
Seal and mark the specimen bottle and transport to laboratory.

VIRAL DISEASES
Foot and mouth disease

Tongue epithelium, vesicular fluid, saliva, pancreas in 50%

buffered glycerine

Serum

Hog cholera! swine fever

Serum under refrigeration

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Text Book o/Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Spleen, liver, kidney in 50% glycerin/ ice

Tissues from intestine, mesenteric lymphnode and half of
the brain stem in 10% formol saline.

Infectious Canine Hepatitis

Several pieces of liver, gall bladder and kidney in 10%

formol saline.
Pox

Scabs in ice and in 10% formol saline.

Rabies

Intact head should be soaked in 1 % carbolic acid.

Fracture the skull with hammer.

Remove skin and bones

Half brain in 10% formalin

Half brain in 50% neutral glycerin.

Tissues from cerebellum and hippocampus in Zenker's

fluid for 20 hrs, wash in tape water for 24 hr and keep in
80% ethyl alcohol for Negri bodies.
Ranikhet disease

Liver, spleen ,in 50% neutral glycerin

Proventriculus in 10% formalin

Brain in ice.
Rotaviral enteritis

Faecal sample

Interstinal tissue in 10% formol saline.

Gumboro disease

Bursa of Fabricious, kidney, muscles in 10% formol saline.

Bursa, kidney in 50% buffered glycerine.

536

Appendices

SYSTEMIC DISEASES
Diarrhoea! Enteritis

Fecal sample in sterile vial

Serum
Tissues of intestine, mesenter..ic lymphnodes in 10% formol
saline.

Abortion! Metritis

Fetal stomach content tide off or in sterile vials.

Serum of dam after 21 days of abortion.

Vaginal discharges in sterile conditions.

Tissues of placenta, fetal liver, stomach, kidney in 10%

formol saline.
Pneumonia

Nasal discharge/ nasal swabs.

Lung tissue/ pieces in sterile vials.

Lung tissue and mediastinal lymphnode in 10% formol

saline.
Dermatitis

Skin scrapings in 10% KOH.

Skin tissue in 10% formol saline.

Encephalitis

Cerebrospinal fluid in heparinised vials.

Brain tissue in 10% formol saline.

Brain tissue in 50% glycerol.

Nephritis

Urine sample in sterile vial.

Kidney tissue in 10% formol saline.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS FOR TOXICOLOGICAL

EXAMINATION

Stomach/ intestinal contents

Liver, kidneys, heart blood

Urine
In clean glass jars
In ice/ refrigeration without any preservative
Seal, label, transport to laboratory.
In veterolegal cases all specimens must be collected in presence of police.

Type of poison suspected along with detailed history, signs,

lesions/ treatment etc. should be written on letter with
specimens.

TOXICOSIS/ POISONING

Heavy metal Poisoning

Hg, Pb, Bi, Ag

Liver, kidney, stomach content in ice in separate containers.

Alkaloids

Liver, stomach contents and brain tissue in ice.

Nitrate

Fodder
Stomach contents, blood in ice

Strychnine poisoning

Stomach contents, intestinal contents, urine, liver, kidney

in ice.
Hydrocyanic acid

Plants
Stomach contents, blood, liver
Preserved in 1 % solution of mercuric chloride.

538

Appendices

Pesticides

Fatty tissue, liver, stomach contents, blood in ice.

Subcutaneous, omental, mesenteric fat.

COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS FOR IMMUNOLOGICAL
EXAMINATION

Heart blood in syringe/ Pasteur pipette

CSF / Synovial fluid/ peritonial fluid

Tissues in formol sublimate or in buffered formalin

Blood/ serum/ others should be sent to laboratory under

refrigeration conditions.

Add one drop of 1:10000 merthiolate in 5 ml serum as preservative.

DISPATCH OF MATERIAL
Following points must be kept in mind while dispatching the
material to laboratory for diagnosis.
1. Describe the clinical signs, lesions, tentative diagnosis and
treatment given to animal in your letter. Also mention the
type of test you want with your tentative diagnosis.
2. Write correct address on letter as well as on the parcel
preferably with pin code, if the material is sent through
post.
3. Mark the parcel 'Biological Material', 'Handle with care',
'Glass material', 'Fragile' etc. in order to avoid damage in
parcel. Also mark the side to be kept on upper side with
arrows.
4. Seal the container so that it should not leak in transit.
5. Try to send the material as soon as after its collection from
animal.
6. Keep one copy of cover letter inside the parcel and send
another copy by hand or post in a separate cover.
7. Keep adequate material like thermocol etc. in the parcel
which will save the material from outside pressures/ jerks.
8. Use dry ice, if available otherwise use ice in sealed containers.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Appendix V
HISTOPATHOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES

Histopathology is the branch of pathology which concerns with

the demonstration of minute structural alterations in tissues as
a result of disease. Most of histopathological techniques
simulating to those of applied for study the normal histological
structures. For the demonstration of minute histological changes,
the tissue must be processed in such a manner that it will provide
maximum information. The histopathological diagnosis is an
overlooked area specially in Veterinary Sciences. Many times it
has been observed that the procedures are not properly
followed or the qualified person trained for histopathology is
not available, which in tum affects the interpretation and/or
diagnosis. Histopathological procedures are described for the
benefit of readers which will help them in diagnostic laboratory.
Scope
Though the histopathological techniques are labour intensive,
cumbersome and time consuming, particularly when there are
automation equipments are not available; however, their use in
diagnosis of diseases is unequivocal. Some of the areas where
histopathological diagnosis is helpful are described as follows:

This is useful in establishing the pathogenesis and pathology of any disease caused by bacteria, virus, chlamydia,
rickettsia, mycoplasma, parasite, toxin, poisons etc.

There are certain diseases in which histopathological examination of tissues is the only alternative to diagnose the
disease. e.g. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy. The agent
of this disease takes a very long incubation period and
very difficult to isolate and there is no immune response
and inflammation in animal. Therefore, histopathology
remains the only alternative for confirmatory diagnosis.

In some cases, the tissues from dead animals are only available material for laboratory diagnosis. This may occur either due to lack of time or due to negligence for not collecting the material for serological tests or isolation stud540

Appendices

ies. Sometimes the transportation of material from remote

areas destroys the other material and the tissues fixed in
formalin only remains for making diagnosis. In all such
cases the histopathological examination has its pivotal role.
The histopathological procedures produce permanent
slides, which can be stored for a longer period and one
cannot manipulate the findings; therefore, it is considered
best reliable technique.
The histopathological techniques are useful in carrying out
the retrospective studies. The unstained slides and blocks
can be stored for indefinite period; which can be examined even after many years for further studies.
The presence of causative agents can also be demonstrated
in tissue sections using routine histopathological techniques
or special stainings. In this Gram's staining procedures are
used for demonstration of bacteria while viral inclusions
are demonstrated using hematoxylin and eoxin or other
staining techniques like Macchiavello's stain or Mann's
methylene blue eosin method. The Negri bodies are demonstrated by Seller's stain in case of rabies in animals. In
such cases, the isolation of causative agent or their serological examination does not require; since the presence of
causal agent in infected tissues gives a confirmatory diagnosis.
The detection of chemicals in tissues like enzymes, lipids
etc. is included in histochemical examination; which not
only describe the structural changes but also gives idea
about the functional status of the organ.

Histopathological procedures
The microscopic examination of tissues or organs can be achieved
by their smears or using vital staining or by sectioning; the
latter method being more commonly used in histopathological
laboratories.
Smears
The microscopic examination using smears of any organ/ tissue/
cells is very rapid method which gives the results within hrs. A

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

drop of blood is placed on clean glass slide and with the help of
another slide, the smear is prepared. In this the tissue pieces
from organs are cut using a sharp knife and the cut surface is
mildly touched with clean glass slides with some gentle pressure.
Which gives an impression on the slide. This is also known as
impression smear; generally 2-5 smears are prepared on a slide.
If the collected tissue material is too less then it is being pressed
between two slides and the impression thus obtained on both
the slides are used for study. The wet smears are fixed with
methanol and can be stored or transported to laboratory for
examination. The impression smears of hippocampus,
cerebellum and cerebrum of brain are very useful for
demonstration of Negri bodies in rabid animals for diagnosis
of rabies. The impression smears are stained with seller's stain
for few seconds, washed and, air dried and examined under
oil immersion microscope for the presence of inclusion bodies
also known as Negri bodies. These inclusions are characterized
by intracytoplasmic, eosinophillic appearance with basophilic
granules and round to oval in shape with a clear halloo
In case of pox infection in animals, the impression smears are
prepared from scabe or pustule for demonstration of
intracytoplasmic inclusions. Sometimes the viral inoculum is
inoculated on chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) of embryonated
eggs; the impression smears of CAM may yield the viral
inclusions. In certain bacterial diseases like haemorrhagic
septicemia and enterotoxemia, it becomes very difficult to
demonstrate the organism in blood or in tissues. For
confirmatory diagnosis, the material is inoculated in laboratory
animals like mice, guinea pigs etc. The impression smears are
then prepared from liver, spleen and other relevant organs of
laboratory animals for demonstration of the organism.
Vital Staining
Vital staining procedures are not much in use directly in the
diagnosis. However, for detection of phagocytic cells in body
the vital stains are used. In the living animals when vital staining
procedures are used for localization of phagocytic cells, these

542

Appendices

are known as intravital. In vitro use of vital stains is called as

spravital staining which is being done for the live and dead
lymphocyte count in leucocyte migration inhibition test (LMIT),
lymphocyte stimulation test (LST), macrophage migration
inhibition test (MMIT) and macrophage function tests (MFT).
Routine Histopathological Techniques of sectioning
The tissue pieces ffom morbid animals should be collected
properly and fixed in a suitable fixative. Then these are
processed and sections of 4-5 microns are cut and taken on slides.
These sections are stained and mounted to make the permanent
preparations of slides. The different steps required for making
the tissue slides are described briefly as follows.
1. Collection of tissue
The collection of tissues is an important step, which is many
times not given proper attention. The whole diagnostic process
depends upon the collection of tissue pieces. A representative
tissue should have been collected carefully and should have
the normal as well as abnormal (lesion) part. The tissues must
be collected by qualified person after a thorough examination
of each organ/ system. Some times it has been observed that
the collection of tissues is performed by attendants or rudely
by the qualified persons and proper attention is not paid. It
should be kept in mind that a representative tissue sample will
only give the correct diagnosis which cannot be remedied/
altered afterwards. At the time of tissue collection following
points must be kept in mind which will be beneficial for making
a correct diagnosis.

The tissue pieces from morbid animal should be collected

as early as possible after the death of animal. Once the
autolytic changes started in the dead body; it will not give
true picture of microscopic lesions due to autolysis.

At the time of tissue collection, it should be kept in mind

that the representative tissue piece should include the part
of lesion and a part of normal tissue, which facilitates the
identification of organ/ tissue at the time of microscopic
examination.
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Text Book o{Veterinary Pathology :Quick Re'lliew and Self Assessment

The tissue pieces should be cut with sharp knife and using
only one stroke. Blunt edge knife may require many attempts for cutting, which destroys the normal architecture of tissues.
Tissue pieces for histopathological examination should be
collected from all the organs. Some times it has been noticed that the tissue sample is taken from those part of
body which shows gross lesions; merely absence of gross
lesion does not mean that there will not be microscopic
alteration. In many disease conditions only microscopic
changes occur which do not exhibited grossly. Such selective collection of tissues gives a biased interpretation, so it
is better to have tissues from all the organs for proper
interpretation and unbiased conclusions of histopathological studies.
Tissues should be collected directly in the fixative and not
in any other pot or water. Sometimes it has been observed
that at the time of post-mortem examination, the tissue
samples are collected in petri dishes or in bottle and bring
to the laboratory, then fixative is added. This seems to be
a wrong practice. The tissue bottles filled with 2/ 3 fixative must be available at the time of necropsy and tissue
pieces should be collected directly in the fixative.
The size of tissue piece should not be more than 5 mm; it
facilitate the homogenous and smooth fixation. Large size
tissues do not get fixed properly and in the middle, the
tissue gets autolysed.
The tissue pieces from hollow organs like intestines, oviduct etc should be cut transversely and placed on a hard
paper, then it should be cut longitudinally in such a way
that the serosal layer sticks to paper and mucosal layer
gets free. Thereafter, it should be placed in fixative along
with paper. This allows a good fixation and avoids the
shrinkage and folding of tissue.
At the time of post-mortem examination, it has been noticed that the faecal matter is removed from the intestines
by pressing/ squeezing them or after opening the lumen
544

Appendices

by sharp objects like knife, slides etc.; which causes damage in the mucosal layer. The representative tissue should
not be collected from such damaged portions.
The tissues from encapsulated organs should be collected
alongwith capsule or covering. like brain should be collected alongwith meninges; kidneys and liver should be
collected with their capsules. The coverings of such organs also yield useful information on histopathological
examination.

2. Fixation
The fixation of tissues is required for preventing the postmortem changes like autolysis and putrefaction by saprophytes,
preservation of cellular constituents in life like manner and for
hardening of tissues by way of conversion of semisolids to solid
material. For a proper histopathological preparation and their
interpretation, the role of fixative is very crucial. Any faulty
fixation cannot be remedied at any later stage. An ideal fixative
should be one that fixes the tissues quickly and should not
interfere with the refractive index of the tissue components.
The choice of fixative depends on the type of investigation
required, the formol saline (10% formaldehyde in 0.85% sodium
chloride solution) is considered best fixative for routine
histopathological studies. The buffered formalin has certain
advantages over formol saline and nowadays it is
recommended for routine use in histopathological laboratories.
The buffered formalin can also be used for immunopathological
studies. Buffered formalin is widely used and preferred because
of its tolerance; tissues can be left for longer period without
excessive hardening or damage and sectioned easily. Since it
has neutral pH, the formalin pigment is also not formed in the
tissues. However, for immunopathological studies like
immunoperoxidase staining techniques the fixative of choice is
formol sublimate. But in the absence of that buffered formalin
may also be used. The time required for proper fixation is 6-12
hrs for 5 mm thick block of tissue.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

3. Washing
The tissue pieces after 6-12 hr fixation are taken out from fixative
and cut into 2-3 small pieces of 2-3 mm size blocks. These blocks
are, then, kept in tissue capsules or in a gauge tied off with the
help of thread. The identification marks written by copying
pencil are also kept along with tissues. These capsules/ gaugecontaining tissues should be kept in running tape water overnight
for at least 12 hrs.
4. Dehydration

In routine practice, the dehydration is done in ascending series

of graded ethanol. The tissue blocks are kept in 50% ethanol
and then in 70%, 80%, 90%, 95% absolute ethanol I and absolute
ethanol II for one hour each. These ethanol graded series should
be kept in tight glass stoppered bottle or in screw cap jars to
prevent the evaporation. In last bottle of ethanol II sometimes
the copper sulfate is layered in the bottom, covered with filter
paper, which increases the life of ethanol as it absorbs the water
from alcohol. But the care should be taken, as soon as the copper
sulfate begins bluish due to absorption of water, the ethanol
should be changed.

To increase the process of dehydration, the tissue blocks should

be agitated either mechanically in an automatic tissue processor
or by shaking the container periodically. The volume of alcohol
should be at least 50 times more than the tissue placed for
dehydration.
5. Clearing
Usually the clearing of tissue blocks is done in xylene. Like
ethanol, xylene should also be kept in tightly stoppered bottle
to prevent the evaporation. After dehydration the tissue blocks
should be kept in ethanol and xylene (1:1) mixture for one hr,
then the blocks are transferred to xylene I and xylene II for one
hr each. If xylene is not available then benzene may be used for
3 hr as its action of clearing is slower than xylene. On complete
clearing, the tissue becomes transparent, then they should be
transferred in paraffin wax for impregnation.
546

Appendices

6. Impregnation
For the impregnation of tissue blocks, the paraffin wax in used
either in paraffin embedding bath or in oven fixed at 60-62C
temperature. Both the oven and embedding bath are electrically
operated with thermostat to adjust the desired temperature.
At the time of transfer of tissue blocks from xylene II, the
paraffin wax must be kept at 60-62C in liquid form for
impregnation. Three changes are given in paraffin wax; each of
one hr duration. The paraffin wax should be free from dust or
other gross impurities; which can be removed by filtration
through muslin cloth.
7. Casting of blocks

After 3 hr impregnation of tissue blocks in paraffin wax, the

blocks are formed in moulds using molten wax. The tissues are
placed in moulds in such a way that desired surface should
remain down ward, which should be on the base of mould.
The sections are cut from this surface, so care must be taken to
keep the tissue in a proper manner which should be cut into
sections homogenously. The mould is then filled with molten
paraffin wax and then the blocks are cooled either at room
temperature or in cold water. Various types of moulds like 'L'
shaped or ring shaped can be used. If the moulds are not
available, the blocks can be prepared in glass petri-dishes or in
empty slide boxes. But care should be taken to lubricate the
surface of such petri-dishes and other moulds with liquid
paraffin or glycerine which facilitates the easy removal of blocks
after cooling and hardening of paraffin wax.
8. Trimming
The blocks are removed from the moulds and are cut so as to
give the one tissue per block and the wax is trimmed by knife
or by rubbing on a hot plate in order to remove the extra wax
on the either side of tissue. The tissue is exposed, which facilitate
the side determination on which the section is to be cut. The
identification of tissue should by fixed on one side of the block
by touching the block with the small paper kept on it with hot

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

forcep or knife, which bears the number. Then the blocks are
fixed on block holder. Care should be taken that the number of
marking of block should be kept on upper side at the time of
trimming of the block on microtome to remove the extra wax
and expose the whole surface of tissue. The trimming of blocks
is done at 10-151l and a separate knife should be used for
trimming and section cutting.
9. Section cuHing

Before the sectioning, the tissue blocks are cooled on ice or by

keeping them in refrigerator. The tissue floatation bath should
be cleaned and filled with water having a temperature of about
60-70C. The blocks along with block holders are fixed in the
microtome in such a way that the marking number will be on
upper side, giving the similar position to the blocks as it was
during trimming. Usually the sections are cut at 4-61l thickness
on rotary microtome using a plain edge knife. The knife should
be sharp enough that it should cut the desired thickness sections
in the form of a ribbon and will not cause damage to the tissue.
By using a brush and forceps, the ribbon of tissue sections are
placed in tissue floatation bath. The tissue sections will spread
here due to melting of paraffin wax and will take the shape
similar to the tissue of that block. One can make out the selection
here; the best looking sections 1-5 can be lifted on a sticky glass
slide, which should be kept in a tray at an angle so that the
water is removed. The glass slides are made sticky by applying
a sticky material on clean glass slides, which consists egg white
and glycerine in 1:1 (V/ V) ratio. The sticky material facilitate
the sticking of sections on slides, which will not be damaged or
removed during further processing of staining. Generally, 4-5
slides are made from each block and air dried in incubator or
at room temperature. The following precautions should be taken
at the time of section cutting:

548

Appendices

SO % etbanol

Ihr

(
(

70 % ethanol

(
(

90% ethanol

Ihr

l
80% ethanol

Ihr

~ut

sections
4-5 JUIl

Trimmina to expose
tissue

l
. Ihr

l
95%etbaDol

Ihr

( N~m~ )

!
Trimming of blocks

Casting of blocks

Paraffin II 62' C

Ihr

)
)
)

Paraffin I 62 C

lbr

Flow Chart Showing Processing of Tissue for Histopathology

549

Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

i.

Adjust the microtome gauge at right place, generally it is

adjusted at 4-5J.l for routine histopathological examinations.
ii. Knife should be properly fixed with the help of screws at
an angle of about 45 degree. Ensure that all the fittings are
tightly fixed.
iii. The knife should be sharp enough to cut sections free from
nicks. If the nicks are present on sections, the position of
knife should be changed or the knife should be properly
stropped.
iv. The temperature of tissue floatation bath should neither
be low nor it should high than the prescribed. In low temperature, the tissue will not spread properly and its compressions and creased will not be removed, while at high
temperature the paraffin wax of tissue will melt quickly
making the tissue fragments destroying the original shape
of section.
v. Lift the tissue sections on slide at an angle (45) of slide so
that the air bubbles should not appear in between the slide
and section.
vi. Use little sticky material on slide, if it is more then drying
process will take more time.
vii. If the ribbon of sections is large then it should be cut at the
junction of two sections with a sharp knife or blade and
small pieces are made.
viii. During summer when temperature is above 40C, the tissue sections should be cut either in a room or laboratory
having air conditioner or desert cooler. If such facilities
are not available then make moisture in the environment
by sprinkling of water on ground. It is necessary because
at high environmental temperature, the tissue sections stick
to the knife and the ribbon is not properly formed.
ix. Drive the microtome smoothly in a regular speed; jerks
should not be given.
x. For marking the slides, use the diamond pencil and marking should be done at the time of section cutting itself.

