LO tigi ci Cirle b a VIKAS PUBLISHING HOUSE PVT LTDInduction and Synchronous Machines - K Murugesh Kumar Assistant Professor Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering PSG College of Technology Coimbatore Ly VIKAS” PUBLISHING HOUSE PVT LTDVIKAS® PUBLISHING HOUSE PVT LTD A-22, Sector-4, Noida-201301 (UP) Phone: 0120-4078900 « Fax: 4078999 Regd. Office: 576, Masjid Road, Jangpura, New Delhi-110 014 E-mail: [email protected] —_» — www.vikaspubllshing.com « First Floor, N.S. 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Printed at Print Links, Delhi - 110092Contents Foreword vii Preface _ix Part I: Induction Machines 1 1_- Three-phase Induction Machines— Constructional Details 3 L.1_Introduction _3 12 Advantages of Three-phase Induction Motors _3 13 Disadvantages of Three-phase Induction Motors 4 1.4_ Stator Construction _4 14.1 Frame 5 1.4.2 Stator Core 5 1.4.3 Three-phase Stator Winding 6 1.4.4 Terminal Box 7 1.4.5End Covers 8 14.6BrushGear 8 LS_Rotor Construction & 1.5.1 Types of Rotors 8 Starting Torque in n Slip-ring Motor 23 ting C Cone 2.3.4 Condition for Maximum Torque 31 2.3.5 Load Torque and Maximum Torque 32 2.3.6 Starting Torque and Maximum Torque 32 24 Torque-slip Characteristics 37 2.4.1 Speed-torque Characteristics 40 2.4.2 Modes ofOperation 41 Review Questions 43 Exercises 45xii Induction and Synchronous Machines 3 Lossesand Efficiency 47 3.1 Losses 47 3.1.1 Types of Losses 47 3.1.2 Magnetic Losses 47 3.1.3 Electrical Losses 48 3.1.4 Mechanical Losses 49 32_ Power Stages in Induction Motors 50 33. Power Stages in Induction Generators 51 34 Efficiency 55 Review Questions 58 Exercises 59 4° Equivalent Ci uit of Three-phase Induction Motor 67 41 Derivation of Exact Equivalent Circuit 61 42 Approximate Equivalent Circuit 68 43 Phasor Diagram with K=1 72 44 Performance Equations 74 4.4.4 Maximum Torque Developed 76 4.4.5 Load Torque and Maximum Torque 77 4.4.6 Starting Torque and Maximum Torque 78 review Questions 81 Exercises_82 5 Testing and Performance Prediction 83 5.1 No Load Test 83 52 Blocked Rotor Test 85 53 Measurement of Stator Resistance 88 54_ Performance Prediction Using Equivalent Circuit 90 ip im 5.5.2 Circle Diagram for the Approximate Equivalent Circuit 95 5.5.3 Construction of Circle Diagram 96 5.5.4 Advantage and Disadvantage 99 5.5.5 Performance Prediction 100 56 Separation of Losses 105 5.6.1 No-load Test at Synchronous Speed 105 5.6.2 No-load Test at Variable Voltage 106 5.7 Determination of Efficiency by loss subtraction method 107 5.7.1 Data Required 107 5.7.2 Calculation Procedure 108 58 Direct Load Test 109 5.8.1 Advantages of the Direct Load Test 112Contents xiii 5.8.2 Disadvantages of the Direct Load Test 112 Review Questions 113 Exercises 113 6 Miscellaneous Topics on Three Phase Induction Machines 1/7 61 Crawling 117 62 Cogging 119 63 Double Cage Motor 120 6.3.1 Construction of Double-cage Rotor 120 6.3.2 Torque - Slip Characteristics 121 6.3.3 Equivalent Circuits 121 64 InductionGenerators 128 6.4.1 Power Flow Equations 128 65 Types of Induction Generators 129 6.5.1 Separately Excited Induction Generator 129 6.5.2 Self-excited Induction Generators 132 Exercises 38 1__Control of Three-phase Induction Motors 139 7.1_Methods of Starting 139 7.1.1 Dol Starter 140 7.1.2 Stator Resistance Starter_142 7.1.3 Autotransformer Starter_142 7.1.4 Star—Delta Starter_145 7.1.5 Rotor Resistance Starter 147 72 Methods of Speed Control 158 7.2.1 Speed Control by Changing Frequency 158 1.2.25) Control by Changing Number of Poles 159 7.3.1 Regenerative Braking 174 7.3.2 Plugging 174 7.3.3 Dynamic Braking 175 Review Questions 178 Exercises 179 8 Single-phase Induction Motors 183 81 Introduction 183 82 Double Revolving Field Theory 184 83 Equivalent Circuit 187 84. Types of Single-phase Induction Motars 192 8.4.1 Split-phase Motor 192 8.4.2 Capacitor Start Motor 194 8.4.3 Capacitor Start and Run Motor 194 8.4.4 Shaded-pole Motor 195xiv Induction and Synchronous Machines 8.4.5 Repulsion Start Induction Run Motor 196 Review Questions 198 Exercises 199 Part Il: Synchronous Machines 201 9 Constructional Features of Synchronous Machines 203 9.1 Principle of Operation 203 92 Constructional Requirements 204 9.2.1 Stationary Field System Type 204 9.2.2 Rotating Field System Type 204 9.2.3 Advantages of Rotating Field System 204 9.2.4 Frequency of Induced Emf 205 9.3 Prime-movers for Synchronous Generators 206 9.3.1 Steam-turbines 207 9.3.2 Hydraulic Turbines 207 9.3.3 Internal Combustion Engines 207 94 Stator Construction 208 95 Rotor Construction 208 9.5.1 Types of Rotor 208 9.5.2 Smooth Cylindrical Type Rotor 208 9.5.3 Salient-pole Rotor 209 96 Damper Windings 210 9.7 Electricaland Mechanical Degrees 211 98 Three Phase Winding 213 9.8.1 Types of Three-phase Windings 213 9.8.2 Double Layer Winding Detail 214 9.8.3 Winding Factors 216 9.9 EmfEquation 224 9.9.1 Open Circuit Characteristic (OCC) 225 9.9.2 Rating of Alternators / Synchronous Generators 228 Review Questions 231 Problems 232 10 Load Characteristics of Alternators 235 10.1 Alternator Operation 235 10.2 Causes For Voltage Variations 235 10.2.1 Winding Resistance 236 10.2.2 Leakage Reactance 237 10.2.3 Armature Reaction 237 103 Representation of Smooth Cylindrical Type Alternator 240 10.3.1 Symbolic Representation 241 10.3.2 Synchronous reactance 242 10.3.3 Synchronous Impedance 242 10.3.4 Network Equation 243Contents xv 10.4 Phasor Diagrams 246 10.4.1 Lagging Power-factor Load 246 .4.2 Unity Power-factor Load 247 10.4.3 Leading Power-factor Load 247 10.4.4 Load Angle 248 10.5 Load Characteristics 248 10.6 Voltage Regulation 251 10.6.1 Definition of Voltage Regulation 251 10.6.2 Regulation Characteristics 251 10.7 Excitation Required for Constant Terminal Voltage 254 10.8 Equations for Power Generated and Power Output 255 10.9 Self-excited Alternators 259 10.9.1 Three-phase Self-excited Alternator 259 10.9.2 Single-phase Self-excited Alternator 260 Review Questions 261 Problems 262 11 Predetermination of Voltage Regulation 265 11.1 Necessity for Predetermination 265 11.2 Methods of Predetermination 265 11.3 Synchronous Impedance /Emf Method 266 11.3.1 Test Data 266 11.3.2 Estimation of Synchronous Impedance 267 11.3.3 Calculation Procedure 268 114 Ampere-tumn /Mmf Method 272 11.4.1 Data Required 272 11.4.2 Phasor Diagram 273 11.4.3 Calculation Procedure 275 11.5 Potier /Zpf Method 284 11.5.1 Required Test Data 284 11.5.2 Separation of Leakage Reactance 287 11.5.3 Calculation Procedure 289 Review Questions 294 Problems 296 12 Paratlel Operation of Alternators 299 12.1 Necessity 299 122 Conditions for Synchronising 299 123 Synchronising Procedure 300 12.3.1 Three Dark Lamps Method 300 12.3.2 Two Bright and One Dark Lamp Method 301 12.3.3 Using Synchroscope 302 124 Synchfonising Power and Torque 303 12.4.1 Synchronising Power 305 12.4.2 Maximum Synchronising Power 306xvi Induction and Synchronous Machines 12.4.3 Synchronising Torque 307 12.5 Load Sharing 311 12.5.1 Prime-mover Characteristic 311 12.5.2 Effect of Change in Prime-mover Input 316 12.5.3 Effect of Change in Excitation 317 12.5.4 Two Generators in Parallel 318 12.5.5 ‘n’ Generators in Parallel 319 Review Questions 326 Problems 327 13 Operation on Infinite Bus-bars 337 13.1 Infinite Bus-bars 331 132 Generator Operation at Zero Power Factor 332 133 Generator Operation at Power Factors Other Than Zero 333 134 General Load Diagram 335 13.4.1 Data Required 335 13.4.2 Calculations 336 13.4.3 Scaling and Measurement 336 13.4.4 Diagram Construction 337 13.4.4 Useofthe Diagram 338 13.5 Motor Operation 340 13.7 Determination of Voltage Regulation by Bus-bar Loading ‘350 13.7.1 Initial Calculations 351 13.7.2 Experimental Procedure 352 13.7.3 Caleulation Procedure 353 Review Questions 353 Exercises 354 14 Synchronous Motors 357 14,1 Characteristic Features 357 142 Principle of Operation 357 143 Methods of Starting 358 14.3.1 By an Extra, Small, 3-phase Cage Induction Motor 359 14.3.2 By Providing Cage/Damper Winding in Pole Faces 360 14.3.3 By Operating the Pilot Exciter as aDC Motor 361 144 Speed—Torque Characteristic 361 145 Network Equations 363 146 Phasor diagrams 363 14.6.1 Lagging pf 364 14.6.2 Unity pf 364 14.6.3 Leading pf 365 147 Torque—angle characteristic 366 14.7.1 Equations for Power Developed and Power Input 367Contents xvii 14.7.2 Maximum Value of Pd and Pi 369 14.7.3 Equation for Pd and Pi withR=0 370 14.7.4 Power—Angle /Torque—Angle Characteristic 371 148 V and inverted V curves 380 14.8.1 Effect of Excitation on Currentand pf 381 14.8.2 Experimental Procedure 383 149 Synchronous phase modifier 385 Review Questions 389 Exercises 390 15 Hunting of Synchronous machines 393 15.1 Introduction 393 152 Machine Dynamics 394 153 Effect of dampers 398 15.3.1 Machines with Dampers 398 15.3.2 Machines Without Dampers 399 15.4 Frequency of oscillations 400 Review Questions 400 16. Circle Diagram of Synchronousmachines 403 16.1 Principle 403 162 Constant power developed and variable excitation condition 403 16.3 Variable power developed and constant excitation condition 407 16.4 Combined circle diagrams 410 Review Questions 411 17 TwoReaction Theory 413 17.1 Effect of Saliency in Armature Reaction 413 17.1.1 Direct and Quadrature Axes Reactances 414 172 Slip Test_415 iagram 417 17.3.1 Generator Operation 417 17.3.2 Motor Operation 419 174 Power Angle Relation 423 17.4.1 Equation for Power Developed 423 17.4.2 Synchronising Power 425 17.4.3 Condition for maximum Power Developed 425 17.4.4 Power-Angle Characteristics 426 17.5 Reluctance Power 427xviii Induction and Synchronous Machines. 17.6 Advantage of Salient Pole Machines 427 Review Questions 432 Index 435Pat ONE Induction MachinesCHAPTER! Three-phase Induction Machines— Constructional Details 1.1 INTRODUCTION Induction machines, like other electrical rotating machines, are also capable of operating both as motors and generators. As the nature of electrical energy is AC, Induction machines come under the category of AC machines. Further, based on the type of AC used they can be classified as: () — Three-phase Induction machines (i) Single-phase Induction machines Three-phase Induction motors convert three-phase AC electrical energy into mechanical energy. In the reverse mode, the same machine is capable of converting mechanical energy into three-phase AC electrical energy. Ofall electrical motors, three- phase Induction motor is the most extensively used in industries and in other applications. All over the world, about 80% of total energy conversion from electrical to mechanical is carried out by three-phase Induction motors. Its advantages over other machines makes it the best choice for numerous applications. 