Frances Kuo/Thomas Britz

MATH1081 Discrete Mathematics

1 Sets, Functions, and Sequences

A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects.
An element of a set is any object in the set.
- belongs to or is an element of

/ - does not belong to or is not an element of

The cardinality of a set S, denoted by |S|, is the number of elements in S.
Example. Some commonly-used sets in our number system:
N
- the set of natural numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
Z
- the set of integers (whole numbers) . . . , 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
Q - the set of rational numbers (fractions) . . . , 1, 0, 1, 2, 12 , 3, 13 , 32 , . . .
R
- the set of real numbers, which includes all rational
numbers
as well as irrational numbers such as , e, and 2
C
- the set of complex numbers, which includes all real numbers

as well as numbers like 1.

Example. We can specify a set by listing its elements between curly brackets,
separated by commas:
S = {a, b, c} .
The elements of S are a, b, and c. Thus |S| = 3.
We can write a S, b S, c S, and d
/ S, for instance.
Example. We can specify a set by some property that all elements must have:
S = {x Z | 2 x 1}
(or S = {x Z : 2 x 1} ) .
The elements of S are 2, 1, 0, and 1. Thus |S| = 4.
We can write 2 S, 1 S, 0 S, 1 S, and 2
/ S, for instance.
Exercise. Let A = {a, {a}}. What are the elements of A? What is |A|?

Two sets S and T are equal , denoted by S = T , if

(i) every element of S is also an element of T , and
(ii) every element of T is also an element of S .
i.e., when they have precisely the same elements.
The empty set, denoted by , is a set which has no elements.
Exercise. Are any of the following sets equal?
A = {2, 3, 4, 5},
C = {2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 5},
B = {5, 4, 3, 2},
D = {x N | 2 x 5}.
Exercise. What is the difference between the sets , {}, and {, {}}?

A subset of a set is a part of the set.

- is a subset of
6 - is not a subset of
A set S is a subset of a set T if each element of S is also an element of T.
S = T if and only if S T and T S.

A set S is a proper subset of a set T if S is a subset of T and S 6= T .

is a proper subset of any non-empty set.
Any non-empty set is an improper subset of itself.
The power set P (S) of a set S is the set of all subsets of S.
For any set S, we have S and S S.
For any set S, we have P (S) and S P (S).
The number of subsets of S is |P (S)| = 2|S| .
Example. N Z Q R C

(Why? )

Example. Let S = {a, b, c}. The subsets of S are:

, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}.
S has 8 subsets. We can write S, {b} S, {a, c} S, {a, b, c} S, etc.
The power set of S is
P (S) = {, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}}.
and |P (S)| = 23 = 8.
We can write P (S), {b} P (S), {a, c} P (S), {a, b, c} P (S), etc.
Exercise. Let A = {0, 1, {0, 1}}. What are the elements of A?
What are the subsets of A? Find P (A) and |P (A)|.

Exercise. For A = {0, 1, {0, 1}}, are the following statements true or false?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

A
A
P (A)
P (A)
0A

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

0A
{0, 1} A
{0, 1} P (A)
{{0, 1}} A
{{0, 1}} A

Exercise. For B = {, 0, {1}}, are the following statements true or false?

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

B
B
{} B
{} P (B)
{0} P (B)

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

{{0}} P (B)
1B
{1} B
{1} P (B)
{{1}} P (B)

It is often convenient to work inside a specified universal set, denoted by U ,

which is assumed to contain everything that is relevant.
Venn diagrams are visualizations of sets as regions in the plane.
For instance, here is a Venn diagram of a universal set U containing a set A:

U
A

Set operations and set algebra:

illustrated by Venn diagrams

difference (,\) - but not

A B = A \ B = {x U | x A and x 6 B}
complement (c ,

) - not

Ac = A = U \ A = {x U | x
/ A}
union () - or

A B = {x U | x A or x B}
intersection () - and

A B = {x U | x A and x B}
Two sets A and B are disjoint if A B = .

The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle: |A B| = |A| + |B| |A B|.