550

Appendices

10. Staining
(A) Routine procedure
After drying the slides are kept in slide cabinets. One slide of
each block is selected for staining using the following
procedures.
(a) Removal of paraffin:

The slides are slightly warmed either in incubator or at the

flame of a spirit lamp and are placed in jar having xylene. Replace
the xylene after 10-15 min with fresh xylene for another 10-15
min. This removes the paraffin from the tissue sections.
(b) Rehydration

After removal of paraffin, the slides are kept in descending

series of alcohol. For this first they should be kept in absolute
ethanol and xylene (1:1) mixture for 5 min; then in absolute
ethanol, 95%, 90%, 80%, 70%, 50% ethanol for 5-6 min in each
dilution. After that the slides are taken in water.

(c) Cleaning of slides

With the help of muslin cloth, clean the slides from both the
sides. Leave only 1 or 2 section on a slide and remove the extra
sections and/or paraffin wax. Wash the slides in running tape
water.
(d) Staining in hematoxylin

Place the slides in Harris hematoxylin or Meyer's hematoxylin

for 10-15 min. Shake the slides 2-3 times for proper staining.
Remove the hematoxylin solution and wash the slides in running
tape water, then dip in acid alcohol for few seconds, which
helps in differentiation. Wash in tape water and place the slides
in ammonia water for few seconds for blueing and place in
running tape water in order to remove the ammonia.
(e) Staining in eosin

Place the slides in 2% aqueous eosin or alcoholic eosin for 2-5

min. After staining in eosin, quickly proceed for dehydration.
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Text Book o[Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Sel/Assessment

Water

Flow Chart Showing Staining Procedure

552

Appendices

(f) Dehydration

The slides are placed in 70%, 80%, 90% 95% Absolute ethanol
for dehydration atleast for 5 min in each solution; then place
them in absolute ethanol: xylene mixture (1:1) for 5 min.
(g) Clearing

Clear the sections in xylene and give 2 changes at least for 1015 min each. The clearing in xylene II can be extended for even
upto one hour.
(h) Mounting

Mount the slides with coverslip using Canada balsam or DPX

mountant. For this the cover slips of desired size and shape are
kept on filter paper and one or two drop of mountant is placed
on coverslip. Takeout the slides from xylene and place on
coverslip in such a way that the section is touched with
mountant, press gently and lift the slide. Remove air bubble, if
any, by pressing the coverslip with fine forcep and keep the
slides in horizontal position in a tray for drying.
(i) Cleaning and labelling

After drying, clean the slides with muslin cloth and xylene.
Remove the extra moutant using a blade. Label the slide with a
piece of paper and stick it on one corner of slide using gum or
other adhesive. At the time of examination, the histopathologist
should put the name of organ, main changes in sections/ disease
condition with other remarks on this label for future
identification of the slide.

(j) Examination
On hematoxylin and eosin staining, the nuclei of the cells take
blue stain while the cytoplasm is pink or red. Examine the tissue
section using 10 x objective and if required then in high power
or oil immersion. Precautions and important tips which should
be considered at the time of staining:
i.
Check the sections for staining after blueing in ammonia
water for hematoxylin stain and after dehydration for eosin
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Text Book ofVeterinanf PatilOloglJ :Quick Re'llieul and Self Assessment

ii.

iii.

iv.

v.

stain. If under stained then repeat the process or in case of

overstained, the sections can be differentiated for some
more time in acid alcohol to remove the excess hematoxylin
and in ethanol for removing the excess eosin.
Clean the slides thoroughly in water and remove all
patches/ spots of paraffin; which gives a good look to
slides.
If on clearing in xylene, the cloudiness appears then repeat the dehydration process in absolute ethanol for 10-15
min. The cloudiness appears due to presence of water in
the sections which reacts with xylene.
At the time of mounting, ensure that the tissue section is
not get dried. So to eliminate the chance of drying, proceed fast. Ensure the proper mounting of section on slides.
Sometimes the opposite side of the section is mounted and
section becomes dry. To ensure the proper mounting, one
should feelj touch the diamond pencil marking present
on the same surface, then mount the sections. This can also
be checked by touching the slide on reverse side for the
presence/ absence of tissue sections.
Labelling with paper should be done on same side, at which
the section is present; which will be helpful at the time of
examination.

(B) Special procedures

In histopathological techniques, one can demonstrate bacteria,
fungus, chlamydia, rickettsia or viral inclusions in the tissue
sections by using special staining procedures. These special
staining techniques, however, requires specific expertise but can
be used in diagnostic laboratory as routine methods. Some
important special staining techniques are described as under:
I. Staining for acid fast bacilli
The acid-fast bacilli are demonstrated in tuberculosis or Johne's
disease in animals. The tissues are collected in formol saline or
buffered formalin and processed in same manner as for routine
histopathological techniques. For special staining of acid fast
bacilli following procedures are followed:
554

Appendices

1.

Deparaffinize the sections and hydrate in descending series of ethanol as described earlier.
2. Clean the slides in water and give a wash in distilled water for 5 min
3. Place the slides in carbol fuchsin solution and keep the
chamber of slides in a water bath at 56C for 1 hr.
4. Thereafter, remove the slides from water bath and keep
at room temperature for few min, wash in running tape
water. Dip in acid alcohol for differentiation till the colour
of tissue become pale pink.
5. Wash in running tape water.
6. Place the slides in methylene blue working solution for
few seconds, wash in tape water till the colour of sections
becomes pale blue.
7. Dehydrate in ascending series of ethanol, clear in xylene
and mount in and dPX as described earlier in histopathological procedures. Examine the slides under oil immersion. The acid fast bacilli will be of bright red in colour
with a light blue back ground.
8. Precautions
(a) Care should be taken that at 56C for 1 hr, the stain may
get dry so it is always advisable to keep it in a covered jar
in water bath to prevent drying.
(b) Differentiation with acid alcohol is very crucial step and
should be controlled carefully; it depends on experience
of a histopathologists to stain the slides properly.
II. Demonstration of Gram positive! gram negative bacteria in
tissue sections
i.
Deparaffinize and hydrate the sections to water, clean
them.
ii. Stain the slides with crystal violet for 2 min.
iii. Wash in distilled water.
iv. Keep the slides in Gram's iodine solution for 5 ~n.
v. Wash in distilled water.
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Text Book of Veterinary Pathoioglf :Quick Review and Self Assessment

vi.

vii.
viii.
ix.
x.
xi.
xii.
xiii.

Differentiate in cellosolve (Ethylene glycol

monomethyl ether) until blue colour is no longer comes
out from sections.
Wash in distilled water and Place in basic fuchsin for'
5 min and wash in distilled water.
Place the slides in differentiating solution for 5 min.,
wash in distilled water and blot dry.
Dip the slides in tetrazine for few seconds.
Place the slides in cellosolve 3 changes of 6 dip in each.
Clear in xylene I and II for 15 min each.
Mount in DPX
Examine the slides under oil immersion. The Gram
positive bacteria will be of blue colour while gram
negative will take a red colour against a yellow backgrounds.

III. Demonstration of spirochaetes

1. During post-mortem examination, cut about 1 mm thick
slice of tissues from several sites of an organ and fix it in
10% buffered formalin for 24hrs, wash in running tape
water overnight and place in 95% alcohol for 24hr.
2. Transfer the tissues in distilled water and keep till the tissues sinks to bottom.
3. Stain in silver nitrate at 37'lC in dark for 3-5 days and change
the solution daily.
4. Wash in distilled water and place the tissues in reducing
solution for 1-3 days.
5. Rinse in distilled water and dehydrate in ascending series
of ethanol.
6. Clear in cedar wood oil for 2 hrs.
7. Impregnation/ embedding is done in paraffin wax as in
case of routine histopathology, cut sections at 4-511, dry
and deparaffinise in xylene (3 changes of 5 min each)
8. Clean the slides, remove artifacts and spots of paraffin
wax
556

Appendices

9. Mount 1-2 sections per slide with DPX

10. Examination is done under microscope; the spirochaete will
be of black colour with yellow to light brown background.
IV. Demonstration of Fungi
1. Collect the tissues in formol saline or buffered formalin
and process the samples in a same way as in routine histopathology and cut the section at 4-5Jl, deparaffinize and
hydrate to water.
2. Place the slides in 4% chromic acid for 1 hr.
3. Wash in running tape water and keep the slides in 1 % sodium bisulfite solution for 3-5 min.
4. Wash in running tape water and then in distilled water.
5. Stain with methanamine-silver nitrate working solution at
60C in water bath till sections become yellowish brown.
6. Wash in distilled water and place in gold chloride solution for 5 min.
7. Wash in distilled water and place in sodium thiosulfate
solution for 5 min and wash in running tape water.
S. Stain with light green for 1 min, wash in water; dehydrate
in ascending series of ethanol, clear in xylene and mount
in DPX.
9. Examine the sections under microscope, the fungi will take
a black colour, mycelia and hyphae will be of rose coloured with a pale green back ground.
V. Demonstration of rickettsia
1. Tissues are fixed in formol saline or buffered formalin and
processed in same manner, sections of 4-5Jl thick are cut,
dried, deparaffinize and hydrated to water.
2. Place in methylene blue solution for overnight and
decolourize in 95 % ethanol for few seconds or till blue
colour is lost.
3. Wash in distilled water and place the slides in basic fuchsin
solution for 30 min.

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4.
5.

Decolourize in citric acid solution for 1-2 sec.

Differentiate in absolute ethanol for few min, clear in xylene and mount in DPX.

Examine the slides, the rickettsia will be of bright red colour

and nucleus of the cell will take blue colour.

558

Appendices

Appendix VI
POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION OF VETEROLEGAL
CASES

The post-mortem examination of veterolegal cases is performed

as described in pervious sections. However, following points
must be kept in mind while doing post-mortem examination
and preparing the report.
1. For veterolegal cases, post-mortem request should be
signed by a police officer not below the rank of inspector
or by magistrate; without which no post-mortem examination should be done.
2. Always collect maximum information on history, date and
time of death of animal and treatment given. Use self
knowledge and experience to determine the time of death
such as rigor morits, autolysis, putrefaction, pseudomelanosis etc.
3. Animal identification including species, breed, age and
number or mark must be clearly established before conduct of post-mortem examination. It is specially necessary
in insured animals as well as in religiously disputed cases.
4. All the lesions present on skin surface should be clearly
defined as laceration, wound, trauma, incision, erosion,
vesicle, ulcer and if there is suspected sharp edge wound
or bullet injury also state it& depth and width (diameter)
as the case may be. Also mention the side on which the
animal is lying down (ventral portion touching earth).
5. In case of dispute over still birth and calf born alive, a
piece of lung should be placed in water. The lung piece
will sink in water in case of atelectasis neonatum while it
will float if the calf born alive.
6. If the case is suspected for toxic condition/ poisoning, try
to mention the type of poison in your report. This will
help the police authorities to establish/ confirm the type
of toxin/ poison in forensic laboratory.
7. The post-mortem examination of wild animals should be
conducted as a special case. One should conduct the post559

Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

mortem examination only when DFO or higher officer is

making request for post-mortem examination. It should
be noted on the report that all the viscera including skin,
bones, teeth, etc. are returned to the person requested for
the necropsy and no item should be left behind.
8. Fill the post-mortem report clearly with neat hand writing and in clear language and avoid ambiguity in presentation. Avoid to write general sentences. Be specific to your
findings and conclusions. Sign the report with date and
must keep a copy of that with you for record and future
evidences in the court of law.
9. Post-mortem examination should be conducted in day light.
In darkness where the pathologist is not able to recognize
the lesions, the post-mortem examination should not be
conducted.
10. At the time of post-mortem examination outsiders should
not be allowed. To avoid them and wild birds and animals, post-mortem examination should be done in close
premises.

560

Appendices

Appendix VII

COLLECTION, PRESERVATION AND DISPATCH OF

MATERIAL TO FORENSIC LABORATORY
The collection, preservation and dispatch of different tissues/
organs, fluids and viscera should be done as described in section
4 of appendix. However, in veterolegal cases, these materials
should be sent to forensic laboratory under sealed packings.
1. In the suspected cases of toxic condition or poisoning, the
stomach and intestinal contents should be sent after proper
ligation at both the ends and sent it in ice to avoid putrefaction. Besides, samples of blood, liver, spleen and kidneys should be sent in separate container.
2. All the materials should be collected in leak proof glass or
plastic bottles.
3. Tissues for histopathology must be collected in 10% formalin or formol saline, this can be sent to laboratory under normal temperature.
4. The materials suspected for toxicity should be sent in ice
without adding any preservative.
5. The bottles or containers should be sealed and labelled
properly indicating the name of owner, identification of
animal (number, name, mark etc.), type of tissue collected
and preservative used. The examination requested and
disease or poisoning suspected should also be written.
6. A copy with details of post-mortem report and containing
above information should be sent separately under separate cover.
7. The address of the forensic laboratory should be clearly
written.
8. All the containers should be packed with cloth and sealed
with sealing wax and should preferably be sent through
person in order to avoid any breakage in transit.
9. One copy of the forwarding letter should be kept in file
for future reference and one copy should accompany the
material and one copy should be sent by post. The for-

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

warding letter bearing number and date should have the

information about materials sent, type of preservative used,
type of examination requested and identification of animals including other details of owner.

562

Appendices

Appendix VIII
EXAMINATION OF BLOOD, URINE AND FAECES
BLOOD EXAMINATION
TOTAL ERYTHROCYTE COUNT

Clean Neubauer's counting chamber/hemocytometer and

place clean coverslip on ruled areas.

Suck fresh or anticoagulant mixed blood in RBC diluting

pipette (red ball in bulb) upto 0.5 mark and fill the pipette
with RBC diluting fluid upto 101 mark.
Hold pipette in horizontal position and remove rubber
tube. Mix the contents by rotating the pipette in between
palms.
Discard first few drops from pipette and then place a drop
near the edge of cover slip to fill the space between cover
slip and counting chamber.
Keep counting chamber 1-2 min for settling of the cells.
Count the cells under high power of the light microscope.
Cells are counted in 5 medium squares of the central large
square or 80 tertiary squares.
Cells on top of square or left side are included in count.
Calculate RBC per JlI of blood by multiplying 10,000 to the
total number of cells counted in 80 tertiary squares. It can
be converted into ml by further multiplying with 1000 and
in liter by 10,00,000.

TOTAL LEUCOCYTE COUNT

Clean the New Bauer's chamber/ hemocytometer. Put the

cover slip on the area demarcated for counting.

Suck fresh/ anticoagulant mixed blood in WBC diluting

pipette (white ball in bulb) upto 0.5 mark and fill the pipette with WBC diluting fluid upto 11 mark.

Hold the pipette in horizontal position and remove rubber tube. Mix the contents by rotating the pipette in between palms.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Discard first few drops from pipette and then place a drop
near the edge of cover slip to fill the space between cover
slip and chamber.

Keep counting chamber 1-2 min for settling of the cells.

Count the cells under low power in four largej primary
corner squares of the ruled area.

Cells on top of square and left side are included in count.

Calculate WBC per III of blood by multiplying 50 to the
total number of cells counted in 4 primary squares. It can
be converted into ml by multiplying 1000 and in liter by
10,00,000.

PACKED CELL VOLUME (HEMATOCRIT VALUE)

Clean and dry the wintrobe tube.

With the help of a long needle (6") and syringe fill the
blood in Wintrobe tube upto mark 100.

Take precaution that there should not be any air bubble in

the tube.

Centrifuge the wintrobe tube at 3000 rpm for 30 min.

Record the reading of packed cell volume in percent i.e.
mass of erythrocytes settled down in tube.

ERYTHROCYTE SEDIMENTATION RATE

Clean and dry Westergren pipette.

Suck anticoagulant mixed blood in Westergren pipette upto

mark 'a' and fix it in stand in vertical position

Leave this for one hr at room temperature

Record the reading on pipette, it is the mm fall of erythrocytes per hr.

HEMOGLOBIN

It is measured by using Hellige- Sahli hemoglobinometer.

Clean and dry the graduated tube of

hemoglobinometer.
Take 5 drops of Nj 10 Hydrochloric acid in tube.

564

the

Appendices

Suck the anticoagulant mixed blood in pipette upto 20

marks.
Place the pipette in tube containing N/ 10 HCL and transfer the blood into acid.
Suck acid in pipette and leave in tube.
Keep the tube for 5 min in dark.
Add distilled water in the tube drop-by-drop using dropper, mix with stirring rod and match the colour with standard. Add water till the colour matches with standard.
Read the scale on tube; it is the value of hemoglobin gram
per 100 ml of blood.

DIFFERENTIAL LEUCOCYTE COUNT (DLC)

Prepare a thin blood smear on clean glass slide. Place a

drop of blood on one end of slide and spread as smear
with the help of another slide using its edge at 45 angle.

Dry the smear in air and mark identification number in

the thick portion of smear.

Fix the smear in methanol for at least 5 min and dry in air.

Stain the smear with Giemsa stain diluted to 1:10 in distilled water for 30 min or with Leishman's stain without
fixing the smear.

Wash the slide, dry in air and examine under oil immersion microscope. Count at least 200 cells by battle mentj
zigzag method. Cells counted are lymphocytes, neutrophils,
monocytes, eosinophils and basophils. Cell count is presented in percent.
ABSOLUTE LYMPHOCYTE COUNT (ALC)

The absolute lymphocyte count is calculated by using the data

of DLC and TLC through following formula:
3

% Lymphocyte x TLC (10 / JlI)

ALC ( 103/JlI ) =------------~~--~

100

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

ABSOLUTE NEUTROPHIL COUNT (ANC)

The absolute neutrophil count is calculated by using the

neutrophil percentage of differential leucocyte count and total
leucocyte count using following formula:
ANC (10

%Neutrophils x TLC (10 3 / Ill)

III ) =--------'-----'100

MEAN CORPUSCULAR VOLUME (MCV)

Mean corpuscular volume is determined by dividing the packed

cell volume (PCV) by the total erythrocyte count in millions/ III
and multiplied by 10. The MCV is expressed in cubic microns.
MCV (Cubic

Il)=

PCV x10
TEC

MEAN
CORPUSCULAR
CONCENTRATION (MCHC)

HEMOGLOBIN

Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration is calculated by

dividing the hemoglobin in grams per 100 ml of blood by the
PCVand multiplied by 100. It is expressed in percent.
Hb
MCHC(%) =--x100
PCV

MEAN CORPUSCULAR HEMOGLOBIN (MCH)

Mean corpuscular hemoglobin is calculated by dividing

hemoglobin in gm per 100 ml by TEC in millions per III of blood
and multiply by 10.
MCH(1O- 12 g)= Hb x10
TEC

566

Appendices

ALTERATIONS
IN
HEMATOLOGICAL
AND
BIOCHEMICAL ATTRIBUTES IN VARIOUS DISEASE
CONDITIONS OF ANIMALS
A. Hematological profile
1. Erythrocytosis: Brucellosis, Campylobacteriosis, Leptospirosis, Rinderpest, hemorrhagic septicemia.
2. Erythropenia: Leukemia, Haemorrhage, Aflatoxicosis,
Theileriosis, Babesiosis, Anaplasmosis.
3. Leucocytosis: Pyogenic infections, Rabies, Tuberculosis,
Strangles, Leptospirosis, Theileriosis Babesiosis, Anaplasmosis, Hemorrhagic Septicemia.
4. Leucopenia: Canine distemper, Infectious canine hepatitis, Swine fever, Brucellosis, Tuberculosis, Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis.
5. Neutrophilia: Acute inflammation, Pyogenic infections,
Pyometra.
6. Neutrophiliamth (shift to left): Leptospirosis, metritis,
Traumatic reticulopericarditis (TRP), Canine distemper,
Glanders.
7. Neutropenia: Pasteurellosis, Infectious canine hepatitis.
8. Lymphocytosis: Leukemia, After vaccination, viral infections.
9. Lymphopenia: Canine distemper, Infectious canine hepatitis, Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, Foot and mouth
disease.
10. Eosinophilia: Allergy, Parasitic diseases.
11. Hypohaemoglobinemia: Anemia, Theileriosis, Strangles,
Anaplasmosis, Degnala disease, Fasciolosis.
12. Increased ESR: Carcinoma, Nephritis, Chronic granulomatous infection, Tuberculosis, Canine distemper,
Trypanosomiasis.
13. Increased Hematocrit Value! PCV: Dehydration
14. Decreased hematocrit Value! PCV: Anemia, Theileriosis,
Strangles, Anaplasmosis, Blue tongue.
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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

B. Biochemical attributes
1. Hyperglycemia: Diabetes mellitus, Chronic nephritis.
2. Hypoglycemia: Hepatic insufficiency, Ketosis.
3. Hyperproteinemia: Shock, Dehydration, Plasmacytoma,
Infectious diseases.
4. Hypoproteinemia: Burn Diarrhoea, Renal dysfunction,
Hepatic disorders, Tuberculosis.
5. Hyperglobulinema: Dehydration, Leukemia, Bacterial,
Viral and parasitic infections.
6. Hypogammaglobulinemia: Anemia, Haemorrhage, Immunodeficiency.
7. Hypercalcemia: Hyperparathyroidism, bone cancer, Nephrolithiasis.
8. Hypocalcemia: Hypoparathyoidism, Rickets, Osteomalacia, Ketosis.
9. Hyperphosphatemia: Renal failure, Hypoparathyroidism,
Healing of fracture.
10. Hypophosphatemia: Chronic diarrhoea, Pica, Rheumatism
like syndrome, Hemoglobinuria. Hyperparathyroidism.
11. Increased levels of Blood urea nitrogen: Renal impairment,
nephritis, Urinary obstruction.
12. Decreased levels of BUN: Acute hepatic insufficiency, nephrosis, Chronic wasting diseases
13. Increased level of creatinine: Severe nephritis, urinary
obstruction, severe toxic nephrosis
14. Hypermagnesemia: Chronic infection, Oxalate poisoning
15. Hypomagnesemia: Grass tetany, Lactation tetany, Wheat
pasture poisoning.
16. Increased levels of SGOT: Hepatic necrosis, Myocardial
infarction, Muscular degeneration/ necrosis in dog and
cat, Azoturia.
17. Increased levels of SGPT: Hepatic necrosis, Infectious canine hepatitis
18. Increased levels of Alkaline phosphatase: Obstructive

568

Appendices

jaundice, hepatitis, Hyperparathyroidism.