1,2 ADVANTAGES OF THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS Simple, and extremely rugged construction Three phase Induction motors, especially squirrel cage motors, are unbreakable and ruggedly constructed. Their simplicity of construction makes them easier to produce in large number and of good quality. Low cost and reliability ow cost is arrived at due to the simplicity of construction, The ruggedness of construction makes the motor operate in a reliable manner,4 Paxtl: Induction Machines Requires minimum maintenance Squirrel cage Induction motors may not require any maintenance at all except for periodic dusting because of their unbreakable constructional property. High efficiency and good power factor Full load efficiency of three phase- Induction motors vary from 85% to 94%. The full load pf may be between 85% to 92% lagging in nature. Simple starting arrangement Three-phase Induction motors need not be synchronised and this point is in comparison with Synchronous motor. Motors of small capacity can even be directly switched on to the supply. 1.3 DISADVANTAGES OF THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS Low starting torque The starting torque is comparatively inferior to that of DC motors. Hence applications requiring high starting torque do away with this type of motors. Speed decreases with increase in load As in DC motors, speed decreases with increase in load. This point is considered a disadvantage in comparison with Synchronous motors which operate at constant speed under all load conditions. Speed control Speed control in three-phase Induction motors requires either extra investment for auxiliary controllers or to forego some of its efficiency. This is a disadvantage because the cost of speed controllers may cost around 10 times the price of motors, 1.4 STATOR CONSTRUCTION The stator of the three-phase Induction machine consists of the following parts (shown in Fig 1.1), Eye bolt Frame Stator core Stator slot Stator coil Rib Fig... Stator of three-phase Induction machineCxarrer 1: Three Phase Induction Machines—Constructional Details 5 @ Frame (i) Stator core (iii) Three-phase stator winding (iv) Terminal box (v) End covers (2 numbers) (vi) Brush gear for slip-ring motor. 1.4.1 Frame This part of the machine gives complete support and protection to the other parts and hence get its name. In machines of small and medium capacity, the frame has a single piece of short, hollow cylinder cast iron casting. Frames for larger capacity machines are fabricated in four or more arc shaped steel pieces and then joined together to form a cylindrical shape. The outer surface may be provided with fins so as to increase the heat dissipating area without increasing the overall diameter. An eye-bolt is fitted on the top of the frame for transit purposes. 1.4.2 Stator Core The stator core provides the space for housing the three-phase stator windings and also forms the path for the rotating magnetic field. To provide less opposition to the flow of magnetic field, high grade steel is used as the basic material. As every part of the stator core is subjected to alternate changes in polarity of the magnetic field due to its rotating nature, hysteresis and eddy current losses are incurred in it, To reduce hysteresis loss, silicon (about 3-5%) is added to the high grade steel. Eddy current loss is minimised by building the stator core by stacking a number of thin (0.35 to 0.65 mm thickness), silicon content stecl stampings. Stator core stampings are punched to give the shape shown in Fig 1.2 (a). Semi-closed slots are provided in the inner portion of the stampings. The number of stator slots (S) provided is given by integer multiples of three times the number of poles (P) for which the machine is designed and constructed. S= xP) aly xedh2,3 {a) Stator stamping (b) Core assembly Fig 1.2 Stator core6 Pant: Induction Machines: The number of poles (P) of the magnetic field is related to the frequency (/) of the supply voltage and speed of the rotating magnetic field N, by the following equation. PM: Pe (2) 60 120 ed Table 1.1 given below shows the possible values of Synchronous speed N. for motors operating on a SOHz supply system. The running speed N, of Induction motors is slightly less than the Synchronous speed NV. f Table 1.1 Possible values of N, for 30Hz operation Therefore, fora motor having running speed slightly less-than 1500 rpm on a 50 Hz supply, P ischosen to be 4 and the number of slots in the stator stampings are either 12, 24, 36 etc. The stator stampings, afier punched to the required dimension are provided with thin varnish coating to increase’ core body resistance. The stampings are then stacked together to the required length as shown in Fig 1.2.(b). The stack is then pressed and steel ribs are welded over inserted into the stator frame. 1.4.3 Three-phase Stator Winding in suitable places, The assembled core is then For machines of large capacity operating at high voltage, single-layer concentric windings are used. Single layer mush windings are used for machines of smaller capacity working at 415¥V. Most of the medium sized machines are provided with double layer lap windings. Double layer winding is carried out with identical former-wound diamond- shaped copper coils. Windings for each phase are housed in one-third of the total stator slots after sufficient insulation is provided. Total number of coils C required for all the three phases is given by the equation us (1.3) where ‘1’ is number of coil-sides per slot which is an even integer. Stator windings are wound for a specific number of poles depending upon the speed of operation, as shown in Table 1.1. After all the coil are placed inside the slots, the slots are closed with wooden wedges as shown in Fig. 1.3. which keeps the coil sides intact rr Slot opening Wood wedge Layer '4— Slot insulation insulation t—Coil side i— Stator slot Fig 1.3 Stator slot with 4 coil sidesChapter 1: Three Phase Induction Machines—Constructional Details 7 Coils belonging to each phase are normally connected in series and finally one starting end and one finishing end are available for interconnection with other phase winding in Star or Delta. Unless otherwise specified, stator windings are designed for Delta connection so as to make use of start-delta starter. 1.4.4 Terminal Box Sixterminalsmarkedas 4,, 4,, 8,, 8, C,,C., arenormally available in the terminal box of squirrel-cage motor. To the terminals 4,, 4), 4; , the starting ends of the three phase windings are connected. Their respective finishing ends are connected to terminals 4,, B,C, . These six leads are further interconnected either manually or Ay ye S Ag Co. — é « Cz Ar Be (a) Star connection 8 he Bo Ar By Cy Cc; AL Se G Ae Be (b} Delta connection A BOs G2 Ae Be Df F (c) Additional rotor terminals Fig 1.4 Terminal box8 Parr’: Induction Machines by means ofa starter to obtain Star or Delta connection as shown is Fig 1.4. (a) and (b). For slip-ring motors three additional terminals are provided—D,E and F as rotor terminals. 1.4.5 End Covers Two end covers with suitable bearings provide support for the rotor assembly. 1.4.6 Brush Gear This is fitted with one of the end-covers which is nearer to the slip-ring side. 1.5 ROTOR CONSTRUCTION The rotor consists of the following parts (i) Rotorcore (i) Rotor winding Gil) Shaft (iv) _Slip-rings for slip ring type rotor 1.5.1 Types of Rotors The following are the two types of rotor construction used for three-phase Induction motors. (i) Squirrel-cage rotor (i) Slip ring rotor 1.5.2 Squirrel Cage Rotor This type of rotor is used in almost 90 per cent of Induction motors as they are very simple, rugged and unbreakable in construction. The rotor core is assembled by stacking rotor stampings punched into the shapes as shown in Fig 1.5. The thickness of the rotor stampings is larger than that of stator stampings as no appreciable iron loss is incurred in the rotor. Closed slots of either circular or rectangular shapes are provided inthe stamping. After the rotor core is stacked by the required number of laminations, the rotor shaft is inserted through the space available at the centre and firmly fitted by the key-way. For machines of smaller and medium capacity, this assembly is then placed in a moulding machine, which will force, under pressure, the molten aluminium through the slots to form rotor bars, end rings and cooling fan arrangement as an extension of end rings. This type of die-cast rotor is simple and rugged in construction. For machines of larger capacity, copper or brass bars are driven through the slots manually and the ends on both sides are then welded or silver soldered together to form end rings. As shown in Fig. 1.6, the rotor bars are slightly inclined to the shaft axis due to the “skew” provided while stacking the rotor stampings. Assembling the rotor core with skew of I to 2 slots provides the following two advantages:Cuarrer 1 : Three Phase Induction Machines—Constructional Details 9 Rotor stamping Rotor slot Fig 1.5 Cage rotor stamping () _Ithelps the motor to run quietly by reducing magnetic hum (ii) It reduces the locking tendency of the rotor. Fig 1.6 Squirrel cage rotor When one views the rotor bar assembly alone leaving the core assembly, it looks like a cage to keep asquirrel inside, hence this type of rotor gets its name squirrel cage rotor. Here the rotor circuit is a permanently closed circuit. 