Example. Set U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, A = {1, 3, 5}, and B = {1, 2}.
Then
Ac = {2, 4, 6}

A B = {1}

A B = {1, 2, 3, 5}

A B = {3, 5} .

Exercise. Given U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9},

A = {x U | x is odd}
B = {x U | x is even}
C = {x U | x is a multiple of 3}
D = {x U | x is prime}

determine the following sets:

AC
BD
BD
Dc
(A C) D

Exercise. Determine the sets A and B, where

A B = {a, c}, B A = {b, f, g}, and A B = {d, e}.

Example. In a survey of 100 students majoring in computer science,

the following information was obtained:
17 can program in C++ , Java, and Visual Basic.
22 can program in C++ and Java, but not Visual Basic.
9 can program in C++ and Visual Basic, but not Java.
2 can program in Java and Visual Basic, but not C++ .
19 can program in C++ , but not Visual Basic or Java.
21 can program in Visual Basic, but not C++ or Java.
Also, all of the 100 students can program in at least one of these three languages.
How many students can program in Java, but not C++ or Visual Basic?
100

0
9
21
VB

C++

19
22

17

Java

x = 100 (17 + 22 + 9 + 2 + 19 + 21 + 0) = 10
5

Exercise. In a survey of 200 people about whether they like

apples (A), bananas (B), and cherries (C), the following data was obtained:
|A| = 112,
|A B| = 32,
|A B C| = 20.

|B| = 89,
|A C| = 26,

|C| = 71,
|B C| = 43,

a) How many people like exactly one of these fruit?

b) How many people like none of these fruit?
c) How many people do not like cherries?

Hints for proofs:

To prove that S T , we can assume that x S and show that x T .
To prove that S = T , we can show that S T and T S.

Example. We prove that if A C and B C, then A B C.

Proof. Let A C and B C and suppose that x A B.
Then either x A or x B (maybe both).
If x A, then x C, because A C.
Likewise, if x B, then x C, since B C.
In both cases, we have x C, which proves that A B C.
Exercise. Prove that if A B and A C, then A B C.

Exercise. Prove that if A B, then A B = A.

Exercise. Prove that if A B = A, then A B = B.

Exercise. Is the statement A (B C) = (A B) C true?

Provide a proof if it is true or give a counter example if it is false.

Exercise. Is the statement A (B C) = (A B) C true?

Provide a proof if it is true or give a counter example if it is false.

Laws of set algebra:

Commutative laws
Associative laws
Distributive laws
Absorption laws
Identity laws
Idempotent laws
Double complement law
Difference law

AB =BA
AB =BA
A (B C) = (A B) C
A (B C) = (A B) C
A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
A (A B) = A
A (A B) = A
AU =U A=A
A=A=A
AA=A
AA=A
(Ac )c = A
A B = A Bc

Domination or universal bound laws

Intersection and union with complement

De Morgans Laws

(A B)c = Ac B c
U

A=A=
AU =U A=U
A Ac = Ac A =
A Ac = Ac A = U
(A B)c = Ac B c
U

For a set expression involving only unions, intersections and complements, its
dual is obtained by replacing with , with , with U , and U with .
The laws of set algebra mostly come in dual pairs.
Example. Proof of De Morgans law (A B)c = Ac B c :
(i) Suppose that x (A B)c . Then we have x
/ A B, so x
/ A and x
/ B.
c
c
c
c
Thus, x A and x B , so x A B .
This proves that (A B)c Ac B c .
(ii) Suppose now that x AcB c . Then x Ac and x B c , so x
/ A and x
/ B.
c
Thus, x
/ A B, so x (A B) .
This proves that Ac B c (A B)c .
Combining (i) and (ii), we conclude that (A B)c = Ac B c .
8

Example. We can use the laws of set algebra to simplify (Ac B)c B:
(Ac B)c B =
=
=
=
=

((Ac )c B c ) B
(A B c ) B
A (B c B)
AU
U

De Morgans law
Double complement law
Associative law
Union with complement
Domination

Exercise. Use the laws of set algebra to simplify (A (A B)c ) B c :

Exercise. Use the laws of set algebra to simplify

[A (A B c )] [(A B) (B Ac )]

