Traverse is a method in the field of surveying to establish control networks.

It is also
used in geodesy.Traverse networks involve placing survey stations along a line or path
of travel, and then using the previously surveyed points as a base for observing the
next point.
In modern mapping, a topographic map is a type of map characterized by large-scale
detail and quantitative representation of relief, usually now using contour lines, but
historically using a variety of methods. Traditional definitions require a topographic
map to show both natural and man-made features
Geoscience Australia develops and maintains topographic maps and data for a variety of applications. Of
course, topographic maps are used for recreational purposes, such as travelling, hiking and orienteering,
but they are also used by government and industry to assist with urban planning, mining, emergency
management and the establishment of legal boundaries and land ownership.
A Detail Survey is about defining the location and heights of any number of variety of features on the
property in question. A contour plan along with the physical features located, are shown on a plan.
This plan can be viewed electronically or on a large format plot. This type of survey is regularly used
when designing for roads, buildings, extensions and other new infrastructure.

planimetric map
(Data West Research Agency definition: see GIS glossary.) A map showing only the horizontal
position of features on the Earth's surface which show geographic objects, natural and cultural
physical features, and entities without topographic features such as roads, buildings, and water
bodies that are visible and identifiable on aerial photographs, but which can be compiled into map
features through photogrammetric or surveying procedures. A planimetrically accurate map showing
planimetric detail and other general features shows accurate horizontal distances between features.
Specialty Definition: PLANIMETRIC MAP
Domain Definition
Geography; A map which presents the horizontal positions only for the features represented;
distinguished from a topographic may by the omission of relief in measurable form. The natural features
usually shown on a planimetric map include rivers, lakes and seas; mountains, valleys and plains; and
forests, prairies, marshes and deserts. The cultural features include cities, farms, transportation routes
and public utility facilities; and political and private boundary lines. Source: European Union. (references)
Mining ;A map that presents only the relative horizontal positions of natural or cultural features, by lines
and symbols. It is distinguished from a topographic map by the omission of relief in measurable
form.Syn:line map. (references)
What is a Topographic Map?
A map is a representation of the Earth, or part of it. The distinctive characteristic of a topographic map is
that the shape of the Earth's surface is shown by contour lines. Contours are imaginary lines that join
points of equal elevation on the surface of the land above or below a reference surface, such as mean
sea level. Contours make it possible to measure the height of mountains, depths of the ocean bottom, and
steepness of slopes.
A topographic map shows more than contours. The map includes symbols that represent such features as
streets, buildings, streams, and vegetation. These symbols are constantly refined to better relate to the

features they represent, improve the appearance or readability of the map, or reduce production cost.
Consequently, within the same series, maps may have slightly different symbols for the same feature.
Examples of symbols that have changed include built-up areas, roads, intermittent drainage, and some
lettering styles. On one type of large-scale topographic map, called provisional, some symbols and
lettering are handdrawn.
Profile Leveling
In surveying, a PROFILE is a vertical section of the earth measured along a predetermined or fixed line. In practice,
profiles are a series of ground elevations determined by differential leveling or other methods that, when plotted
along

Figure 14-16.-Plotted profile and grade lines along a proposed road center line.

Figure 14-17.-Field notes for profile levels shown in figure 14-7.

some line, such as the center line of a road, can be used to determine the final grade or alignment of that road,
railroad, or sewer line. Profiles are also used to compute volumes of earthwork. Figure 14-16 shows a plotted
profile of the existing ground surface along a proposed highway center line. Horizontally on the graph, you read a
succession of 100-ft stations, from 0 + 00 to 19 + 00. Vertically, you read elevations. Note that, horizontally, the
interval between adjacent vertical grid lines represents 25 ft; but vertically the interval between adjacent horizontal
grid lines represents 2.5 ft.
The profile was plotted through a succession of points, each of which was obtained from a profile elevation taken
on the ground. Figure14-17 shows field notes for the levels taken from 0 + 00 through 10 + 00. The level was
first set up at a point about equidistant from station 0 + 00 and from a BM identified as National Geodetic Survey
Monument, Bradley, Missouri. The elevation of the BM was 117.51 ft. The first backsight reading on a rod held on
the BM was 7.42 ft. The height of instrument (HI) was therefore
117.51 + 7.42 = 124.93 ft.