1.5.3 Slip Ring Rotor The other name for this type of rotor is wound rotor. The rotor core has semi-closed slots within which three phase winding, wound for the same number of poles as that of stator windings is provided. The winding is normally connected in star and the resultant three terminals are connected to three slip-rings provided on one end of the shaft, as shown is Fig 1.7 (a).10 Paxr I: Induction Machines Rotor winding Slip rings 66 e Rotor core (2) Sip-ring rotor assembly Rotor winding (b) External resistance connection Fig 1.7 Slip-ring rotor The sliprings are made up of brass or phosphor-bronze. A brush holding mechanism is fitted on the end cover provided on the slip-ring side. The mechanism has a lever which can be tured to two positions—the start and run position. At the time of starting, the lever is to be turned to start position. This will bring the brushes in contact with the slip-rings. A three-phase variable resistance can be added to the rotor circuit as shown in Fig 1.7. (b). After the machine has picked up speed, the lever is to be turned to the run position. This will cause the slip-rings to be short circuited by means of a-collar which is pushed along the shaft. Simultancously, the brushes are lifted above the slip-rings, thus reducing the wear in the brushes and eliminating brush friction loss. Slip-ring assembly may be fitted either between the rotor core and the bearings or on the shaft extension. Aiming at improved performance, the clearance between the inner surface of the stator core and the outer surface of the rotor core called air-gap, is kept as small as possible. This necessitates the shaft to be made shorter and stiffer so that the rotor may not have any significant deflection. Even a small deflection would create large iiregularities in the air-gap length which would lead to production of unbalanced magnetic pull. For small and medium capacity machines a roller bearing may be used atCrarrer 1: Three Phase induction Machines—Constructional Details 11 the driving end and a ball bearing at the non-driving end. Heavy rotor in large capacity machines are supported by journel bearings. 1,6 SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATIONS Fig.1.8 shows the symbolic representation of three-phase Induction machines. The outer circle represents the stator winding of the machine and the inner circle represents the rotor winding. Within the inner circle are found four symbols M or G.3, and A or Y . The symbois represent: M, motor mode of operation G. generator mode of operation 3. three phase machine wa. AC supply operation ‘A. Stator winding delta connected. Y stator winding star connected. (a) Cage motor (b) Slip-ring motor Fig 1.8 Symbolic representation of three-phase Induction motor Further, three arrow heads on the inner circle represent, the rotor is of stip-ring type where rotor winding terminals are accessible for external connection. Thus the representation shown in Fig. |.8 (a) denotes AC three-phase squirrel cage Induction motor, stator winding designed for delta connection under normal operation, and all the six terminals of the stator windings are available for coffnection. Fig.1.8.(b) represents an AC three-phase, slip-ring Induction motor, stator winding designed for star connection under normal operation and only three stator winding leads are available for external connection. The plates 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4 show clear pictures about the motor assembly.12. PartI: Induction Machines Plate 1.2 Stator assembly Courtesy: M/s PSG Industrial Institute, Coimbatore-641004Cxarrer | : Three Phase Induction Machines—Constructional Details 13 Plate 1.3 Squirrel cage rotor assembly Plate1.4 Wound rotor assembly Courtesy: M/s PSG Industrial Institute, Coimbatore-64 100414 Parti: Induction Machines 17 18 19 REVIEW QUESTIONS Explain the constructional features and types of three-phase Induction motor. With the aid of necessary sketches, describe the features in the construction of cage and slip-ring type Induction motors. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a wound rotor Induction motor over a squirrel cage motor? Compare squirrel cage Induction motor with slip-ring Induction motor. With the aid of neat sketches, describe the salient features in the construction ofa three-phase cage Induction motor. List the different parts of a cage and slip-ring type Induction motors. State the materials of which each part is made and also give the reason for its use. With the aid of simple sketches, list the various parts of cage and slip-ring type Induction motors. Briefly describe with the help of simple sketches, the essential parts of slip-ring and squirrel cage types of Induction motor. State also their relative merits Describe with necessary diagrams the constructional details of a three-phase wound rotor Induction motor. 1.10 Why is the stator core of Induction motors made of silicon content steel stampings?. 1.11 In what respect does the cage Induction motor differ from slip-ring Induction motor? 1.12 How many terminals are provided on the terminal box ofa squirrel cage Induction motor to be started by a star-delta starter?. 1.13 Why are the slots on the rotor of Induction motors usually skewed?. 1.14 List out the main parts ofa three-phase Induction motor.CHAPTER2 Principle of Operation Induction machines, when operated as a motor work on the same principle of aSynchronous motors, The principle-when current carrying conductors are present within a magnetic field, the conductors experience a force which causes them to exert torque on the shaft. The way in which magnetic field and current are provided to the system of conductors differs from one type of motor to another. In three-phase Induction motors, the magnetic field set-up is rotating in nature and hence called the rotating magnetic field. The current to the system of (roter) conductors is supplied by electromagnetic induction. Hence the motor gets its name, Induction motor, 2.1 ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD Whenever three-phase winding provided in an AC machine is connected to a three- phase supply, the three-phase current flowing through the winding causes a rotating magnetic field to be set up. The field will have specific number poles—2, 4, 6, 8, etc. (even integers) for which the winding is wound. The direction of rotation of the field depends upon the phase sequence of the supply and the speed of rotation is given by the equation 120f, , P where _/, is the supply frequency in Hz, P is the number of poles for which the winding is wound, ’, is the synchronous speed of the rotating magnetic field in rpm, since this speed is Synchronous with the supply frequency. ’ 1) For the sake of simplicity of explanation, consider a three-phase stator winding of single layer type, wound with single turn coils for 2 poles. This winding requires 12 slots in the stator which will accommodate 2 coils per phase as shown in Fig 2.1. One side of the first coil belonging to phase A is put up in slot | and its terminal form the starting terminal of A-phase winding is marked as 4, . The other end of the same coil isto be placed, normally, 180, clectrical degrees apart. The relation between electrical and mechanical degrees is given by the following equation.16 Pat]: Induction Machines ‘ P Electrical Degree = 7 Mechanical Degree (2.2) Fig 2.1 Three-phase 2-pole stator winding in 12 slots In the above case, the number poles for which the winding is wound is only 2 and so electrical degree equals mechanical degree. Hence the other side of the first coil is placed in slot number 7. (7=1+6, as slots per pole S/P=(12/2)=6 corresponds to 180 electrical degree.) Then the starting side of the second coil is put in second slot. This end is normally connected in series to the finishing end of the first coil. The other side of the second coil is accommodated in slot number 8 and its end forms the finishing terminal of A-phase winding marked as A, . In a similar manner, coils for phase B is put in slots 5, 11 and 6, 12 which are 120 electrical degrees away from slots 1,7 and 2, 8 respectively where the coils for ‘A-phase were put up. The terminal B, is the starting end of the coil side in slot $ and terminal B, is the finishing end of the coil side in slot 12 Fig 2.2 Three-phase current waveforms The coils for phase C occupies slots 9, 3 and 10,4 which are 120 electrical degrees away from the slots 5, 11 and 6, 12 respectively. C, is the starting terminal connectedCarrer 2 : Principle of Operation 17 with the coil side in slot 9 and C, is the finishing terminal with coil side in slot 4. Further the three supply terminals are connected to the winding terminals A, B,, and C, and the finishing terminals 4,, B,, and C, are connected together to form the star point. Figure 2.2 shows the waveforms of the three phase current passing through the three-phase winding discussed above. Different instances, | to 6, are marked at 60° intervals. Positive current is assumed to enter into the coil through the starting terminal while negative current through the finishing end. Let the three-phase current supplied to the three phase winding be in the following sequence. R phase supply to A phase winding Y phase supply to B phase winding B phase supply to C phase winding. (d) Instant 4 (e) Instant S (f) Instant 6 Fig 2.3 Rotating magnetic field with 2 pole At instant (1), R-phase current is positive. Hence it enters into phase A winding via A, terminal and comes out via A, terminal. The coil sides in slots | and 2 get the current direction inward and coil sides in slots 7or 8 get the current direction outward. Similarly, B phase current is also positive in instant (1). This causes current direction in slots 9 and 10 to be inward and in slots 3 and 4 to be outward. Current in Y phase is negative. It therefore will enter the coil B through B, giving inward direction in slots 12 and 11 and willcome out through 8, giving outward direction in slots 6 and 5. These directions are marked and shown in Fig 2.3 (a). Half the total number of coil18 Parl : Induction Machines sides carry the current in the inward direction while the remaining half coil sides carry current in the outward direction. Current carrying coil sides produce a magnetic field around them. Inward direction current causes a clockwise field and outward direction current causes a flux to be produced in the anticlockwise direction, Hence as shown in Fig 2.3 (a) aresultant clockwise field is produced by coil sides lying in slots 9, 10, 11, 12, 1 and 2. The resultant anticlockwise field is setup by coil sides situated in slots 3,4,5,6,7 and 8. The net flux comes out of the stator core between slots 2 and 3 and enters the air gap. Thus a N-north pole field is created between slots 2 and 3. The flux enters the stator core from air-gap between slots 8 and 9. Thus a S-south pole field is created between slots 8 and 9. The above discussion shows how a two pole magnetic field is created by three