Generalized set operations:

n
[

i=1

Ai = A1 A2 An

and

n
\

i=1

Ai = A1 A2 An

Example. If Ak = {k, k + 1} for every positive integer k, then

3
[

k=1
3
\

k=1

Ak = A1 A2 A3 = {1, 2} {2, 3} {3, 4} = {1, 2, 3, 4}

Ak = A1 A2 A3 = {1, 2} {2, 3} {3, 4} =

Exercise. Let Ak = {x N | k x k 2 } for every positive integer k. Find

4
[

Ak

k=2

6
\

Ak

k=3

10

A set may contain another set as one of its elements.

This raises the possibility that a set may contain itself as an element.
Problem: Try to let S be the set of all sets that are not elements of themselves,
i.e.,
S = {A | A is a set and A
/ A}.
Is S an element of itself?
i) If S S, then the definition of S implies that S
/ S, a contradiction.

ii) If S
/ S, then the definition of S implies that S S, also a contradiction.
Hence neither S S nor S
/ S. This is Russells paradox.
Why does this paradox occur?
Example. (The Barber Puzzle) In a certain town there is a barber who
shaves all those men, and only those, who do not shave themselves.
Does the barber shave himself?

Solution: let U be some known set and define S by

S = {A | A U and A
/ A}.
(i) If S S, then the definition of S implies that S U and S
/ S, which
is a contradiction.
(ii) If S
/ S, then the definition of S implies that either S 6 U or S S.
To avoid a contradiction with S
/ S, we must have S 6 U .
Hence, we conclude that S
/ S and S 6 U .
Thus, the paradox does not occur as long as we have S
/ U.
The paradox occurred because our first definition of S referred to itself.
Example. (The Barber Puzzle continued)
Define
U = {all men in town except the barber}
S = {A U | A does not shave himself}
= {A U | A is shaved by the barber}
Then there is no more contradiction.
11

An ordered pair is a collection of two objects in a specified order.

We use round brackets to denote ordered pairs; e.g., (a, b) is an ordered pair.
Note that (a, b) and (b, a) are different ordered pairs,
whereas {a, b} and {b, a} are the same set.
An ordered n-tuple is a collection of n objects in a specified order;
e.g., (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) is an ordered n-tuple.
Two ordered n-tuples (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) and (b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ) are equal
if and only if ai = bi for all i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
The Cartesian product of two sets A and B, denoted by A B,
is the set of all ordered pairs from A to B:
A B = {(a, b) | a A and b B}
If |A| = m and |B| = n, then we have |A B| = mn.

The Cartesian product of n sets A1 , A2 , . . . , An is the set of all

ordered n-tuples (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) such that ai Ai for all i = 1, 2, . . . , n:
A1 A2 An = {(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) | ai Ai for all i = 1, 2, . . . , n}
Example. Let A = {a, b} and B = {1, 2, 3}. Then

A B = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (a, 3), (b, 1), (b, 2), (b, 3)} .

Exercise. For A and B in the above example, find B A.

When X and Y are small finite sets, we can use an arrow diagram to represent
a subset S of X Y : we list the elements of X and the elements of Y , and
then we draw an arrow from x to y for each pair (x, y) S.
Example. Let X = {a, b, c}, Y = {1, 2, 3, 4}, and S = {(a, 2), (a, 3), (c, 1)}.
The arrow diagram for S is
1
2
3
4

a
b
c

12

A function f from a set X to a set Y is a subset of X Y so that

for every x X there is exactly one y Y for which (x, y) belongs to f .
We write f : X Y and say that f is a function from X to Y .
X is the domain of f .

Y is the codomain of f .
For any x X, there is a unique y Y for which (x, y) belongs to f .
We write f (x) = y or f : x 7 y.
We call y the image of x under f or the value of f at x.