19. Decreased level of Alkaline phosphatase: Chronic nephritis.
20. Increased level of Acid phosphatase: Prostate carcinoma,
Leukemia.
21. Increased level of Lactic dehydrogenase: Malignant lymphoma.
22. Increased level of Serum isocitric dehydrogenase:
Hemolytic anemia in horses
23. Increased level of Ornithine carbamyl transferase: Liver
disorders in dogs.
URINE EXAMINATION
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
1. Colour:
Note the colour of urine as
Watery/colourless
Amber colour
Red
Brown
Yellow / Yellowish green
Black
Pale
2. Odour
Record the smell of the urine
Uremic
Sweetish/ Fruity

Fetid
3. Turbidity

Look for the presence of suspended material in urine

Clear
Turbid +, ++, +++, +++

Cloudy
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Text Book o[Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

4. Foaming

Shake the urine in a test tube

Nol Slight foams

YellowI Green foams

Redl brown foams

5. Specific Gravity

This is measured by urinometer

Urine is filled in cylinder and urinometer is left in the

urine

Record the specific gravity in urinometer.

CHEMICAL EXAMINATION

1. Reaction

Reaction is determined by using pH strips or pH meter.

For this take a pH strip and dip in urine

Read the change in colour on scale given with pH strips.

2. Glucose

Take 0.5 ml urine in a clean and dry test tube.

Mix 5.0 ml Benedict's reagent in the urine and keep it in

boiling water bathl flame for 5 min.

Remove the tube and cool them on test tube stand.

Record the changes of colour in tube as follows:

Blue (-) No glucose

Blue to green (+) mild glucose

Yellow with heavy sediment (++) moderate glucose

Orange with heavy sediment (+++) highly positive for glucose

3. Protein

Take 2 ml of urine in a clean and dry test tube.

Place 2 ml Robert's reagent over urine.

If protein is present in urine, then a white ring will appear

at the interjunction of two fluids. It is graded as follows:
570

Appendices

No ring (-) negative

Mild ring (+) mild positive
A wide ring (++) moderate positive
Heavy ring (+++) positive
Very heavy ring (++++) highly positive

KETONE BODIES

1. Acetone

Take 1.0 gm mixed powder of sodium nitropruside and

ammonium sulfate (Sod. Nitropruside 1 part, Amm. Sulfate
100 parts) in a test tube.

Add 5 ml urine in the salts and mix them properly.

To this slowly overlay 20% ammonium hydroxide solution.

Record the colour at the interjunction of two fluids.

If it is red to purple then it is acetone positive.

2. Acetoacetic acid

Take 10 ml urine in a clean and dry test tube.

Add 5 drops of Lugol's iodine and 3 ml chloroform, mix

them and allow to stand.

Record the colour of urine

Colourless

positive

Redl violet colour

negative

3. Beta hydroxybutyric acid

Take 20 ml urine in a small beaker and add 20 ml distilled

water and few drops of acetic acid.

Boil the contents over flame till it remains 10 ml, add distilled water to make it 20 ml and place in two test tubes 10
ml in each.

In one test tube add 1 ml H 20 2 and warm it for 1 min, cool

it.

Add 1 ml glacial acetic acid, 1 ml freshly prepared sodium

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

nitropruside solution in both tubes, mix thoroughly.

To this overlay strong amonia water and allow to stand
for 3-4 hrs.
Record the change in colour in H 20 2 added tube if it is
purple colour ring then it is positive.

Bile salts

Take 4-5 ml urine in a test tube and shake it. If persistent

foams are present then it is positive for bile salts.

Add sulphur granules over surface of urine. In case of

positive, sulphur granules will sink in urine.
Blood

Take 2 ml urine in a test tube I.

Take 1 ml saturated solution of Benzidine in test tube II.

Add 1 m13% H 20 2 and mix well

Mix the contents of tube I and II.

Record the development of colour. In positive case a green

to blue colour will appear.
Hemoglobin! Myoglobin

Take" 5 ml urine in a test tube.

Add 2.8 gm ammonium sulfate

Shake well and allow to stand for few min.

If urine become clear/ watery in colour. Then it is positive

for hemoglobin. If colour remains same as before the test
then it is positive for myoglobin.
Microscopic examination

Take 5-10 ml urine in a centrifuge tube and centrifuge it at

1000 rpm for 10 min.

Discard supernatant and place a drop of sediment on clean,

dry glass slide.

Cover it with a cover slip and examine it under microscope for the followings:

572

Appendices

Epithelial cells
Leucocyte
Erythrocytes
Microorganisms
Casts
FAECAL EXAMINATION

GROSS EXAMINATION

Collect feces in clean and dry petridish or in small sample

bottle.

With clean spatula and glass rod spread the faeces and
note the followings:

Colour
Consistency

Odour
Presence of blood
Presence of parasite/ segments of parasite

MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION

Direct Smear method

Place a drop of distilled water on clean and dry glass slide.

Add small amount of faeces in distilled water on slide.

Mix with glass rod/ tooth pick/ matchstick.

Place a cover slip on it.
Examine under microscope for the presence of parasitic
ova.

Qualitative concentration method (Simple floatation method)

Take about 1.0 gm faeces and mix it in small amount of

distilled water.

Filter it through sieve/ muslin cloth.

Filterate is mixed with 4-5 ml of saturated salt solution.
Place the mixture in a tube or cylinder and fill it upto the
top.
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Text Book of Veterinary Path%glJ :Quick Review and Self Assessment

A clean coverslip or glass slide is placed on the mouth of

tube/ cylinder.
Keep it for 30 to 60 min at room temperature.
Remove the coverslip or slide and examine it under microscope for parasitic ova.

Qualitative concentration method (Centrifugation floatation

method)

Take about 1.0 gm faeces and mix it in small amount of

distilled water.

Mixture is filtered through fine sieve/ muslin cloth.

Mix the filterate with saturated salt solution (1:3) in a centrifuge tube.

Centrifuge it at 1500 rpm for 5 min.

Take a drop of superficial contents on a clean glass slide

and examine under microscope.

Sediment is examined for eggs of liver flukes.

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Chapter

46

Self Assessment - MCQ

Select most appropriate word(s) from the four options given
with each question.
1. INTRODUCTION
1. The process of phagocytosis by macrophages was first
described by .............. .
(b) E. Metchnikoff
(a) B. Muller
(d) Bichat
(c) Bittner
2. First Veterinary School was established in the year ......... .

3.

(a) 1762
(b) 1884
(c) 1889
(d) 1773
The Originator of modern Experimental Pathology is

(a) R. Koch
(c) John Hunter
4.

5.

6.

(b) J. Cohnheim
(d) R. Virchow

Study of tumors is known as .......... .

(b) Clinical Pathology
(a) Cytopathology
(c) Chemical Pathology (d) Oncology
Study of zoonotic diseases fall under the branch of
............. Pathology.
(a) Nutritional
(b) Comparative
(c) Experimental (d) Systemic
Humoral Pathology is the study of alterations
in .............. :in animals.
(a) Antibodies

(b) Fibrin

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(d) Faeces

Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

7.

Immunodeficiency disorders of animals falls under the

branch of .......... .
(a) Cytopathology
(b) Humoral Pathology
(c) Microscopic Pathology
(d) Immunopathology
8. General Pathology does not include one of the following
activity
(a) Fatty changes
(b) Embolism
(c) Inflammation
(d) Digestive system disorders.
9. Examination of dead animals is known as ................ .
(a) Necropsy
(b) Autopsy
(d) Microscopy
(c) Lethopsy
10. Nutritional roup is an example of ............... Pathology
(a) Chemical
(b) Nutritional
(c) Humoral
(d) Postmortem
2. ETIOLOGY
1. Hog cholera occurs in ....................... .
(a) Pig
(b) Dog
(c) Horse (d) Cow
2. Partial loss of epithelium on skin or mucous membrane is
known as ............... .
(a) Abrasion
(b) Erosion
(d) Contusion
(c) Laceration
3. Burn area of skin and tissues remains sterile till ......... .
(a) 12 hrs
(b) 16 hrs (c) 20 hrs (d) 24 hrs
4. Epidermis and dermis are destroyed leading to shock in
............... burn.
(a) I degree
(b) II degree
(d) IV degree
(c) III degree
5. Radiation affects the dividing cells of...... .
(a) Ovary
(b) Testes
(c) Lymphocytes (d) All of the above
6. Leptospira is a ......... which causes abortions in cattle.

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Self Assessment - MCQ

(a) Bacteria
(b) Virus
(d) Spirochaete
(c) Chlamydia
7. Coxiella burnetti is a ...... which causes Q-fever in animals.
(a) Mycoplasma (b) Bacteria
(c) Rickettsia
(d) Chlamydia
8. Ringworm is caused by a .......
(a) Bacteria (b) Virus (c) Fungi (d) Parasite
9. Transmission of diseases from one generation to another
is known as .......
(a) Vertical
(b) Horizontal
(d) All of the above
(c) Triangular
10. Aflatoxins are produced by ..........
(a) Aspergillus flavus
(b) Asperfillus parasiticus
(c) Penicillium puberlum (d) All of the above
11. Pesticides includes"""
(a) Insecticide
(b) Rodenticide
(c) Weedicide
(d) All of the above
12. Acetone, b-hydroxybutyrate and acetoacetic acid are
known as .... ".
(a) Ochratoxins
(b) Ketone bodies
(c) Heinze bodies (d) Pyknotic bodies
13. Prolonged starvation leads to................... of muscles
(a) Hypertrophy (b) Hyperplasia
(c) Atrophy
(d) Metaplasia
14. Deficiency of vitamin A causes .................. ..
(a) Nutritional roup
(b) Nyctalopia
(c) Calculi in urethra
(d) All of the above
15. Vitamin D regulates the activity of.. .................. ..
(a) Lymphocytes
(b) Macrophages
(c) All of the above
(d) None of the above
16. Star grazing in chicks in caused by .... ". deficiency

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17.

18.

19.

20.

(a) Vitamin Bl
(b) Vitamin B2
(c) Vitamin B6
(d) Vitamin B12
Curled toe Paralysis is caused by ....... deficiency
(a) Thiamine
(b) Riboflavin
(c) Choline
(d) Biotin
Crazy chick disease is caused by ....... deficiency
(a) Vitamin A
(b) Vitamin C
(c) Vitamin D
(d) Vitamin E
Perosis is caused by ....... deficiency.
(a) Biotin
(b) Choline
(c) Manganeese
(d) All of the above
Rheumatism like syndrome is caused by deficiency of ...... .
(a) Calcium (b) Phosphorous (c) Copper (d) Zinc

3.
GENETIC
DISORDERS,
ANOMALIES AND MONSTERS

1.

2.

3.

4.

DEVELOPMENTAL

Each chromosome contains the DNA content

as .................. .
(d) 30%
(a) 20%
(b) 10%
(c) 70%
The study of karyotyping of chromosomes falls under
(a) Immunogenetics
(b) Cytogenetics
(c) Moleculer genetics (d) Nuclear genetics.
In heterozygous, one gene character is manifested in phenotype and such gene is called as ...
(a) Autosomal
(b) Recessive
(c) Dominant
(d) Sex linked
In karyotyping, colchicine is added in culture of peripheral blood lymphocytes for arresting the cell division in
(a) Telophase
(c) Anaphase

(b) Meiosis
(d) Metaphase

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Self Assessment - MCQ

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.
13.

14.

15.

In heteroploidy, the chromosome number will be

.............. .in cells.
(a) n (b) 2n
(c) 3n
(d) All of them
Intersexes is the condition in animals which occurs due to
ambiguity in ............. .
(a) Genitalia
(b) Bones (c) Ears
(d) Eyes
In Turner's syndrome, mare is having karyotype
as .................... .
(a) XX
(b) XXX
(c) XXXX (d) XO
Mules are having chromosome number as .......... .
(a) 61
(b) 62
(c) 63
(d) 64
Bovine lymphosarcoma occurs in animals having chromosome number ...... .
(a) 60
(c) 62
(d) 64.
(b) 61
Dogs are more prone to lymphoma with chromosome
number ........ .
(a) 76
(b) 78
(c) 77
(d) 75
Absence of lower jaw in foetus is known as ........... .
(a) Acrania
(b) Adactylia
(c) Agnathia
(d) Abrachia
Rachischisis is a cleft in .............. .
(a) Spinal column (b) Abdomen
(c) Skull
(d) Lips
Hare lip is due to fissure in lips and also known as ............ .
(a) Palatoschisis
(b) Cranioschisis
(c) Schistosomus (d) Cheilioschisis
Fusion of eyes occurs in monsters and is known
as ................. .
(a) Renarcuatus
(b) Columbia
(c) Cyclopia
(d) Anophthalmia
Increased number of limbs in monsters is known as
(a) Polythelia
(c) Polymelia

(b) Polymastia
. (d) Polydactylia
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16. Dextrocardia is transposition of heart in ............ .

(a) Right thorax (b) Left thorax
(c) Neck
(d) Abdomen
17. Tumor arising from embryonic defect and composed of
more than two tissue .....
(a) Dermatoma
(b) Hematoma
(c) Papilloma
(d) Teratoma
18. A monster having two separate brains with bodies separately arranged at an acute angle ..... .
(a) Cephalothoracopagus
(b) Dicephalus
(d) Cranioschisis
(c) Craniopagus
19. A monster united at thorax region and with complete development as twin is known as ........ .
(a) Prosopothoracopagus
(b) Thoracopagus
(c) Dipygus
(d) Cephalothoracopagus
20. A monster having thorax and lumber portion of vertebral
column united in twin is known as.....
(a) Rachipagus
(b) Craniopagus
(c) Thoracopagus (d) Dipagus
4. DISTURBANCES IN GROWTH
1. Cerebral hypoplasia in calves is caused by ............. .
(a) Adenovirus
(b) Rotavirus
(d) Coronavirus
(c) Bovine viral diarrhoea virus
2. Increase in size of cells leading to size of organ is known
as ........... .
(b) Hyperplasia
(a) Atrophy
(c) Hypertrophy (d) Metaplasia.
3. Fibrosis may lead to .................... .
(b) Hyperplasia
(a) Atrophy
(c) Dysplasia
(d) Hypertrophy
4. Transformation of one type of cells to another cell type is
known as .......... .

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Self Assessment - MCQ

(a) Hypoplasia
(b) Dysplasia
(c) Anaplasia
(d) Metaplasia
5. Reversion of cells towards embryonic type is known
as ....... .
(b) Neoplasia
(a) Anaplasia
(c) Metaplasia
(d) Hypoplasia
6. Spermatozoa with defective head and tail piece is an example of ........ .
(a) Dysplasia
(b) Anaplasia
(c) Neoplasia
(d) Metaplasia
7. Hyperchromasia in cells with their enlargement is known
as .......... .
(b) Hypertrophy
(a) Hyperplasia
(c) Metaplasia
(d) Anaplasia
8. Increased number of cells leading to increase in size and
weight of organ is known as ........ .
(a) Hypertrophy (b) Anaplasia
(c) Hyperplasia
(d) Metaplasia
9. Environmental pollution may lead to ......... of lymphoid
organs.
(a) Atrophy (b) Aplasia (c) Agenesis
(d) Hypoplasia
10. Failure of an organ to develop its full size is known as
(a) Hyperplasia
(c) Neoplasia

(b) Aplasia
(d) Hypoplasia

5. DISTURBANCES IN CIRCULATION
1. Petechial haemorrhage are of .............. size.
(b) 2 mm (c) 5 mm (d) 10 mm
(a) 1 mm
2. Parasitic emboli are formed in dogs due
(a) Strongylus spp (b) Dirofilaria immitis
(c) Coccidia spp.
(d)Sarcoptes canis

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3.

4.
5.

6.

7.

Metrorrhagia is haemorrhage from .............. .

(a) Intestine
(b) Stomach
(c) Oviduct
(d) Uterus
Septic thrombus must have ......................... in it.
(c) Fungi (d) Bacteria
(a) Virus
(b) Parasite
Presence of foreign material in blood vessels is known as
(a) Thrombus
(b) Emboli (c) Ischemia(d) Infarction
Accumulation of fluid in peritoneal cavity is known
as ......... .
(a) Anasarca
(b) Hydropericardium
(c) Hydrothorax (d) Ascites
Shock is circulatory disturbance characterized by
(a) Reduced blood volume

(b) Reduced blood flow

(d) All of the above
(c) Hemoconcentration
8. Active hyperemia is accumulation of blood in ......... .
(a) Veins
(b) Lymphatics (c) Arteries (d) Intestines
9. Escape of all blood constituents through intact blood vessel is known as ......... .
(a) Rhexis
(b) Ecchymosis
(c) Petechiae
(d) Diapedesis
10. Erythrophagocytosis is a feature of ......... .
(b) Oedema
(a) Congestion
(c) Sludged blood (d) Infarction

6. DISTURBANCES IN CELL METABOLISM

1. Hydropic degeneration leads to .............. formation in
skin.
(d) Papule
(a) Vesicle (b) Pustule (c) Scab
2. Cloudy swelling is characterized by hazy cytoplasm due
to swollen ........ .

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Self Assessment - MCQ

3.

4.
5.
6.
7.

8.