You can see this entered in the "HI" column. From the first instrument setup, FSs were taken on station 0 + 00 and 1
+ 00. The elevationof the station in each case was determined by subtracting the FS reading from the HI. Note
that the FS taken on station 1 + 00 is entered in a column headed "FS, " while the one taken on station 0 + 00 is
entered in a different column, headed "IFS." " IFS" means intermediate FS, or an FS taken on a point that is neither
a BM nor a TP, You can see that station 1 + 00 was used as a TP in shifting the instrument ahead. Only FSS taken
on BMs or TPs are entered in the column headed "FS."
After an FS was taken on station 1 + 00, it became necessary to shift the instrument ahead. Station 1 + 00 was used
as the TP. From the new instrument setup, a BS was taken on a rod held on 1 + 00. The new HI was found by adding
the BS reading to the previously determined elevation of 1 + 00.
From the new setup, an FS was taken on station 2 + 00; again, the elevation was found by subtracting the FS
reading from the HI. After this sight was taken, the instrument was again shifted ahead, probably because of the
steepness of the slope. This time, station 2 + 00 was used as the TP2. From the new setup, a BS was taken on station
2 + 00 and a new HI established. From this setup, it was possible to take FSs on both station 3 + 00 and station 4 +
00. Because station 3 + 00 was not used as a TP, the FS on it was entered under IFS.
Apparently, the slope between station 4 + 00 and station 5 + 00 was so steep that sighting both stations from the
same setup with the rod being used was impossible. Consequently, an inter-mediate TP (TP4) was established at
station 4 + 75 by determining the elevation of this station. The instrument was shifted to a setup from which a BS
could be obtained on a rod held on this station and from which FSs on stations 5 + 00, 6 + 00, 7 + 00, and 8 + 00
could be taken, Station 8 + 00 was then used as a TP for the last shift ahead. From this last setup, it was possible to
take FSs on stations 9 + 00 and 10 + 00. As a check on the arithmetic, you customarily check each page of level
notes to check the difference between the sum of the FSs and the sum of the BSs against the difference in
elevation between the initial BM or TP and final BM or TP. Obviously, only the BSs and FSs taken on BMs and TPs
are relevant to this check, This is thereason why intermediate FSS not taken on BMs or TPs are entered in a separate
column.
If the arithmetic is correct, the two differences will be the same. As you can see, the sum of the relevant BSs in
figure 14-17 is 39.63; the sum of the FSs is 27.70; and the difference between the two is 11.93. Note that from this
difference, the BS taken on TP5 is deducted. The reason is the fact that this BS is not offset by a corresponding FS
on a BM or TP. With the BS taken on TP5 deducted, the difference between the sum of the FSs and the sum of the
BSs is 6.86. The difference between the elevation of TP5 and the elevation of the initial BM is 6.86, so the arithmetic
checks. Remember that this procedure provides a check on the arithmetic only. If you have recorded any incorrect
values, the arithmetic will check out just as well as when you have recorded the correct values. The procedure is
valuable, however, for detecting two mistakes commonly made by beginners. These are subtracting a BS
from, instead of adding it to, a BM elevation to get the HI; and adding an FS to, instead of subtracting it from, the
HI to get an elevation.

3.1 Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

Center line alignment influences haul cost, construction cost, and environmental cost (e.g., erosion,
sedimentation). During the reconnaissance phase and pre-construction survey the preliminary center line

has been established on the ground. During that phase basic decisions regarding horizontal and vertical
alignment have already been made and their effects on haul, construction, and environmental costs. The
road design is the phase where those "field" decisions are refined, finalized and documented.

3.1.1 Horizontal Alignment Considerations

The preferred method for locating low volume roads discussed in Section 2.3, the so called non-geometric
or "free alignment" method, emphasizes the importance of adjusting the road alignment to the constraints
imposed by the terrain. The main difference between this and conventional road design methods is that
with the former method, the laying out and designing of the centerline offset is done in the field by the
road locator while substantial horizontal offsets are often required with the latter method (Figure 25).
Figure 25. Non-geometric and conventional p-line traverses.

