Edexcel A Level

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AS

Graham Curtis
Andrew Hunt

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Contents
Get the most from this book
Prior knowledge

1 Atomic structure and the Periodic Table

2 Bonding and structure

3 Redox I

4 Inorganic chemistry and the Periodic Table

5 Formulae, equations and amounts of substance

6.1 Introduction to organic chemistry

6.2 Hydrocarbons: alkanes and alkenes

6.3 Halogenoalkanes and alcohols

7 Modern analytical techniques I

8 Energetics I

9 Kinetics I

10 Equilibrium I
Appendix

1 Practical skills

2 Maths for Chemistry

3 Preparing for practical assessment

4 Preparing for the examination

Periodic Table
Index
Acknowledgements
QR codes

Formulae, equations and

amounts of substance
5.1 Understanding chemical quantities
Chemists often need to measure how much of a particular chemical there is in a
sample. Analysts in pharmaceutical companies, for example, test samples of tablets
and medicines to check that they contain the right amount of a drug. Industrial
chemists measure the amounts of substances they need for chemical processes.
Laboratory chemists calculate the yield of product they expect when they mix
measured quantities of the reactants for a synthesis. In these, and many other
contexts, chemists have to be able to measure amounts of substances accurately.

Chemical amounts
Key terms
Amount of substance is a
physical quantity (symbol
n) which is measured in
the unit mole (symbol
mol).

Key terms
Relative atomic mass, Ar,
is the average mass of an
element reletive to 1/12th
of the mass of an atom of
the isotope carbon-12. The
values are relative so they
do not have units.

Key terms
Molar mass is the mass
of one mole of a chemical
the unit is g mol-1.
As always with molar
amounts, the symbol or
formula of the chemical
must be specified.

In chemistry, the amount of a substance is measured in moles. Chemists use the

unit mole to measure an amount of substance containing a standard number of
atoms, molecules or ions. The word mole entered the language of chemistry at the
end of the nineteenth century. It is based on the Latin word for a heap or a pile.
When chemists are determining formulae or working with equations, they need to
measure amounts in moles. Chemists have balances to measure masses and graduated
containers to measure volumes, but there is no instrument for measuring chemical
amounts directly. Instead, chemists must first measure the masses or volumes of
substances and then calculate the chemical amounts.

Molar masses
The key to working with chemical amounts in moles is to know the relative masses
of different atoms. The accurate method for determining relative atomic masses
involves the use of a mass spectrometer (Section 1.3).
One mole of an element has a mass that is equal to its relative atomic mass in grams.
So, the mass of one mole of carbon is 12.0 g and the mass of one mole of copper is
63.5 g. These masses of one mole are called molar masses (symbol M). So, the
molar mass of carbon, M(C) = 12.0 g mol-1 and the molar mass of copper, M(Cu)
= 63.5 g mol-1 (Figure 5.1).
Similarly the molar mass of the molecules of an element or a compound is numerically
equal to its relative molecular mass. So, the molar mass of oxygen molecules, M(O2 )
= 32.0 g mol-1 and the molar mass of sulfuric acid, M(H2SO4 ) = 98.1 g mol-1.
Likewise, the molar mass of an ionic compound is numerically equal to its relative
formula mass. The molar mass of magnesium nitrate, Mg(NO3) 2, is therefore
148.3 g mol-1 (Figure 5.2).

5 Formulae, equations and amounts of substance

iron 55.8g

carbon 12.0g

sulfur 32.1g

mercury 200.6g
copper 63.5g

hydrated cobalt nitrate

Co(NO3)2.6H2O = 290.9g

iron(iii) chloride
FeCl3 = 162.3g

sodium choride
NaCl = 58.5g

potassium manganate(vii)
KMnO4 = 158.0g

potassium iodide
KI = 166.0g

aluminium 27.0g

Figure 5.1 One mole amounts of copper, carbon, iron,

aluminium, mercury and sulfur

hydrated copper(ii) sulfate

CuSO4.5H2O = 249.6g

Figure 5.2 One mole amounts of some ionic compounds

Tip

Amount in moles
The mole is the SI unit for amount of substance. The name of the quantity is mole.
Its unit is mol. So,
12g of carbon contains 1mol of carbon atoms
24g of carbon contains 2mol of carbon atoms
240g of carbon contains 20mol of carbon atoms.
Notice that:
mass of substance/g
amount of substance/mol =

molar mass/gmol1

Section MiC.5 of the

maths chapter on page
xx gives advice on how
to work out the value of
maths equations with
brackets and combinations
of multiplication and
addition.

Key terms

It is important to be precise about the chemical species involved when measuring

amounts in moles. In calcium chloride, CaCl 2, for example, there are two chloride
ions, Cl, combined with each calcium ion, Ca 2+. So in one mole of calcium chloride
there is one mole of calcium ions and two moles of chloride ions.

The Avogadro constant

Relative atomic masses show that one atom of carbon is 12 times heavier than one atom
of hydrogen. This means that 12g of carbon contains the same number of atoms as 1g of
hydrogen. Similarly, one atom of oxygen is 16 times as heavy as one atom of hydrogen,
so 16g of oxygen also contains the same number of atoms as 1g of hydrogen.
In fact, the molar mass of every element (1g of hydrogen, 12g carbon, 16g oxygen,
and so on) contains the same number of atoms. This number is called the Avogadro
constant, after the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro. Experiments show that the
Avogadro constant, L, is 6.021023mol1. Written out in full this is
602000000000000000000000 atoms, molecules or ions per mole.
The Avogadro constant is the number of atoms, molecules or formula units in
one mole of any substance. So, one mole of oxygen (O2 ) contains 6.021023 O2
molecules and two moles of oxygen (O2 ) contains 2 6.021023 O2 molecules.
The number of atoms, molecules or formula units =
amount of chemical/mol the Avogadro constant/mol1

The term species is a

useful collective noun
used by chemists to
refer generally to atoms,
molecules or ions.

Tip
Section MiC.4 of the
maths chapter on
page xx gives help with
substituting values into
mathematical formulae.

Key terms
The Avogadro constant
is the number of atoms,
molecules or ions in one
mole of a substance. The
constant has the unit mol1.

5.1 Understanding chemical quantities

Again, it is vital to specify the chemical species concerned in calculating the amount
of a substance or the number of particles in a sample of a substance. For example,
2g of hydrogen contains 2mol of hydrogen (H) atoms (12.041023 atoms) but only
1mol of hydrogen (H2 ) molecules (6.021023 molecules).

Test yourself
1 What is the amount, in moles, of:
a) 20.05g of calcium atoms
b) 3.995g of bromine atoms
c) 159.8g of bromine molecules
d) 6.41g of sulfur dioxide molecules
e) 10g of sodium hydroxide, NaOH?
2 What is the mass of:
a) 0.1mol of iodine atoms
b) 0.25mol of chlorine molecules
c) 2mol of water molecules
d) 0.01mol of ammonium chloride, NH4Cl
e) 0.125mol of sulfate ions, SO42?
3 How many moles of:
a) sodium ions are there in 1mol of sodium carbonate, Na2CO3
b) bromide ions are there in 0.5mol of barium bromide, BaBr2
c) nitrogen atoms are there in 2mol of ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3?
4 Use the Avogadro constant to calculate:
a) the number of chloride ions in 0.5mol of sodium chloride, NaCl
b) the number of oxygen atoms in 2mol of oxygen molecules, O2
c) the number of sulfate ions in 3mol of aluminium sulfate, Al2(SO4)3.

Key terms
An empirical formula
shows the simplest whole
number ratio of the atoms
of different elements in a
compound; for example,
CH4 for methane and CH3
for ethane.

Tip
Section MiC.3 of the
maths chapter on
page xx gives help with
calculations involving ratio
and proportion.

5.2 Finding empirical formulae

Although the formulae of most compounds can be predicted, the only sure way of
determining the formula of a substance is by experiment. This has been done for all
common compounds and their formulae can be checked in tables of data.
Empirical evidence is information based on experience or experiment, so chemists
use the term empirical formulae for formulae calculated from the results of
experiments.
An experiment to find an empirical formula involves measuring the masses of
elements which combine in the compound. From these masses, it is possible to
calculate the number of moles of atoms which react, and hence the ratio of atoms
which react. This gives an empirical formula which shows the simplest whole
number ratio for the atoms of different elements in a compound.

5 Formulae, equations and amounts of substance

Example
Analysis of 20.1g of an iron bromide sample showed that it contained 3.80g of
iron and 16.3g of bromine. What is its empirical formula?

Notes on the method

The molar masses of the elements come from a table of data.
Convert the masses in grams to amounts in moles by dividing by the molar masses
of the atoms of the elements.
Divide the amounts by the smaller of the amounts to find the simplest whole
number ratio.