phase winding when a three phase current is passed through it. The same three phase current can also produce magnetic field of 4, 6 or any even number of poles provided the winding is wound for it. In Fig 2.3(b) similar procedure is carried out on the same two pole winding but now with the three-phase current at instant (2). As instant (2) lags 60° from instant (1), the axis of the two pole field gets shifted clockwise by 60° (electrical degree ). Similarly a shift of 60 electrical degree of the magnetic field axis takes place in the clockwise direction in instances (3), (4), (5) and (6) as shown in Fig 2.3 (c), (d), (e) and (f) respectively. Instant (7) is identical to instant (1) as now the waveform completes 1 cycle covering 360 degree. Thus in a2 pole machine, the magnetic field axis makes one complete revolution in ‘one cycle of waveform. If the above process is carried out similarly for a 4-pole machine, one can observe that one complete revolution of the magnetic field will take place in two cycles of waveform. This is due to the fact that one revolution covering 360 mechanical degree corresponds to 720 electrical degree for a four pole machine. Therefore, 720 electrical degree is covered in 2 cycle of waveform. This gives the following relation. P Frequency required in eycle/see, f=" x speed is revolution per see ie pole =f 23 0 (2.3) For a given machine, wound for P poles, the speed of the rotating magnetic field is directly proportional to~or in Synchronous with the supply frequency f,. Thus the speed of the rotating magnetic field is otherwise called Synchronous speed N,, . y= 2% +P Now the above mentioned procedure maybe repeated with the following changes in the supply connections, R phase supply to A phase winding Y phase supply to C phase winding B phase supply to B phase winding.Cuarrer 2 : Principle of Operation 19 This change in connection will cause the three phase current to flow in the reverse sequence. Here again, one can observe similar 2 pole field being created, which rotate at Synchronous speed 4, . But now, the direction of rotation of the magnetic field is in the anticlockwise direction. Thus a change in the direction of the rotating magnetic field can be obtained by changing the supply phase sequence. A change in the phase sequence can be achieved either by interchanging any two supply terminals or machine terminals. The magnitude of the rotating magnetic field is directly proportional to the magnetising current which in tum depends on the magnitude of the supply voltage. The speed of the rotating magnetic field is directly proportional to the supply frequency and the direction of rotation of the magnetic field depends upon the phase sequence of the three-phase supply. 2.2 STANDSTILL CONDITION At standstill, the rotor speed, N, =O. Now, ifthe 3-phase supply is given to the three- phase winding, as discussed previously, a 2 pole rotating magnetic field is created, which rotate at Synchronous speed, say in the clockwise direction. With respect to the stator field, the rotor is considered to be moving in the anticlockwise direction. This causes the flux linking the rotor conductors to change continuously. Hence, according to Faraday’s first law of electromagnetic induction, emf is induced in the rotor conductors. At the particular instant when the stator N-north pole is at the top and S- south pole at the bottom as in Fig 2.4 (a), all the conductors under the north pole region gets their emfinduced in the outward direction and all the conductors under the south pole region get their emf induced in the inward direction. Further, emf in the conductors which are immediately under the pole space is maximum while for those away from the pole axis is less. Also the emfin the conductors which are nearer to the magnetic neutral axis is minimum. According to Faraday’s second law, the amount of emf induced is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux. (a) Emf distribution (b) Current distribution Fig 2.4 Torque development20 Parr: Induction Machines Let Ey be the emf induced in the rotor conductors per phase at standstill condition. Then £, @ ¢ x Relative speed between stator field and rotor. E, a$(N,-N,) Ea $N, since N, =O at stand still condition. ‘The nature of this emf £, is AC and it undergoes one cycle of change when the magnetic field makes one complete revolution which occurs during one cycle of the supply frequency, for this a2 pole machine is considered. Hence at standstill condition, the frequency of the emf induced in the rotor conductors f isthe same as the supply frequency f, fet 2.4) Let R, be the rotor circuit resistance per phase A, be the rotor winding resistance per phase R, be the external resistance per phase added to the rotor circuit. Then,R,=R, —_ for squirrel cage rotor and Ry =(R, +R) forslip ring rotor. Let L, be the inductance per phase in the rotor winding and X, be the rotor winding inductive reactance per phase at standstill condition. Xy=2t fy ly (2.5) Xy=2m f. ly (2.6) The net impedance, Z, of the rotor circuit at standstill condition is Ahi 27 2 AIR +A (2.8) irouin, 0» = tan! “2 2.9) Impedance angle of the rotor circuit, €2 = "an" (29) As the rotor circuit is always closed, the emf £, impressed over the rotor circuit impedance Z, causes the rotor conductors to carry current of /, given by the relation Ey _ \E|0 cereal Ar 2.10) eed \e5| | where The rotor circuit power factor, cos 0, 2.12)Chiarrer 2 : Principle of Operation 21 As seen in equation 2.10, the rotor current /, lags the standstill induced emf in the rotor E, by the rotor circuit impedance angle @,. The above statement can be visualised as shown in Fig 2.4. In figure 2.4 (a), emf distribution is shown as the maximum emf is induced in the conductors which are near to the pole axis. Then the lagging rotor current will have its maximum value in conductors nearer to an axis which lags the pole axis by the impedance angle @, . The resultant current distribution in the various conductors is as shown in Fig 2.4 (b). The current directions of the conductors lying in regions A and D is in the outward direction and of conductors lying in regions B and C is in the inward direction. 2.2.1 Scarting Torque Applying Fleming’s left hand rule, the outward current carrying conductors as in Fig 2.4 (b), lying under the N-pole region ie, conductors in region A develop a force in them in the clockwise direction. This force F,, is therefore in the same direction as that of the rotating magnetic field. In region B, the direction of magnetic field remains the same as the N-pole field, but the current direction is reversed. Hence force F., is in anticlockwise direction. Applying similar argument, F,. is in clockwise direction and Fp is in anticlockwise direction. The total force acting on the shaft F, is therefore, a nA wn Fm Fat Fy t Fe + ky 2.13) Fs (F gt Fo )-UFy t Fy) (2.14) The total resultant force and hence torque are in the same direction as that of the rotating magnetic field. This is due to two reasons: (i) number of conductors lying in regions A and C are more than that in regions B and D and (ii) conductors in regions B and D link with the weak magnetic field present near the interpolar axis and the amount of current in them is relatively less in value. Based on the fundamental equation for force developed as given by equation 2.15 FSBIL (2.15) the equation for torque T,, developed is 7,29 |!;| cos 0, Ty=C; @|l,| cos 0, (2.16) where C,. is a constant. Substituting equations 2.11 and 2.12 in equation 2.16, the equation for starting torque 7,),developed is given by bE, Ty. 2 Ss \R +x} VR +x} ER, 9 Cy 2.17) "(4x2 When this 7. > (7, +71)22. Parr I: Induction Machines ile when starting torque developed is more thari the sum of the frictional torque Ty in the machine and load torque 7, , then the excess torque will cause acceleration in the rotor in the same direction as that of the rotating magnetic field. ‘Thus if the direction of rotation is to be changed then the direction of the rotating magnetic field is to be reversed which can be achieved by reversing the phase sequence of the 3-phase supply given to the motor. 2.2.2 Condition for Maximum Starting Torque For the sake of simplicity, if the voltage drop in the stator winding is neglected, then eau, and Ey au, where U,, is the voltage applied to the stator winding per phase at the time of starting, Further, U,, $ Uj, where U;, is the rated voltage of the stator winding per phase. With the above assumptions the torque equation 2.17 now will become UPR, Ty =n oT RE ad) (2.18) For a specified voltage Uj,,the condition for maximum starting torque can be , obtained by differentiating equation 2.18 with respect to variable R, and equating it to zero. Ts 29 aR, x d U;, R, 1 Ry QR ie Blew Gao UR aoe = Ry" (RE +47) (RF+43) (aaah or (a3 +.¥3)=2R2 ‘Thus the condition for maximum starting torque is when =X, (2.19) Substituting the condition described by equation 2.19 in equation 2.18, the equation for maximum starting torque is given by 2 _— 1" (2.20) Cu Ui, Tapas = SLE @21) 2 2.2.3 Effect of Change in Supply With reference to equation 2.18, for a given machine impedance consisting of R, and X3.‘Chapter 2 : Principle of Operation 23 Ty aU; Thus the starting torque developed is very sensitive to the voltage applied to the stator winding. 7,, varies in square proportion to the voltage U, ie if the voltage applied is reduced by K times, then the torque developed will be reduced by x” times. This fact is to be considered carefully when starters are employed for the motor to reduce starting current by applying reduced voliage. 