(a) Endoplasmic reticulum

(b) Golgi bodies
(c) Mitochondria
(d) Nucleus
The mucous containing cells in mucous membranes are
known as ...... .
(a) Epithelial cells
(b) Pearl cells
(c) Columnar cells
(d) Goblet cells
Mucin stains ............ by H&E stain.
(a) Blue
(b) Pink
(c) Yellow (d) Black
Sago spleen is observed in ........ .
(a) Amyloid (b) Mucin (c) Hyaline (d) Pseudomucin
Epithelial pearl is an example of ......... .
(a) Amyloid (b) Mucin (c) Hyaline (d) Cell Swelling
Ketosis in cow may cause .............. .
(a) Hyaline degeneration
(b) Fatty change
(c) Amyloid
(d) Cell swelling
Mucous degeneration in intestine is caused by

(a) Rotavirus(b) E .Coli (c) Ascaris (d) All of the above

9. Corticosteroid therapy may lead to .............. .
(a) Fatty changes (b) Hyaline
(c) Glycogen
(d) Cell swelling
10. Amyloid occurs in body as a result of ............. .
(a) Immune complexes (b) Antigen
(c) Antibody
(d) Starch
7. NECROSIS, GANGRENE AND POST-MORTEM
CHANGES
1. In liquifactive necrosis .............. cells are present
(a) Monocytes
(b) Lymphocytes
(c) Eosinophils
(d) Neutrophils
2. Programmed cell death is known as .............. in living
body.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

(a) Apoptosis
(b) Necrosis
(c) Autolysis
(d) None of the above
3. Chalky white deposits are observed in .............. necrosis
(a) Coagulative
(b) Liquefactive
(c) Fat
(d) Caseative
4. Gangrene in lungs is an example of .............. grangrene.
(b) Moist (c) Gas
(d) All of the above
(a) Dry
5. Degnala disease is an example of .............. gangrene
(a) Dry
(b) Moist
(d) None of the above
(c) Gas
6. Digestion of cells/ tissues by their own enzymes is known
as ............. .
(a) Necrosis
(b) Autolysis
(c) Gangrene
(d) Putrefaction
7. Greenish discolouration of tissues after death is also known
as ............. .
(b) Melanosis
(a) Pseudomelanosis
(d) Imbibition of bile
(c) Necrosis
8. Algor mortis is the .............. of body.
(a) Staining with hemoglobin (b) Cooling
(c) Hardening
(d) Softening
9. Rigor mortis remains in body .............. hrs
(a) 12-15 hrs
(b) 20-30 hrs
(c) 35-48 hrs
(d) 5-10 hrs
10. Lysis of chromatin material is known as ............. .
(a) Karyolysis
(b) Karyorhexis
(c) Chromatolysis (d) Caseation
8. DISTURBANCES IN CALCIFICATION AND PIGMENT
METABOLISM
1. Dystrophic calcification occurs in animals due to

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Self Assessment - MCQ

(a) Tuberculosis (b) Parasitic infection (c) Necrosis

(d) All of the above
2. Melanosis is the brown/ black discolouration of tissue/
organ as a result of excessive accumulation of melanin due
to .............. .
(a) Hyperadrenalism
(b) Hyperthyroidism
(c) Hyperparathyroidism (d) Hypermelanemia
3. Hemosidern is ............... colour pigment.
(a) Green
(b) Red
(c) Golden Yellow
(d) Blue
4. Urobilinogen is the ............... form of bilirubin.
(a) Unconjugated (b) Conjugated and reduced
(c) Conjugated
(d) Conjugated and oxidised
5. Hemolysis may give rise to ........... .
(a) Prehepatic icterus
(b) Posthepatic icterus
(c) Toxic icterus
(d) None of the above
6. Obstructive jaundice occurs as a result of
(a) Hemolysis
(b) Liver necrosis
(c) Cholangitis
(d) Prioplasmosis
7. Indirect Van den Bergh reaction is an indication
of .............. .
(a) Obstructive icterus
(b) Hemolytic icterus
(c) Hepatic jaundice
(d) None of the above
8. Deposition of carbon particles in lungs is known as ........... .
(a) Silicosis
(b) Asbestosis
(d) Anthracosis
(c) Pneumoconiosis
9. Gout is the deposition of.. ............. in tissues.
(a) Uric acid crystals
(b) Oxalate crystals
(d) Urobilin
(c) Hemosiderin
10. The absence of.. ............. in poultry is the main cause of
gout.
(a) Trypsin (b) Lymphnodes (c) Amylase(d) Uricase

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9. INFLAMMATION AND HEALING

1. Inflammation is implementation of ........ .
(a) Cardinal signs (b) Blood vascular changes
(c) Immunity
(d) Fibroplasia
2. Which one of the following is not a cardinal sign of inflammation ........ .
(a) Redness (b) Pain
(c) Edema
(d) Heat
3. Inflammation of gums in known as ........ .
(c) Glossitis(d) Orchitis
(a) Cheilitis (b) Gingivitis
4. Inflammation of ovary is known as ........ .
(a) Uveitis
(b) Urethritis
(c) Oophoritis
(d) Metritis
5. Primary granules of neutrophils contain ........ .
(b) Lysozyme
(a) Lactoferin
(c) Myeloperoxidase
(d) Lipase
6. Lecucocytes marginate during vasodilation and comes out
from blood vessels through pseudopodia movement; the
process is known as ........ .
(a) Diapedesis
(b) Rhexis
(c) Pavementation
(d) Leucopenin
7. Macrophages become elongated with marginal nuclei to
kill the acid fast bacteria and are known as ........ .
(b) Epithelial cells
(a) Giant cells
(c) Epithelioid cells
(d) Plasma cells
8. Langhans type of giant cells are observed in lesions
in ............ .
(a) Tuberculosis (b) Neoplasms
(c) Leukemia
(d) Rinderpest
9. Lymphocytes modified to produce antibodies is known as
(a) T- helper cells (b) T-cytotoxic cells
(c) Plasma cells
(d) Epithelioid cells

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Self Assessment - MCQ

10. Fibroblasts proliferates in ........ .inflammation.

(a) Acute
(b) Subacute
(c) Per acute
(d) Chronic
11. C 3a, Csa and C 4a are the complement components which
are also known as .....
(a) Anaphylotoxin
(b) Prostaglandins
(c) Vasoactive amines
(d) None of the above
12. Cytokines are ........ .in action.
(a) Autocrine
(b) Paracrine
(c) Endocrine
(d) All of the above
13. Tumor necrosis factor or cytotoxins are produced by
macrophages and T-cells and are associated with ........ .in
tumor.
(a) Necrosis
(b) Necrobacillosis
(c) Degeneration (d) Apoptosis
14. Coating of foreign particlesj bacteria by immunoglobulins
to make it more readily palatable by phagocytic cells is
known as ....
(a) Opsonization (b) Adherence
(c) Chemotaxis
(d) Digestion
15. Catarrhal inflammation is characterized by increased
number of ........ .
(a) Goblet cells
(b) Neutrophils
(c) Giant cells
(d) Epithelial cells
16. Fibrinous inflammation is characterized by the presence
of ......... as principal constituent of exudates.
(a) Serum
(b) Neutrophils (c) Fibrin (d) Fibroblasts
17. The principal constituent of purulent exudates is ........ .
(a) Serum
(b) Plasma
(c) Neutrophils
(d) Eosinophils
18. Granulomatous inflammation is chronic in nature and is
found in ........ .

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

(a) Tuberculosis
(b) Rinderpest
(c) Canine distemper
(d). H.S.
19. In parasitic and allergic diseases, ........ .inflammation is
mostly seen.
(a) Fibrinous
(b) Hemorrhagic
(c) Eosinophilic
(d) Granulomatous
20. Granulation tissue is found in ........ .
(a) Tuberculosis (b) Johne's disease
(c) Repair
(d) Rinderpest
10. CONCRETIONS
1. Calculi are stone like bodies which have ............... origin.
(a) Endogenous (b) Hematogenous
(d) None of the above
(c) Exogenous
2. Piliconcretions are made up of ............ ..
(a) Plant fibers
(b) Polythenes
(c) Hairs
(d) Desquamated cells
3. Urinary calculi are formed in renal tubules and in horse
they are made up of .............. ..
(a) Calcium carbonate
(b) Calcium phosphate
(c) Magnesium carbonate
(d) All of the above
4. Choleliths may cause ........ .
(a) Toxic jaundice
(b) Post hepatic Jaundice
(c) Prehapatic jaundice (d) Hemolytic jaundice
5. Sialoliths occur in ............. ..
(a) Pancreas
(b) Salivary gland
(c) Sinus
(d) Seminal vesicle
6. Coprolith may occur in dogs due to presence of ........... .in
food.
(a) Sand
(b) Muscles (c) Plant fibers
(d) .Bones
7. Cholelithiasis may lead to inflammation of ........

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Self Assessment - MCQ

(a) Gall bladder

(b) Intestine
(d) Pancreas
(c) Stomach
8. Enteric calculi are more common in horse due to feeding
of ........ .
(a) Grams (b) Wheat bran (c) Grass (d) Beans
9. Polyconcretions are formed due to accumulation
in G.I. Tract.
(b) Polysaccharides
(a) Hairs
(c) Polyuria
(d) Polythenes
10. Vitamin ....... deficiency may lead to formation of urinary
calculi.
(a) A
(c) D
(d) K
(b) B

11. IMMUNITY AND IMMUNOPATHOLOGY

1. This animal is not resistant to feline panleucopoenia virus
infections
(d) Pig
(a) Dog
(b) Cattle (c) Cat
2. Natural or paraspecific immunity does not include

3.

4.

5.
6.

(a) Tears
(b) NK Cells
(d) Sensitized Tc cells
(c) Cytokines
A foreign material capable of inducing the production of
antibodies in animal is known as ..... .
(a) Agglutinin
(b) Antigen
(c) Antipyretic
(d) Antidote
Antibodies are chemically ..................... in nature
(a) Lipopolysaccharide (b) Lipid
(d) Protein
(c) Glycoprotein
Which of the following is not an adjuvant
(a) Oil
(b) Wax
(c) Alum (d) Glucose
Serum contains mainly this antibody ............. .
(c) IgA
(d) IgD
(a) IgG
(b) IgM

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Text Book o[Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

7.
8.

9.

10.

11.

12.
13.

14.

15.

IgD is found abundantly in ....................... '"

(a) Cow
(b) Rat
(c) Sheep (d) Horse
IgE is found in very low concentration in serum which has
the property to bind with receptors present on
.............. cells
(a) Neutrophils
(b) Eosinophils
(c) T- lymphocytes
(d) Mast cells
IgD in not found in serum due to lysis by .............. during clotting
(a) Bacteria
(b) Proteaes
(c) Endonucleases
(d) Peroxidases
Processing of antigen by macrophages is comparatively less
efficient due to lysis of antigen by ...
(a) Proteases
(b) Permddases
(c) Endonucleases
(d) Lipases
There is a latent period in antibody production on exposure to any antigen which is ............ ..
(a) 6 days (b) 20 days (c) 25 days (d) 4 weeks
The peak antibody titres are found at ............ ..
(a) 2 days (b) 20 days (c) 2 weeks (d) 4 weeks
The exogenous antigen are processed in dendritic cells/
macrophages and along with .............. molecule it is presented to Th cells.
(a) MHC class Ia
(b) MHC class II
(d) MHC class Ib
(c) MHC class III
T-cytotoxic cells recognize .............. specifically to destroys them.
(b) Virus
(a) Bacteria
(c) Antigen containing cells
(d) Fungi
Anaphylaxis is also known as .............. Hypersensitivity
(b) Types II
(a) Type I
(c) Type III
(d) Type IV

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Self Assessment - MCQ

16. Equine infectious anemia virus may cause .............. hypersensitivity

(a) Type I (b) Types II(c) Type III (d) Type IV
17. Reagin type of antibody is ..... .
(a) IgA
(b) IgD
(c) IgM
(d) IgE
18. DTH reaction is mediated by ........ .
(c) IgM
(d) Sensitised T -cells
(a) IgA
(b) IgG
19. Combined immunodeficiency syndrome occurs as a result
of absence of ........... .
(a) Stem cells
(b) B-cells
(c) T-cells
(d) Macrophages
20. Autoimmunity developes in body when immune mechanisms are directed towards ................ antigens.
(a) Self(b) Foreign (c) Protein (d) Bacterial
21. In respiratory mucosa secretions, this antibody is mainly
found.
(c) IgA
(a) IgG
(b) IgM
(d) IgE
22. Corticosteroids binds with receptors present on
......... cells leading to decrease in antibody production.
(a) T- helper
(b) Macrophages
(c) B-cells
(d) T-suppressor
23. Canine distemper virus activates the .............. cells
(a) T-helper cells (b) T-suppressor cells
(c) B-cells
(d) Macrophages
24. Surgery may enhance the activity of ............. cells and
therefore modulate the immune response.
(b) T-suppressor cells
(a) T- helper cells
(c) T- Cytotoxic cells
(d) Macrophges
25. Pesticides are common contaminants of environment and
may induce .......... in animals
(a) Immunosuppression (b) Autoimmunity
(c) Hypersensitivity
(d) All of the above
26. Lead, mercury and cadmium are ............ leading to immunosuppression.
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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

(a) Immunotoxic (b) Nephrotoxic (c) Hepatotoxic

(d) Neurotoxic
27. Aflatoxin may cause ..................... .in animals.
(a) Immunopotentiation
(b) Immunosuppression
(c) Activation of macrophages
(d) Reduction of complement
28. Aspirin decreases ......... .
(a) Antibody production (b) Phagocytosis
(d) None of the above
(c) All to the above
29. Bovine viral diarrhoea virus reduces .......................... .
(b) IL-1
(a) T-suppressor cells
(c) IL-2
(d) Interferon
30. Equine herpes virus (EHV-1) causes reduction in ..... .
(a) B-cell

(b) T-cells (c) Macrophages (d) NK cells

12. PATHOLOGY OF CUTANEOUS SYSTEM

1. In congenital icthyosis, the skin of calves resembles with
the skin of ........... .
(b) Fish
(c) Tortoise
(d) Zebra
(a) Toad
2. Acanthosis is ............ of skin epithelium.
(b) Aplasia
(a) Hypoplasia
(d) Anaplasia
(c) Hyperplasia
3. Vesicle formation occurs in skin as a result of ............. .
(b) Hydropic degeneration
(a) Cloudy swelling
(d) Fatty change
(c) glycogen storage
4. Acariasis is caused by ....... .
(d) Mite
(a) Bacteria (b) Virus (c) Chlamydia
5. Enlargement of seald off hair follicle or sebaceous gland is
known as ...... .
(b) Folliculitis
(c) Fissure (d) Bleb
(a) Acne
6. A break in the continuity of the epidermis exposing dermis is known as ...... .
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Self Assessment - MCQ

(a) Erosion (b) Ulcer (c) Fissure (d) Vesicle

7. Hyperkeratosis is the thickening of ................... .
(a) Prickle cell layer
(b) Stratum lucidum
(c) Stratum corneum
(d) Dermis
8. Superficial loss of epithelium on skin or mucous membrane
is known as ........ .
(a) Erosion (b) Abrasion
(c) Ulcer
(d) Fissure
9. Papule is hyperplasia of .......... Epithelium.
(a) Stratum corneum
(b) Stratum lucidum
(c) Stratum spinosum
(d) Dermis
10. Retention of nucleus in keratin layer of skin is known as
(a) Hyperkeratosis
(c) Urticaria

(b) Parakeratosis
(d) Acanthosis

13. PATHOLOGY OF MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM

1. Equine rhabdomyolysis is also known as ............. morning disease
(a) Sunday
(b) Monday
(c) Tuesday
(d) Wednesday
2. Accumulation of ............. is responsible for hardening
of muscles in azoturia.
(a) Lactic acid
(b) Myoglobin
(c) Haemoglobin
(d) Glycogen
3. White muscle disease is caused by ............. deficiency.
(a) Vit-A
(b) Vit- D (c) Vit-C
(d) Vit-E
4. Rickets is caused by deficiency of vitamin .............. .
(a) A
(b) D
(c) C
(d) E
5. Osteoporosis is caused by deficiency of ............ .
(a) Copper (b) Zinc
(c) Iron
(d) Calcium
6. Osteopetrosis is also known as .................. disease
(a) Brittle bone
(b) Marble bone
(c) Both a & b
(d) None

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7.

Fibrous osteodystrophy is characterized by ................ .

condition
(a) Lock jaw
(b) Rubbery jaw
(c) Bottle jaw
(d) None
8. Osteomyelitis is inflammation of ............ .
(a) Bone
(b) Bone marrow
(c) Both a & b
(d) None
9. Brucella sp may cause ............. in animals and man.
(a) Pulmonary osteoarthropathy
(b) Spondylitis
(c) Rickets
(d) Osteopetrosis
10. Rheumatoid arthritis is caused by ............ .
(a) Antigen-antibody complex (b) E. coli
(c) Reovirus
(d) Brucella sp.
14. PATHOLOGY OF CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
1. Acute heart failure is not caused by ............... .
(a) Anoxia
(b) Shock
(c) Cardiac Temponade (d) Fever
2. Left sided heart failure is characterized by ............... .
(a) Heart failure cells
(b) Pulse in jugular vein
(c) Shock
(d) Oedema
3. "Bread and butter" appearance of heart is due to deposition of ............... .
(a) Fibrin
(b) Neutrophils
(c) Fibroblasts
(d) Collagen
4. Endocarditis is caused by ............... .
(a) Actinomyces pyogenes (b) Erysepalas
(c) Staphylococci
(d) All of the above
5. Vegetative growth in heart is caused by ............... .
(a) Actinomyces pyogenes (b) Staphylococci
(c) Clostridia
(d) Erysepalas
6. Arteriolosclerosis affects arterioles in ............... .

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Self Assessment - MCQ

(a) Kidneys (b) Spleen (c) Pancreas(d) All of the above

Atherosclerosis is ................ of blood vessels
(a) Hardening
(b) Softening
(c) Aneurysm
(d) Thinning
8. Arteritis is inflammation of arteries caused by ............... .
(a) Equine viral arteritis (b) E.coli
(c) Salmonella
(d) Rotavirus
9. Phlebitis is the inflammation of ............... .
(a) Artery (b) Vein
(c) Lymph vessel (d) Capillary
10. Lymphangitis is inflammation of ............... .
(a) Lymph node (b) Lymph gland
(c) Lymph vessel (d) Lymphocytes
7.

15. PATHOLOGY RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1. Nasal polyps are caused by .......... .
(a) Schistosoma nasalis
(b) Rhinosporidium sceberi
(c) E. coli
(d) Mycoplasma mycoides
2. Canine tracheobronchitis is caused by .......... .
(a) Adenovirus
(b) Influenza virus
(c) Herpes virus (d) All of the above
3. Presence of caseous plugs in bronchi at the point of entrance in lungs in characteristic lesions of .......... .
(a) Infectious bronchitis
(b) Infectious laryngotracheitis
(c) Air sacculitis
(d) Pleuritis
4. This is not the pathologic lesion of pneumonia.......... .
(a) Congestion
(b) Red hepatization
(c) Yellow hepatization (d) Resolution
5. Infection through aerogenous route may cause ........... pneumonia
(b) Lobular
(a) Lobar
(c) Hypersensitivity
(d) Fibrinous

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

6.

7.

Verminous pneumonia is caused by .......... .

(b) Chlamydia
(a) Mycoplasma
(c) Dictayocaulus sp.
(d) E.coli
Langhan's type giant cell is characteristic feature of
........... pneumonia
(a) Tuberculous
(b) Verminous
(c) Broncho

(d) Pulmonary adenomatosis

8.

Atelectasis neonatorum is characteristic features of .......... .

(b) Aborted foetus
(a) Premature birth
(c) Still birth
(d) None
9. Hypersensitivity pneumonitis is caused by .......... .
(b) Parasites
(a) Allergens
(c) Moldy hay
(d) All of the above
10. Pneumoconiasis is characterized by .......... .lesions in lungs
(a) Serus

(b) Fibrinous

(c) Hemorrhagic

(d) Granulomatous

16. PATHOLOGY OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

1. Turkish towel like lesions are observed in ................. .
(b) Histomoniasis
(a) Candidiasis
(c) Moniliasis
(d) Coccidiosis
2. Vesicular stomatitis is seen in cases of ................. .

(a) Rinderpest
(b) Mucosal disease
(c) Hog cholera
(d) FMD
3. Choked esophagus may cause .................. in ruminants.
(a) Impaction
(b) Vomition
(c) Tympany
(d) Gastritis
4. Rumen is distended due to accumulation of .................. in
bloat.
(d) All of the above
(c) CO
(a) I\S(b) CO2
5.

Traumatic reticulitis may lead to .................. .

(a) Pericarditis

(b) Peritonitis

596

(c) Pleurisy (d) All

Self Assessment - MCQ

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

of the above
Increase in .................. cells is observed in catarrhal enteritis.
(a) Mast cells
(b) Eosinophils
(c) Goblet
(d) Neutrophils
Punched out ulcers are produced by .................. .
(a) Theileria
(b) Babesia
(d) Gostridium sp.
(c) Hog cholera
Granulomatous lesions in intestine of poultry are observed
in .................. .
(a) Coli granuloma
(b) E. coli infection
(c) Hjarre's disease
(d) All of the above
Telescoping of intestine is also known as ................. .
(a) Torsion
(b) Volvulus
(c) Intussusception
(d) None
Eimeria tennella causes .................. in intestines.
(a) Typhlitis
(b) Enteritis
(c) Colitis
(d) Proctitis
Necrosis of hepatocytes at one side of central vein in liver
is known as .................. necrosis.
(a) Centrilobular (b) Midzonal
(c) Paracentral
(d) Focal
Parasitic cirrhosis is caused by .................. .
(a) Hemonchus sp. (b) Ascaris lumbricoides
(c) Fasciola sp.
(d) Amphistomes
Cholecystitis is the inflammation of .................. .
(b) Bile duct
(a) Urinary bladder
(c) Gall bladder
(d) Pancreas
Reovirus causes .................. of pancreas.
(b) Atrophy
(a) Hypertrophy
(c) Hyperplasia
(d) Hypoplasia

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15. 'Pearly disease' is caused by .................. .