Answer

iron

bromine

Combined masses

3.80g

16.3g

Molar mass

55.8gmol1

79.9gmol1

3.80g

16.3g
Combined moles of atoms
= 0.0681mol
= 0.204mol

55.8gmol1
79.9gmol1
0.0681

Ratio of combined atoms
= 1.00

0.0681

0.204
= 2.996 = 3.00
0.0681

Simplest whole number ratio of atoms is 1:3

So, the empirical formula is FeBr3.

Percentage composition
Sometimes, the results of an analysis of a compound show the percentages of the different
elements, rather than their masses. This is the percentage composition of the
compound. The empirical formula of the compound can be calculated from these results.

Key terms
Percentage composition
is the percentage by mass
of each of the elements in
a sample of a compound.

Example
What is the empirical formula of copper pyrites which has the analysis 34.6%
copper, 30.5% iron and 34.9% sulfur?

Notes on the method

Follow the procedure in the example for finding an empirical formula. The percentages,
in effect, show the combining masses in a 100g sample of the compound.

Answer

copper iron

sulfur

Combining masses

34.6g

30.5g

34.9g

Molar masses of elements 63.5gmol1

55.8gmol1

32.1gmol1

Amounts combined

34.6g
63.5gmol1

30.5g
55.8gmol1

34.9g
32.1gmol1

= 0.545mol

= 0.546mol

= 1.09mol

Simplest whole number ratio of amounts is 1:1:2

The empirical formula is CuFeS2.
5.2 Finding empirical formulae

Test yourself
5 What is the empirical formula of the compound in which:
a) 0.6g carbon combines with 0.2g hydrogen
b) 1.02g vanadium combines with 2.84g chlorine
c) 1.38g sodium combines with 0.96g sulfur and 1.92g oxygen?
6 What is the empirical formula of the compound in which the percentages of the
elements present are:
a) 2.04% hydrogen, 32.65% sulfur and 65.31% oxygen
b) 52.18% carbon, 13.04% hydrogen and 34.78% oxygen?

Activity
red copper oxide

Finding the formula of

red copper oxide
A group of students investigated
the formula of red copper oxide by
reducing it to copper using natural
gas as shown in Figure 5.3.
The experiment was carried out
five times, starting with different
amounts of red copper oxide. The
results are shown in Table 5.1.

combustion tube

excess natural
gas burning

natural
gas

strong heat

Figure 5.3 Reducing red copper oxide by heating in natural gas.

Table 5.1

b) Enter a formula in column 5 to find the amount of

copper in moles in the oxide.
Experiment
Mass of copper in Mass of red
number
the oxide/g
copper oxide/g
c) Enter a formula in column 6 to find the amount of
oxygen in moles in the oxide.
01.221.27
Edexcel Chemistry for AS
1
1.43
Barking Dog Art
5 From the spreadsheet, plot a line graph of amount of
2
2.14
1.90
copper ( y-axis) against amount of oxygen (x-axis). Print
out your graph. If you cannot plot graphs directly from the
3
2.86
2.54
spreadsheet, draw the graph by hand.
4
3.55
3.27
6 Which of the points should be disregarded in drawing the
5
4.29
3.81
line of best fit?
7 a) What, from your graph, is the average value of the ratio:
1 Look at Figure 5.3. What safety precautions should the

amount of copper/mol
?
students take during the experiments?

amount of oxygen/mol
2 What steps should the students take to ensure that all the
b) How much copper, in moles, combines with one mole of
copper oxide is reduced to copper?
oxygen in red copper oxide?
3 Start a spreadsheet program on a computer and open up
c) What is the formula of red copper oxide?
a new spreadsheet for your results. Enter the experiment
8 Give reasons why the student could claim that his answer
numbers and the masses of copper oxide and copper in
for the formula of the oxide was valid?
the first three columns of your spreadsheet, as in Table 5.1.
9 Write a word equation, and then a balanced equation, for
4 a) Enter a formula in column 4 to work out the mass of
the reduction of red copper oxide to copper using methane
oxygen in the red copper oxide used.
(CH4) in natural gas. (Hint: The only solid product is copper.)

5 Formulae, equations and amounts of substance

5.3 Amounts of gases

Gases and the gas laws
The Irish chemist Robert Boyle (162791) was one of the first people to investigate
the effect of pressure on the volume of gases. About a hundred years after, in the
late 18th century, the hot air balloon ights of the Montgoler brothers stimulated
scientists to study the behaviour of gases. Two of these scientists were French: Joseph
Gay-Lussac (17781850) and Jacques Charles (17461823). They were particularly
interested in the variation of the volumes of gases with temperature. Jacques Charles
put his theories to the test and in 1783 made the rst ascent in a hydrogen balloon.
Meanwhile the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro (17761856) proposed the law
that equal volumes of all gases, at the same temperature and pressure, contain the
same number of molecules.

Tip
You are not expected to
be able to recall the ideal
gas equation or use it in
calculations. However it is
a very important equation
so it can be helpful to be
familiar with it.

These scientists discovered the gas laws that show how the volume, V, of a sample
of gas depends on three things:

Key terms

the temperature, T
l the pressure, p
l the amount of gas in moles, n.

The gas laws describe the

behaviour of gases and are
summarised by the ideal
gas equation.

Real and ideal gases

Ideal gases are gases

which obey the ideal gas
equation. In practice, real
gases deviate to at least
some extent from ideal
behaviour.

Scientists have the concept of an ideal gas which obeys the gas laws perfectly.
In practice, real gases do not obey the laws under all conditions. Under laboratory
conditions, however, there are gases which are close to behaving like an ideal gas.
These are the gases which, at room temperature, are well above their boiling points,
such as helium, nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen.
Chemists generally nd that the gas laws predict the behaviour of real gases accurately
enough to make them a useful practical guide, but it is important to bear in mind
that gases such as ammonia, butane, sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide can show
marked deviations from ideal behaviour. These are the gases which boil only a little
below room temperature and can be liqueed just by raising the pressure.

The ideal gas equation

The behaviour of an ideal gas can be summed up by combining the gas laws into a
single equation called the ideal gas equation:
pV = nRT
This equation sums up all the gas laws.
When SI units are used, the pressure is measured in pascals, Pa, the volume in
cubic metres, m3, and the temperature in kelvin, K. R, in the ideal gas equation, is
the gas constant. R has the value 8.31Jmol1K1 if all quantities are in SI units.

SI units are the

internationally agreed units
for measurement in science.
Pressure is defined as force
per unit area. The SI unit
of pressure is the pascal
(Pa) which is a pressure
of one newton per square
metre (1Nm2). The pascal
is a very small unit and
so pressures are often
quoted at kilopascals (kPa).
Atmospheric pressure is
measure in bar: 1bar =
100000Pa = 100kPa.

5.3 Amounts of gases

Key terms

Test yourself

Volume is the amount

of space taken up by a
sample. The SI unit of
volume is the cubic metre
(m3). Chemists generally
measure volumes in cubic
decimetres (dm3) or cubic
centimetres (cm3): 1dm
= 10cm and so 1dm3 =
10cm 10cm 10cm
= 1000cm3; 1dm3 is the
same volume as a litre;
1m = 10dm so 1m3 =
103dm3 = 106cm3.

7 What are the values of these temperatures on the Kelvin scale?

The kelvin is the SI

unit of temperature on
the absolute, or Kelvin,
temperature scale. On this
scale, absolute zero is 0K,
water freezes at 273K and
boils at 373K.

Key terms
The molar volume of a
gas is the volume of 1
mole of the gas under
stated conditions. At
room temperature and
atmospheric pressure, the
molar volume of all gases
is 24dm3mol1.

a) boiling temperature of nitrogen, 196C

b) boiling temperature of butane, 0.5C
c) melting temperature of sucrose, 186C
d) melting temperature of iron, 1540C
8 According to the ideal gas equation what is the relationship between:
a) the volume of a gas and its temperature if the pressure and the amount of
the gas are constant
b) the pressure and the volume of a gas if the temperature and the amount of
the gas are constant
c) the volume and the amount of gas if the pressure and the temperature are
constant?

