Extra Terms

Valence electrons

Number of electrons in the outermost shell

Valency

Combining power of an atom

Number of electrons it needs to lose/gain to
complete its outermost shell

Chemical Bonding

The Stable Electronic Configuration of

a Noble Gas
Why Do Atoms React?
Atoms of most other elements are reactive
because they do not have the noble gas
structure (i.e. their outer shells are not fullyfilled).
Atoms of these elements lose, gain or share
outer electrons to attain the noble gas
electronic configuration and form compounds.
2

The Stable Electronic Configuration of a Noble Gas

Chemical Bonding

Atoms gain or lose

electrons to attain
noble gas configuration

Ionic bonding

Atoms share electrons

to attain noble gas
configuration

Covalent bonding
3

Ionic Bond: Transferring Electrons

Ionic Bonding
An ionic bond is the electrostatic force of
attraction between oppositely charged ions
in compound.
Ionic bonds are formed between metals and
non-metals.
Examples:
Examples:
Group VII: Fluorine, chlorine Group I: Sodium, potassium
Group VI: Oxygen, sulfur
Group II: Magnesium, calcium

This is done through the transfer of electron(s)

from metals to non-metals.

Ionic Bond: Transferring Electrons

Ionic Bonding
Metallic atom
loses electron(s)

Non-metallic atom
gains electron(s)

Positive ion
Negative ion
(cation)
(anion)
electrostatic forces of
attraction
(hold oppositely charged
ions together)
5

ionic bonds electron transfer

ionic bonds
example of ionic bonding in sodium chloride

electron
transfer

sodium atom, Na

chlorine atom, Cl

Sodium and Chlorine

-

+
11+

17+

11+ and 10- =

17+ and 18- = 11+
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to view
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Na+

example

Cl

ionic bonds electron transfer

ionic bonds
dot and cross diagram to show the bonding in sodium
chloride

Key:

Na

Cl

sodium ion, Na+

chlorine ion, Cl-

: electron of Na
x : electron of Cl

Example 1: Sodium chloride

Key:

electron from Na
electron from CI

+
Na

Sodium atom,
Na (2, 8, 1)

Cl

Chlorine
atom,
CI (2, 8, 7)

Na

Sodium ion,
Na+ (2, 8)

Cl

Chloride ion,
CI- (2, 8, 8)

The positive sodium ion, Na+, and the negative ion, CI-, are attracted
together by an electrostatic force of attraction ionic bond
Hot sodium can react with chlorine gas to produce a white
solid sodium chloride

ionic bonds electron transfer

ionic bonds

electron
transfer

electron
transfer

magnesium atom,
Mg

chlorine atom,
Cl

chlorine atom,
Cl

Magnesium and Chlorine

-

2+

17+

12+

17+ and 18= 1-

12+ and 10= 2+

17+ and 18= 1-

Cl-

Mg2+

Cl-

Click to view animation

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options

17+

ionic bonds electron transfer

ionic bonds
dot and cross diagram to show the bonding in magnesium
chloride

Cl

chlorine ion,
ClKey:

: electron of Mg
x : electron of Cl

2+

Mg

magnesium ion,
Mg2+

Example 2: Magnesium chloride

Key:

electron from Mg
electron from CI

Cl

2+

Cl

Mg

+
Magnesium atom,
Mg (2, 8, 2)

Mg

Cl

Chlorine
atoms,
CI (2, 8, 7)

Magnesium ion,
Mg2+ (2, 8)

Cl

Chloride
ions,
CI (2, 8, 8)

Each unit of magnesium chloride, MgCI2 consist of one magnesium

ion and two chloride ions.

Magnesium and Oxygen

2-

2
+
12+

8+

12+ and 10- =

8+ and 10- = 22+
2Click for animation
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2+
example

Mg

Practice
The substances below are ionic compounds.
Draw the electronic diagrams to show how
atoms combine to form these compounds.
(a) sodium oxide
(a) calcium iodide

Structure of Ionic Compounds

Structure of Ionic Compounds

Ionic compounds form giant ionic structures.