Adjustments in horizontal alignment can help reduce the potential for generating roadway sediment. The
objective in manipulating horizontal alignment is to strive to minimize roadway cuts and fills and to avoid
unstable areas. When unstable or steep slopes must be traversed, adjustments in vertical alignment can
minimize impacts and produce a stable road by reducing cuts and fills. The route can also be positioned
on more stable ground such as ridgetops or benches. Short, steep pitches used to reach stable terrain
must be matched with a surface treatment that will withstand excessive wear and reduce the potential for
surface erosion. On level ground, adequate drainage must be provided to prevent ponding and reduce
subgrade saturation. This can be accomplished by establishing a minimum grade of 2 percent and by
rolling the grade.
Achieving the required objectives for alignment requires that a slightly more thoughtful preliminary survey
be completed than would be done for a more conventionally designed road. There are two commonly
accepted approaches for this type of survey: the grade or contour location method (used when grade is
controlling), or the centerline location method (used when grades are light and alignment is controlling).
Figure 26 illustrates design adjustments that can be made in the field using the non-geometric design
concept discussed earlier.
Figure 26. Design adjustments.

Equipment needed for ether method may include a staff compass, two Abney levels or clinometers,
fiberglass engineer's tape (30 or 50 m), a range rod, engineering field tables, notebook, maps, photos,
crayons, stakes, flagging, and pencils. The gradeline or contour method establishes the location of the Pline by connecting two control points with a grade line. A crew equipped with levels or clinometers
traverses this line with tangents that follow, as closely as possible, the contours of the ground. Each
section is noted and staked for mass balance calculations. Centerline stakes should be set at even 25 and 50 - meter stations when practicable and intermediate stakes set at significant breaks in topography
and at other points, such as breaks where excavation goes from cut to fill, locations of culverts, or
significant obstructions.
On gentle topography with slopes less than 30 percent and grade is not a controlling factor, the centerline
method may be used. Controlling tangents are connected by curves established on the ground. The
terrain must be gentle enough so that by rolling grades along the horizontal alignment, the vertical
alignment will meet minimum requirements. In general, this method may be less practical than the
gradeline method for most forested areas.
When sideslopes exceed 50 - 55 percent or when unstable slope conditions are present, it may be
necessary to consider full bench construction shown in Figure 27. Excavated material in this case must
be end hauled to a safe location. Normally, the goal of the road engineer is to balance earthwork so that
the volume of fill equals the volume of cut plus any gain from bulking less any loss from shrinkage (Figure
28).
Road design, through its elements such as template (width, full bench/side cast), curve widening and
grade affect the potential for erosion. Erosion rates are directly proportional to the total exposed area in
cuts and fills. Road cuts and fills tend to increase with smooth, horizontal and vertical alignment.
Conversely, short vertical and horizontal tangents tend to reduce cuts and fills. Erosion rates can be
expected to be lower in the latter case. Prior to the design phase it should be clearly stated which
alignment, horizontal or vertical, takes precedence. For example, if the tag line has been located at or
near the permissible maximum grade, the vertical alignment will govern. Truck speeds in this case are
governed by grade and not curvature. Therefore, horizontal alignment of the center line can follow the
topography very closely in order to minimize earthwork. Self balancing sections would be achieved by
shifting the template horizontally.

The degree of curvature is defined as the central angle to the ends of an arc or chord of agreed
length.[1] Various lengths are commonly used in different areas of practice. This angle is also the
change in forward direction as that portion of the curve is traveled.

The degree of curvature is customarily defined in the United States as the central angle D subtended by
a chord of 100 feet. The reason for the choice of the chord rather than the actual length of circumference
is that the chord can be measured easily and directly simply by stretching the tape between its ends. A
railway is laid out in lengths called stations of one tape length, or 100 feet. This continues through curves,
so that the length is always the length of a series of straight lines that can be directly measured. The
difference between this length, and the actual length following the curves, is inconsequential, while the
use of the polygonal length simplifies the calculations and measurements greatly.