The molar volume of gases

The ideal gas equation shows that at a fixed temperature and fixed pressure, the
volume of a gas depends only on the amount of gas in moles; the type or the formula
of the gas does not matter. This is only strictly true for ideal gases but is nevertheless
useful when dealing with real gases.
Substituting in the ideal gas equation makes it possible to calculate the volume of
one mole of gas under any conditions. This shows that the volume of one mole of
any gas occupies about 24dm3 (24000cm3) at a typical room temperature of around
16C (298K) and at atmospheric pressure (100kPa). This volume of one mole of gas
is called the molar volume under the stated conditions.
So, 1 mole of oxygen (O2 ) and 1 mole of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) each occupy 24dm3
at room temperature. Therefore 2 moles of O2 occupy 48dm 3 and 0.5 moles of O2
occupy 12dm3 at room temperature. Notice from these simple calculations that:
volume of gas/cm 3 = amount of gas/mol molar volume/cm3mol1
So, under laboratory conditions at room temperature:
volume of gas/cm3 = amount of gas/mol 24000/cm3mol1

Test yourself
9 What is the amount, in moles, of gas at room temperature and pressure in:
a) 240000cm3 chlorine
b) 48cm3 hydrogen
c) 3dm3 ammonia?
10 What are the volumes in cm3 of the following amounts of gas at room
temperature and pressure:
a) 2mol nitrogen
b) 0.0002mol neon
c) 0.125mol carbon dioxide?

5 Formulae, equations and amounts of substance

Activity
Core practical: Measuring the molar volume of a gas
The syringe shown in Figure 5.4 is used in an experiment to measure the molar volume of
several gases. The procedure is outlined in steps A I. Sample results are given in Table 5.2.
50 cm3 plastic syringe

hypodermic needle
nail to hold the plunger at the 50 cm3 mark

Figure 5.4 Plastic syringe with nail to lock the plunger at the 50cm3 mark

A Remove the nail and needle. Fill the syringe to the 50cm3 mark. Block the nozzle by pushing
the needle into a small rubber bung. Check that the plunger returns to the 50cm3 mark after
pushing in the plunger by 10cm3 and releasing, and after pulling out the plunger by 10cm3
and releasing.
B Push in the plunger to empty the syringe. Block the nozzle of the needle with the rubber bung.
C Pull out the plunger and lock it at the 50cm3 mark with the nail.
D Measure and record the mass of the syringe, stopper and nail using a three-place balance.
E Remove the rubber stopper from the needle and the nail from the plunger. Push in the
plunger completely.
F Insert the needle, through a self-sealing cap, into a plastic bag containing one of the gases.
Draw 50cm3 gas into the syringe.
G Seal the gas by sticking the needle into the rubber bung again and use the nail to lock the
syringe.
H Measure and record the mass of the syringe, bung and nail.
I Flush out the gas and repeat the procedure with another gas.
Table 5.2 Results recorded at room temperature and pressure.

Mass/g
syringe + bung + nail (step D)

142.213

syringe + bung + nail + carbon dioxide

142.302

syringe + bung + nail + methane

142.247

syringe + bung + nail + butane

142.322

1 Explain the purpose of step A.

2 What was in the syringe at the end of step C, and why is it necessary to lock the plunger with
the nail at the end of this step.
3 Why is the syringe weighed in step B with the plunger pulled out, rather than weighing the
empty syringe with the plunger pushed in?
4 How might a bag be filled with a dry sample of carbon dioxide if the gas is not available from
a cylinder? Why must the gas be dry?
5 Use the results in Table 5.2 to determine the molar volumes of the three gases.
6 Why is it necessary to use a three-place balance to measure the masses?
7 What are the main sources of measurement uncertainty in this experiment?
8 How might the procedure be modified to reduce the measurement uncertainty in the results.
5.3 Amounts of gases

5.4 Calculations from equations

An equation is more than a useful shorthand for describing what happens during a
reaction. In industry, in medicine and anywhere that chemists make products from
reactants, it is vitally important to know the amounts of reactants that are needed for
a chemical process and the amount of product that can be obtained. Chemists can
calculate these amounts using equations.

Calculating the masses of reactants and products

There are four key steps in solving problems using equations.
Step 1: Write the balanced equation for the reaction.
Step 2: Write down the amounts in moles of the relevant reactants and products in
the equation.
Step 3: Convert these amounts in moles of the relevant reactants and products to
masses.
Step 4: Scale the masses to the quantities required.

Example
What mass of iron can be obtained from 1.0kg of iron(iii) oxide (iron ore)?

Notes on the method

Only do the calculation for the substances in the equation that affect the answer. In
this instance, the CO and CO2 can be ignored.
In Step 2, you obtain the numbers of moles from the numbers in front of the
formulae for the substances. The number is 1 if there is no number in front of the
formula.
Look up the relative atomic masses of the elements in the Periodic Table so that
you can work out the molar masses.
The proportions are the same whether the mass of iron oxide is 1.0g or 1.0kg
(1000g).

Answer
Step 1: Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
Step 2: 1mol Fe2O3 2mol Fe
Step 3: M(Fe2O3) = (2 55.8gmol1) + (3 16.0gmol1)

= 111.6 + 48.0 = 159.6gmol1

So, 159.6g Fe2O3 2 55.8g Fe = 111.6g Fe

Step 4: 159.6g Fe2O3 111.6g Fe

111.6
g Fe
1.0g Fe2O3
159.6
= 0.70g Fe (giving the answer to two significant figures)
Similarly, 1.0kg of iron(iii) oxide produces 0.70kg of iron.

10

5 Formulae, equations and amounts of substance

Test yourself
11 What mass of calcium oxide, CaO, forms when 25g calcium carbonate, CaCO3,
decomposes on heating?
12 What mass of sulfur combines with 8.0g copper to form copper(i) sulfide,
Cu2S?
13 What mass of sulfur is needed to produce 1kg of sulfuric acid, H2SO4?

Measuring the volumes of gases in reactions

The apparatus in Figure 5.5 can be used to measure the reacting volumes of dry
ammonia gas (NH3) and dry hydrogen chloride gas (HCl).

Syringe A

100

75

50

dry hydrogen chloride

25

3-way tap

25

50

75

100

dry ammonia

Syringe B

Figure 5.5 Measuring the reacting volumes of ammonia and hydrogen chloride.

When 30cm3 of ammonia gas and 50cm3 of hydrogen chloride gas are mixed,
ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) forms as a white solid. The volume of this solid is
insignificant compared to the volume of the gases. The volume of gas remaining is
20cm3, which turns out to be excess hydrogen chloride.
So,
30cm3 of NH3 reacts with 30cm3 of HCl
1cm3 of NH3 reacts with 1cm3 of HCl
and 24dm3 of NH3 reacts with 24dm3 of HCl.
This shows that 1mol of NH3 reacts with 1mol of HCl.
Notice that the ratio of the reacting volumes of these gases is the same as the ratio of
the reacting amounts in moles shown in the equation for the reaction. This is always
the case when gases react.
NH3 (g) + HCl(g) NH4Cl(s)
1mol
1mol
1 volume 1 volume

Gas volume calculations

Gas volume calculations are straightforward when all the relevant substances are
gases. In these cases, the ratio of the gas volumes in the reaction is the same as the
ratio of the numbers of moles in the equation. This is the case because the volume
of a gas, under given conditions of temperature and pressure, depends only on the
amount of the gas and not on the type of gas.

5.4 Calculations from equations

11

Tip

Example

Remember that you

cannot ignore the
volume of water in a gas
volume calculation if the
temperature is above
100C and the water is in
the gas state.

What volume of oxygen reacts with 60cm3 methane and what volume of carbon
dioxide is produced if all volumes are measured at the same temperature and
pressure?

Notes on the method

Write the balanced equation.
Note that below 100C the water formed condenses to an insignificant volume of
liquid.
Apply the rule that the ratios of gas volumes are the same as the ratio of the
amounts in moles if measured under the same conditions of temperature and
pressure.

Answer
The equation for the reaction is:
CH4(g)

2O2(g)

1mol

CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

2mol

1mol

1 volume 2 volumes

1 volume

So, 60cm3 methane reacts with 120cm3 oxygen to produce 60cm3 carbon
dioxide.

The other approach to gas volume calculations also is based on the fact that the
volume of a gas, under given conditions, depends only on the amount of gas in
moles. The molar volume of a gas can be used to convert the amounts of gases
shown in equations to volumes.

Example
What volume of hydrogen is produced under laboratory
conditions when 0.024g magnesium reacts with excess
hydrochloric acid (Figure 5.6).

graduated 100 cm3 syringe

Notes on the method

Start by writing the equation for the reaction.
Convert the mass of magnesium to an amount in moles.
Use the equation to determine the amount of gas formed,
in moles.
Multiply the amount of gas in moles by the molar volume
under the conditions of the expreiment. The molar volume is
24000cm3 at room temperature and pressure.

12

5 Formulae, equations and amounts of substance

dilute hydrochloric acid

small piece of magnesium

Figure 5.6 Apparatus for measuring the volume of

gas formed when a metal reacts with an acid.

Answer
The equation for the reaction is:
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
The amount of magnesium = 0.024g 24gmol1 = 0.001mol
From the equation, 1mol magnesium produces 1mol hydrogen.
Volume of hydrogen = 0.001mol 24000cm3mol1 = 24cm3

Test yourself
14 Assuming that all gas volumes are measured under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure, what volume of:
a) nitrogen forms when 2dm3 ammonia gas, NH3, decomposes into its
elements
b) oxygen is needed to react with 50cm3 ethane, C2H6, when it burns, and
what volume of carbon dioxide forms?
15 a) Copy and balance this equation for the complete combustion of propane
(Calor gas).