Consist of an endlessly repeating threedimensional lattice of positive and negative
ions
Ions are closely packed, arranged in an
orderly manner and held in place by ionic
bonds

Structure of Ionic Compounds

Structure of NaCl

Sodium chloride
crystal

Three-dimensional
giant ionic crystal
lattice structure

Sodium ions and chloride ions

alternate with each other.

Structure of Ionic compounds

Sodium chloride
crystals

Na+

Cl Na+

Cl Na+
Na+
Cl

Cl
Na+

Na+ Cl
Cl

Na+

Na+ Cl

Cl
Na+
Cl

Cl
Na+
Cl
Na+

Na+ Cl
Cl

Na+

Na+ Cl

Na+

Cl Na+

Cl Na+
Na+

3D giant ionic crystal lattice

structure.

Cl

Cl

Na+

Cl Na+

Cl

Na+

Cl

Na+

Cl

Na+

Cl

Na+ Cl

A crystal of sodium chloride

consists of large amount Na+ and CIarranged in an orderly manner.

Na+

Held together by strong

electrostatic forces of attraction
between the sodium ions and
chloride ions

Structure of Ionic structures

The ratio of sodium ions to

chloride ions is 1 : 1

Each sodium ion is

surrounded by 6 chloride
ions
Cl ion Na+ ion

Sodium chloride
crystals

Each chloride ion is

surrounded by 6 sodium
ions

Some examples of lattice

structures

Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds

High melting and boiling points
Giant ionic structure
Strong electrostatic forces of attraction
between the cations and anions.
large amount of heat energy needed to
overcome strong electrostatic forces of
attraction between the oppositely charged
ions. E.g. MgO is used as refractories
Na
Cl
(heat-resistant materials)

Non-volatile
Exist as solids at room temperature

Cl Na+
Cl Na+

Cl Na+
Na+ Cl
Na+ Cl
Na+ Cl
Na+ Cl
Na+ Cl
Na+ Cl
Cl Na+
Na+
Cl Na+

Cl Na+
Na+ Cl
Cl
Na+ Cl
Na+ Cl
Cl Na+
Na+
+
Cl Na

Cl Na+
Na+ Cl
Cl
Na+ Cl
+
Na Cl
Na+

Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds

Solubility of Ionic Compounds

Usually soluble in water

Cl
Na+

Cl Na+

Cl Na+
Na+

Na+

dissolve in water

Cl

Cl Na+
Na+

Water
molecules

URL

Cl

Usually insoluble in organic solvents

E.g. ethanol, turpentine, petrol

Physical Properties of Ionic

Compounds
Electrical Conductivity of Ionic Compounds
solid NaCl
aqueous NaCl

molten NaCl

Conduct electricity
when in molten or in
aqueous solution.

 There must be free-moving ions or

electrons in order to conduct
electricity.
When in molten or in aqueous
solution, the strong electrostatic
forces of attraction between the ions
have been overcome and the
ions are free to move (mobile)
to conduct electricity.

In solid state, the ions are held

together by strong electrostatic
forces of attraction and the ions can
only vibrate about fixed positions,
thus there are no free-moving ions
to conduct electricity.

Covalent Bond: Sharing of Electrons

A covalent bond is formed by the sharing of a pair
of electrons between two atoms.
In forming covalent bonds, each atom acquires the
stable electronic configuration of a noble gas.
Usually formed between atoms of non-metals

Covalent Bond: Sharing Electrons

Formation of a Molecule
Covalent bonds can be formed between
atoms of the same element;
atoms of different elements.
A molecule is formed when a group of two or more
atoms are held together by covalent bonds.
Examples of molecules of elements:
Hydrogen (H2), oxygen (O2), chlorine (Cl2)
Examples of molecules of compounds:
Water (H2O), methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2),
ammonia (NH3)