The range of f is the set of all values of f :

{y Y | y = f (x) for some x X}.
This definition of function corresponds to what is normally thought of as the
graph of a function, with an x-axis and a y-axis.
Example. Adam, Ben, Cate, Diane, and Eve were each given a mark out of 4.
Their marks define a function f : X Y as follows:
domain X = {Adam, Ben, Cate, Diane, and Eve}
codomain Y = {1, 2, 3, 4},
f = {(Adam, 3), (Ben, 2), (Cate, 4), (Diane, 2), (Eve, 3)}.
The arrow diagram for this function is
Adam
Ben
Cate
Diane
Eve

f
1
2
3
4

This is a function because every person has exactly one mark.

It does not matter that multiple people share the same mark,
and it does not matter that the mark 1 is not used.
The range of this function is {2, 3, 4}.
13

Exercise. Let X = {a, b, c} and Y = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.

Determine whether or not each of the following is a function from X to Y .
If it is, then write down its range.
f = {(a, 2), (a, 4), (b, 3), (c, 5)},
g = {(b, 1), (c, 3)},
h = {(a, 5), (b, 2), (c, 2)}.

Example. The square function f : R R is defined by set of the pairs

{(x, y) R R | y = x2 }.

The function f : R R can also be specified by

f (x) = x2

or

f : x 7 x2 .

The domain of f is R; the codomain of f is R; and the range of f is

{y R | y = x2 for some x R} = {y R | y 0} = R+ {0}.
The floor function: (rounds down)
for any x R, we denote by x the largest integer less than or equal to x.

The ceiling function: (rounds up)

for any x R, we denote by x the smallest integer greater than or equal to x.
Exercise. Evaluate the following:
3.7 =
3.7 =
3.7 =
3.7 =

3 =
3 =

3 =
3 =

Exercise. What are the ranges of the floor and ceiling functions?
Plot the graphs of the floor and the ceiling functions.

14

Exercise. Determine whether or not each of the following definitions

corresponds to a function. If it does, then write down its range.

f : R R, f (x) = x
g : R R, g(x) =

1
x

h : R R, h(x) = x2 2x 1 .

The image of a set A X under a function f : X Y is

f (A) = {y Y | y = f (x) for some x A} = {f (x) | x A}.

The inverse image of a set B Y under a function f : X Y is

f 1 (B) = {x X | f (x) B}.

Example. Let the function f be defined by the arrow diagram

a
b
c
d
e

1
2
3
4

The image of the set {a, b, e} under f is f ({a, b, e}) = {2, 3}.
The inverse image of the set {1, 2, 4} under f is f 1 ({1, 2, 4}) = {b, c, d}.
Exercise. Let f : R R be given by f (x) = x2 . Find

(a) The image of the set {2, 2, , 2} under f .

(b) The inverse image of the set {9, 9, } under f
(c) The inverse image of the set {2, 9} under f .

15

Recall that if f is a function from X to Y , then

for every x X, there is exactly one y Y such that f (x) = y.
We say that a function f : X Y is injective or one-to-one if
for every y Y , there is at most one x X such that f (x) = y.
for all x1 , x2 X, if f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) then x1 = x2 .

for all x1 , x2 X, if x1 6= x2 then f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ).

We say that a function f : X Y is surjective or onto if
for every y Y , there is at least one x X such that f (x) = y.
the range of f is the same as the codomain of f .
We say that a function f : X Y is bijective if
f is both injective and surjective (one-to-one and onto).
for every y Y , there is exactly one x X such that f (x) = y.

In terms of arrow diagrams and graphs...

function
injective
one-to-one
surjective
onto
bijective

The arrow diagram for f : X Y

The graph for f : R R

has at most one incoming arrow

for each element of Y
has at least one incoming arrow
for each element of Y
has exactly one incoming arrow
for each element of Y

intersects each horizontal line

in at most one point
intersects each horizontal line
in at least one point
intersects each horizontal line
in exactly one point

has exactly one outgoing arrow

for each element of X

intersects each vertical line

in exactly one point

Example. The function f : R R, f (x) = x2 is neither injective nor surjective.