2.2.4 Starting Torque in Cage Motor in squirrel cage Induction motors, the rotor circuit is a permanently closed circuit, not accessible for external connection. Hence the amount of starting torque developed depends entirely on the voliage applied to the stator winding. Ty, =Cy, UZ (2.22) For energy efficient continuous operation, these type of motors are normally designed and constructed with Ry << X3. This leads to Ty, ,? with Ryj = R, Gi) fy. 2.608 Ons ? with Ryy = R. +R, Solution: Since rotor winding is normally star connected Ey = 22h = 32 a6.1g8v ; a v3 @ With Ry, = R, = 0.89, Zn = (Ry + i X2)= (08+ (3.210Cuarrer 2 : Principle of Operation 25 (46.188(0.8+ j 3.2)) 2n = (3.396- 13.585) =14|75.96° A =14A C0S0,, = cos 75.96 = 0.243 lag. (ii) with Ry = R, +R, =0.84+2= 2.80, Zr = (Ry + J Xp)= 2.84 73.20 Iyy = FE = (46.188(2.8 + 3.2)) 2n = (7.153 - j 8.175) = 10.863|-48.81° A [Z| = 10.863 A cos A, = cos 48.81 = 0.659 lag. Example 2.3: A three-phase slip-ring Induction motor has rotor resistance 0.03 Q and_ standstill reactance 0.15Q per phase. What should be the value of external resistance per phase to be added to the rotor circuit in order to obtain maximum torque at starting condition? Data : R, = 0.030; Y, =0.15Q Aim: R, so that 7), = Tinar Solution: To obtain 7,, = dma But Ry = R, +R, . Ry-R, 0.122 Example 2.4: A three-phase, slip-ring Induction motor has an induced emf of 84V between adjacent slip-rings at standstill and on open circuit. Its rotor winding resistance and standstill reactance per phase are 0.8 Q and 3.6Q respectively. Find the rotor current per phase and power factor when the (i) slip-rings are short-circuited (ii) slip- rings are connected to star connected rheostat of 1.8 Q per phase and (iii) slip-rings are connected to resistance of 2.8 Q per phase. Compare the starting torque developed. Data: Ey, =84V; R, = 0.80; X; =3.62 Aim :(/) I)? cos, ? with Ry Gi) [ny 2 6080, 2 with Ry = 1.8Q (iit) Iy3? €080,3 2 with R,; = 28Q () Tega (Tag, ?Tas Ta?26 Parr: Induction Machines En, _ 84 1 Ey =k = = 48.497 Solution: &2 = E+ = 7 @ With Ry, = R, + Ry = 0.8+0= 0.82 Za = (Ry +7 Xp)= (0.84 j3.6)Q Bow a = (48.497 (0.8 + j 3.6)) i (2.853 — 12.837) 4 13.151.77.47° 4 [fai|= 13.1514 cos By, = 0877.47 = 0.217 lag. R, +R. =0.841.8=260 (Ry +7 Xz)= @.6+ 73.6) = (48.497 (2.6 + j 3.6)) (ii) 2 = (6.394 - j8.853)A = 10.921|-54.16° [top| = 10.921 4 cos Oy, = cos 54.16 = 0.585 lag. (ii) With Ry, = R, + Rx =08+2.8=3.6Q 2x, = (Ry + X)= (8.64 j3.6)Q Ty = - =(48.497/G.6+ j3.6)) 2 = (6.736-j 6.736) A = 9.526|-45° \fq3|= 9.526. A 080); = cos45 = 0.707 lag. (iv) At constant flux Taz _ I22 6080 Ty, 1300802, __ 10.921x 0.585 © 13.151«0.217 Similarly, gg Ta. /23 608025 Tar 12160802Carrer 2 : Principle of Operation 27 _ 9.526x0.707 © T3,151x0.217 Ta 29.36 Tax Example 2.5: A 3-phase slip-ring Induction motor has an induced emf of 65V across the slip-rings on open circuit at rest when rated voltage is applied to the stator winding, Its rotor winding resistance and standstill reactance per phase are 1.0Q and 502 respectively. Find the rotor current per phase and power factor when (i) slip-rings are short-circuited (ii) slip-rings are connected to an external resistance of 4 Q per phase and (iii) slip-rings are connected to an external resistance of 6 $2 per phase. Compare the starting torque developed. Data: Ey, = 65V; R, =19; X, =50 Aim (i) /,,?.cosO,,? with R,, =0 Gi) I 2008032? with R,y =4 (iii) Ly, 2.60805 with Ry = 6Q jy) Zt ww) = Tat Ey, _ 65 Solution: E, =—24 == =37.528V ea B @ With Ry, = R, + Ry =1.0+0=1.02 Za, = (Ry, +i X2)= 0.04 5.0) Jy = £2 = 67.528 0.04 j5.0)) 2y = (1.443 - 7 7.217)A 7.36,-78.69° A [Iai = 7.36 A;cos ,) = 0.196 lag. i) With Roy = R, + Rey = 1.0+4.0= 5.02 Za = (Roz + j X2)= (5.04 f 5.0) ly = Ste (37.528 (5.0+ / 5.0) Zn (6.753 - 7 3.753) A -307|-45° 4 {22| = 5.307 4; cos 02 = 0.707 lag.28 Parr I: Induction Machines With Ry, = R, +R,s =1.04+6.0 = 7.02 ly = 2-67.52 7.0 + 7 5.0)) co = (3.55 - j 2.536)A = 4.363[.35.54° A [hos|= 4.363 4; cos 05; = 0.814 lag. (iv) At constant flux Jy cos. 5.307x0.707 Tay 1a, 00805, 7.360.196 26 Taz _ 153 608053 _ 4.363x0.814 yyy €080y, 7.360.196 = 2.46 2.3 RUNNING CONDITION ‘As the rotor picks up speed, (A) in the same direction as that of the rotating magnetic field, the relative speed between the field and the rotor, (V, — N, ), starts reducing. Hence the E, emf induced in the rotor under running condition. which is directly proportional to the relative speed according to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic Induction, also starts reducing. Assuming the flux to remain constant, __ Relative speed at running Relative speed at starting (2.26) Due to the reason discussed earlier,the frequency of the emf induced in the rotor under running condition, /,, .also decreases in the same proportion. Se = fo As the [(N, -N,)/N, ]term appears repeatedly in equations 2.26 and 2.27, i be convenient to express this term in short with the following definition. 2.3.1 Slip The relative speed under running condition, (., - NV, jis actually a measure of how far the rotor speed N, , fatl back the speed of the rotating magnetic field, N,. The other meaning of falling back is slipping.Casper 2 : Principle of Operation 29 Hence, the term slip speed is defined as the difference between Synchronous speed and rotor speed. Slip speed = N,—W, (2.28) Slip speed or relative speed expressed as the ratio of Synchronous speed is defined as slip denoted by letter S NN, ie S (2.29) % slip,%05 = (230) 2.3.2. Torque Under Running Condition Applying the definition of slip S, equations 2.26 and 2,27 become Ey, =SE 231) S=M (2.32) As the frequency of the rotor changes with changes in speed, the inductive reactance of the rotor under running condition, .X, also undergoes similar changes Xpy = 2H fyy by = 8 (28 f, ty) Xx, = SX, (2.33) Hence the rotor circuit impedance under running condition Z), is expressed as 2+ Ny Zy = Ry + j SX (234) \2a_] = Y RF + (5X2)? (235) - 12d SLi ig, Za, Fel aj tM a where (2.38) Rotor circuit pf under running condition R Ry 6088 = (239) ‘Torque developed under running condition30 Paxr I: Induction Machines Ty = Cr 9 {Z| cos ;, (2.16) ‘ SE; 2 Ry a a VRE + (8X3)? R34 (SX)? ¢ SER, TR? + (SK)? (2.40) =C, T%=C, Note that the second suffix in the left hand side is removed. Equation 2.40 is a general equation which accounts for the torque developed under all operating conditions, whether running or starting, For example, at starting condition, when N, =0 Substituting S=1 in equation 2.40 will give rise to equation 2.17 whichis the equation for starting torque. Hence the emf induced in the rotor is maximum at standstill or starting condition (E) . This gives rise to a large starting current, which is 5 to 7 times the rated current if rated voltage is applied to the stator winding. A large starting current will result in the starting torque 7,, developed to be much greater than the load and frictional torque in the machine. The excess torque accelerates the rotor in the same direction as that of the rotating magnetic field causing the slip to become less. than one. Reduction in slip causes reduction in E, and hence J, gets decreased. The torque developed becomes less then the starting torque but still may be greater than (T,, +7, ) causing further acceleration. At one stage the rotor speed will be large enough to give a low value of slip, usually around 4% at full load torque, which causes the rotor emf and current to produce just enough torque demanded by the load. The motor speed will reach a steady value when the torque developed, Ty = (T;, +7, )- This speed is always less than the Synchronous speed. If for some reason if the rotor speed equals Synchronous speed, it will lead to absence of relative speed and hence the rotor emf and current will become zero and the machine will not be able to develop any mechanical torque to run as a motor. 2.3.3 Effect of Supply Voltage on Torque and Slip If U;is the voltage applied to the stator winding per phase under running condition, and the voltage drop in the stator winding is neglected, then gal, and E, aU, The torque equation 2.40 can be approximated as ean SU;?Ry RE +(SX3) Further, with a very low value of S under normal running condition, the term (SY,)* can be neglected when compared with R? since, T= Cryaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.34 Parr I: Induction Machines 3.5 ohm respectively. Calculate the current per phase in the rotor winding when (i) the slip-rings are short circuited at standstill (ii) slip-rings are connected to a star-connected theostat of 4 ohm per phase at standstill (iii) slip-rings short-circuited with 4% slip at running condition, Data: E, =65V; R, = 0.70; X, =3.52; Ry = Rs =0; R, Aim : (i) />,? with R,, =Oand S= (ii) In? with Rp, = 4Q and S =1 (iit) Ips? with R,3 = 0 and S = 4% = 0.04 Solution : (i) At standstill condition with R,, = 0 Ry = R,+ Ry =0.74020.72 Zy, = (Roy + JX) = (0.74 73.5)Q =40;S=4% Iy= # = (37.527 0.7 + j 3.5) 2 = (2.062-j 10.3) A = 10.514[-78.69° A (ii) At standstill condition with R,, = 4Q Ry = Ry + Rey 20.744 24.72 Zyy = (Ry +f Xp) = (4.74 j3.5)Q In, = £2 =(37527 4.74 (3.5) Zn = (5.136~ j 3.825) A = 6.404|- 36.67° A 0,5 =0.04 Ry = R, + Rs = 0.7 Zy, = (Ryy + JS Xz) =(0.7 + j (0.043.5)) =(0.7+j 0.14) Ey, = SEy = 0.0437.527 =1.501V iii) At running condition with R.. 1,501/(0.7 + j 0.14)) = (2.062~ j 0.412) A = 210311319 A Example 2.109 Ifa 3-phase Induction motor has aslip of 3% at rated voltage, deduce approximately the slip for developing the same torque at 10% below the rated voltage. Data: 5S, = 3%, Uj) = UypiU yz = 0.9U ie Tn = Tayaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.38 Paar I: Induction Machines SRy : (2.49) With reference to the above equation, the shape of torque-slip characteristics can be derived as explained in the following five steps. @ When S = Oie N, T, =0 Hence the torque-slip characteristic starts from the origin, (ii) At normal operating condition, with low value of slip, ie, when the slip 0N,>N,,, the second term in the denominator. S?.X} << Rj. Hence neglecting S*.