Example 1: Hydrogen molecule

Key:

Hydrogen atom, H

Hydrogen atom, H

electron of H
electron of another H

Hydrogen molecule, H2
A covalent bond is formed between

Structural
formula

H H

2 hydrogen atoms
Each atom obtains the stable
electronic configuration of a
noble gas

Hydrogen and Hydrogen

H2
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example
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animation

Example 2: Carbon dioxide molecule

Key:

electron of O
electron of C

Structural formula:
O

The carbon dioxide molecule

has two C=O double bonds

O C O
Each atom obtains the stable
electronic configuration of a
noble gas

Example 3: Oxygen molecule

Each atom obtains the stable
electronic configuration of a noble gas
Valence shell

Oxygen atom, O

Oxygen molecule, O2

Oxygen atom, O
double bond

Structural formula:

Key:

electron of O
electron of another O

O O

When two pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms, a double bond
is formed

Example 4: Water molecule

Each atom obtains the stable electronic
configuration of a noble gas
H
O

+
H

Water molecule, H2O

Oxygen atom,O
Structural formula:

Hydrogen atoms,H

O
H

Key:

electron of O
electron of H

The water molecule has

two OH single bonds

Hydrogen and Oxygen

O
H2O
HClick here
to for
return
to bonding H
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options

Nitrogen and Hydrogen (Ammonia)

NH3

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example

Example 3: Nitrogen molecule

Each atom obtains the stable
electronic configuration of a noble gas

Nitrogen atom, N

Nitrogen molecule, N2

Nitrogen atom, N
Key:
triple bond

Structural formula:

N N

electron of N
electron of another N

Each nitrogen atom contributes 3

valence electrons

When three pairs of electrons are shared between 2 atoms, a triple bond is
formed

Structure of Covalent Substances

There are 2 structures in which
covalent substances exist:
simple molecular structures
giant molecular structures

Simple molecular structure

Most covalent substances exist as simple
molecules
Examples:

Solid Iodine I2

Example: Iodine (I2)

Within each iodine
molecule, the iodine atoms
are held together by strong
covalent bonds.
Between the iodine
molecules, there are only
weak intermolecular forces
of attraction holding the
molecules together.

Example: Iodine (Br2)

Atoms in the molecules are held by
strong covalent bonds.
Br Br

Molecules are held

together by weak
intermolecular forces
of attraction.

Br Br

Br Br

Physical Properties of simple molecules

have low melting and boiling points
(usually < 200 OC)

Weak intermolecular
forces between the
water molecules
easily overcome
when water boils in
a kettle

Strong covalent
bonds within the
water molecules

Simple molecules are

usually gases or volatile
liquid at r.t.p.

Physical Properties of simple molecules

Most are insoluble in water and soluble in organic
solvents.
Oil dissolves in dichloromethane but not in water.
An organic solvent
Other examples of organic solvents:
Ethanol, turpentine, benzene
Exceptions: Alcohol and sugar are soluble in water.

Physical Properties of simple molecules

Most do not conduct electricity when in the solid,
liquid or gaseous state.
This is because they do not have free-moving
ions or electrons to conduct electricity.
However, hydrogen chloride, sulfur dioxide and
ammonia form ions when dissolved in water. Their
ions would be mobile and act as charge carriers to
conduct electricity.

Giant Molecular Structures

Giant network of atoms bonded to each
other by strong covalent bonds.
Examples:

Diamond

Graphite

Physical Properties of substances with

giant molecular structures
have very high melting and boiling points
A large amount of energy is required to overcome
the strong covalent bonds between the atoms. Most
are hence solid at r.t.p.
Do not conduct electricity except graphite.
Insoluble in both water and organic solvents. Forces
of attraction between the solvent molecules and the
substances are not strong enough to overcome the
strong covalent bonds within the substance.

Example: Diamonds
Each carbon atom is covalently
bonded to four other carbon
atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement.
The atoms are held together by
strong covalent bonds.