16

Exercise. Determine whether or not each of the following arrow diagrams

corresponds to a function. If it does, then determine whether or not it is
injective, surjective, or bijective.

a
b
c

a
b
c
a
b
c

f1

1
2
3
4

a
b
c

f4

1
2
3
4

a
b
c

1
2
f7
f1

a
b
c

f2

f2

f5

a
b
c

1
2
3

a
b
c

a
b
c

1
2
f8
f3

1
2
3
4

f4

f5

function
injective
surjective
bijective

17

a
b
c

1
2
f9
f6

f7

f3

1
2
3
4

f6

1
2
3
4

1
f10
f8

f9

f10

Exercise. Which of the following definitions correspond to functions?

Which of the functions are injective? surjective? bijective?
f1 : R R,
f1 (x) = 2x + 5
f2 (x) = x2
f2 : R R,
f3 : R (R+ {0}), f3 (x) = x2
f4 : R+ R+ ,
f4 (x) = x2
f5 : (R {0}) R,
f5 (x) = x1
f6 : R R,
f6 (x) = x2 2x 2.
f7 : R R,
f7 (x) = x
f8 (x) = x
f8 : R Z,

f9 : R R,
f9 (x) = x

f10 : R R,
f10 (x) = x2 + 1
f1

f2

f3

f4

f5

f6

f7

f8

f9

function
injective
surjective
bijective
Plot the graph in each case and give reasons for your answers.

18

f10

19

For functions f : X Y and g : Y Z, the composite of f and g is the

function g f : X Z defined by (g f )(x) = g(f (x)) for all x X.
The composite function g f exists whenever
the range of f is a subset of the domain of g.
In general, g f and f g are not the same composite functions.
Associativity of composition (assuming they exist): h (g f ) = (h g) f .
Example. Let f and g be functions defined by
f : N N, f (x) = x + 3

and

g : Z Z, g(y) = 2y .

Then the composite function g f : N Z exists and is given by

(g f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(x + 3) = 2(x + 3) = 2x + 6 .
The range of g f is {2x + 6 | x N}, i.e., all even integers 6, 8, 10, . . . .
The range of g is {2y | y Z}, the set of all even integers, but this is not a
subset of N, the domain of f , so the composition f g does not exist.

However, if we now redefine f : Z Z, f (x) = x + 3,

then f g : Z Z exists and is given by

(f g)(y) = f (g(y)) = f (2y) = 2y + 3.

Exercise. Let f and g be functions defined by
f : R R, f (x) =

x+1
2

and

g : R R, g(y) =

Find the composite functions g f and f g if they exist.

20

y 2 + 1.

The identity function on a set X is the function iX : X X, iX (x) = x.

For any function f : X Y , we have f iX = f = iY f .
A function g : Y X is an inverse of f : X Y if
g(f (x)) = x for all x X
and f (g(y)) = y for all y Y,
or equivalently, g f = iX and f g = iY .
THEOREM: A function can have at most one inverse.
If f : X Y has an inverse, then we say that f is invertible, and we denote
the inverse of f by f 1 . Thus, f 1 f = iX and f f 1 = iY .
If g is the inverse of f , then f is the inverse of g. Thus, (f 1 )1 = f .
THEOREM: A function is invertible if and only if it is bijective.
THEOREM: If f : X Y and g : Y Z are invertible,
then so is g f : X Z, and the inverse of g f is f 1 g 1 .
Example. Let f : R R be defined by f (x) = 2x 5.
To find the inverse f 1 , solve the equation y = f (x) with respect to x:
y = 2x 5

Thus, f 1 : R R is given by f 1 (y) =

x=

y+5
2

y+5
.
2

Exercise. For each of the following functions, find its inverse if it is invertible.
f : R Z,
g : (R {1}) (R {0}),

f (x) = x
g(x) = x32+1

h : (R+ {0}) {x R | x 1}, h(x) = x2 + 1.

21

Exercise. Prove that a function has at most one inverse.

Exercise. Prove that a function has an inverse if and only if it is bijective.

22

Exercise. Prove that if f : X Y and g : Y Z are invertible,

then so is g f : X Z, and the inverse of g f is f 1 g 1 .