} in equation 2.49, * Therefore in this region, for a given value of R, the torque developed is, approximately, directly proportional to the slip, $ ie, the characteristic is approximately a straight line. (iii) When the slip becomes the critical value Nop = (1 Se) Ny Cro Ty =Tamax = adn IX, (2.50) The torque-slip characteristic attains its maximum value. (iv) For further increase in slip, ie, when S,,N,>0, the first term in equation 2.49 becomes negligible compared to the second term, R} <<(SX;)*. Neglecting R} in equation 2.49, Ry Tyas In this region, for a given value of R, the torque developed is, approximately, inversely proportional to the slip. The torque-slip characteristic takes the shape of a rectangular hyperbola. This region is considered a highly unstable, in the sense that, if the load torque on the shaft is increased beyond Tmax the motor pulls out of operation and come to a halt after passing through this region quickly. o S = lor N, =0, corresponds to starting condition R Ty = Ty = Cn = a= Ta Cree (2.51) Approximately, Ty aR,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.42 Parr | : Induction Machines Tap 1.0 ()S« <6 16 20 Sorceress Vemax OT, «— Generator ——-———— Motor —»te— Brakingby __,, Plugging Fig.2.9 Induction machine—modes of operation. (i) Motor mode 0 < 5 <1; In this mode, the rotor rotates in the same direction of rotating magnetic field. Hence both N, and Naren the positive diréction. Further, the range of rotor speed N, variation is V, >N, >0. The torque developed is in the positive direction. (ii) Braking by plugging mode |< § <2: With reference to equation 2.29, the value of S can become more than one when NV, ismade negative. Hence, the equation for slip during the braking mode S, becomes oN N,N, +N, (2.54) -N, N, In an Induction machine that is initially operating in its motor mode of operation, with the rotor rotating in the same direction of the rotating magnetic field (set-up by a particular sequence of 3-phase supply with a slip $), if the 3-phase supply sequence is changed, the equation for slip during this mode of operation S, becomes (2.54) -N, _-2N, +(N.-N,) a 5, =@-S) (2.55)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.46 Part: Induction Machines 2.6 27 28 29 Estimate, the percentage reduction: in stator. voltage to. develop. full-load;torque sat half the full-load speed: Also calculate the, power. factor. [Ans: S, = 0.515; 22.9%; cos ¢ 0.308] A 4 pole, SOHz,'3-phase Induction motor has 4 rotor résistance and standstill reactance: of (0.03/Q:iand.0.15 Q:; respectively. Finid (i) the! speed at: which maximum torque occurs and (ii) the external rotor resistance required per phase to develop 2/3 of maximum torque at the time of starting [Ans: (i) N,, =1200 rpm; R, = 0.363 or 0.027) Ina 10 pole, 3-phase Induction motor, operating on a 50Hz supply, ifthe emf induced in the rotor has a frequency of 2%, at what speed is the motor running and what is the slip? st yh fAnss Wye Siéiom: Se 0.44) A:4 pole,.3-phase.Induction motor,runs at 1440rpm on 50Hz supply, Find the slip speed and slip. {Ans: 60 rpm; 4%] A 3-phase slip-ring Induction motor “has a star-connected rotor. The rotor emf between slip-rings at standstill is 60. The rotor standstill impedance, per phase is (0,5,+ j2.5)Q .Find,(i) Rotor current per phase at starting and the slip-rings short-circuited (ji) Rotor current per phase at starting ifa star connected rheostat of 4Q per phase is added to the rotor circuit and (iii) Full load rotor current and fotor'pf with sliptings short-circuited at 4% slip. Pan t [Ans: (1) 13:587A; (ii) 6:729A; ii) 2717; 0.98,]aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.50 Paxti:iInduction Machines 3.2: POWER STAGES: IN: INDUCTION MOTORS When an Induction machine operate as a motor, the machine receives electrical energy as the input through the stator terminals. The motor converts this electrical energy into.mechanical energy and made available im'the shaft. The various power stages, i.e, energy: changes and losses in. the process of conversion: in motor operition can: be represented as shown in:Fig3.1. Electrical Power Mechanical Mechanical power / Input power power ‘Stator copper Rotor copper ‘Mechanical and iron losses loss losses input to to rotor developed output Stator P; Py, Py Py t » Fig 3.1, Power, stages, im Induction motors. Electrical power is fed to the ‘stator winding of the motor with a line voltage U;, and i current '/, i ‘The’ equation for electrical Power input to the motor’ P; is given as : = 3 U;1,, cosg; G15) where¢, is the phase angle a the per phase voltage and per phase current in the stator winding and cos¢; is the stator or input power factoi2 ©! fso!ri= ‘After: the’ losses in the stator winding and ‘statof core are met with, the ‘remaining power is transferred to’ the'rotor by’ the ‘rotating magnetic’ field as Power input to the rotor Fi». , ' zal wtlisht 2 Pr siPer Wei iW; o} Gil6) ‘The power inpitt to'the rotor’, is tratisferréd'from the stator to the rotor by the rotating magnetic field ‘which rotates’ at Syrithronous ay N. Torque T, is developed in the rotor as a result of P, and the eqilation for’ P,’“can alternatively be expressed as hea bitresaecn woRye PAN. Ta, ‘ this rdtig 1260) In the (process ares) Obliversion: the rétor’ windings incuk rotor copper Tass and the remaladi /poiWer‘is therefore’ correspiolids to Miechdnical [power developed 'P; Py 2 P= war G.18) The mechanical power developed P, causes'the rotor to rotate-atva speed of NV, duve'to the torque 7, developed in the rotors;Therefore, the equation for P,can otherwise be written as “a ae, T, Py = Sorte 60 iuccThe remainirig power, aftenthe mechanical losses are met with, is:available in the shafbas inechanical-power-output 3 eoveol Inzinady: wet Meine » B19)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.54 Parr 1: Induction Machines Data: U, = 415V; P=4;T =101.6 Nm; N, =1410rpm; cos g, = 0.87; f, = 48.5Hz; T,, = 4Nm; (W, + Wa) = 750 W Aim : (i) S$? (i) Woy)? (iii) P,? () 1, ? saat 0, = 2f «2048S 85pm @ wdSSS A180 pogy Ny 1455 Ty = T +Ty =101.6+4 =105.6 Nm _ 20 N, Ty _ 2 x1455x105.6 "601000 601000 = 16.09kW (i) S P,, =0.031%16,09 = 0.499kW ii) Pip +h +a) = 16.09 +0.95 =17.04kW (iv) f 17.40x10°__ 27.248 A. V3U,, cos, V3 x415x 0.87 Example 3.7y A 3-phase Induction motor runs at a speed of 931 rpm, the supply frequency being 49 Hz. If the rotor copper loss is 590W and the mechanical losses are 210W, calculate the shaft torque. Data: NV, =93lrpm, f, = 49Hz; W,,9 = 590 WW, = 210 W Aim: T? Solution: p= 120%. 120x495 N, O31 > P=6 wy 22h Zz ge Maze _ 980-931 _ 980 Py = aq LD) = 500% $25 11210 w 5 0.05 = Py ~Wy = 11210210 =11000 W = kW 60 =112.827Nm Example 3.8 A 415V, 4pole, 3-phase Induction motor develops 15.25 kW inclusive of mechanical losses when running at 1462 rpm. The supply frequency is 50.SHz and the power factor equals 0.89. Calculate (i) slip (ii) rotor copper loss (iii) total input if the stator losses are 1.4kW, (iv) line current and (v) rotor frequency.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.58 Partl : Induction Machines 3 @ Lee tg AIT Sasa V3U;, cos) V3 x415x0.86 -. P,_o37 = 2-7 -0.3702 @ 1p 4352 or = 87.02% Example 3.13: A 3-phase Induction motor has an efficiency of 0.91 when it delivers an output of 22 kW. At this load, the stator copper loss equals the rotor copper loss and the total copper loss equals the no-load losses. The mechanical losses are one-fourth the no-load losses. Find the slip. Data: 77 = 0.91; P, = 22KW; Woy = Wy? Wan = (eas +Wer2) =, +W): Win = WW, +H) Aim: S? Solution: P = Total losses W, = P,~P, = 24.176 ~22 = 2.176kW Let Went = Weng 2% Woyt + Woya) = 28 = (W, + Wy) W, = (W,+Wy)+ Woy = 2x4 2x = 4x 176 KW 544 kW W, =+W,+Wy)=+ 0x) 4 4 = 4 ex0.544) =0.272kW 4 Py = P,+Wy = 240.272 = 22.272 kW P,, = Py + Woy = 22.272 + 0.544 = 22.816 KW S = Maz - 0544 _o 004 P, 22.816 or S=2.4% REVIEW QUESTIONS 3.1 Derive the relation between the rotor power input, mechanical power developed and rotor copper loss of a 3-phase Induction motor. 32 Draw the power stages diagram of a 3-phase Induction motor. 33 Show that the rotor copper loss of a 3-phase Induction motor is slip time the power transferred across the gap.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.62. Parr I: Induction Machines and per phase current is ht. For a star connected stator winding, per phase voltage is U=Uy 3 and the per phase current heh). Electrical real power input to the motor is P,=3U, 1, cosd, W a) or P=3U, I, cosg, x10 kW (42) where ¢, is the phase angle between U; and /, . ‘The real power input can also be represented in terms of line voltage and line current as P= ABU, hy e054 W “© or P= V3 Uy, hy, 008 4, x10? KW (44) ‘The equation for mechanical power output at shaft is w as) * P= Goxi000 KY 46) ‘Also Py = Py -Wy 7) Step 1: Represent the windings by their electrical equivalent: The actual stator winding can be represented by an ideal stator winding in series with the winding parameters R, and jX’,. R, represents the resistance offered by a single stator winding and jX,, the leakage reactance per phase which accounts for the leakage in flux that occurs in the stator winding. Similarly, the rotor can be represented by an ideal rotor winding in series with a fixed resistance R, representing the rotor circuit resistance per phase and a variable leakage reactance {SX which accounts for the leakage in flux that occurs in the rotor winding. The output is delivered via the shaft. Fig 4.2 shows this representation. Fig 4.2 Equivalent circuit to represent windings Step 2: Represent the stator core by its electrical equivalent: The stator core forms the path for the rotating magnetic flux ¢,, set up by the magnetising current /,,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.66 Partl: Induction Machines R,( #4) Fig 4.6 Exact equivalent circuit referred to stator Example 4.1: A 415 V, 3-phase, delta connected Induction motor has an equivalent T- circuit consisting of a stator impedance of (1+ j2)§2, an equivalent rotor impedance at standstill of (1.2 + 1.8) and a shunt branch impedance of (5+ j50)Q per phase. Determine the (i) current (ii) input power factor and (iii) efficiency when the slip is 4%. Assume mechanical loses to be 220 W. ‘n= 415V;A = connected; Z, = (1+ j2)2;Z; =(1.2+ /1.8)Q; Zyy = (5+ j50)Q; S = 0.04; W,, = 220 W Data > Aim : 1), ?;.c0s¢, 2:77? Solution: The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig 4.7. 1, Z(i2) @ Zx(1.24j 1.8) 2 U,=415V . : Ry (4-4) 2 Zy,-(54 50) b Fig 4.7 Equivalent circuit diagram for example 4.1. R= Ry (4-1)- 1a -1)=2880 Ss 0.04 Z, = RB, +2, = 28.8+ (1.2 + /1.8)= (30+ /1.8)Q = Zep - Z,+Zy, = (20.538 + /12.719}Q Total impedance of the circuit 2, = 2, +Z uy =((1+ j2)+ (20.5384 f12.719)) = (21.5384 j14.719)Q \Ui| =U, =415V + the motor is delta connected U, = (415+ 70) taken as reference phasor] = (30+ j1.8)x (5+ j50) (30 + j1.8)+(5 + j50))) obaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.70. Pat :Induction Machines Stator current per phase A = Fy +1, = (13.189 - 1.617) + (0.822 — j8.218)) = (14.011 - j9.835)A 7.118 |=35.07° A Input complex power Sj BU Lf 10°F = 3x (415+ 70) (14.011 + 49.835) 100 i = (17.444+ /12,245) kVA = 21.312|35.07_. P, = 17.444 KW (difference of 1.042 kW) Cos g, = cos 35.07 = 0.82 lag (difference of 0.003) P, _ 15.036 = 4 =——— = 0.862 P 17.444 or 17 = 86.2% (difference of 0.42%) Example 4.3: A 6 pole, 415V, SOHz, 3-phase delta connected Induction motor has thie following data: Z, =(2.2+ /5.8)Q; Z, =(2.2+ j5.8)Q No-load line current Io, =3.54 A ; Iron loss W, = 280 W; Mechanical losses’ W,, = 60 Wi-Detérmitie the (i) Input current (ii) Power. factor (iii) Shaft torque and (iv) Efficiency ata slip of 3%. Use approximate equivalent circuit, Data: P = 6;U), ='415V; f, =50Hz;A = connected; Zz} = (2+ j5.8)Q; Zy = (22+ j5.8)Q: 1, =3.54A: 4, = 280 W; W,, = 60 W; S = 0.03 Aim : y, 2; 00s 9,2} 7277? Solution : Z,, = Z, +Z3 = ((2.2+ /5.8)+(2.2+ j5.8)) = (4.44 /11.6)Q R= af =a -1)}- 1330 s 0.03 = 71,133 |Ui|=(U.