C3H8(g) + ___O2(g) __CO2(g) + __H2O(g)

b) What volume of oxygen reacts with 200cm3 of propane and what volume of
carbon dioxide is produced? (Assume that all volumes are measured at room
temperature and pressure.)
c) What is the mass of the carbon dioxide produced?
16 What volume of gas forms at room temperature and pressure when:
a) 0.654g of zinc reacts with excess dilute hydrochloric acid
b) 2.022g of potassium nitrate, KNO3, decomposes on heating to potassium
nitrite, KNO2, and oxygen?

5.5 Amounts in solutions

The concentration of a solution shows how much solute is dissolved in a certain
volume of solution. It can be measured in grams per cubic decimetre (gdm3) but in
chemistry it is more useful to measure concentrations in moles per cubic decimetre
(moldm3). For example, a solution of sodium hydroxide containing 1.0moldm3
has one mole of sodium hydroxide (40g of NaOH) in 1dm3 (1000cm3) of solution.

Key terms
Concentration/gdm3=
mass of solute/g
volume of solution/dm3
Concentration/moldm3 =
amount of solute/mol
volume of solution/dm3

5.5 Amounts in solutions

13

Tip

Example

Concentrations are
measured in moles per
dm3 of solution not per
dm3 of water used to make
up the solution. This is
because there are small
volume changes when
solutes dissolve in water.

A car battery contains 2350g of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) in 6.0dm3 of the battery
liquid. What is the concentration of sulfuric acid in
a) gdm3
b) moldm3?

Notes on the method

Divide the mass in grams of solute by the volume in dm3 to find the concentration
in gdm3.
Divide the mass of solute by its molar mass to find its amount in moles.
Divide the amount in moles of solute by the volume in dm3 to find the
concentration in moldm3.

Answer
mass of solute/g
a) Concentration of the acid/gdm3 =
volume of solution/dm3

2350g
=
6.0dm3

= 392gdm3
M(H2SO4) = 98.1gmol1

b)

2350g
So, amount of H2SO4 in the battery =

98.1gmol1

= 24.0mol

amount of solute/mol
Concentration =
volume of solution/dm3

= 24.0mol / 6.0dm3

= 4.0moldm3

When ionic compounds dissolve, the ions separate in the solution.

For example:
aq

CaCl 2 (s) Ca 2+(aq) + 2Cl (aq)

So, if the concentration of CaCl 2 is 0.1moldm3, then the concentration of Ca 2+ is
also 0.1moldm3, but the concentration of Cl is 0.2moldm3.

14

5 Formulae, equations and amounts of substance

Test yourself
17 What is the concentration, in moldm3, of a solution containing:
a) 4.25g silver nitrate, AgNO3, in 500cm3 solution
b) 4.0g sodium hydroxide, NaOH, in 250cm3 of solution
c) 20.75g potassium iodide, KI, in 200cm3 of solution?
18 What mass of solute is present in:
a) 50cm3 of 2.0moldm3 sulfuric acid
b) 100cm3 of 0.010moldm3 potassium manganate(vii), KMnO4
c) 250cm3 of 0.20moldm3 sodium carbonate, Na2CO3?

5.6 Solutions for quantitative analysis

Quantitative analysis involves techniques which answer the question How much?
In many laboratories, quantitative analysis is based on instrumental techniques such
as chromatography and spectroscopy (see Topic 7).
Accurate chemical analysis generally involves preparing a solution of an unknown
sample. It may then be necessary to dilute the solution before analysing it by titration
or by some instrumental method. Titrations are an important procedure for checking
and calibrating instrumental methods. In a titration, the analyst finds the volume of
the sample solution that reacts with a certain volume of a reference solution with an
accurately known concentration. Titrations are widely used because they are quick,
convenient, accurate and easy to automate.

Test yourself

Key terms
A titration is a volumetric
analysis technique for
finding the concentrations
of solutions and for
investigating the amounts
of chemicals involved in
reactions.

19 Why might the results of the following examples of quantitative analysis be

important and why must the results be reliable:
a) the concentration of sugars in urine
b) the concentration of alcohol in blood
c) the percentage by mass of haematite (iron ore) in a rock sample
d) the concentration of nitrogen oxides in the air?

Many laboratories have automatic instruments for carrying out titrations

(Figure5.7), but the principle is exactly the same as in titrations where the volumes
are measured with a traditional burette and pipette. Volumetric titrations with the
kinds of glassware used in school and college laboratories are widely used in the
food, pharmaceutical and other industries.

5.6 Solutions for quantitative analysis

15

Figure 5.7 A scientist in Nigeria adjusting an automatic titration device. This is being used to
check that a pharmaceutical product contains the right amount of folic acid.

Pipettes, burettes and graduated flasks make it possible to measure out volumes of
solutions very precisely during a titration. There are correct techniques for using all
this glassware which must be followed carefully for accurate results.

Standard solutions
Any titration involves two solutions. Typically, a measured volume of one solution
is run into a flask from a pipette. Then the second solution is added bit by bit from
a burette until the colour change of an indicator, or the change in a signal from an
instrument, shows that the reaction is complete. The procedure only gives accurate
results if the reaction between the two solutions is rapid and proceeds exactly as
described by the chemical equation. So long as these conditions apply, titrations can
be used to study acidbase and other types of reactions.

Key terms
A standard solution is a
solution with an accurately
known concentration.
A primary standard is a
chemical which can be
weighed out accurately
to make up a standard
solution.

Standard solutions make volumetric analysis possible. The direct way of preparing
a standard solution is to dissolve a known mass of a chemical in water and then to
make the volume of solution up to a definite volume in a graduated flask.
This method for preparing a standard solution is only appropriate with a chemical that:
l

is very pure
does not gain or lose mass when in the air
l has a relatively high molar mass so that weighing errors are minimised.
l

Chemicals that meet these criteria are called primary standards. A titration with
a primary standard can be used to measure the concentration of a solution to be
analysed.

Test yourself
20 Suggest a reason why sodium hydroxide cannot be used as a primary standard.
21 Suggest a reason why anhydrous sodium carbonate can be used as a primary
standard but hydrated sodium carbonate cannot.

16

5 Formulae, equations and amounts of substance

Activity
Core practical: Preparation of a standard solution from a solid acid
A standard solution of a solid acid was prepared in a graduated flask using the procedure illustrated in Figure 5.8. The acid used
was a potassium salt of benzene-1,2-dicarboxylic acid. The traditional name for the salt is potassium hydrogenphthalate which is
often referred to as KHP.
Weigh solid into sample
tube then tip into beaker
and reweigh

Dissolve solute in small

amount of solvent,
warming if necessary

glass rod

Transfer to
standard flask

stirring rod

glass rod

Stopper and
mix well

Carefully make
up to the mark
on the flask

wash
bottle

Rinse all solution

into flask with
more solvent

Figure 5.8 Using a standard flask to prepare a solution with a specified concentration.

1 The formula of KHP is KHC8H4O4. What mass of KHP is needed to prepare a 0.10moldm3 solution in a 250cm3 graduated
flask?
2 Suggest a reason why KHP is a better primary standard to use than the oxalic acid (H2C2O4.2H2O) which is also available as a
pure solid.
3 a) Why is the solution poured down a glass rod as the liquids are transferred from the beaker to the graduated flask?
b) What other steps must be taken to ensure that every drop of the solution is transferred to the graduated flask?
4 After transferring the solution from the beaker, the graduated flask is filled with water to within about 1cm of the graduation
mark. The contents are then mixed well before finally adding water dropwise until the meniscus just rests on the mark. What
are the reasons for following this procedure?
5 Calculate the concentration of the standard solution made by the procedure in Figure 5.8 when the readings from the balance
when weighing out the solid are as follows and the volume of the graduated flask is 250.0cm3:
Mass of weighing bottle plus sample of KHP = 20.216g
Mass of weighing bottle after tipping KHP into the beaker = 14.855g

5.6 Solutions for quantitative analysis

17

Diluting a solution quantitatively

Quantitative dilution is an important procedure in analysis. Two common reasons
for carrying out dilutions are:
l to

make a solution with the concentration needed for a particular experiment

from a standard solution
l to dilute an unknown sample for analysis to give a concentration suitable for
titration.
The procedure for dilution is to take a measured volume of the more concentrated
solution with a pipette (or burette) and run it into a graduated flask. The flask is then
carefully filled to the mark with pure water.
The key to calculating the volumes to use when diluting a solution is to remember
that the amount, in moles, of the chemical dissolved in the diluted solution is equal
to the amount, in moles, of the chemical taken from the concentrated solution. If c
is the concentration in moldm3 and V is the volume in dm3, then we can write the
following expressions.
The amount, in moles, of the chemical taken from the concentrated solution = cAVA
The amount, in moles, of the same chemical in the diluted solution = cBVB
These two amounts are the same, so cAVA = cBVB

Example
An analyst requires a 0.10moldm3 solution of sodium hydroxide, NaOH(aq). The
analyst has a 250cm3 graduated flask and a supply of 0.50moldm3 sodium
hydroxide solution. What volume of the concentrated solution should be measured
into the graduated flask?