(a) Streptococci
(b) Staphylococci
(c) Mycobacterium sp.
(d) None
16. Erosive stomatitis is seen in .................. .
(b) Mucosal disease
(a) Rinderpest
(c) Pox
(d) FMD
17. Ingluvitis is the inflammation of .................. .
(b) Rectum (c) Jenjunum
(d) Crop
(a) Colon
18. Su1repitheIial fibrous nodules are produced in ................. .
esophagitis.
(a) Traumatic
(b) Bacterial
(c) Viral
(d) Parasitic
19. Sudden change in feed with lush green fodder is the cause
of .................. .
(a) Impaction
(b) Tympany
(c) Reticulitis
(d) None
20. Acute abomasitis characterized by oedema, congestion and
haemorrhage of abmasal folds is feature of .................. .
(a) Enterotoxemia
(b) Black disease
(c) Braxy
(d) Blue tongue
21. Corrugations in large intestines are observed in
(a) Tuberculosis
(b) Paratuberculosis
(c) Pseudotuberculosis (d) All of the above
22. Pica may lead to formation of .................. .
(a) Piliconcretions
(b) Polybezoars
(c) Both a & b
(d) None
23. Enterolith may cause .................. .in horses.
(b) Colic
(a) Enterotoxemia
(d) Diarrhoea
(c) Lameness
24. Frothy bloat occurs in buffaloes due to ................... .
(a) Saponin
(b) Fatty acids

598

Self Assessment - MCQ -

(c) Carbohydrate (d) None

25. Button ulcers are produced in abomasum due to
(a) Salmonella sp.

(b) Staphylococci (c) E. coli

(d) FMD

17. PATHOLOGY OF HEMOPOITIC AND IMMUNE

SYSTEM
1. Congenital defects in lymphocytes may result into ........ .
(a) Lymphopenia
(b) Agammaglobulinemia
(d) All of the above
(c) Hypoplasia of spleen
2. The size of RBC varies from small to large in peripheral
blood and this condition is known as ...
(a) Poikilosytosis
(b) Anisocytosis
(c) Polychromatophilia (d) Heinz bodies
3. Hemolytic anemia is caused by ........ .
(a) Anaplasma spp. (b) Coccidia
(c) Hemonchus
(d) Proteus sp.
4. Hematuria is an example of ......... anemia
(a) Hemolytic
(b) Autoimmune
(c) Hemorrhagic (d) Deficiency
5. Eosinophilia occurs in ........ .infection
(a) Bacterial (b) Prion (c) Viroid (d) Parasitic
6. Decrease in number of all components of leucocytes is
known as .........
.

7.

8.

(a) Leucopoenia (b) Panleucopenia

(c) Leucocytosis (d) Leukemia
Pesticides may cause ........ .
(b) Lymphopenia
(a) Neutropenia
(d) All of the above
(c) Hypogammaglobulimia
Depletion of lymphoid tissue from follicles of bursa
(a) Gumboro disease
(c) Coccidiosis

(b) Rinderpest
(d) Salmonellosis

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

9.

10.

18.
1.

2.

3.
4.
5.

6.

7.

8.
9.

Macrocytic normochromic anemia is........ .

(a) Large size RBC
(b) Decreased Hb
(c) Small size RBC
(d) Large size RBC & Normal Hb
Erythrocytes having minute dark spots are known as ........ .
(a) Heinz bodies
(b) Theleiria
(c) Basophilic Stippling (d) None
PATHOLOGY OF URINARY SYSTEM
C 3 component of complement is found in which type of
glomerulonephritis (MPGN).
(a) Type-I (b) Type-II (c) Type III (d) Type-IV
In cattle, pyelonephritis is caused by ......... .
(b) Proteus spp.
(a) E. coli
(c) Corynebacterium renale
(d) Actinomyces pyogenes
Nephrosclerosis is .............. disease of kidney
(a) Acute
(b) Chronic (c) Subacute
(d) Peracute
Hypovitaminosis .......... may cause urolithiasis
(a) A
(b) B
(c) C
(d) D
Ureteritis is the inflammation of ......... .
(a) Uterus (b) Uterine glands
(c) Ureter
(d) Uterine tube
. ......... amino acid forms calculi in animal which causes
obstruction in urethra.
(a) Arginine (b) Lucine (c) Cystine (d) Gsolucine
Bracken fern causes ......... .
(a) Hematuria
(b) Pyuria
(c) Hemoglobinuria
(d) Anuria
Urethra may become infected by ..........virus.
(a) Picorna (b) Picobirna
(c) Birna
(d) Adeno
Hyperplasia of collecting tubes with their dilation causes
.......... cysts in kidneys.
(a) Type-I (b) Type-II (c) Type-III (d) Type-IV
600

Self Assessment - MCQ

10. Uremia is caused by the increased level of .................... in

blood.
(b) Uric acid
(a) Urea
(c) Creatinine
(d) All of the above
19. PATHOLOGY OF GENITAL SYSTEM
FEMALE GENITAL SYSTEM
1. Cryptorchidism may lead to ............ ..... of testicles.
(a) Hypoplasia
(b) Aspermatogenesis
(c) Neoplasia
(d) All of the above
2. Ventral deviation of penis is known as ................ .
(b) Phallocampsis
(a) Corkscrew penis
(c) Rainbow penis
(d) None
3. Hydrocele is accumulation of serus fluid in ................ .
(a) Oviduct
(b) Testes
(c) Mammary gland
(d) Tunica vaginalis
4. Funiculitis is the inflammation of ................ .
(a) Schirrhous cord
(b) Seminal vesicle
(c) Glans penis
(d) Prepuce
5. Phimosis is caused by ................ .
(a) Balanitis
(b) Posthitis
(c) Balanoposthitis
(d) All of the above
6. Presence of follicular cysts in ovary may lead to ................ .
(a) Sterility
(b) Nymphomania
(c) Continuous oestrus (d) All of the above
7. Inflammation of oviduct leads to sterility due to ................ .
nature of the exudate to sperms.
(a) Toxic
(b) Obstructive
(c) Penetrative
(d) None
8. Mastitis is mostly caused by ................ .
(a) Trauma
(b) Hematogenous infection
(c) Toxins/ poisons
(d) Infection
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Text Book o[Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

9.

Summer mastitis is caused by ................ .

(a) Staphylococci (b) Actinomyces pyogenes
(c) Streptococci
(d) Candida albicans
10. Parturition of a dead foetus on its full development and
gestation is termed as ................ .
(a) Abortion
(b) Still birth
(c) Premature birth
(d) Normal birth
20. PATHOLOGY OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. Neuritis is observed in ........... .
(a) Mucosal disease
(b) Infectious bursal disease
(c) Marek's disease
(d) ILT
2. Necrosis of brain in known as ........... .
(a) Encephalomalacia
(b) Polioencephalomalacia
(c) Myelomalacia
(d) None of the above
3. Removal of dead neurons through microglial cells in known
as ........... .
(a) Satellitosis
(b) Neuronophagia
(c) Perivascular cuffing (d) None
4. Increase in number of white blood cells in cerbrospinal
fluid in termed as ........... .
(a) Encephalitis
(b) Satellitosis
(c) Pleocytosis
(d) Leukoencephalomalacia
5. Spongiform encephalopathy is caused by ........... .
(a) Virus
(b) Viroids

6.

7.

(c) Prions
(d) Deficiency of vit B12
Inflammation of durameter is known as ........... .
(a) Leptomeningitis
(b) Pachy meningitis
(d) Meningoencephalitis
(c) Meningitis
Congenitally small size brain is termed as ........... .
(a) Anencephaly
(b) Hydrocephalus
(c) Microencephaly
(d) Cranioschisis

602

Self Assessment - MCQ

8.

Phagocytic cells of brain is ............ cell(s)

(a) Astrocytes
(b) Microglial
(d) All of the above
(c) OligodendrogliaI
9. Increase in CSF in sub arachnoid space is known as .......... ..
(a) Pleocytosis
(b) Hydrocephalus
(c) Microencephaly
(d) Hypoplasia
10. Hernia of meninges through craninoschisis is known as
(a) Hydrocele
(c) Meningoencephalocele

(b) Meningocele
(d) None

21. PATHOLOGY OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM, EYES AND

EAR
1. Metastatic calcification occurs in.................. .
(b) Hyperparathyroidism
(a) Hyperthyroidism
(c) Hypothyroidism
(d) Hypoparathyroidism
2. Goiter is related with .................. .
(b) Hyperthyroidism
(a) Hypothyroidism
(c) Both a & b
(d) None
3. Otitis media is the inflammation of middle ear including ............ .
(a) Tympanic cavity
(b) Eustachian tube
(c) Both a & b
(d) None
4. Disturbance in equilibrium occurs in animals with disease
of .................. .
(a) External ear
(b) Eyes
(c) Middle year
(d) Inner ear
5. Glaucoma is caused by .................. .
(a) Neoplasm
(b) Trauma
(c) Haemorrhage
(d) All of above
6. Thelazia spp worms may cause .................. .
(a) Keratocojunctivitis (b) Microphakia
(c) Aphakia
(d) Coloboma

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

7.

Cleft in iris is known as .................. .

(a) Iritis
(b) Microphakia
(d) Coloboma
(c) Aphakia
8. Equine goiter is caused by .................. .
(a) Iodine deficiency
(b) Iodine excess
(c) Cabbage
(d) Radiation
9. Exophthalmos is a feature of................... goiter
(a) Colloid
(b) Adenomatous
(c) Toxic
(d) Familial
10. Acromegaly is caused by .................. .
(a) Hyperpituitarism
(b) Hypopituitarism
(c) Hypothyroidism
(d) Hyperthyroidism
22. NEOPLASMS
1. Substitution of one type of cells by another type is known
as _ _ __

2.

3.

4.

5.

(b) Anaplasia
(a) Hyperplasia
(c) Metaplasia
(d) Aplasia
Reversion of cells to a more embryonic type and less differentiated is called as _ _ __
(a) Hyperplasia
(b) Anaplasia
(c) Neoplasia
(d) Metaplasia
Hyperchromasia and pleomorphism is a characteristic featureof _ _ __
(a) Metaplasia
(b) Hyperplasia
(c) Anaplasia
(d) None
Neoplasms whose cells are anaplastic, metastasize are classified as _ _ __
(c) Both
(d) None
(a) Benign (b) Malignant
Obstruction of lymphatics by tumour cells disturbs lymphatic flow to facilitate metastasis at unusual site is termed
as _ _ __
(a) Skip metastasis
(c) Both

(b) Retrograde metastasis

(d) None
604

Self Assessment - MCQ

6.

Meningeal tumour spreads through _ _ __

7.

(a) Blood
(b) Lymph (c) Skin
(d) CSF
Abnormal enzyme ATPase on cell surface promotes
_ _ _ _ leading to cachexia in tumour patient.

8.

9.

(a) Proteolysis
(b) Glycolysis
(c) Both
(d) None
Gene responsible for suppression of cell proliferation are
termed as _ _ _ _ '
(a) Oncogene
(b) Antioncogene
(c) Both
(d) None
v-onc and c-onc are having _ _ __
(a) Homology

(b) Heterology

(c) Both
(d) None
10. Papilloma virus has _ _ _ _ oncogene.
(c) myc
(d) All of above
(a) src
(b) raf
11. Hepadna virus has
oncogene.
(a) hap
(b) src
(c) raf
(d) All of above
12. Oxygen metabolites of neutrophils' respiratory burst act
as _ _ __
(a) Tumour initiator
(b) Tumour promoter
(c) Both
(d) None
13. Tumour cells develop certain biochemical alterations on
their surface, that is known as _ _ __
(a) Tumour antigens
(b) Tumour antibodies
(c) Anaplasia
(d) None
14. Tumour necrosis factor (TNF-) is responsible for
_ _ _ _ of tumours.
(b) Initiation
(a) Promotion
(c) Regression
(d) None
15. Tumour antigens are _ _ __
(a) Fetal antigens (b) Alphafetoproteins
(c) Both
(d) None

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

16. A stage T2, N2 an M2 is considered with _ _ _ _ prognosis.

(a) Good
(b) Fair
(c) Guarded
(d) Poor
17. A cytokine secreted by tumour cells is known as _ _ __
which is responsible for cachexia in animals.
(a) Interleukin
(b) Tumour necrosis factor
(c) Cachectin
(d) None
18. In neoplasia, hepatocytes become _ _ __
(a) Hypertrophied
(b) Atrophied
(c) Hyperplastic
(d) Hypoplastic
19.
is a feature of neoplasms.
(a) Hypocalcemia (b) Hypercalcemia
(c) Both
(d) None
20. Liposarcoma is a _ _ _ _ tumour of adipose cells.
(a) Benign
(b) Malignant
(c) Preneoplic
(d) None
21. Tumour of flat bones are known as _ _ __
(a) Compact osteoma
(b) Spongy osteoma
(c) Both
(d) None
22. Leiomyoma is a benign tumour of _ _ _ _ muscles.
(a) Cardiac
(b) Skeletal
(c) Smooth
(d) All of above
23. Mesothelioma is a neoplasm of
cells.
(a) Epithelium
(b) Endothelium
(c) Mesothelium (d) None
24. Lymphosarcoma is a malignant neoplasm of _ _ __
(a) Circulating lymphocytes
(b) Tissue lymphocytes
(c) Both
(d) None
25. Leukemia is a malignant neoplasia of _ _ __
(a) Circulating lymphocytes
(b) Tissue lymphocytes
(c) Both
(d) None

606

Self Assessment - MCQ

26. Squamous cell carcinoma of _ _ _ _ is more common

in animals in India.
(a) Eyes
(b) Lip
(c) Hoof
(d) Horn
27. Epithelial pearls is a feature of _ _ __
(a) Papilloma
(b) Adenocarcinoma
(c) Lymphosarcoma
(d) None
28. Basal cell carcinoma is also known as _ _ __
(a) Horn cancer
(b) Eye cancer
(c) Hair cell carincoma (d) None
29. Cholangiocellular carcinoma is a tumour of bile duct
caused by _ _ __
(b) Liver fluke infection
(a) Aflatoxins
(c) Both
(d) None
30. Adamantinoma is a tumour of _ _ _ _ '
(a) Adipose cells (b) Enamel
(c) Eye (d) Gum
23. VIRAL DISEASES

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

The cause of FMD in animals is _ _ _ _ '

(a) DNA virus
(b) Rotavirus
(c) Picornavirus
(d) Corona virus
Foot and mouth disease is characterized by the presence
of
lesions.
(b) Erosive
(a) Vesicular
(d) None
(c) Ulcerative
Vesicular stomatitis is caused by _ _ __
(a) Picornavirus
(b) Calcivirus
(c) Vesiculovirus
(d) None
Sore mouth is synonymously used _ _ __
(a) FMD
(b) Vesicular stomatitis
(c) Vesicular exanthema (d) All of above
Rinderpest virus belongs to ________ group of
paramyxoviridae family.
(a) Orbivirus
(b) Pestivirus
(c) Flavivirus
(d) Morbilli virus
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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

6.

Rabies is characterized by _ _ __
(a) Encephalitis
(b) Negri bodies
(c) Babes nodules
(d) All of above
7. Infectious caninonepatitis is caused by _ _ __
(a) Herpes virus"
(b) Rhabdovirus
(c) Adenovirus
(d) Coronovirus
8. Blue eye is used synonymously with _ _ _ _"
(a) Rabies
(b) ICH
(c) CD
(d) All of above
9. In canine distemper, the inclusions are _ _ __
(a)Intracytoplasmic
(b) Intranuclear
(c) Both
(d) None
10. Parvoviral infection in dogs is characterized by _ _ _ _"
(a) Necrotic enteritis
(b) Mycocardial necrosis
(c) Both
(d) None
11. Blue tongue is caused by _ _ __
(a) Pestivirus
(b) Orbivirus
(c) Reovirus
(d) None
12. Pulmonary adenomatosis is characterized by _ _ __
(a) Neoplasia
(b) Anaplasia
(c) Metaplasia
(d) Dysplasia
13. Maedi-Visna is caused by _ _ __
(a) Orbivirus
(b) Lentivirus
(c) Pestivirus
(d) None
14. PPR is characterized by _ _ __
(a) Giant cell pneumonia
(b) Broncho pneumonia
(c) Interstitial pneumonia
(d) Verminous pneumonia
15. Zebra markings are seen in _ _ __
(a) RP
(b) PPR
(c) MCF
(d) All of above
16. Button ulcers in large intestines are seen in _ _ __

608

Self Assessment - MeQ

17.

18.

19.
20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

(a) Swine fever

(b) Hog cholera
(c) Both a & b
(d) None
Equine infectious anemia is caused by _ _ __
(a) Lentivirus
(b) Pesti virus
(c) Orbivirus
(d) All of above
Equine encephalomyelitis is also known as _ _ __
(a) Staggers
(b) Borna disease
(c) Forage poisoning
(d) All of above
Ephimeral fever is caused by _ _ _ _ shaped virus.
(a) Wheel
(b) Bullet (c) Pin
(d) None
Pseudorabies is also known as _ _ _ _'
(a) Rabies
(b) Mad itch
(d) None
(c) Mad cow disease
Equine plague is _ _ _ _ '
(a) Equine encephalomyelitis
(b) Equine viral arteritis
(c) African horse sickness
(d) None
African horse sickness is caused by _ _ _ _ '
(a) Orbivirus
(b) Pestivirus
(c) Rotavirus
(d) None
Maedi-Visna is characterized by _ _ __
(a) Metaplasia
(b) Gliosis
(c) Intracytoplasmic inclusions
(d) All of above
PPR is caused by _ _ __
(b) Pestivirus
(a) Morbillivirus
(d) None
(c) Rubivirus
Canine distemper is characterized by _ _ __
(a) Pustular dermatitis (b) Broncho pneumonia
(c) Hard pad
(d) All of above
Rabies is caused by _ _ __

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Text Book of Veterinary PatJwlogy :Quick Review and Self Assessment

(a) Lyssa virus

(b) Vesiculovirus
(c) Rhabdovirus
(d) None
27. Rotavirus infection in calves is characterized by _ _ __
(b) Malabsorption
(a) Maldigestion
(c) Shortening of villi
(d) All of above
28. Late abortions in cattle are caused by _ _ __
(a) BHV-1
(b) Rotavirus
(d) Picornavirus
(c) Coronavirus
29. Camel pox is characterized by the presence of _ _ _ _'
(a) Papule (b) Vesicles (c) Pustules (d) All of above
30. Diarrhoea is manifested in _ _ __
(a) Rinderpest
(c) Mucosal disease

(b) MCF

(d) All of above

24. BACTERIAL DISEASES

1. Presence of tubercles on pleura and mesentry are known
as _ _ __

2.

(a) Johne's diseases

(b) Epithelial pearls
(c) Pearly disease
(d) None
In tuberculosis _ _ _ _ type of giant cells are formed.

3.

(a) Langhan's
(b) Tuton
(c) Tumour
(d) All of above
Johne's disease is caused by _ _ __
(a) Mycobacterium tuberculosis
(b )Mycobacterium pseudotuberculosis

4.

5.

(c) Mycobacterium avium

(d) Mycobacterium paratuberculosis
Presence of
as a result of thickening of transverse folds due to chronic inflammation is characteristic
lesion of Johne's disease.
(b) Calcification (c) Tubercle
(d) Rugae
(a) Pearl
Brucella abortus produces _ _ _ _ lesions.