[=415 ++ the motor is delta conriected U, = (415+ j0) Reference phasor. = (415+ j0) (44 + f11.6)+71.133)) dy = 5.431|-8,73°A trj= ost 354 B B =2.044¢A 280 V3BU yg ty, V3X415%3.54 COS py =aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.74 Pare]: Induction Machines | Phasor 13: Equivalent rotor current in stator, /, = K/2,, leading J, by 180°. Phasor 14: Total stator current per phase, /, = J, Phasor 15: Stator winding resistance drop, /, R, , in phase with /, Phasor 16: Stator winding reactance drop jl, X, leading J, by 90°. ~ Phasor 17: Stator winding impedance dtop, J, Z, = I, (R, + /%1) Phasor 18: Stator supply voltage per phas® U = E,+ £(R,*7X,) = Er £LZ, ys the phase angle between. Uand J, 4.4- PERFORMANCE EQUATIONS," 4 Having included the stator and fotor windings parameters in asingle equivalent circuit, the performance equations, equations for power developed and torque developed.can be derived.in térms of machine parameters and operating conditions. 4.4.4 Power Developed With reference to the approximate equivalent circuit shown in Fig 4:8 the equation for equivalent rotor current modulus can be written as ‘ l= Y (421) et Rp +x; The equation for iriédhattical power developed in the rotor is , any Substituting equation 4.21 in equation 4.22 # 3U? R, (423) (Ra+a,) ext where R,= Ry ( - \ Ss 4.4.2 Maximum Power Developed Fora machine operating at constant supply voltage, the only variable in equation 4.23 is the equivalent load resistance R, . Hence the mechanical power developed is maximum, when, 1 ‘op MPa) 4 ‘ Pan aR}, y 5 vt Ri} XE ERR, APRA, + Xe 3UP R, 3UZ R, TR, TR,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.78 Partl: Induction Machines Y 2a (I+b) oor (436) Tse s[1.2a oe ] 5 3 Ty _ _2aS (1+) or Tamax 4° +S? +2 abS aan K where eee (438) yr +exr and Ri a (439) f R+X) Note: If the stator parameters are neglected, i.e, R, = X, =0, then the value of b in equation 4.39 becomes zero and equations 4.37 and 4.38 converge as equations 2.46 and 2.47 respectively tr AO. (246) Tamaya? + S? au Ft Fe: 047 xy 4.4.6 Starting Torque and Maximum Torque At the time of starting, S=1 Substituting S=1 in equation 4.37, Te _ 200+) Tmax +142 ab Example 4.5: A 230V, delta-connected, 3-phase Induction motor has a stator impedance per phase of (0.6+ 2) and-an equivalent standstill rotor circuit impedance per phase of (0.62+ j2)Q. Neglecting shunt branch effects, find the maximum power developed and the slip at which it occurs, (440) Data: U,, = 230V; A =connected;Z, = (0.6 + 72); Z; =(0.62+ j2)0 Aim : Php ? Spm 2 Solution : R,, = Ry +R; .6 + 0,62 = 1.222 Zp = Z,+Zz = (06+ j2)+ (0.624 j2)) = (122+ j4)=4.182,73.04° |Z, |= 4.182 U, =U, =230V 3u} Paras = 7a x10 foe TR + Zi)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.82. Parr | : Induction Machines 4.15 Derive the condition for (i) maximum torque developed and (ii) maximum power 41 42 44 45 developed in a 3-phase Induction motor. EXERCISES A4ISV, 3-phase, 4-pole, 50Hz, delta-connected Induction motor has the following impedances per phase referred to the stator at standstill: stator; (0.4 + /1.0)Q; rotor: (0.6+ /1.0)Q; shunt branch: (10 + /50)Q. Determine the slip and power factor at maximum torque condition. [Ans: S,, = 0.294; cos¢, = 0.753] A 3-phase, 12 pole, 50Hz, 2.2kV Induction motor on no-load with rated voltage at normal frequency draws a line current of 20A and real power of 14kW: The star- connected stator has a total resistance of 0.4 Q. per phase in which an equivalent rotor resistance is 0.202 per phase. The combined leakage reactance of the motor referred to stator is 2 /phase. Calculate the line current, power factor and torque developed ata slip of 2%. {Ans: fy, =130.91A; pf = 0.944; T, = 8555.89 Nm] A 415V, 50Hz, 3-phase 6-pole, delta-connected squirrel-cage Induction motor has the following parameters referred to stator: 2, = 0.540; Ry = 0.719; Xj, =X, =3.240; R, =138Q; X,, = 750. Calculate (i) the input current (ii) power factor (iii) mechanical power developed and (iv) efficiency when the motor ‘operates with a slip of 4%, [Ans: 1, = 45.7 A; cos¢, = 0.877; Py = 23.389kW 77 = 81.08% J A4ISV, 50Hz, 3-phase, 4-pole, delta-connected squirrel-cage Induction motor has the following parameters referred to stator: R, = 0.720; Ry = 0.810; X, =X} =3.70; R, = 1400; X,, =870. Calculate (i) the input current (ii) power factor (iii) mechanical power developed (iv) efficiency when the motor operates with a slip of 4%, Ans : (a) Exact Eq. ckt :37.24 A; 0.8676; 18.56kW; 79.93% (b) Approx Eq. ckt : 40.36 A; 0.882; 20,29kW; 79.3% A 400V, delta connected, 3-phase Induction motor has a stator and equivalent rotor standstill impedance of (4+ j10)Q; and (3+ /10)Q per phase respectively. The motor takes a line current of 3.5 A and a power of 400W at rated voltage on no-load. Using the approximate equivalent circuit, determine for a slip of 5%, the (i) line current (ii) power factor and (iii) mechanical power developed. [Ans: 12.2A; 0.85; 5.985kW.]aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.86 Parl: Induction Machines Double element 3bAuio ‘ns! Fig 5.2 Connection diagram for blocked rotor test Readings noted 1, <1,,U,,, Py Calculation Convert the voltmeter and ammeter readings of line values into per phase values () for delta connected motors Uy = Uy I, = Ty, (NB (ii) for star connected motors ty = Uy Ty = Tap In this test, mechanical losses are not incurred as the rotor is blocked. Further, since the voltage applied to the motor is much less than the rated or normal voltage, iron losses incurred during this test are negligibly small. With S=1, the load resistance R, in the equivalent circuit becomes zero. Hence the real power input to the motor under blocked rotor condition, with reduced voltage applied , meets the copper losses incurred in the stator and rotor windings. Therefore the equivalent circuit under this test condition. corresponds to having only the series elements Ry, and X,,. Therefore blocked rotor input current per phase at normal voltage Ue Log = 15 5.10} mo tan (5.10) Blocked rotor input power factor =—t_ G.I) cosdy = 5 Us a) _ Pa Hence Gp = cos — (5.12) 3Usl, —*~ 9 (5.13)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.90 Part! : Induction Machines ¥y, = 0.01248 B,, = 4¥2, -G? = (0.0124 -0.002" B,, = 0.0122 S; X,, = 81.9672 Ry = 1640 2 3p 3x10.335 Ry = 5-118 _Uy 130 "Ty 10335 2q =12.579Q X, =M.4910 Ry = Ry - R, =5.118-2.45 Ry = 2.6682. X,=X3 = “i= sass ‘The value of equivalent parameters are marked in Fig 5.5. 2.45Q [8.7455 2.668 C2 [5.7455 Q Ri= A, (34) =2,688 (+4) rs Fig 5.5 Equivalent circuit for example 5.3 5.4 PERFORMANCE PREDICTION USING EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT For predicting the performance of a 3-phase Induction motor using equivalent circuit (exact or approximate), the following data are required: (i) The values of G, and B, or R, and Y,, obtained by conducting the no- load test with a voltage applied to motor, U/, , corresponds to the voltage at which the performance values are required. Normally performance at rated voltage is required. (ii) The values of R,, and X;;, obtained by conducting the blocked rotor test.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.94 Parr 1: Induction Machines he z a = (415 (43.633 +(1.506+ j3.451)) ten 1, = (9.14- 0.7) =9.167|=4.37° A 1, = U,(G; ~ j By) =(415x(0.0009 ~ j 0.608)) 1, = (0.374— 3.32) =3.34-83.58° A 4 = 1, +1, =((9.14+ 7 0.7) + (0.374 — j 3.32)) = (9.514~ j 4.02) = 10,328|-22.919 A @ 43 || = V3 «10.328 =17.89 A $,=3U I x10 = (8x415x(9.5144 j 4.02)x107) S, = (11.8454 7 5.005) = 12.859|4 22.919 kVA @ cos¢, = cos 22.91 = 0.92 lag (i) P=11.845kW (iv) Slip, —2806___ posi +R, 0.806 +43.633 S=181% P. w) fo, __ 9.9987 P1845 17 =92.87% 5.5 PERFORMANCE PREDICTION USING CIRCLE DIAGRAM 5.5.1 Principle of Circle Diagram It is well known that in a series circuit consisting of constant reactance and variable resistance, fed from a constant voltage, constant frequency AC supply, as the value of resistance in the circuit changes, the change in current in the circuit will be such that the tip of the current phasor falls on a circle of diameter U/X. Fig 5.6 (a) shows a series circuit with constant inductive reactance and variable resistance. R i 4 ix | LD R (a) R-X circuit (b) impedance triangle Fig 5.6 Series circuitaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.98 Parr I: Induction Machines OA =|[g{MCS) Draw line OA at an angle g; lagging trom the reference phasor U, . This line therefore represents the no-load current phasor and the point A should fall on the desired circle diagram corresponding to S = 0. Step 2: Represent the phasor [,,: Find the length of the line OB as OB ={Iy,| (CS) Draw line OB atan angle. g, lagging the reference phasor, U . The point B should also fall on the desired circle corresponding to S =1. sip Seale 7 F Xe Fig 5.10 Circle diagram of 3-phase Induction motor Step 3: Fixing centre of the circle: From the point A draw line AD parallel to X-axis. The centre of circle C will lie on this line. Join points A and B by a straight line. Hence line AB forms a chord of the circle. Draw a perpendicular bisector to line AB as shown by the dotted line in fig 3.10. The intersection of this perpendicular bisector line with line AD forms the point C, which will be the centre of the circle. Step 4: Drawing the circle: With point C as the centre and length CA as the radius, draw the circle ¥, ABD X, Step 5: Output line: Point A on the circle corresponds to SO while point B corresponds to S=1. Any point, like L,P, T, etc., on the circle which lies in between points A and B gives a operating point of the Induction machine in motor mode with 1 > S>0. There exists a vertical distance between the circle and line AB. This vertical distance corresponds to power