Notes on the method

Use the relationship cAVA = cBVB
This can be rearranged to show that: VA = cBVB

cA

Answer
cA = 0.50moldm3

cB = 0.10moldm3

VA = to be calculated

VB = 250cm3 = 0.25dm3

VA = cBVB = 0.10moldm3 0.25dm3

cA
0.50moldm3

= 0.050dm3 = 50.0cm3

Pipetting 50.0cm3 of the concentrated solution into the 250cm3 graduated

flask and making up to the mark with pure water gives the required dilution after
thorough mixing.

18

5 Formulae, equations and amounts of substance

Test yourself
22 How would you prepare:
a) a 0.05moldm3 solution of HCl(aq) given a 1000cm3 graduated flask and a
1.00moldm 3 solution of the acid
b) a 0.01moldm 3 solution of NaOH(aq) given a 500cm3 graduated flask and a
0.50moldm3 solution of the alkali?
23 What is the concentration of the solution produced when making up to the
mark with pure water and mixing:
a) 10.0cm3 of a 0.01moldm3 solution of AgNO3(aq) in a 100cm3 graduated
flask
b) 50.0cm3 of a 2.00moldm3 solution of nitric acid in a 250cm3 graduated
flask?

5.7 Titration principles

A titration involves two solutions. A measured volume of one solution is run into a
flask. The second solution is then added bit by bit from a burette until the reaction
is complete (Figure 5.9).
safety filler
burette
pipette

volume VB of substance B
concentration cB in mol dm3

conical flask

mean titre = VA

Figure 5.9 The apparatus used for a titration based on a reaction between two chemicals in
solution, A and B.

Some titrations are used to investigate reactions. In these experiments the

concentrations of both solutions are known and the aim is to determine the equation
for the reaction.
More often, titrations are used to measure the concentration of an unknown solution
knowing the equation for the reaction and using a second solution of known
concentration.
In general, nA moles of A react with nB moles of B.
nA A + nBB products

5.7 Titration principles

19

Key terms
The end-point in a titration
is the point at which a
colour change shows that
enough of the solution
in the burette has been
added to react with the
chemical in the flask.
The equivalence point
during a titration is
reached when the amount
of reactant added from
a burette is just enough
to react exactly with all
the measured amount of
chemical in the flask.

The concentration of solution B in the flask is c B and the concentration of solution

A in the burette is cA. Both are measured in moldm3. The analyst uses a pipette to
run a volume V B of solution B into the flask. Then solution A is added from the
burette until an indicator shows that the reaction is complete. This is the end-point
of the titration.
In a well planned titration the colour change observed at the end-point corresponds
exactly with the point when the amount in moles of the reactant added from a
burette is just enough to react exactly with all of the measured amount of chemical
in the flask as shown by the balanced equation. This is the equivalence point.
At the end-point, the volume added is the titre, VA. The analyst should repeat the
titration enough times to achieve consistent results.

Titration calculations
In the laboratory, volumes of solutions are normally measured in cm3, but they
should be converted to dm 3 in calculations so that they are consistent with the units
used for concentrations.
The amount, in moles, of B in the flask at the start = c B V B

Tip

The amount, in moles, of A added from the burette = cA VA

Instead of trying to
remember a formula
for working out titration
calculations it is better
to work through the
calculation, step by step,
as shown in the example
in Section 5.8.

The ratio of these amounts must be the same as the ratio of the reacting amounts nA
and nB. This means that:
cA VA nA
=
cB VB nB
In any titration, all but one of the values in this relationship are known. The one
unknown is calculated from the results, so this formula can be used to analyse
titration results. It is generally better, however, to work out the results step by step
as shown in the worked examples in this chapter.

Analysing solutions
In titrations designed to analyse solutions, the equation for the reaction is given
so that the ratio nA /nB is known. The concentration of one of the solutions is also
known. The volumes VA and V B are measured during the titration. Substituting
all the known quantities in the titration formula allows the concentration of the
unknown solution to be calculated.

Investigating reactions
In titrations to investigate reactions, the problem is to determine the ratio nA /nB.
The concentrations cA and c B are known and the volumes VA and V B are measured
during the titration. So the ratio nA /nB can be calculated from the formula.

5.8 Acidbase titrations

Coloured indicators can be used to detect the end-points of acidbase reactions.
These are chemicals which change colour as the pH varies. Typically, an indicator
completes its colour change over a range of about two pH units as shown in Table5.3.
In any acidbase titration there is a sudden change of pH at the end-point. The
chosen indicator must therefore complete its colour change within the range of pH
values spanned at the end-point.
20

5 Formulae, equations and amounts of substance

Some acids and alkalis are fully ionised in solution. These are strong acids and
strong alkalis. For a titration of a strong acid with a strong alkali, the pH jumps from
around pH3 to pH10 at the end-point. Most common indicators change colour
sharply within this range.
Other acids are only slightly ionised in solution. These are weak acids. During a
titration of a weak acid with a strong alkali, the jump is from about pH6 to pH10.
So the indicator must be chosen with care so that it changes colour in this range.
Table 3.5 Some common indicators and the pH range over which they change colour.
Indicator

Colour change low pHhigh pH

pH range over which the

colour change occurs

Methyl orange

Redyellow

3.24.2

Methyl red

Yellowred

4.86.0

Bromothymol blue

Yellowblue

6.07.6

Phenolphthalein

Colourlessred

8.210.0

Key terms
A strong acid is one
that is fully ionised when
it dissolves in water.
Hydrochloric acid is an
example of a strong acid.
A weak acid is one that
is only slightly ionised
when it dissolves in
water. Ethanoic acid is an
example of a weak acid.

Tip
You will learn more about
indicators and why they
change colour over
different pH ranges later in
your advanced chemistry
course.

Example
Calcium hydroxide is an alkali that is only slightly soluble in water. Its solubility, at a
given temperature, can be determined by titration of a saturated solution of the alkali
with a standard solution of hydrochloric acid as shown in Figure 5.10. Work out the
solubility of Ca(OH)2 in moles per dm3, and in grams per dm3, given that the volume
VA of acid added from the burette at the end point was 23.50cm3.

solution B:
saturated solution of
calcium hydroxide at
20C concentration
cB to be measured

safety filler

25.00cm3
pipette

solution A:
cA = 0.050 mol dm3 hydrochloric acid

solution B with 2 drops

phenolphthalein indicator
VB = 25.0 cm3
VB = 25.00cm3
mean titre VA = 23.50 cm3

Figure 5.10 A titration to determine the solubility of calcium hydroxide.

5.8 Acidbase titrations

21

Notes on the method

Both the volume and concentration of the acid are known so the first step is to
work out the amount in moles of acid added from the burette.
Next look at the balanced equation to see how much Ca(OH)2 this amount of acid
reacts with.
Finally work out the concentration of calcium hydroxide in the saturated solution.

Answer
Step 1: Work out the amount of acid added from the burette.
The concentration of the acid, cA

= 0.050moldm3
23.50dm3
Amount of HCl(aq) added from the burette =
0.050moldm3
1000

= 0.001175mol
Step 2: Use the equation for the titration reaction to find the amount of alkali in
the flask.
Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
So 1mol of the alkali reacts with 2mol of the acid.
Hence the amount of calcium hydroxide in the flask = 0.5 0.001175mol

= 0.0005875mol
Step 3: Work out the concentration of the saturated solution.
The 0.0005875mol of alkali is dissolved in 25.0cm3 of saturated solution.
So the concentration of saturated calcium hydroxide solution
= 0.0005875mol 0.025dm3
= 0.0235moldm3
The molar mass of calcium hydroxide is 74.1gmol1.
So the concentration of saturated calcium hydroxide solution
= 0.0235moldm3 74.1gmol1
= 1.74gdm3

Test yourself
24 Suggest why methyl orange is distinctly orange when the pH is 3.7.
25 A 25.0cm3 sample of nitric acid was neutralised by 18.0cm3 of 0.15moldm3
sodium hydroxide solution. Calculate the concentration of the nitric acid.
26 A 2.65g sample of anhydrous sodium carbonate was dissolved in water and
the solution made up to 250cm3. In a titration, 25.0cm3 of this solution was
added to a flask and the end-point was reached after adding 22.5cm3 of
hydrochloric acid. Calculate the concentration of the hydrochloric acid.
27 A 41.0g sample of the acid H3PO3 was dissolved in water and the volume
of solution was made up to 1dm3. 20.0cm3 of this solution was required to
react with 25.0cm3 of 0.80moldm3 sodium hydroxide solution. What is the
equation for the reaction?