Diamond does not conduct electricity as there are

no free-moving electrons as all electrons of the
carbon atoms are used in covalent bonding.

Diamonds
Synthetic diamonds
produced under high
pressures and temperatures
are used at the tips of drills
and other cutting tools.

Example: Graphite

arrangement of
carbon atoms in
one flat layer

layers of carbon
atoms in graphite

Graphite
Each carbon atom is covalently bonded to three
other carbon atoms and the atoms are arranged
in layers of hexagons. The atoms are held together
by strong covalent bonds.
Each carbon atom has one valence electron that is not
used in bonding and these electrons are free to move
along the layers from one carbon atom to the next. The
free-moving electrons allow graphite to conduct
electricity
The layers of carbon atoms are held by weak
intermolecular forces of attraction and the layers can
slide over each other easily when a force is applied.

Graphite
Graphite is used as a dry lubricant.

It is also used to make inert

electrodes for electrolysis.
Graphite is baked with clay and made into
pencil lead. Since it is soft, the carbon layers
flake off and stick to paper when we write.

Example:
Silicon dioxide / Silicon(VI) oxide
Each silicon atom is covalently
to four oxygen atoms. Each
oxygen atom is covalently
bonded to two silicon atoms and
the atoms are arranged in a
tetrahedral structure. The
atoms are held together by
strong covalent bonds.
Silicon dioxide does not conduct electricity as
there are no free-moving electrons as all electrons
of the atoms are used in covalent bonding.

Metallic Bond
in metals, metal atoms are packed
together very closely in an orderly
arrangement.
The metal atoms give up their outer
electrons to become positive metal
ions; electrons go into the spaces
between the ions
positive
metal ions

free
electrons

positive metal ions

in a sea of
electrons

metal
atoms

arrangement
of atoms in a
metal

How does metallic bond arise?

The atoms lose their outer
electrons and become
positively charged.
These electrons move freely
between the metal ions like a
cloud of negative charge.

We can therefore define a metallic bond as

the force of attraction between positive
metal ions and the sea of delocalised
electrons.

Physical Properties of Metals

Good conductors of electricity.
Outer electrons are able to move freely within
the metal lattice.
Mobile electrons carry charge, allowing the
metal to conduct electricity.

mobile
electron

Physical Properties of Metals

Good conductors of heat

Movement of the mobile electrons within the

metal lattice allows heat energy to be transferred
easily.

mobile
electron

Physical Properties of Metals

High densities
Atoms are packed closely together
with little space between them.

Physical Properties of Metals

High melting points and boiling points
Strong electrostatic forces exist between positively
charged metallic ions and the negatively charged
electron cloud.

A large amount of
energy is required to
overcome strong
metallic bonds.

Physical Properties of Metals

appliedforce is applied to the metal
If sufficient
force

Malleable (easily beaten into sheets) and ductile

(easily drawn into wires).
Layers of atoms can slide over another without disrupting
the lattice as there is metallic bonding between the metal
ions and sea of electrons.

Summary
Structure

Particl
es in
the
Solid

Bonds
between the
Particles

Boiling
Point

Solubility
in Water

Electrical
Conductivity

Examples

Simple
Molecular

small
covalen
t
molecul
es

very
intermolecular
weak forces

low

insoluble

does not conduct

in any state

methane, iodine,
water

Giant
molecular
(macromolecular
)

atoms

strong covalent
bonds

high

insoluble

does not conduct

in any state

diamond, silicon
dioxide

Ionic

positive
and
negativ
e ions

Strong
electrostatic
forces of
attraction
between
positive and
negative ions

soluble

conducts when
molten, but not
when solid

sodium chloride,
magnesium oxide

Metallic

positive
ions in
a sea
of
electro
ns

force of attraction
between positive
metal ions and
the sea of
delocalised
electrons.

insoluble

conducts when
solid and when
molten

magnesium, iron,
copper, sodium

high

high