610

Self Assessment - MCQ

(a) Granulomatous
(b) Suppurative
(c) Fibrinous
(d) All of above
6. Haemorrhagic septicemia is characterized by _ _ __
(b) Dyspnoea
(a) Oedtrma in neck
(c) Pneumonia
(d) All of above
7. Abortion in _ _ _ _ month of gestations may occur due
to brucellosis.
(a) 5-6
(b) 7-9
(c) 3-4
(d) None
8. Marbling in lungs with extensive sero-fibrinous lesions are
characteristic of _ _ __
(b) Pasteurellosis
(a) Colibacil~osis
(c) Black quarter
(d) All of above
9. Painful swelling in thigh muscles with crepitating sound
on touch is observed in _ _ __
(c) Tetanus (d) BQ
(a) Anthrax
(b) HS
10. Gas gangrene is caused by _ _ _ _ '
(a) Fusarium sp.
(b) Clostridium chauvei
(c) Clostridium welchii
(d) None
11. Pulpy kidney disease in sheep is caused by _ _ __
(a) Clostridium welchii
(b) Clostridium tetani
(c) Clostridium perfringens
(d) All of above
12. In camels, the enterotoxaemia is caused by Clostridium
perfringens type _ _ __
(a) A
(b) B
(c) C
(d) D
13. Braxy is caused by _ _ __
(a) Clostridium perfringens
(b) Clostridium welchii
(c) Clostridium tetani
(d) Clostridium septicum
14. Lock jaw is a feature of _ _ __
(a) Braxy
(b) Anthrax
(c) Actinomycosis
(d) Tetanus
15. In tetanus death occurs due to _ _ __
(a) Asphyxia
(b) Paralysis
(c) Dehydration (d) None
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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

16. Diamond skin disease is also known as _ _ __

(a) Swine fever
(b) Erysepalas
(c) Pseudorabies (d) Canine distemper
17. Swine erysepalas is characterized by _ _ _ _ endocarditis.
(b) Suppurative
(a) Haemorrhagic
(c) Vegetative
(d) None
18. Listeriosis is characterized by
meningitis.
(a) Lepto
(b) Pachy (c) Sero-fibrinous (d) None
19. Turkey egg appearance of kidneys are observed in
(a) Listeriosis
(b) Salmonellosis
(c) Pasteurellosis (d) All of above
20. Naval ill is caused by _ _ __
(a) Salmonella sp.
(b) E.coli
(d) None
(c) Pasteurella sp.
21. Empyema is a feature of _ _ _ _'
(a) Glanders

(b) Strangles

(c) Babesiosis
(d) None
22. Pseudomonas mallei causes _ _ _ _ in horses.
(a) Lymphangitis (b) Lymphadenitis
(c) Farcy
(d) All of above
23. Absence of rigor mortis is a feature of _ _ __
(a) Colibacillosis (b) Pasteurellosis
(c) Anthrax
(d) None
24. Campylobacteriosis is characterized by _ _ __
(a) Early abortion (b) Suppurative metritis
(c) Both
(d) None
25. Actinomycosis is characterized by _ _ __
(a) Wooden tongue
(b) Lumpy jaw
(c) Lock jaw
(d) None

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Self Assessment - MCQ

26. Actinobacillosis is characterized by _ _ __

(a) Wooden tongue
(b) Lumpy jaw
(c) Lock jaw
(d) All of above
27. Botryomycosis is caused by _ _ __
(a) Staphylococci (b) Streptococci
(c) Blastomyces
(d) None
28. Bovine farcy is also known as _ _ _ _ '
(a) Tuberculosis (b) Johne's disease
(c) Brucellosis
(d) Nocardiosis
29. Necrobacillosis is characterized by _ _ __
(a) Necrosis of liver
(b) Foot rot
(c) Diphtheria
(d) All of above
30. Tary colour blood coming out from natural openings is a
feature of _ _ _'
(a) HS
(c) BQ

(b) Anthrax
(d) Leptospirosis

25. CHLAMYDIAL DISEASES

1. Chlamydiosis in cattle is caused by _ _ __
(a) Chlamydia psitaci
(b) Chlamydia abortus
(c) Both
(d) None
2. Chlamydial infection in sheep is characterized by

3.

4.

5.

(a) Pruiritus
(b) Myositis
(c) Neuritis
(d) Abortion
In calves chlamydia causes _ _ __
(a) Polyarthritis
(b) Pneumonia
(c) Meningo-encephalitis
(d) All of above
Pregnant cows are aborted during
month of
gestation due to chlamydia.
(a) 3-5
(b) 5-7
(c) 7-9
(d) None
Chlamydial infection causes _ _ _ _ placentitis in cattle.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

(a) Lymphocytic
(c) Sero-fibrinous

(b) Haemorrhagic
(d) Fibrino-purulent

26. RICKETTSIAL DISEASES

1. Anaplasmosis is caused by _ _ __

2.

(a) Anaplasma centrale

(b) Anaplasma marginale
(c) Both
(d) None
Anaplasmosis is characterized by _ _ __

(a) Icterus
(c) Enteritis

3.

4.

5.

(b) Pneumonia
(d) All of above
is a feature of anaplasmosis.
(a) Anemia
(b) Hyperemia
(c) Polycythemia
(d) None
Anaplasma infection causes _ _ _ _ reaction leading
to anemia.
(a) Hyper sensitive
(b) Auto immune
(c) Both
(d) None
Diagnosis of anaplasmosis can be done by _ _ _ _ examination.
(a) Blood smear (b) Serum
(c) Lung tissue
(d) All of above

27. MYCOPLASMAL DISEASES

1. Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia is caused by

2.

(a) Mycoplasma mycoides (b) Mycobacterium sp.

(c) Both
(d) None
CCPP is characterized by _ _ __

3.

(d) None
(a) Enteritis (b) Pleurisy (c) Both
Mycoplasmosis is characterized by _ _ _ _'

4.

(b) Nephritis
(a) Abortion
(c) Encephalitis
(d) None
Generally, the mycoplasma is considered as _ _ __

614

Self Assessment - MCQ

pathogen.
(b) Virulent
(a) Mild
(c) Opportunistic
(d) None
5.
is a feature of mycoplasma infection in cavIes.
(a) Polyarthritis (b) Hepatitis
(c) Both
(d) None
6. Mycoplasma causes _ _ __
(a) Mastitis
(b) Pneumonia
(c) Abortion
(d) All of above
7. In mycoplasmosis _ _ _ _ pericarditis occurs in goats.
(a) Granulomatous
(b) Fibrinous
(c) Both
(d) None
8.
may make animal more susceptible for mycoplasma infection.
(a) Immunosuppression
(b) Immunization
(c) Both
(d) None
9. Mycoplasma produces _ _ _ _ shaped colonies on media.
(a) Cigar
(b) Club
(c) Nipple (d) None
10.
reaction is a feature of mycoplasmosis.
(a) Neutrophilic
(b) Eosinophilic
(c) Lymphofollicular
(d) None
28. SPIROCHAETAL DISEASES
1. Leptospira multiplies in
and secreted in urine
to cause infection in other animals.
(a) PCf
(c) Both
(d) None
(b) DST
2. Leptospirosis is characterized by _ _ __
(a) Haemorrhages
(b) Nephritis
(c) Icterus
(d) All of above
3. Leptospirosis causes _ _ __
(b) Spirochaetemia
(a) Bacterimia
(d) None
(c) Septicemia

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

4.

5.

Leptospirosis may also cause _ _ _ _ in females.

(a) Vaginitis
(b) Cervicitis
(c) Abortion
(d) All of above
is a feature of leptospirosis.
(b) Myoglobinuria
(a) Hematuria
(d) None
(c) Hemoglobinuria

29. PRION DISEASES

1. Scarpie is caused by _ _ __
(c) Fungus (d) Piron
(a) Virus
(b) Bacteria
BSE
is
characterized
by
_
_
_
_
2.
(b) Spongy brain
(a) Circling movements
(c) Valuolation in nerve cells (d) All of above
3. Incubation period of BSE is _ _ _ _'
(a) 2-5 days
4.

5.

(b) 2-5 months

(c) 2-5 years

(d) None
The gene coding for prion protein is normally _ _ __
in animals.
(a) Absent (b) Present (c) Not known (d) None
is the only diagnostic tool to confirm BSE.
(a) Histopathology
(b) ELISA
(c) PCR
(d) None

30. FUNGAL DISEASES

Ringworm is caused by _ _ _ _ in cattle.

1.

2.

(b) Trichophyton sp.

(a) Microsporum sp.
(d) None
(c) Candida sp.
Characteristic lesions in ringworm are _ _ _ _ '

(a) Itching and hyperkeratosis

(b) Loss of hairs and papular lesions
(c) Ring shaped lesions with serus'discharges
(d) All of above

616

Self Assessment - MCQ

3.

Caudidia albicans causes _ _ __

4.

(a) Mastitis
(b) Pneumonia
(c) EsoJ
.s
(d) All of above
Rhinosporidiosis is characterized by _ _ _ _ growth
on nasal mucosa.
(a) Hyperplastic (b) Polypoid
(d) Atrophic
Candida albicans causes _ _ _ _ inflammation.

(c) Hypoplastic

5.

8.

(b) Serus
(a) Suppurative
(c) Fibrinous
(d) Granulomatous
Aspergillus enters in body through _ _ _ _ grains/
feed.
(a) Clean
(b) Wet
(d) Sandy
(c) Mouldy
Aspergillus is characterized by _ _ __
(a) Pneumonia
(b) Abortion
(c) Both
(d) None
Blastomycosis is caused by _ _ __

9.

(a) Blastomyces dermatitidis

(b) Blastomyces ovis
(c) Blastomyces bovis
(d) None
In coccidioidomycosis lesions are found mainly in

6.

7.

(a) Heart
(b) Kidney (c) Brain
(d) None
10. Cryptococcosis is characterized by
disorders.
(c) Kidney (d) Nervous
(a) Hepatic (b) Digestive
11. Histoplastosis is characterized by _ _ __
(a) Hepatomegaly
(b) Spleenomegaly
(c) Leucopenia
(d) All of above
12. Ulcers in intestine are seen due to _ _ _ _ infection.
(a) Eimeria sp.
(c) Candida sp.

(b) Aspergillus sp.

(d) Histoplasma sp.

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

13. Encephalitis is mainly occurs due _ _ _ _ infection.

(a) Coccidioides sp. (b) Cryptococcus sp.
(c) Candida sp.
(d) None
14. Degnala disease is caused by _ _ _ _ '
(a) Bacterial toxins
(b) Mycotoxins
(c) Phytotoxins
(d) None
15. Dry gangrene on extremities is the characteristic feature
of _ _ __
(a) Aspergillosis
(c) Candidiasis

(b) Rhinosporidiosis
(d) Mycotoxicosis

31. PARASITIC DISEASES

1. Surra is caused by _ _ __

2.

3.

4.

5.
6.

7.

(a) Trypanosoma evansi

(b) Trypanosoma felei
(d) None
(c) Both
Trypanosoma is an
protozoan parasite.
(a) Intra cellular (b) Extra cellular
(c) Both
(d) None
Theileriosis is characterized by _ _ _ _'

(a) Hepatopathy
(b) Nephropathy
(c) Lymphadenopathy (d) All of above
Babesiosis is caused by _ _ _ _ '
(a) Babesia bigemina
(b) Babesia bovis
(d) None
(c) Both
Babesiosis is transmitted by _ _ __
(c) Snails (d) Ticks
(a) Mosquito
(b) Flies
Babesia is an
cellular parasite.
(d) None
(a) Intra
(b) Extra (c) Both
Trichomonas foetus causes abortion in animals during
_ _ _ _ months of gestatiun.
(a) 3-5

(b) 6-7

(c) 7-9

618

(d) All of above

Self Assessment - MCQ

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.
13.

14.

15.

16:--

17.
18.

Abortions due to Trichomonas foetus are followed by

(a) Sterility (b) Pymetra
(c) Both
(d) None
Toxoplasmosis is characterized by _ _ __
(a) Encephalitis
(b) Nephritis
(c) Myositis
(d) None
In cattle coccidiosis is caused by _ _ __
(a) Eimeria bovis
(b) Eimeria zuernii
(c) Both
(d) None
Nasal granuloma is caused by _ _ __
(a) Schistosoma bovis
(b) Schistosoma nasalis
(c) Both
(d) None
Distomiasis is caused by _ _ __
(a) Amphistomes (b) Ascaris (c) Fasciola (d) Tapeworm
Cryptosporidiosis is characterized by _ _ __
(b) Pneumonia
(a) Diarrhoea
(c) Both
(d) None
Ascariasis is characterized by _ _ __
(a) Pleurisy
(b) Lameness
(c) Peritonitis
(d) None
Visceral larva migrans is caused by _ _ __
(b) Ascarid worms
(a) Tapeworms
(c) Both
(d) None
Anchylostomiasis is also known as _ _ _ _ '
(a) Visceral larva migrans
(b) Hook ~orm disease
(c) Distomiasis
(d) None .
Ostertagia ostertagi is
stomach worm.
(a) Red
(b) Hair
(c) Brown (d) Black
Nodule worms are _ _ __
(a) Oesophagostomum radiatum
(b) Oesophagostomum cohlmbianum

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Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

(c) Both
(d) None
Cestodiasis is also known as,_ _ __
(a) Distomiasis
(b) Taeniasis
(c) Both
(d) None
Cysticercosis causes
in sheep.
(a) Pneumonia
(b) Enteritis
(c) Gid
(d) None
Hydatid disease is caused by _ _ __
(a) Echinococcus (b) Cysticercus
(c) Both
(d) None
Dirofilariasis is also known as _ _ __
(a) Heart worm disease (b) Canine filariasis
(c) Both
(d) None
Guinea worm disease is caused by _ _ __
(b) Ascaris sp.
(a) Fasciola sp.
(c) Dracunculus sp.
(d) None
Verminous pneumonia is caused by
in horse.
(a) Dictyocaulus vivparus (b) Dictyocaulus filaria
(c) Dictyocaulus arnfieldi (d) None
Eosophageal tumour is produced by _ _ __
(a) Spiroceria lupi (b) Spirocerca canis
(c) Both
(d) None
Cerebrospinal nematodiasis is also known as _ _ __
(a) Neurofilariasis
(b) Setariasis
(c) Kumri
(d) All of above
Whip worm disease is caused by _ _ __

(a) Trichuris ovis (b) Trichuris suis

(c) Both
(d) None
28. Ear sore is caused by _ _ __
(a) Stephanofilaria assamensis

620

Self Assessment - MeQ

(b) Stephanofilaria zaheeri

(c) Both
(d) None
29. Verminous dermatitis is also known as _ _ __
(a) Cascado
(b) Ringworm disease
(c) Both
(d) None
30. Mange is caused by _ _ __
(a) Sarcoptes sp.
(c) Both of them

(b) Psoroptes sp.

(d) None of them

32. AVIAN INFLAMMATION

1. Cardinal sign of inflammation is _ _ __
2.

3.

4.

5.

(a) Itching (b) Loss of hairs (c) Swelling

(d) None
_ _ _ _ cells are the feature of avian inflammation.
(a) Epithelioid
(b) Lymphoid
(c) Heterophil
(d) Giant
In avian inflammation _ _ _ _ cells are seen in abundance in comparison to mammals.
(a) Eosinophils
(b) Basophils
(c) Neutrophils
(d) None
Avian inflammation is characterized by increased permeability in _ _ __
(c) Both
(d) None
(a) Venules (b) 'Arterioles
Avian inflammation cat;sed by PHA or Con A is characterized by infiltration of _ _ __
(a) Heterophils
(c) Basophils

(b) Monocytes
(d) All of above

33. PATHOLOGY OF NUTRITIONAL DISORDERS

1. Nutritional roup occurs in poultry due to deficiency of
(a) Vitamin A
(c) Vitamin C

(b) Vitamin B
(d) Vitamin E

621

Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

2.

3.

4.

5.

Crazy chick disease is caused by deficiency of _ _ _ _'

(b) Vitamin B
(a) Vitamin A
(c) Vitamin C
(d) Vitamin E
Excess of fluorine in water may cause
in birds.
(a) Retarded growth
(b) Deformity in bones
(c) Both
(d) None
Star grazing condition in chicks is caused by the deficiency
of _ _ __
(a) Vitamin A
(b) Vitamin BI
(c) Vitamin C
(d) None
Curled toe paralysis in chicks occurs due to deficiency of

(a) Vitamin A
(b) Vitamin B1
(c) Vitamin C
(d) None
6. Perosis occurs in birds due to deficiency of _ _ _ _ '
(a) Choline (b) Biotin (c) Zinc
(d) All of above
7. Pica in birds may occur as a result of _ _ _ _ deficiency.
(b) Vitamin B
(a) Calcium
(~) Phosphorus
(d) None
8. Manganese deficiency is characterized by _ _ __
(a) Perosis
(b) Osteodystrophy
(c) Chondrodystrophy
(d) All of above
9. Selenium deficiency may cause absence of
in
embryo.
(a) Beak
(b) Eye
(c) Limb
(d) All of above
10. Hypovitaminosis B1 is responsible for atrophy of
_ _ _ _ in birds.
(a) Testes

(b) Ovary (c) Both

(d) None

34. VIRAL DISEASES

1. Highly virulent Ranikhet disease virus is _ _ __
(a) Lentogenic
(b) Mesogenic
(c) Velogenic
(d) None
622

Self Assessment - MCQ

2.

Ranikhet disease is also known as _ _ _ _'

(a) Ornithosis
(b) Degnala disease
(c) New Castle disease (d) All of above
3.
is most characteristic lesion seen in Ranikhet
disease.
(a) Ulcer at caecal tonsils
(b) Pneumonia
(c) Diarrhoea
(d) None
4. Avian influenza is caused by_ _ __
(a) Myxovirus
(b) Orthomyxovirus
(c) Paramyxovirus (d) None
5. Avian influenza is also known as _ _ __
(a) Fowl cholera (b) Fowl plague
(c) Both
(d) None
6. Avian influenza is characterized by oedema of _ _ _ _,
(a) Head
(b) Face
(c) Leg
(d) Chest
7. Marek's disease is caused by _ _ __
(a) Herpesvirus
(b) Togavirus
(c) Poxvirus
(d) Lentivirus
8. MATSA is produced in Marek's disease as _ _ __
(a) Tumour specific antigen
(b) Tumour specific antibody
(c) Type specific antigen
(d) Type specific antibody
9.
are mostly observed in Marek's disease.
(a) Malignant melanoma
(b) Malignant adenoma
(c) Malignant lymphoma
(d) None
10. Avian leucosis is also known as _ _ _ _ disease.
(b) Big liver
(a) Big spleen
(c) Big head
(d) None
11. Avian leucosis complex includes _ _ __
(a) Lymphoid leucosis (b) Osteopetrosis
(c) Myeloblastosis
(d) All of above

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Text Book a/Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

12. Infectious bursal disease is also known as _ _ _ _ disease.

(a) Gumboro
(b) New Castle
(c) Ranikhet
(d) None
13. Infectious bursal disease is caused by _ _ __
(a) Reovirus
(b) Piconavirus
(c) Birnavirus
(d) Lentivirus
14. In infectious bursal disease, bursa shows _ _ __
(a) Edema
(b) Hemorrhage
(c) Atrophy
(d) All of above
15. In infectious bronchitis, there is plugging of respirating
passage by cheesy material at
junction.
(a) Larynx-trachea
(b) Trachea-bronchi
(c) Bronchi-lung
(d) All of above
16. Infectious bronchitis is characterized by _ _ __
(a) Thin watery yolk

(b) Misshapen eggs

(c) Both
(d) None
17. Infectious laryngo tracheitis (ILT) is caused by _ _ __
(a) Coronavirus
(b) Paramyxovirus
(d) Herpesvirus
(c) Reovirus
18. In infectious laryngo-tracheitis, there is plugging of respijunction.
rating passage by cheesy material at
(a) Larynx-trachea
(b) Trachea-bronchi
(c) Bronchi-lung
(d) All of above
19. The inclusions in infectious laryngo tracheitis are of
_ _ _ _ type.
(b) Intranuclear
(a) Intracytoplasmic
(d) None
(c) Both
20. Tenosynovitis is caused by _ _ __
(a) Adenovirus
(c) Rotavirus

(b) Reovirus
(d) Herpes virus

624

Self Assessment - MeQ

21. In tenosynovitis there is rupture of _ _ _ _ muscle tendon.

(a) Gastrocnemious
(b) Messator
(c) Both
(d) None
22. Avian stunting syndrome is characterized by _ _ __
(b) Pasty vent
(a) Low weight gain
(c) Atrophy of pancreas (d) All of above
23. Avian stunting syndrome is caused by _ _ __
(a) Reovirus
(b) Birnavirus
(c) Herpesvirus
(d) Orbivirus
24. Viral nephritis is also known as _ _ _ _'
(a) Baby chick nephropathy
(b) Grower nephropathy
(c) Both
(d) None
25. Epidemic tremor disease is caused by _ _ _ _ '
(a) Enterovirus
(b) Herpesvirus
(c) Reovirus
(d) Alphavirus
26. Avian pock lesions include _ _ __
(a) Papule (b) Vesicle (c) Both
(d) None
27. Inclusion body hepatitis is caused by _ _ __
(a) Hepdnavirus (b) Reovirus
(c) Adenovirus
(d) None
virus.
28. Chicken anemia agent is a
(a) DNA
(b) RNA (c) Both
(d) None
29. Egg drop syndrome is characterized by _ _ _ _'
(a) Decrease in egg production
(b) Increase in egg production
(c) Stopped egg production
(d) None
30. Hydropericardium syndrome is caused by _ _ __
(a) Aviadenovirus (b) Herpesvirus
(c) Calcivirus
(d) Enterovirus

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Text Book a/Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

35. BACI'ERIAL DISEASES

1. Salmonellosis poultry is characterized by _ _ _ _ colour of liver.
(a) Sliver
(b) Gold
(c) Bronze (d) None
2. Colisepticemia is characterized by
in birds.
(a) Fibrinous pericarditis
(b) Fibrinous hepatitis
(c) Both
(d) None
3. Hjarre's disease is caused by _ _ __

(a) E.coli
(c) Mycobacterium sp.

(b) Salmonella sp.

5.

(d) None
is associated in chronic respiratory disease with
mycoplasma.
(a) E.coli
(b) Salmonella
(c) Pasteurella sp.
(d) None
In omphalitis the yolk becomes _ _ _ _'

6.

(a) Thin
(b) Watery
(c) Coagulated
(d) All of above
Infectious coryza is characterized by _ _ _ _ '

4.

7.

8.