22

5 Formulae, equations and amounts of substance

5.9 Evaluating results

Accuracy of data is determined by how close a measured quantity is to the correct
value. In chemical analysis the correct value is often not known and so chemists
need to estimate the measurement uncertainty.
Every time an analyst carries out a titration, there is some uncertainty in the result. It
is important to be able to assess measurement uncertainty (Figure 5.11). Key decisions
are based on the results of chemical analysis in healthcare, in the food industry, in law
enforcement and in many other areas of life. It is important that the people making
these decisions understand the extent to which they can rely on the data from analysis.
B

EX 20C

It is difficult to determine
accurately the volume of
liquid in a burette if the
meniscus lies between
two graduation marks.

10

A 250 cm3 volumetric

flask may actually contain
250.3 cm3 when filled to
the calibration mark due
to permitted variation in the
manufacture of the flask.

Key terms
Measurements are
accurate if they are
precise and free from bias.

The material used to

prepare a standard
solution may not be
100% pure.
KHP
PURITY
99.5%

23 C

B 250 ml
20 C

It is difficult to make an
exact judgement of the
end-point of a titration
(the exact point at which
the colour of the indicator
changes).

A burette is calibrated
by the manufacturer for
use at 20C. When it is
used in the laboratory
the temperature may be 23 C.
This difference in
temperature will cause
a small difference in the
actual volume of liquid
in the burette when it is
filled to a calibration mark.

The display on a
laboratory balance will
only show the mass to
a certain number of
decimal places.

Figure 5.11 Sources of uncertainty in volumetric analysis.

Random errors in titrations

Every time an analyst carries out a titration, there are small differences in the results.
This is not because the analyst has made mistakes but because there are factors that
are impossible to control. Unavoidable random errors arise in judging when the
bottom of the meniscus is level with the graduation on a pipette, in judging the
colour change at the end-point and when taking the reading from a burette scale. If
these random errors are small then the results are all close together in other words,
they are precise (Figure 5.12). The precision of a set of results can be judged from
the range in a number of repeated titrations.

Key terms
Measurements are precise
if repeat measurements
have values that are
close together. Precise
measurements have a
small random error.
5.9 Evaluating results

23

Key terms
Bias arises from
systematic errors
which affect all the
measurements in the
same way, making them
all higher or lower than
the true value. Systematic
errors do not average out.

Systematic errors in titrations

Systematic errors mean that the results differ from the true value by the same amount
each time. The measurement is always too high or too low, so it is biased in one way
or the other (Figure 5.12). One source of systematic error is the tolerance allowed in
the manufacture of graduated glassware. The tolerance for grade B 250cm3 graduated
flasks is 0.3cm3. This means that when an analyst chooses to use a particular flask,
the volume of solution may be as little as 249.7cm3 or as much as 250.3cm3 when it
is filled correctly to the graduation mark. This introduces a systematic error when
using this same flask to make up solutions for a series of titrations.
Similar tolerances are allowed for pipettes and burettes: for a class B 25cm 3 pipette the
tolerance is 0.06cm3, while for a class B 50cm3 burette the tolerance is 0.1cm3.
Systematic errors can be allowed for by calibrating the measuring instruments. It is
possible to calibrate pipettes and burettes by using them to measure out pure water
and then weighing the water with an accurate balance.
A darts player is practising throwing darts at a board. The aim is
to get all the darts close together near the centre of the board.
The results of some of the attempts are shown below.

1st attempt: The shots are quite widely scattered and some have
not even hit the board. The shots show poor precision as they are
quite widely scattered. There is also a bias in where the shots
have landed they are grouped in the top right-hand corner, not
near the centre of the board.

bias

2nd attempt: The precision has improved as the shots are now
more closely grouped. However, there is still a bias, as the group
of shots is offset from the centre of the board.

3rd attempt: The player has improved to reduce the bias all the
shots are now on the board and scattered round the centre.
Unfortunately the precision is poor as the shots are quite widely
scattered.

Some time later: The shots are precise and unbiased they are
all grouped close together in the centre of the board.

Figure 5.12 Throwing darts at the bullseye of a dartboard illustrates the notions of precision and
bias. Reliable players throw precisely and without bias so that their darts hit the centre of the
board accurately.

Tip
See Sections 5.9 and
11.10 to find out how to
estimate measurement
errors and calculate
overall measurement
uncertainties.

24

Test yourself
28 Identify examples of random and systematic error when:
a) using a pipette
b) using a burette
c) making up a standard solution in a graduated flask.

5 Formulae, equations and amounts of substance

Activity
Core practical: Finding the concentration of a solution of hydrochloric acid
A student carried out a titration to determine the concentration of a solution of hydrochloric acid. He used the apparatus shown
in Figure 5.13 and followed the instructions numbered AF. The results are shown in the table below the instructions.

safety filler

standard solution of
sodium carbonate

25.0 cm3
pipette

dilute hydrochloric acid

standard solution of sodium

carbonate with three drops
of indicator
conical flask

Figure 5.13

Instructions

Results

A Wash out the pipette, burette and conical flask with pure
(deionised or distilled) water.
B Rinse the burette with a little of the solution of
hydrochloric acid, then fill the burette remembering to run
out some of the solution through the tap.
C Rinse the 25.0cm3 pipette with the standard solution of
sodium carbonate. Fill the pipette to the mark and run out
the measured alkali into a clean conical flask allowing the
pipette to drain adequately.
D Add three drops of methyl orange indicator.
E Carry out one rough and then accurate titrations to give
two titres that are within 0.10cm3 of each other. In the
accurate titrations the colour change at the end-point
should be caused by adding one drop of acid.
F Each time record the initial and final burette readings.
Take the burette readings to the nearest half-scale
division.

Burette: Solution of hydrochloric acid to be standardised

Table 5.4 Titration results

Pipette: Standard solution of sodium carbonate

Indicator: Methyl orange
1 Explain briefly the reasons for carrying out each of the
steps AF.
2 Describe what the student should do to allow the pipette
to drain adequately in Step C.
3 The standard solution of sodium carbonate was prepared
with 2.920g anhydrous Na2CO3 in a 500cm3 graduated
flask. Calculate the concentration of the sodium carbonate
solution.
4 How should the student read the burette in order to justify
recording results to the nearest 0.05cm3?
5 Use the titration results in Table 5.4 to calculate the
concentration of the dilute hydrochloric acid.
6 The glassware used for the titration was all grade
B apparatus. Estimate the total uncertainty in your
calculated result (see Sections 5.9 and 11.10).

Rough

Accurate 1

Accurate 2

Accurate 3

Final burette reading

28.0

24.00

25.70

26.50

Initial burette reading

5.0

1.55

3.30

4.15

23.0

22.45

22.40

22.35

Titre/cm3

5.9 Evaluating results

25

5.10 Yields and atom economies

If there are no losses during a chemical reaction, the starting reactants are converted
to the required products. Often, some reactants are added in excess to ensure that
the most valuable reactant is converted to as much product as possible. Then the
reactant that is not in excess is the substance that limits the maximum yield that is
possible.

Key terms
Yield calculations are used
to assess the efficiency of
a chemical process. The
actual yield is the mass of
product obtained from a
reaction. The theoretical
yield is the mass of
product obtained if the
reaction goes according to
the equation.
The percentage yield =
actual yield
100
theoretical yield
A limiting reactant is
a substance which is
present in an amount
which limits the theoretical
yield.

Converting all of the limiting reagent to the desired product gives a 100% yield.
But few reactions are so efficient and many give low yields. There are various reasons
why yields are not 100%:
l

the reactants may not be totally pure

l some of the product may be lost during transfer of the chemicals from one
container to another, when the product is separated and purified
l there may be side reactions in which the reactants form different products
l some of the reactants may not react because the reaction is so slow (Chapter 9) or
because it comes to equilibrium (Chapter 10).

Example
A modern gas-fuelled lime kiln produces 500kg of calcium oxide, CaO (quicklime),
from 1000kg of crushed calcium carbonate, CaCO3(limestone).
What is the percentage yield of calcium oxide?

Notes on the method

Start by writing the balanced equation for the reaction.
Use the method for calculating reactant and product masses in Section 1.3.