Informally speaking, a sequence is an ordered list of objects,

a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , ak , . . . ,
where each object ak is called a term, and the subscript k is called an index
(typically starting from 0 or 1). We denote the sequence by {ak }.
Example.
The terms of the sequence {ak } defined by ak = k 2 for all k N are
0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, . . . .
An arithmetic progression is a sequence {bk } where bk = a + kd for all k N
for some fixed numbers a R and d R. Its terms are
a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, . . . .
A geometric progression is a sequence {ck } defined by ck = ark for all k N
for some fixed numbers a R and r R. Its terms are
a, ar, ar2 , ar3 , . . . .

23

Summation notation: for m n,

n
X

k=m

ak = am + am+1 + am+2 + + an .

Properties of summation:
n
X

(ak + bk ) =

k=m

but

n
X

k=m

n
X

k=m

ak +

n
X

bk

n
X

and

k=m

ak bk 6=

( ak ) =

k=m

n
X

k=m

ak

n
X

k=m

bk

n
X

ak ,

k=m

Example. The sum of the first n+1 terms of the arithmetic progression {a+kd}
is
n
X
(2a+nd)(n+1)
(a+kd) = a + (a+d) + (a+2d) + + (a+nd) =
.
2
k=0
Why?

We find a formula for the sum of the first n positive integers,

by setting a = 0 and d = 1:
n
X
n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + + n = 0 + 1 + 2 + + n =
k =
.
2
k=0
Example. The sum of the first n + 1 terms of the geometric progression {ark }
is
n
X
a(rn+1 1)
k
2
n
.
ar = a + ar + ar + + ar =
r

1
k=0
Why?

24

Exercise. Given the formulas

n
X

n(n + 1)
k =
2
k=1

and

n
X
k=1

k2 =

n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
,
6

evaluate
10
X
(k 3)(k + 2)
k=1

Exercise. Use the formula for the geometric progression to evaluate

40
X

(3k + 2)2

k=11

25

Example. (Change of summation index)

The sum
5
X
1
k=1

k+2

can be transformed by a change of variable j = k + 2 as follows:

Lower limit:
when k = 1, we have j = 1 + 2 = 3.
Upper limit:
when k = 5, we have j = 5 + 2 = 7.
1
1
= .
General term: we have
k+2
j
Thus, we obtain
5
7
X
X
1
1
=
.
k
+
2
j
j=3
k=1
We could now replace the variable j by the variable k (if this is preferred):
5
X
k=1

7
X
1
1
=
.
k+2
k
k=3

More generally, for any sequence {ak } and any integer d we have
n
X

n+d
X

ak =

k=m

akd .

k=m+d

For example,
a1 + a2 + a3 =

3
X
k=1

ak =

4
X
k=2

Exercise. Simplify
n+1
X
k=2

k2

n1
X
k=1

x +

n1
X

xk+1

k=0

26

ak1 =

2
X
k=0

ak+1 = .

Example. (A telescoping sum)

1
1
3
=
for k 1, we can write
Using the identity
k(k + 3)
k k+3

n
n 
X
X
1
1
3
=

k(k
+
3)
k
k+3
k=1
 k=1
 
 




1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1
1
= 1
+

+ +

.
4
2 5
3 6
4 7
n n+3
X
This is an example of a telescoping sum:
ak , where ak = bk bk+d .
By changing the summation index, we see that
n
X
k=1

n
n
n
n+3
X
X
3
1 X 1
1 X1
=

k(k + 3)
k
k
+
3
k
k
k=1
k=1
k=1
k=4

3
X
1
k=1

= 1+
Exercise. Use the identity

k=1

k=4

n
X
1
k=4

n+3
X
1
+
k k=n+1 k

1 1
1
1
1
+

.
2 3 n+1 n+2 n+3

2
1
2
1
=
+
for k 1
k(k + 1)(k + 2)
k
k+1 k+2

to simplify
n
X

n
X
1

2
k(k + 1)(k + 2)

27

Product notation: for m n,

n
Y

k=m

Properties of product:
!
n
n
Y
Y
ak bk =
ak
k=m

k=m

ak = am am+1 am+2 an .

n
Y

k=m

bk

but

n
Y

(ak + bk ) 6=

k=m

Exercise. Simplify
n
Y

k
k+3
k=1

28

n
Y

k=m

ak +

n
Y

k=m

bk .