(b) Swollen leg

(a) Swollen head
(c) Both
(d) None
Fowl cholera is caused by _ _ __
(a) Vibrio cholarae
(b) Pasteurella sp.
(c) E.coli
(d) Salmonella sp.
Necrotic enteritis due to clostridia occurs after _ _ _ _'

(a) Colibacillosis
(b) Salmonellosis
(c) Coccidiosis
(d) None
9. Campylobacter hepatitis is characterized by _ _ _ _'
(a) Necrotic hepatitis
(b) Hydropericardium
(c) Catarrhal enteritis
(d) All of above
10. Staphylococcus aurues causes _ _ _ _ in birds.
(a) Gangrenous dermatitis
(b) Pustular dermatitis
(c) Vesicular dermatitis
(d) None
626

Self Assessment - MeQ

11. Granulomatous nodules are seen in

in tuberculous birds.
(b) Spleen (c) Air sacs (d) All of above
(a) Liver
12. Fowl cholera is characterized by _ _ _ _ colour of comb.
(b) Yellow (c) Blue
(d) Pale
(a) Red
13. Pink colony on McConkey agar and white on BGA are
seen due to
culture.
(a) Salmonella
(b) E.coli (c) Both
(d) None
14. CoIigranuloma is characterized by the presence of
_ _ _ _ in intestines.
(a) Nodules (b) Ulcers (c) Erosions
(d) None
15. Salmonellosis is characterized by _ _ __
(a) Focal necrosis on liver
(b) Marbling in spleen
(c) Oophoritis
(d) All of above
36. CHLAMYDIAL DISEASE

1.
2.

3.

4.

5.

Ornithosis is a disease of _ _ _ _'

(d) All of above
(a) Parrots (b) Pigeons (c) Poultry
Chlamydiosis in birds is also known as _ _ __
(a) Ornithosis
(b) Psittacosis
(c) Both
(d) None
Ornithosis is characterized by _ _ _ _'
(a) Serofibrinous pericarditis (b) Air sacculitis
(c) Enteritis
(d) All of above
In ornithosis, there is _ _ _ _ colour diarrhoea.
(c) Greenish
(d) Black
(a) Brown (b) Red
Ornithosis is caused by _ _ __
(a) Chlamydia psittad
(b) Chlamydia trachoma tis
(c) Both
(d) None

37. MYCOPLASMAL DISEASES

1.

Chronic respiratory disease is caused by _ _ __

(a) Mycoplasma gallisepticum
(b) E.coli
627

Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

2.

3.

4.

5.

(c) Both
(d) None
Infectious inovitis in birds is caused by _ _ __
(a) E.coli
(b) Mycoplasma sinoviae
(c) Both
(d) None
Avian infectious synovitis is characterized by _ _ __
in joints.
(b) Serus exudate
(a) Cheesy material
(c) Suppurative mass
(d) All of above
Chronic respiratory disease occurs in flocks maintained
under
managemental practices.
(b) Good . (c) Fair
(d) Excellent
(a) Poor
Infectious synovitis is complicated by _ _ __
(a) E.coli
(b) Pasteurella gallinarum
(c) Both
(d) None

38. SPIROCHAETAL DISEASES

1. Fowl spirochaetosis is caused by _ _ __

2.

(a) Leptospira sp. (b) Spirochaeta sp.

(c) Borrelia sp.
(d) None
There was _ _ _ _ diarrhoea in spirochaetosis in birds.

3.

(a) Redish
(b) Yellowish
(d) Blackish
(c) Greenish
The spirochaete of fowl are transmitted through

4.

(a) Mite
(b) Tick
(c) Lice
(d) Fly
Fowl spirochaetosis is also known as _ _ __

5.

(a) Tick fever

(b) Tick paralysis
(c) Both
(d) None
There was
haemorrhage in proventriculus due
to spirochaetosis in birds.
(a) Petechial
(b) Ecchymotic
(c) Linear
(d) All of above

628

Self Assessment - MCQ

39. FUNGAL DISEASES

1. Aspergillosis in chicks is caused by _ _ __
(a) Aspergillus fumigatus (b) Aspergillus niger
(c) Aspergillus flavus
(d) All of above
2. Brooder's pneumonia is also known as _ _ __
(a) Aspergillosis (b) Candidiasis
(c) Favus
(d) Thrush
3. Favus is caused by
in poultry.
(a) Trichophyton magnini (b) Trichophyton verucosum
(c) Both
(d) None
4. Candidiasis is characterized by _ _ _ _ iR birds.
(a) Turkish towel like crop
(b) Turkish towel like oesophagus
(c) Both
(d) None
5. Histoplasmosis is caused by _ _ __
(a) Histoplasma capsulatum
(b) Histomonas meleagredis
(c) Both
(d) None
6. Aflatoxicosis is characterized by _ _ __
(a) Hepatitis
(b) Immunosuppression
(c) Cancer
(d) All of above
7. Ochratoxicosis is characterized by _ _ __
(b) Visceral gout
(a) Nephrosis
(c) Pale bone marrow
(d) All of above
8. Aflatoxin(s) is/ are _ _ __
(b) ~
(c) D}
(d) All of above
(a) B}
9. Candidiasis is also known as _ _ __
(b) Thrush
(a) Favus
(c) White comb disease (d) None
10. Candidiasis is caused by _ _ __
(a) Candida albicans
(b) Monilia albicans
(c) Both
(d) None

629

Text Book ofVeteriflllfY Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

40. PARASmC DISEASES

1. Common round worm of poultry is _ _ __
(b) Ascaridia galli
(a) Syngamus trachea
(c) Both
(d) None
2. In poultry, this worm is present under the mucosa of crop
and causes emaciation and retardation of growth

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

(a) Syngamus trachea

(b) Ascaridia galli

(c) Gongylonema ingluvicola

Trematods of poultry are

(d) None

(a) Prosthogonimus macrorchis (b) Echinostoma revolutum

(c) Both
(d) None
The poultry ticks include _ _ __
(a) Argas persicus (b) Aegytianella pullorum
(c) Both
(d) None
The poultry red mite is _ _ _ _ '
(a) Cytodites nudus (b) Dermanyssus gallinae
(c) Both
(d) None
Caecal coccidiosis is caused by _ _ __
(a) Eimeria mivati (b) Eimeria necatrix
(c) Eimeria mitis
(d) Eimeria tennella
Coccidia causes
enteritis in birds.
(a) Catarrhal
(b) Hemorrhagic
(c) Fibrinous
(d) None
Histomoniasis is also known as _ _ __
(b) Swollen head
(a) Black head
(c) Cyanotic head (d) None
Yellow round nodules in oesophagus and crop of pigeons
are seen in _ _ __

(a) Histomoniasis (b) Trichomoniasis

(c) Both
(d) None

630

Self Assessment - MCQ

10. Hexamita meleagridis is

try.
(a) Almond (b) Bean

shaped parasite of poul(c) Pear

(d) None

41. VICES AND MISCELLANEOUS DISEASE CONDmONS

Cannibalism is a _ _ _ _ habit of poultry.
(a) Bad
(b) Good (c) Fair
(d) None
2. Cannibalism is aggravated by _ _ __

1.

5.

(a) Over crowding

(b) Prolapse of cloaca
(c) Wounds
(d) All of above
Egg eating by birds occurs due to
in poultry
house.
(a) Presence of broken eggs
(b) Presence of feed
(c) Presence of water
(d) None
Pica occurs as a result of _ _ _ _ deficiency.
(a) Calcium
(b) Phosphorus
(c) Magnesium
(d) None
Heat stroke is characterized by _ _ _ _'

6.

(a) Open beak

(b) Paralysis
(c) Both
(d) None
Toxic fat syndrome is also known as _ _ __

3.

4.

7.

8.

9.

(a) Chick oedema disease

(b) Water belly
(c) Both
(d) None
Gout may occur due to excess of _ _ __
(a) Protein
(b) Fat
(c) Minerals
(d) Vitamin B1
Blue comb disease is also known as _ _ __
(a) Monocytosis (b) Lymphocytosis
(c) Both
(d) None
Fatty liver and kidney syndrome is characterized by
(a) Pale liver
(c) Pale kidney

(b) Hydropericardium
(d) All of above

631

Text Book o/Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

10. Prolapse of cloaca is seen due to _ _ _ _ '

(a) Aflatoxicosis
(b) Ochratoxicosis
(c) Fusariotoxicosis
(d) None
42. PATHOLOGY OF DISEASES OF WILD AND ZOO
ANIMALS
1. Theileriosis in wild animals is characterized by _ _ __
coloured faeces.
(d) None
(a) Red
(b) Oay
(c) Both
2. Babesiosis in leopard is characterized by _ _ __

3.

4.

5.

(a) Icterus
(b) Hemoglobinuria
(c) Pulmonary edema
(d) All of the above
Anaplasma marginale causes anaplasmosis in leopard characterized by _ _ __
(a) Lymphocytosis
(b) Leucocytosis
(c) Basophilia
(d) None
Common disease of pheasants include _ _ _ _ '
(a) Colisepticemia
(b) Leucosis
(c) Marek's disease
(d) None
Trypanosomiasis in wild animals is characterized by haemorrhages in _ _ __
(a) Liver
(c) Lungs

(b) Kidneys
(d) All of above

43. PATHOLOGY OF DISEASES OF LABORATORY

ANIMALS
1. Non infectious disease conditions of rabbit include

2.

(a) Wool shedding

(b) Mange
(d) None
(c) Coccidiosis
Tapeworm of rabbit is _ _ __
(a) Taenia pisiformes
(c) Both

(b) Taenia

(d) No"

632

sa~nata

Self Assessment - MeQ

3.

4.

Intestinal coccidiosis is rabbit is caused by _ _ __

(a) Eimeria megna (b) Eimeria media
(c) Both
(d) None
Tyzzer's disease in mouse is caused by _ _ __

5.

(a) Bacillus piliformis

(b) Bacillus subtilis
(c) Both
(d) None
Diarrhoea in infant mouse is caused by _ _ __

8.

(b) Coccidia
(a) Clostridia
(~) Rotavirus
(d) None
Reovirus infection in mice cause _ _ __
(b) Pneumonia
(a) Jaundice
(d) None
(c) Nephritis
Wet tail disease of hamster is caused by _ _ __
(a) E.coli
(b) Salmonella sp.
(c) Rotavirus
(d) None
In rats hepatitis is caused by _ _ __

9.

(a) E.coli
(b) Salmonella sp.
(c) Rotavirus
(d) None
In guinea pigs the Pasteurellosis is caused by _ _ __

6.

7.

(a) Pasteurella pneumotropica

(b) P. multocida
(c) Mannhemia hemolytica
(d) All of above
10. Labyrinthitis in rat is caused by _ _ __

(a) Streptobacillus sp.

(c) Both

(b) Mycoplasma
(d) None

44. CYTOPATHOLOGY
1. Cytopathology is synonymously used with _ _ __
(a) Exploited cytology (b) Histopathology
(c) Both
(d) None
2. Exploited cytology can be employed on _ _ __
(a) Vaginal smears
(b) Rectal washings
(c) Bronchial washings (d) All of above
633

Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

3.

4.

5.

Cytopathological diagnosis rests upon alterations in morphology of _ _ __

(b) Tissue
(a) Single cell
(c) Organ
(d) All of above
Interventional cytopathology includes the samples obtained
from _ _ _ _ ,
(a) Surgical biopsy
(b) Autopsy
(c) Exfoliated cells
(d) None
Biopsy is common in diagnosis of _ _ _ _ in animals.
(a) Viral diseases (b) Bacterial diseases
(c) Tumours
(d) None

634

Self Assessment - MCQ

SELF ASSESSMENT - KEY

SECTION A - GENERAL VETERINARY PATHOLOGY

1.

Introduction

(1) b (2) a (3) b (4) d (5) b (6) a (7) d (8) d (9) a (10) b
2.

Etiology

(1) a (2) b (3) c (4) c (5) d (6) d (7) c (8) c (9) a (10) d
(11) d (12) b (13) c (14) d (15) c (16) a (17) b (18) d (19)
d (20) b
3. General Disorders, Developmental, Anomalies and
Monsters
(1) a (2) b (3) c (4) d (5) c (6) a (7) d (8) c (9) b (10) c
(11) c (12) a (13) d (14) c (15) c (16) a (17) d (18) c (19)
b (20) a
4.

Disturbances in Growth

(1) c (2) c (3) a (4) d (5) a (6) a (7) d (8) c (9) a (10) d
5.

Disturbances in circulation

(1) a (2) b
(10) c

(3) d

(4) d

(5) b

(6) d

(7) d

(8) c

(9) d

6. Disturbances in cell metabolism

(1) a (2) c (3) d (4) b (5) a (6) c (7) b (8) d (9) c (10) a
7. Necrosis, Gangrene and post-mortem changes
(1) d (2) d (3) c (4) b (5) a (6) b (7) a (8) b (9) b (10) c
8. Distrubances in calcification and pgment metabolism
(1) d (2) a (3) c (4) b (5) a (6) c (7) b (8) d (9) a (10) d
9.

Inflammation and healing

(1) c (2) c (3) b (4) c (5) c (6) a (7) c (8) a (9) c (10) d
(11) a (12) d (13) a (14) a (15) a (16) c (17) c (18) a (19)
c (20) c
635

Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

10. Concretions
(1) a (2) c (3) d

11.

(4) b (5) b (6) d (7) a (8) b (9) d (10) a

Immunity and Immunopathology

(1) C (2) d (3) b (4) c (5) d (6) a (7) b (8) d (9) b (10) a
(11) a (12) c (13) b (14) c (15) a (16) b (17) d (18) d
(19) a (20) a (21) c (22) a (23) b (24) b (25) d (26) a (27)
b (28) c (29) c (30) b
SEcrlON B - SYSTEMIC PATHOLOGY
12.

Pathology of Cutaneous System

(1) b (2) c (3) b (4) d

13.

Pathology of Musculoskeletal System

(1) b (2) a (3) d

14.

(2) a (3) a (4) d (5) d (6) d (7) a (8) a (9) b (10) b

Pathology respiratory system

(1) b (2) d

16.

(4) b (5) a (6) b (7) b (8) c (9) b (10) a

Pathology of cardiovascular system

(1) d

15.

(5) a (6) b (7) a (8) a (9) c (10) b

(3) a (4) c (5) b (6) c (7) a (8) c (9) d

(10) d

Pathology of digestive system

(1) a (2) d (3) c (4) d (5) d (6) c (7) a (8) d (9) c (10) a
(11) c (12) c (13) c (14) b (15) c (16) a (17) d (18) d
(19) b (20) c (21) b (22) c (23) b (24) a (25) a
17.

Pathology of hemopoitic and immune system

(1) d

18.

(2) b (3) a (4) c (5) d

(6) b (7) d

(8) a (9) d

(10) c

Pathology of urinary system

(1) b (2) c (3) b (4) a (5) c (6) c (7) a (8) a (9) a (10) d

19.

Pathology of genital system female Genital system

(1) d
(10) b

(2) c

(3) d

(4) a

(5) d

.
636

(6) d

(7) a

(8) d

(9) b

Self Assessment - MeQ

20.

Pathology of nervous system

(1) c (2) a (3) b (4) c (5) c (6) b (7) c (8) d (9) b (10) b
21.

Pathology of endocrine system, eyes and ear

(1) b (2) c (3) c (4) d (5) d (6) a (7) d (8) b (9) c (10) a
Section -C (Special Pathology I, Diseases of Animals)
22. Neoplasms

(1) c (2) b (3) c (4) b (5) b (6) d (7) b (8) b (9) a (10) d
(11) a (12) b (13) a (14) c (15) c (16) d (17) c (18) b
(19) b (20) b (21) a (22) c (23) c (24) b (25) a (26) d (27)
d (28) c (29) c (30) b
23. Viral Diseases
(1) c (2) a (3) c (4) b (5) d (6) d (7) a (8) b (9) c (10) c
(11) b (12) c (13) b (14) a (15) d (16) a (17) a (18) d
(19) b (20) b (21) c (22) a (23) d (24) a (25) d (26) a (27)
d (28) a (29) d (30) d
24. Bacterial Diseases

(1) c (2) a (3) d (4) d (5) a (6) d (7) b (8) b (9) d (10) b
(11) c (12) a (13) d (14) d (15) a (16) b (17) c (18) a
(19) b (20) b (21) b (22) d (23) c (24) c (25) b (26) a (27)
a (28) d (29) d (30) b
25.

Chlamydial Diseases

(1) a (2) d

(3) d (4) c (5) d

26. Rickettsial Diseases

(1) c (2) a (3) a (4) b (5) a
27. Mycoplasmal Diseases

(1) a (2) b (3) a (4) c (5) a (6) d (7) b (8) a (9) c (10) c
28. Spirochaetal Diseases

(l)a (2)d (3)c (4)c (5)c

637

Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

29. Prion Diseases

(1) d
30.

(2) d

(3) c (4) b (5) a

Fungal Diseases

(1) b (2) d (3) d (4) b (5) d (6) c (7) c (8) a (9) d (10) d
(11) d (12) d (13) b (14) b (15) d

31. Parasitic Diseases

(1) a (2) b (3) c (4) c (5) d (6) a (7) a (8) c (9) a (10) c
(11) b (12) c (13) d (14) c (15) b (16) b (17) c (18) c
(19) b (20) c (21) a (22) c (23) c (24) c (25) a (26) d
(27) c (28) b (29) a (30) d

Section - D (Special Pathology II, Diseases of poultry, wild,

zoo and laboratory animals)
~2.

Avian inflammation

(1) c (2) d (3) b (4) a (5) d

33.

Pathology of Nutritional Disorders

(1) a (2) d (3) c (4) b (5) d (6) d (7) c (8) d

(9) d (10) c

34. Viral Diseases

(1) c (2) c (3) a (4) b (5) b (6) b (7) a (8) a (9) c (10) b
(11) d (12) a (13) c (14) d (15) b (16) c (17) d (18) a
(19) b (20) b (21) a (22) d (23) b (24) a (25) a (26) a
(27) c (28) b (29) a (30) a
35. Bacterial Diseases
(1) c (2) c (3) a (4) a (5) d .(6) a (7) b (8) c (9) d (10) a
(11) d (12) c (13) b (14) a (15) d

36.

Chlamydial Disease

(1) d (2) c (3) d (4) c (5) a

37. Mycoplasmal Disease
(1) c (2) b (3) a (4) a (5) b
638

Self Assessment - MCQ

38. Spirochaetal Diseases

(1) c (2) c (3) b (4) c (5) c

39.