Answer
The equation for the reaction involved is:
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
From the equation, 1 mole CaCO3 1 mole CaO
[40.1 + 12 + (3 16)]g CaCO3 (40.1 + 16)g CaO
So 100.1g CaCO3 56.1g CaO
56.1
g CaO
Thus 1g CaCO3
100.1

56.1
Theoretical yield from 1000kg CaCO3 =
1000kg CaO
100.1

= 560kg
The actual yield of CaO = 500kg CaO

500kg
Percentage yield =
100 = 89%
560kg

26

5 Formulae, equations and amounts of substance

Test yourself
29 1000kg of pure iron(iii) oxide, Fe2O3, was reduced to iron and 630kg of iron
was obtained. What are the theoretical and percentage yields of iron?
30 500kg of calcium oxide (quicklime) was reacted with water to produce calcium
hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 (slaked lime). 620kg of calcium hydroxide was produced.
Calculate the theoretical and percentage yields.

Atom economy
The yield in a laboratory or industrial process focuses on the desired product. But
many atoms in the reactants do not end up in the desired product. This can lead
to a huge waste of material. For example, when calcium carbonate (limestone) is
decomposed to produce calcium oxide (quicklime), part of the calcium carbonate is
lost as carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
The waste in many reactions has led scientists and industrialists to use the term
atom economy in calculating the overall efficiency of a chemical process
(Figure5.14). The atom economy of a reaction is the molar mass of the desired
product expressed as a percentage of the sum of the molar masses of all the products
as shown in the equation for the reaction.

molar mass of the desired product
atom economy =
100%

sum of the molar masses of all the products

Key terms
Atom economy is a
measure of how efficiently
a chemical reaction
converts the atoms in
its reactants to atoms in
the product. The atom
economy for a reaction
is calculated from the
balanced equation to show
the percentage of the
mass of the atoms in the
reactants that is converted
to the desired product.

Figure 5.14 The production of ibuprofen is an excellent example of atom economy. Ibuprofen is an
important medicine which reduces swelling and pain. In the 1960s, Boots made ibuprofen in five
steps with an atom economy of only 40%. When the patent expired, another company developed a
new process requiring just two steps with an atom economy of 100%.

5.10 Yields and atom economies

27

Example
Titanium is manufactured by heating titanium(iv) chloride with magnesium. The
equation for the reaction is:
TiCl4(g) + 2Mg(l) Ti(s) + 2MgCl2(s)
What is the atom economy of this process?

Answer
Molar mass of all products = M(Ti) + 2M(MgCl2)
= 47.9gmol1 + 190.6gmol1 = 238.5gmol1
Molar mass of desired product = 47.9gmol1
Therefore: atom economy = 47.9 238.5 100% = 20.1%

Almost 80% of the reactants are wasted in the manufacture of titanium by the
process described above because magnesium and chlorine atoms are lost as magnesium
chloride. If society is to use raw materials as efficiently as possible, chemists must
look for high atom economies as well as high percentage yields, particularly in
industrial processes.

Test yourself
31 Calculate the atom economy for:
a) the conversion of nitrogen (N2) to ammonia (NH3) in the Haber process:

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

b) the fermentation of glucose (C6H12O6) to ethanol (C2H5OH)

C6H12O6(aq) 2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)

c) the manufacture of tin (Sn) from tinstone (SnO2)

SnO2(s) + 2C(s) Sn(s) + 2CO(g)

5.11 Tests and observations in inorganic

chemistry
Formulae and equations are not only used to solve quantitative problems. They are
also important in qualitative analysis.
Qualitative analysis answers the question What is it? In advanced chemistry
courses, this question is often answered by careful observation of the changes during
test tube experiments and flame tests. These changes include gases bubbling off,
different smells, precipitates forming, solids dissolving, temperatures changing or
new colours appearing.
The skill is knowing what to look for. Some visible changes are much more significant
than others and a capable analyst can spot the important changes and know what
they mean. Good chemists have a feel for the way in which chemicals behave and
recognise characteristic patterns of behaviour. With experience they know what to
look for when making observations.

28

5 Formulae, equations and amounts of substance

Success also depends on good techniques when mixing chemicals, heating mixtures
and testing for gases.
In inorganic chemistry most observations can be explained in terms of a number of
types of reaction (see also Chapter 3 and Section 4.1).

Ionic precipitation reactions

This type of reaction can be used to test for negative ions (anions). Adding a solution
of silver nitrate to a halide produces a precipitate that can be used to distinguish
chlorides, bromides and iodides. Adding a soluble barium salt (nitrate or chloride)
to a solution of a sulfate produces a white precipitate of insoluble barium sulfate.

Acidbase reactions
Acids and alkalis are commonly used in chemical tests. Dilute hydrochloric acid is a
convenient strong acid. Sodium hydroxide solution is often chosen as a strong base.
Adding dilute hydrochloric acid to a carbonate, for example, adds hydrogen ions
to the carbonate ions, CO32-, turning them into carbonic acid molecules, H2CO3,
which immediately decomposes into carbon dioxide and water.
2H+(aq) + CO32- (aq) H2CO3 (aq) H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
Testing with limewater can then identify the gas given off, confirming that the
compound tested is a carbonate.

Redox reactions
Common oxidising agents used in inorganic tests include chlorine, bromine and
acidic solutions of iron(iii) ions, manganate(vii) ions or dichromate(vi) ions.
Some reagents change colour when oxidised, which makes them useful for detecting
oxidising agents. In particular, a colourless solution of iodide ions turns to a yellow
brown colour when oxidised. This can be a very sensitive test if starch is present
because starch gives an intense blueblack colour with low concentrations of iodine.
This is the basis of using starchiodide paper to test for chlorine and other oxidising
gases. The oxidation of iodide ions by chlorine or bromine is a redox reaction in
which one halogen displaces another (Section 4.10).
Common inorganic reducing agents are metals (in the presence of acid or alkali),
sulfur dioxide and iron(ii) ions.
Some reagents change colour when reduced. In particular, dichromate(vi) ions in
acid change from orange to green. This is the basis of a test for sulfur dioxide gas.

5.11 Tests and observations in inorganic chemistry

29

Test yourself
32 For each of the following tests, identify the type of chemical reaction taking
place, name the products and write a balanced equation for the reaction:
a) testing for iodide ions with silver nitrate solution
b) adding dilute hydrochloric acid to magnesium carbonate
c) testing for sulfate ions with barium chloride
d) strongly heating a sample of potassium nitrate
e) using concentrated ammonia solution to detect hydrogen chloride
f) adding chlorine to a solution of potassium bromide.

Activity
Core practical: Analysis of inorganic unknowns
A series of tests was carried out on two unknown inorganic salts labelled X and Y. The tests and observations were recorded as in
Table 5.5.
Table 5.5 Tests and observations on two inorganic unknowns

Test

Observations with compound X

Observations with compound Y

1 Carry out a flame test on

the salt

Lilac coloured flame

Lilac coloured flame

2 Heat a sample of the salt

first gently and then more
strongly.
Identify any gases
evolved.

Melts to a colourless liquid. It gives off a

colourless gas that relights a glowing splint. On
strong heating the gas is tinged with purple. In
time the liquid turns red.

Melts to a clear liquid but no gas is

given off. In time the hot liquid turns
red. There are slight traces of a purple
vapour. Molten Y resembles the liquid
formed on decomposing X.

3 Allow the residue from

test 2 to cool, then add a
few drops of concentrated
sulfuric acid. Warm gently
and then more strongly.
Identify any gases
evolved.

On cooling, the liquid crystallises to a

colourless (white) solid. The cold crystals react
immediately with concentrated sulfuric acid.
There are traces of a fuming, acidic gas. There
is a smell of bad eggs. On warming a purple
vapour can be seen.

On cooling, the liquid crystallises to

a colourless (white) solid. The solid
reacts with concentrated sulfuric acid
in the same way as the residue after
heating X.

4 Make separate aqueous

solutions of X and Y. Mix
the two solutions and
then add dilute sulfuric
acid.

Both X and Y dissolve in water. The solutions

are colourless. There is no change at first
when the solutions are mixed. On adding dilute
sulfuric acid the solutions turn dark brown.
Specks of a grey solid separate from the
solution.

1 Describe in outline the procedure for carrying out a flame test on an unknown salt.
2 What precautions have to be taken to avoid contamination, and why are they necessary?
3 Describe in outline the procedure for the gas tests mentioned in Table 5.5.
4 What can be deduced from the results of the flame tests in Table 5.5?
5 Suggest explanations for the observations on heating X and Y, including equations for any reactions.
6 What can be deduced from the results of Test 3?
7 Explain the observations in Test 4 and write an equation for the reaction which took place on adding acid.
8 Describe two further tests that could be carried out to confirm the conclusions based on these observations. What are the
expected results of these tests.

30

5 Formulae, equations and amounts of substance

Exam practice questions

1 Balance the following equations:

a) Cu2S(s) + O2(g) CuO(s) + SO2(g)

(1)

b) FeS(s) + O2(g) + SiO2(s) FeSiO3(s) + SO2(g)

(3)

c) Fe(NO3)3(s) Fe2O3(s) + NO2(g) + O2(g)

(3)

2 a) How many molecules are present in 4.0g of oxygen, O2? (O = 16) (3)
b) How many ions are present in 9.4g of potassium oxide, K2O?
(K = 39, O = 16) (Avogadro constant = 6.021023mol1)

(3)

3 One cubic decimetre of tap water was found to contain 0.112mg of

iron(iii) ions (Fe3+) and 12.40mg of nitrate ions (NO3).

a) What are these masses of Fe3+ and NO3 in grams?

(1)

b) What are the amounts in moles of Fe3+ and NO3?

(2)

c) What are the numbers of Fe3+ and NO3 ions?

(2)

4 a) What is the empirical formula of a substance X with this percentage

composition: C = 42.87%, H = 2.36%, N = 16.67% and O=38.10%?
(4)
b) Mass spectrometry shows that the relative molecular mass of X is 168.
What is the molecular formula of X? (2)

5 For each of the following equations, state the type of reaction which it
represents.
a) Ca(NO3)2(aq) + K2CO3(aq) CaCO3(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
b) Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
c) 2Zn(NO3)2(s) 2ZnO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
d) H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

(4)

6 For each of the following tests, identify the type of chemical reaction
taking place, name the products and write a balanced equation for the
reaction:
a) testing for iodide ions with silver nitrate solution

(3)

b) adding dilute hydrochloric acid to magnesium carbonate

(3)

c) testing for sulfate ions with barium chloride

(3)

d) heating a sample of zinc carbonate

(3)

e) adding zinc metal to a solution of copper(ii) sulfate.

(3)

5.10 Yields and atom economies

31

 7 The concentration of cholesterol (C27H46O) in a patients blood was

found to be 6.0mmoldm3.

a) What is the concentration of cholesterol in moldm3?

(1000mmol = 1mol)

(1)

b) Calculate the concentration of cholesterol in gdm3.

(2)

c) What is the mass of cholesterol in 10cm3 of the patients blood?

(1)

8 a) Ammonium sulfate was prepared by adding ammonia solution to

25cm3 of 2.0moldm3 sulfuric acid.

2NH3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq)

i) What volume of 2.0moldm3 ammonia solution was needed to

just neutralise the sulfuric acid?
(1)
ii) How can the solution be tested to check that enough ammonia
had been added to neutralise all the acid without contaminating
the solution?
(2)
b) Iron(ii) sulfate, FeSO4, was dissolved in the solution of ammonium
sulfate solution to produce the double salt ammonium iron(ii) sulfate
hexahydrate, (NH4)2SO4.FeSO4.6H2O.
i) What mass of iron(ii) sulfate was added to the ammonium
sulfate solution?

(3)

ii) The double salt was crystallised from the solution. What mass
of ammonium iron(ii) sulfate hexahydrate was obtained if the
percentage yield was 50%? (H = 1, N = 14, Fe = 56, S = 32,
O = 16)
(4)

9 a) A compound Z is a compound of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen only.

Analysis of a sample of the compound shows that it is made
up of 54.5% by mass of carbon and 9.1% by mass of hydrogen.
Find the empirical formula of Z.
(4)
b) When 0.270g of Z is heated to 100C it vaporises to produce
100cm3 gas at a pressure of 95.0kPa. Determine the molar mass
and molecular formula of Z.

(5)

10 Excess calcium reacted vigorously with 25.0cm3 of 1.0moldm3

hydrochloric acid producing calcium chloride solution and hydrogen.

32

a) Write a balanced equation, with state symbols, for the reaction.

(3)

b) Draw a labelled diagram showing how the hydrogen gas could be

collected during the reaction.

(2)

c) Suggest a procedure for obtaining clean, dry crystals of hydrated

calcium chloride, CaCl2.6H2O, from the solution formed.

(4)

d) What is the maximum possible yield of hydrated calcium chloride,

CaCl2.6H2O, from the reaction? (Ca = 40.0, Cl = 35.5, O = 16.0)

(4)

e) Suggest two reasons why the actual yield of hydrated calcium

chloride is much less than the mass calculated in part (d).

(2)

5 Formulae, equations and amounts of substance

 11 A carbonate of metal M has the formula M2CO3. In a titration, a 0.245g

sample of M2CO3 was found to neutralise 23.6cm3 of 0.150moldm3
hydrochloric acid. Follow these steps to identify the metal M.
a) Write the equation for the reaction of M2CO3 with hydrochloric
acid.
(1)
b) Calculate the amount, in moles, of hydrochloric acid needed to
react with the sample of the metal carbonate.

(1)

c) Use the equation to calculate the amount, in moles, of M2CO3 in

the sample.

(1)

d) Use your answer to part (c) and the mass of the sample to calculate
(2)
the relative formula mass of M2CO3.
e) Calculate the relative atomic mass of metal M.

(1)

f) Identify the metal M.

(1)

12 a) The reaction of ammonia, NH3, with sodium chlorate(i), NaOCl

produces the rocket fuel hydrazine, N2H4, together with sodium
chloride and water. Determine the atom economy for the process. (4)
b) Calculate the atom economies for each of these processes for making
bromoethane:
i) The reaction of ethane, C2H6 with bromine to form
bromoethane, C2H5Br, and hydrogen bromide.

(4)

ii) The reaction of ethene, C2H4, with hydrogen bromide to

make bromoethane, C2H5Br, as the only product.

(3)

c) Why do both yield and atom economy have to be considered when

selecting a process for manufacturing a chemical product?
(6)
13 a) An analyst investigates an impure sample of sodium sulfate. The
impurities are unreactive. A 0.250g sample of the Na2SO4 is dissolved
in water. Excess barium chloride is added to the solution to precipitate
all the sulfate ions as barium sulfate, BaSO4. The mass of the pure, dry,
precipitated barium sulfate is 0.141g. Calculate the percentage purity
of the sample of sodium sulfate.
(5)
b) A 0.500g sample of steel consisting of iron alloyed with carbon and
silicon gave off 191cm3 hydrogen gas when it reacted with excess
hydrochloric acid. The gas volume was measured at room temperature
and pressure. Calculate the percentage of iron in the steel.
(Fe = 55.8, molar volume of a gas at room temperature and
(5)
pressure = 24dm3mol1)
14 1.576g of ethanedioic acid crystals, (COOH)2.nH2O, were dissolved in
water and made up to 250cm3. In a titration, 25.0cm3 of the acid solution
reacted exactly with 15.6cm3 of 0.160moldm3 sodium hydroxide
solution. Show by calculation that this data confirms that n = 2 in the
formula for the acid.
(8)

5.10 Yields and atom economies

33

 15 A sample of sodium carbonate crystals, Na2CO3.10H2O, had lost

part of its water of crystallisation on exposure to air. 2.696g of
the crystals were dissolved in water and made up to 250cm3 in a
graduated flask. In a series of titrations, 20.0cm3 portions of the
solution were titrated with 0.10moldm3 hydrochloric acid giving
the results shown in the table.
Titration number

1 (rough)

Final burette reading/cm3

22.00

23.00

22.15

Initial burette reading/cm3

1.00

2.35

1.60

Determine the percentage of loss of mass from the crystals from the
titration results.

(10)

16 Egg shells contain calcium carbonate. It is possible to determine the

percentage of calcium carbonate in an egg shell by titration. Calcium
carbonate reacts with acids but it is not possible to titrate this directly with
an acid from a burette.

An analyst adds 40.00cm3 of 1.200moldm3 hydrochloric acid (an excess)

to a 1.510g sample of the crushed shell. When the reaction with calcium
carbonate in the egg shell is complete, all the solution is transferred to a
250cm3 graduated flask. Water is then added to the mark and the diluted
solution is well mixed.

Next the analyst titrates separate 25.0cm3 portions of the diluted solution
with a 0.100moldm3 solution of sodium hydroxide to determine the
amount of acid that did not react with the egg shell. The mean titre was
24.30cm3.
a) Give two reasons why titrating the calcium carbonate in an egg shell
with hydrochloric acid from a burette is not possible.
(2)
b) Use the data about the titration to calculate the amount of excess
hydrochloric acid, in moles, left over after reaction with the
egg shell.

(3)

c) Hence calculate how much hydrochloric acid, in moles, reacted with

calcium carbonate in the sample of egg shell.
(2)
d) Use the results to calculate the percentage of calcium carbonate in the
egg shell.
(5)
e) The procedure used in this analysis is called a back titration.
Explain what you understand by this term.

34

5 Formulae, equations and amounts of substance

(3)

Photo credits:
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