Fungal Diseases

(1) a (2) a (3) a (4) c (5) a

(6) d (7) d (8) a (9) b (10) c

40. Parasitic Diseases

(1) b (2) c (3) c (4) c (5) b

(6) d (7) b (8) a (9) b (10) a

41. Vices and Miscellaneous Disease Conditions

(1) a (2) d
(10) c

(3) a

(4) b

(5) c

(6) c

(7) a

(8) a

(9) d

42. Pathology of Diseases of Wild and Zoo Animals

(1) b (2) d

(3) b (4) a (5) d

43. Pathology of Diseases of Laboratory Animals

(1) a (2) a (3) c (4) a (5) c
44.
(1) d

(6) a

Cytopathology
(2) d (3) a 4) a (5) c

639

(7) a (8) b (9) d (10) c

"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"

Index
A
Abnormal teeth
Abomasitis
Abortion
Abrachia
Abrasions
Acanthosis nigricans
Acetoacetate
Acidophilic
Actinobacillosis
Actinomyces bovis
Actinomycosis
Acute myositis
Adactylia
Adamantinoma
Adenocarcinoma
Adenoma
Adenomatous goiter
Adhesive pleuritis
Adjuvants
Adult rickets
Aflatoxicosis
African horse sickness
Agenesis
Agglutinins
Agnathia
Agrochemicals
Air sacculitis
Algor mortis
Alkali disease
Allergen
Alveoli
Amprolium
Amyloid infiltration
Anaplasia
Anaplasma marginale
Anaplasmosis
Anchylostomiasis

31
194
239
44
15
142
29
68

371
157
21,372
150
44
299

291
291,295
255
187
127
153
489
339
233,265
129
44
27
466

74
26
132
175
33
64
266

81

43
Androgenic hormones
210,285
Anemia
44
Anencephalia
168
Aneurysm
157
Ankylosing
38
Anoestrus
44
Anophathalmia
31
Anophthalmos
35
Anorexia
368
Anthrax
273
Antioncogenes
265
Aplasia
167,168
Arteriolosclerosis
133
Arthus reaction
83
Asbestosis
414
Ascariasis
396,485
Aspergillosis
25
Aspergillus flavus
25
Aspergtllus ochracheous
179
Aspiration pneumonia
174
Atelectasis
189
Atresia ani
189
Atresia coli
49,265
Atrophy
Autoimmune hemolytic
213
anemia
27,134
Autoimmunity
73
Autolysis
2
Autopsy
454
Avian encephalomyelitis
433
Avian inflammation
441
Avian influenza
444
Avian leucosis
456
Avian pox
451
Avian stunting syndrome
149
Azoturia
92
Azurophilic granules

383

416

641

Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Rer.,iew and Self Assessment

B- haemolytic streptococci
81
Babesia bigemina
81
Babesiosis
133,405
Bacillus anthracis
81
Bacterial diseases
349,463
Balanoposthitis
246
Basal cell carcinoma
290
Benign neoplasms
269
Beryllium granuloma
185
79
Bile pigments
Biliary calculi
122
Bilirubin
79
Biliverdin
79
Biopsy
5
Black disease
378
Black quarter
72,355
Blast injury
15
Blastomyces sp
180
Blastomycosis
115,397
Blue tongue
114,324
Bone marrow atrophy
17
Bordetella bronchiseptica
171
Borrelia ansarina
21
Bos indicus
125
Bostaurus
126
Botriomycosis
373
Botulism
380
Bovine immunodeficiency
321
Bovine leukemia
322
Bovine viral diarrhoea
313
Bradykinin
104,105
Braxy
358
Bronchial asthma
132
Bronchoconstriction
97
Bronchoconstrictor
96
Bronchopneumonia
176
Brucellosis
22,352
Brucellosis
22
Bullet wound
15
Bursitis
219

Cachexia
284
Calcitriol
31
471
Campylobacter hepatitis
Campylobacteriosis
23,369
21
Campylobactor
Candidiasis
394,487
Canine distemper
344
Canine parvoviral infection 346
Canine pellegra
33
Cannibalism
501
Capillaria aerophila
179
Carcinogenesis
272
Cardiac dialation
33
Cardiac temponade
54
Cardiac thrombus
55
Carmine
66
Caseative necrosis
152
Caspases
70
Cataract
258
Catarrhal enteritis
112,1%
Centromere
39
47
Cephalothoracopagus
Cerebrospinal nematodiasis 428
Cervicitis
238
Cestodes
495
Cestodiasis
419
Chediak higashi
syndrome
138,210
2
Chemical pathology
102
Chemokines
Chemotaxis
97
Chicken anemia
461
Chlamydia
157
Chlamydial disease
381,477
Chlamydiosis
381
Cholangiocellular
carcinoma
293
Cholebilirubin
75
123,206
Cholecystitis
Cholelith
122
Cholelithiasis
82
Chondroma and
chondrosarcoma
302

642

Index
Chromatolysis
67
277
Chromosomal defects
Chronic cardiac failure
161
Chronic enteritis
197
Chronic respiratory disease 479
Chylothorax
187
Cirrhosis
205
Claviceps purpura
25
Cleft palate
189
2
Clinical pathology
150
Clostridium chauvoei
24
Clostridium toxins
Clostriduum hemolyticum
81
61
Cloudy swelling
Coagulative necrosis
67
Coccidioidomyces immitis
181
157
Coccidioidomyces sp.
Coccidioidomycosis
398
409,496
Coccidiosis
Coccidiostate
33
Coitus
23
363,464
Colibacillosis
Coligranuloma
466
Colisepticemia
465
Collagenases
97
Colloid goiter
255
Columnar epithelium
51
2
Comparative pathology
Concretions
121
141
Congenital albinism
Congenital alopecia
141
Congenital cutaneous
142
asthenia
Congenital icthyosis
141
Congenital
immunodeficiency
136
Connective tissue tumours
299
ContagiOUS bovine
pleuropneumonia
385
Contagious caprine
pleuropenumonia
386
Contagious ecthyma
325
123
Coproliths

Coronavirus infection
Corynebacterium
diphtheriae
Corynebacterium ovis
Corynebacterium
pseudotuberculosis
Cows and sheep
Coxiella burnetti
Crepitating sound
Crush smear cytology
Cryptococcosis
Cryptorchidism
Cryptosporidiosis
Curled toe paralysis
Cyanocobalamin
Cystic ovaries
Cysticercosis
Cystitis
Cytogenetics
Cytopathology
Cytotoxic reactions
Cytotoxicity

318
113
170
151
382
21
72

518
399
242
414
33
32,34
234

420
231
40

3,515
132
103

D
137
Danish cattle
Decreased spermatogenesis
38
212
Deficiency anemia
Delayed type
144
hypersensitivity
Deletion
42
144
Demodectic sp.
129
Dendritic cells
512
Dermatomycosis
46
Dermoid cyst
257
Developmental anomalies
Dextrocardia
45
Diamond skin disease
360
53,89
Diapedesis
Diarrhoea
286
Dicephalus
46
Dictyocaulus viviparous
184
189
Digestive system
Dinobdella ferox
171
Diprosopus
46

643

Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Dirofilaria immitis
Dirofilariasis
Distomiasis
Dracunculosis
Dry gangrene
Dysplasia
Dystrophic calcification

56
422
412
423
71
266
77

E
Ear
259
Ecchymoses
54
Echinococcosis
421
Ectopia cordis
45
Egg drop syndrome
460
501
Egg eating
Emo globinurea
37
Emphysema
174
Encephalitis
248
Encephalomalacia
249
Encephalomalacia
32
Endocrine system
253
Endometritis
137
Enteric calculi
123
Enteritis
1,87, 511
Enterotoxaemia
165,357
Entomorphthora coronata
146
Enzootic ataxia
37
Eosinophilic granules
93
Eosinophilic inflammation
116
Eosinophilic meningoencephalitis
35
91,116
Eosinophils
323
Ephemeral fever
16
Epidermis
244
Epididymitis
243
Epispadias
171
Epistaxis
290
Epithelial pearls
289
Epithelial tumours
Epitheliogenesis imperfecta 141
94
Epithelioid
111
Epithelioid cells
Equine cutaneous
145
granuloma

336
Equine encephalomyelitis
Equine goiter
255
335
Equine infectious anemia
Equine influenza
334
Equine rhabdomyolysis
149
Equine strongyloidosis
426
Equine viral abortion
340
Equine viral arteritis
337
Erosions
15
Erysipelas rhusiopathae
157
ErySipelothrix rhusiopathe
164
Erythrocytes
34,55,106
Erythrophagocytosis
59
24
Exotoxins
Experimental pathology
1
External hazards
23
Eye
257

F
Familial goiter
Fat necrosis
Fatty animals
Favus
Feline leukemia
Fever
Fibrinogen
Fibrinopeptides
Fibrinous enteritis
Fibrinous pneumonia
Fibrous osteodystrophy
Fine needle aspiration
cytology
Fissure
Flat worms
Flu
Fluorine
Folliculitis
Foot and mouth disease
Foreign body giant cells
Forensic pathology
Fowl cholera
Freemartinism
Fungal diseases
Funiculitis

644

255
69

73
486

347
286

55
106

199
178
152
517
146
495
22
38
147
307
95
3
469
43
393,485
244

Index
Fusarium equiseti
Fusarium sp.
Fusarium tricinctum

71

145
25

G
Gangrene
Gangrenous dermatitis
Gastritis
General pathology
Genital system
Genital system
Glanders
Glaucoma
Glomeruli
Glossitis
Goblet cells
Goiter
Gout
Granuloma
Granulomatous
Granulomatous enteritis
Granulosa cell tumour of
ovary
Guinea pigs diseases

71

145
195
1
233
1
366
259
65
33,88
62
254

83,502
90

112
200
296

514

H
Haemophilus suis
Haemorrhagic myositis
Hagman factor
Hair cell carcinoma
Hair follicles
Hamster diseases
Haptens
Haversian canals
Heat stroke
Hemangioma and
hemangiosarcoma
Hematogenous spread
Hemicrania
Hemoglobinurea.
Hemolysis
Hemolytic anemia
Hemolytic jaundice
Hemoperitonium

186
151
105
290

16
514
126
152
501
304
278
44
36

82
211
81
54

Hemorrhagic anemia
212
Hemorrhagic enteritis
197
Hemorrhagic inflammation 114
Hemorrhagic septicemia
354
Hemosiderosis
78
Hemothorax
187
Hepadna virus
274
Hepatitis
204
Hepatocellular carcinoma
294
Hereditary anemia
209
Hermaphroditism
233
Herpesvirus
275
Herpex simplex virus
23
Heterozygous
40
Hexamitiasis
499
Histomoniasis
498
Histoplasmosis
400,488
Hjarre's disease
466
Hog cholera
330
Homeostasis
3
Humoral pathology
2
Hyaline membrane
pneumonia
179
Hydrocele
57,243
Hydropericardium
163
Hydropericardium
syndrome
458
Hydroperitonium
57
Hydropic degeneration
61
Hydrothorax
58,187
Hydroxybutyrate
29
Hyperadrenocorticism
256
H yperbiliru binemia
79
Hypercalcemia
286
Hyperchromasia
52
Hyperchromatic
63
Hyperirritability
36
Hyper kera tinization
142
Hyperlipimia
29
Hyperparathyroidism
78,256
Hyperpituitarism
253
Hyperplasia
265
Hyperplastic goiter
254
Hypersensitivity pneumonitis 184

645

Text Book o{VeteritUlry Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Hyperthermia
16
Hyperthyroidism
254
Hypertrophy
265
146
Hyphomyces destruens
Hypoadrenocorticism
256
Hypochromic
37
137
Hypogammaglobulinemia
Hypoglycemia
285
Hypomagnesaemia
36
Hypoparathyroidism
255
Hypopituitarism
253
49,233,265
Hypoplasia
Hypospadias
243
Hypostatic congestion
75
17
Hypothermia
Hypothyroidism
254

I
I degree burns
16
Icterus
81
Icterus
79
Idiosyncrasy
14
16
Ii degree bums
16
III degree burns
Immune system
209
Immunodeficiences
136
92
Immunoglobulins
3,131
Immunopathology
140
Immunotoxic effects
Implantation
279
518
Imprint cytology
42
In utero
15
Incised wounds
457
Inclusion body hepatitis
4
Incubation period
Infectious bovine
rhinotracheitis
315
Infectious bronchitis
447
Infectious bursal disease
446
Infectious canine hepatitis 343, 536
Infectious coryza
468
Infectious laryngotracheitis
449
Infectious synovitis
480
Ingluvitis
192

98,103,126
Interleukin
Internal hazards
23
Intersexes
43
Interstitial nephritis
226
Interstitial pneumonia
177
Interventional cytopathology 517
Intrinsic causes
13
Iodine
38
46
Ischiopagus

J
Johne's disease

22,350

K
Kallikrein
Karyolysis
Karyorrhexis
Kennel cough
Keratoconjunctivitis
Ketosis
Kinin system
Klebsiella

104
67
67

173
258
29

104
21

L
Laceration
15
Langhans giant cells
95
Laryngitis
171
Left sided heart failure
161
Leiomyoma and
leiomyosarcoma
303
Leptospira ictehaemmorrhagae 81
Leptospirosis
389
Leucocytosis
216
Leucopenia
216
Leucotriene
97
Libido
38
Lincomycin
26
Lipolysis
29
Lipoma and liposarcoma
301
Lipopolysacharide
93
Liquefactive necrosis
68
Listeriosis
361
Livor mortis
75

646

Index
Lobular pneumonia
Local anemia
Lymphadenitis
Lymphangitis
Lymphocytes
Lymphocytic infiltration
Lymphocytic thyroditis
Lymphofollicular reaction
Lymphokines
Lymphoma and
lymphosarcoma
Lymphosarcoma
Lysins

177
56
218
169
17
134
255
134
97

306

43
129

M
M. Bovis
Maedi
Malabsorption
Male genital system
Malignant catarrhal fever
Malignant melanoma
Malignant neoplasms
Mammary gland
Managemental diseases
Mange
Marble bone disease
Marek's disease
Marek's disease
Mastitis
Mastocytoma
Medial sclerosis
Mega colon
Melanosarcoma
Melena
Meningitis
Mesothelioma
Metaplasia
Metastasis
Metastatic calcification
Metastrongylus apri
Metritis
Microb~al toxins
Micrococci
Microphthalmos

181
327
28
242
312
297
269
295
512
432
154
442
139
241
305
166
189
14
54
250

305
51,266
288

77
179
236
24
122
31

Microscopic pathology
2
Mild irritants
112
Mineral deficiency
437
Monckeberg medial sclerosis 167
149
Monday morning disease
Monoclonal antibody
282
production
97
Monokines
Monosomy
41
Morbidity rate
5
5
Mortality rate
Mouse diseases
513
Mucosal disease
313
401
Mucous mycosis
27
Multiple deficiencies
Mural thrombus
55
Mural vegetative endocarditis 164
28
Muscle wasting
Mycobacterium tuberculosis 21,
24,151,186
21,186
Mycoplasma mycoides
157
Mycoplasma sinoviae
387
Mycoplasmal abortion
385,479
Mycoplasmal diseases
16
Myocardium
87
Myositis
300
Myxoma
63,300
Myxosarcoma

N
126
Natural killer
280
Natural killer cell
Necrobacillosis
374
Necrosis
59
198,470
Necrotic enteritis
26
Neomycin
263
Neoplasm
Neoplasms
283
272
Neoplastic cell genesis
Neoplastic cell metabolism
275
276
Neoplastic cell structure
282
Neoplastic cells
227
Nephrosclerosis
Nephrotoxic
26

647

Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review Ilnd Self Assessment

Nervous system
Neuritis
Newcastle disease
Niacin
Nicotinic
Nocardiosis
Nutritional disorders
Nutritional imbalance
Nutritional pathology
Nyctalopia

247
87,250
439
32
32
375
435
27

2
31

0
Occlusive thrombus
55
490
Ochratoxicosis
143
Oedematous fluid
Oesophagostomiasis
418
171
Oestrus ovis
194
Omasitis
467
Omphalitis
Oncogenic viruses
52
3
Oncology
234
Oophoritis
87
Ophthalmitis
109
Opsonins
138
Opsonization
243
Orchitis
477
Ornithosis
302
Osteoma and osteosarcoma
153
Osteomalacia
154
Osteopetrosis
154
Osteoporosis
86
Otitis
86,259
Otitis extema
260
Otitis intema
260
Otitis media
Ovine pulmonary carcinoma 326
26
Oxytetracy line

p
Pachymeningitis
Pale infarct
Pancreas
Pancreatic calculi
Pancreatitis

86

57
256

123
207

289,295
Papilloma
274
Papova virus
Parainfluenza-3 infection
320
242
Paraphimosis
403,493
Parasitic diseases
199
Parasitic enteritis
Paratuberculosis
350
139
Pasteurella multocida
510
Pasteurellosis
Pasteurlla multocida
113
5
Pathogenicity
217
Pathology of spleen
89
Pavementation
292
Perianal adenoma of dog
162
Pericarditis
115
Perivascular cuffing
37
Perosis
329
Peste de petits in ruminants
54
Petechiae
106
Phagocyosis
109
Phagocytic vacuole
138
Phagocytosis
243
Phallocampsis
242
Phimosis
169
Phlebitis
114
Phlegmon
2
Physiological pathology
124,203
Phytobezoars
121,124
Phytoconcretion
121
Piliconcretion
124,203
Piliconcretions
257
Pineal gland
240
Placentitis
186
Pleurisy
185
Pneumoconiosis
175
Pneumonia
163
Pneumopericardium
187
Pneumothorax
33
Polioencephalomalcia
203
Polybezoars
121
Polyconcretion
214
Polycythemia
45
Polyotia
64
Polysaccharide

648

Index
Polyuria
28
Post-mortem clot
75
Post-mortem emphysema
75
Post-mortem pathology
2
Pox
511
Pregnancy toxaemia
29
Prekallikrein
104
Primary shock
58
39l
Prion diseases
5
Prognosis
287
Prognosis of neoplasms
47
Prosopothoracopagus
%
Prostacylln
246
Prostatitis
4%
Protozoan parasites
Pseudomelanosis
74
Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16,164
Pseudomucin
64
Pseudorabies
333
Pseudotuberculosis
376
144
Psoroptic sp.
51
Pulmonary adenomatosis
175
Pulmonary edema
424
Pulmonary nematodiasis
Pulmonary osteoarthropathy 156
62
Pustule
Putrefaction
74
226
Pyelonephritis
67
Pyknosis
68
Pyknotic
Pyometra
236
46
Pyopagus
187
Pyothorax
Pyrethroids
27
Pyridoxine
33

R
Rabbit diseases
Rabbit syphilis
Rabies
Rachipagus
Ranikhet disease
Rat diseases
Reagin

509

511
341
47
439,536
513
132

Red infarct
Renal tubules
Renarcuatus
Reovirus infection
Retained placenta
Reticulitis
Reticuloendothelial cells
Retinitis
Retrovirus
Rhabdomyoma and
rhabdomysarcoma
Rheumatism
Rhexis
Rhinitis
Rhinosporidiosis
Rhinosporidium sceberi
Riboflavin
Rickettsia
Rickettsial diseases
Right-Sided heart failure
Rigor mortis
Rinderpest
Ringworm
Rotaviral diarrhoea
Rotavirus infection
Roundworms
Rumenitis
Ruminal bacteria
Russell body

57
16
45
450

240
193
59
259
274
303
36

53,89
132
395
171
32
21
383
162
74
310
393
455
317
493
193
37
94

S
55
Saddle thrombus
Salivary calculi
123
22,362,463
Salmonellosis
Salpingitis
235
Sarcoptes scabei
144
151
Sarcosporidia spp
410
Sarcosporidiosis
109
Sauce
172
Schistosoma nasalis
Schistosomiasis
411
291
Sebaceous gland adenoma
Secondary shock
58
37
Selenium

649

Text Book of Veterinary Pathology :Quick Review and Self Assessment

Seminal vesiculitis
245
Seminoma
296
55
Septic thrombus
24
Septicemia
2
Serum
123
Sialolith
83,185
Silicosis
Skeletal deformities
153
59
Sludged blood
65
Smoothly homogenous
24
Snake venom
35
Spasms
41
Species cleansing effect
1
Specific pathology
242
Spermatocele
136
Spermatozoa
427
Spirocercosis
389,483
Spirochaetal disease
21
Spirochaete
217
Splenitis
156
Spondylitis
Spongiform encephalopathy 249,

391
Squamous cell carcinoma
289
51
Squamous epithelium
Squamous metaplasia
30
15
Stab wound
16,114
Staphylococci
373,472
Staphylococcosis
33
Stargazing
431
Stephanofilariasis
365
Strangles
62
Stratum spinosum
16
Streptococci
168
Strongylus vulgaris
38
Suboestrus
54
Suffusions
110
Superoxide dismutase
Sweat gland adenoma
293
360
Swine erysepalas
330
Swine fever
1
Systemic pathology

T-cytotoxic cells
91
T-helper
91
495
Tapeworms
Telangiectasis
169
Tendinitis
88
Testicular hypoplasia
242
359
Tetanus
160
Tetralogy of fallot
404
Theileriosis
Thiaminases
28
Zl
Thiamine deficiency
47
Thoracopagus
285
Thrombocytopenia
1,286
Thrombosis
219
Thymic hyperplasia
38,137
Thymic hypoplasia
483
Tick fever
287
Tnm system
95
Touton giant cells
Toxic aplastic anemia
213
502
Toxic fat syndrome
255
Toxic goiter
3
Toxopathology
Toxoplasmosis
408
Transmissible gastroenteritis 332
495
Trematodes
151
Trichinella spp
430
Trichinosis
Trichomoniasis
407
498
Trichomonosis
417
Trichostrongylosis
429
Trichuriasis
41
Trisomy
169
True aneurysm
403
Trypanosomiasis
133
Trypanosomiosis
115,349,474
Tuberculosis
71
Tuberculous lesions
181
Tuberculous pneumonia
281
Tumour antigens
280
Tumour immunology
114
Turpentine
192
Tympany

650

Index

204
86
510

Typhlitis
Typhlitis
Tyzzer's disease

U
Ulcer
Unconsciousness
United twins
Ureteritis
Urethritis
Urinary calculi
Urolithiasis
Urticaria
Uterus didelphys
Uterus unicomis

147
35
46

230,231
88
121
31,121,229
147
234
233

V
Vaginitis
Valvular thrombus
Van-den-bergh reaction
Varicose veins
Vasoactive amines
Vasoconstrictor
Venereal sarcoma
Vesicular dermatitis

88,238
55
83

169
96
96
298
143

Vesicular exanthema
Vesicular stomatitis
Vices
Viral diseases
Viral nephritis
Viral oncogenesis
Virulence
Viscid
Visna
Vitamin deficiency
Vulvitis

309
308
501
307,439
452
273
6
62
327
435
89

W
White heifer disease
White muscle disease
Wild and zoo animals

233
32,150
505

y
Yersinia
Yersiniosis

21
377

Z
Zeihl neelson
Zoonotic diseases

651

21
2

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