delivered by the motor. Hence line AB is named as the output line. Step 6: Torque line: From B drawa line perpendicular to the X-axis as line BF. This vertical distance BF multiplied by the power-scale corresponds to total power input to the motor under blocked rotor condition with normal voltage applied to the motor. Out of BF, the distance FG represents the fixed losses of the machine. Hence the remainingaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.102 Parr : Induction Machines (vii) (viii) () &) xi) overload operating point is required, the 1.25 P, point may also be marked. To predict the performance at full-load output, from point R draw a line parallel to the output line so as to intersect the circle at point L. Then follow the usual procedure. When §, the slip of operation is known: Corresponding to the known value of slip, mark the point $ on the slip scale. For example, the point S marked on the slip scale in fig 5.10 corresponds to S=0.045 or 4.5%. From point § draw a straight line SA joining point A. The intersection of the line SA with the circle gives the operating point L. When T,, the torque developed is known: From the value of 7,, available in Nm get the value of 7; in syn.watts which will be the same as the rotor power input P,, _2aN, Ty 60 Pr, (PS) \ T, in syn watts = P, «1077 kW Get length HE as Mark the point E along the line of FR with respect to point H. From point E, draw a line parallel to the torque line. The intersection of this line with the circle gives the operating point L. When J, the equivalent rotor current is available _b Get length AL as AL= cy With A as centre and AL as radius draw an arc which will intersect the circle and give the operating point L. For Pyyge the maximum power output Draw a line parallel to the output line and tangential to the circle and get the operating point as P. From point P, drop a vertical line PQ and predict the value of Pyygs and other performances. For Tyays the maximum torque developed Draw a line parallel to the torque line and tangential to the circle and get operating point as T. From point T, drop a vertical line TV and predict the value Of Tnx and other performances. Example 5.5: A 4 pole, 50Hz, 415V, 37kW, delta-connected, 3-phase Induction motor gave the following test results: No-load test: 415V; 16A; 1.75KW Blocked rotor test :1 00V, SSA; 1.85 kW.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.106 Paxt!: Induction Machines this test condition. Further the mechanical losses of the machine are supplied by the prime-mover. Hence the real power input under this test condition corresponds to the iron losses W, and a small amount of stator copper loss. Hence W, = Pox 1,3, R; for delta~ connected machine or W, = P, > ys 3 yz, R, for star— connected machine Ifthe information about iron and mechanical losses together i.e, W,, = (W, +W,,) is already available by conducting the normal no-load test as explained in section 5.1, then the mechanical losses can be obtained as The disadvantage of this test is that one has to obtain a suitable prime-mover and get it mechanically coupled to the test machine with suitable source of power for the prime-mover. Hence this test method is very rarely followed. 5.6.2 No-load Test at Variable Voltage This test method is more simpler to separate iron and mechanical losses than the previous test. The connection diagram shown in Fig 5.1 for conducting the no-load test may be followed for carrying out this test also. The motor is uncoupled from its load. Initially, with the help of an autotransformer, the test voltage applied to the motor, U,,, is set at a value slightly more than the rated voltage U,. The no-load input line current /,,, and inputreal power P,, are noted down from the ammeter and wattmeter respectively. The speed of operation is also noted down. The test is repeated for rated voltage U,, =U, and few levels of voltage less than the rated voltage Uy, , 19 08 06 08 02.10 Nei 0.143, Fig 6.1 Torque-slip characteristic due to ($, +9)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.122. Parr! : Induction Machines Xyq= Equivalent rotor outer cage winding standstill leakage reactance / phase S = Fractional slip Tt Resuttant — double-cage 0 02 Os 08 1 Fig 6.3 Torque - slip characteristics Ry B VEE ‘ t hy R Rezo I i 2 $ f,,U, Uy ; 8 st : ak em My Ko Fig 6.4 Exact equivalent circuit of double-cage motor t, R, x ob > CEO > oy tag Ry Reo 3 3 fy U, : Xi X25 Fig 6.5 Approximate equivalent circuit of double-cage motoraa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.126 Parr : Induction Machines Data: Zy)=(3 + 1.0); Zs, = (06+ j 4.0) Aim: S? with Ze =l i Solution : Z,, = (24145) 5 fasjxe] s Given x 0.6 Jur = as0 = 2 a) = > gt. 72 79 S=0.302 or 30.2% Example 6.4: A double-cage, 4-pole, 50Hz, 415V, delta-connected, 3-phase Induction motor has the following equivalent circuit parameters, all of which are per phase values referred to stator: Stator winding; R, = 10; X, = 2.5Q; Outer cage , Ryy = 2.50; Voy = 0.82 Innercage, Rj, =0.6Q; Ny, =4.5Q. Calculate the starting torque and torque when running at a slip of 4%. The shunt branch current may be neglected. Data: Ry = 1.00; X;=25Q; Roy = 2.58 OX = 0.80; Ry, = 0.62; X3, =4.5Q Aim: ()7,,? (ii) Ty at $= 0.04 Solution: (i) Atstarting S=1 2, =(R, + JX}) = (1.0 + 72.5) Zyq = (Ry + JX yp) = (25+ § 0.8) %o as (0.363- j0.116) S Zyy (25+ j0.8) = (Ry, + / Xz) = (0.6 + J 4.5)Q 1 1 %, = (0.029 - 0.218) §aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.130 .Pagr! : Induction Machines excited Induction generator. The generator draws the required lagging reactive-power from the power grid. Drawing of lagging reactive-power is equivalent to supplying of leading reactive-power to the grid and hence the complex-power delivered by the Induction generator is always at leading power-factor. Figure 6.7 shows the connection diagram. Initially the induction machine is started as motor by drawing real and lagging reactive power from the power grid. Then the speed of the machine is increased above the synchronous speed by its prime-mover. At this super-synchronous speed the machine operates as generator reversing the real-power flow direction, now from the machine towards the grid The performance prediction of separately excited Induction generator can be carried out using equivalent circuit in a very similar manner as explained for Induction motor in the previous chapter. The only difference is that the value of slip to be substituted for finding the equivalent load impedance Ris negative and this will give rise to negative value of R, . Analysis of the equivalent circuit with negative value of R) will result in change of real-power flow direction. 0.05 04 stip scale GENERATOR Fig 6.8 Circle diagram of 3-phase Induction machineaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Carrer 6 : Miscellaneous Topics on Three Phase Induction Machines 133 the net flux will increase causing the voltage to buildup further. Increase in voltage will further increase the exciting current /, causing further increase in voltage in a cumulative manner. The final steady voltage induced on no-load is given by the intersection of magnetisation characteristic of the machine and capacitance Volt-Amp characteristic as shown in Figure 6.10. For example, when the generator is driven at a speed of N,, and if the capacitance value is C, then the operating point (1) gives the final voltage the machine has on no-load condition. To obtain further increase in voltage at the same speed N,, , the capacitance value has to be increased to C,. The slope of the capacitance volt-Amp gets decreased with the new operating point as (2). Alternatively, a higher voltage can be obtained by the same capacitance C, if the speed is increased to V,.. The operating point (3) gives the final voltage, at higher frequency corresponding to increase in speed. Uy CN _ CN =C{Nep Magnetisation NioN, characteristics @ Nn C,>C, Capacitance Volt-Amp characteristics Fig 6.10 Self-excitation The approximate equivalent circuit of self-excited Induction generator is shown in figure 6.11 Ry My \, A$ EBD > Fig 6.11 Approximate equivalent. circuit-self-excited Induction generator134 Parr I: Induction Machines The electrical real-power developed, corresponding to the mechanical power which the generator has received through the shaft, is represented by the variable resistance R,,. Part of this real power is used to meet the rotor and stator copper losses in resistance R,, and to meet the iron loss or sometimes iron and mechanical losses together represented by resistance R) . The remaining real-power is supplied to the load represented by R, . The capacitance connected on the generator terminals supplies the entire lagging reactive power partly for the generator in reactances X,, and X,y, and the remaining to the load in reactance Y, . 19) Example 6.5: A415V, 50 Hz, 4-pole, delta-connected, 3-phase Induction machine has its equivalent circuit parameters as follows: Stator impedance per phase, (0.08 + 0.3) Q:; Equivalent rotor impedance at standstill per phase, (0.09 + /0.3) Q; Shunt branch elements, G, =0.022S and B,, = 0.078S. Using approximate equivalent circuit, find (i) equivalent rotor current (ji) stator current (iii) stator pf (iv) power output and (v) efficiency. Assume a slip of -2.5%. Data: U,, = 415V; f, =50Hz; P= 4; \—connected; Z, = (0.08 + j 0.3)Q; Z} = (0.09 + j0.3)Q; G, = 0.0228; B,, = 0.078 Aim:(/) h 2 (D1? (ti)cosp,? (iv) P,? (v)y? atS=-2.5%=—0.025 Solution ; Refer the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 6.12. Woe Ry Xy | 017 j06 lo u,=415V Fig 6.12 Circuit diagram for example 6.5 Zy=Z,+Z; = [0.08 + j 0.3) + (0.09 + j0.3)] = (0.17 + j0.6)Qaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.136 Parr; Induction Machines Uy, _ 400 U,| =e == = 230.94 i= - oU, = (230.94 + 70) V R, =-25.22 Total rotor circuit impedance Z,=Z, +R, =[(.2+ j2.6)-25.2)] Z, =(-244 j2.6)Q Parallel combination of Z, and Z,, Zxey _ [(-24 + 72.6) « 3.5+ 7 30)]/[(-24 + 7 2.6) +(3.5+ §30)] Zea = (-13.388 + j 13.388) @ n= Z,+Z, 6.979 ~ j 9.081) = 11.453 |-127.55° A Ay =(h|=11.453. A = [(230.94 + 0) / (1.1 + j 2.6) + (-13.388 + j 13.388)] So = 3 UT x 107 = 3 x 230.94 x (6.979 + 7 9.018) x 1073 So = (4.835 + j 6.248) = 7.9[127.74" kVA i) cos y, = cos 127.74 = 0.612 leading (i) Py = 4.835 kW heath a is = [(-6.979 - 7 9.081) x (3.5 + /30)]/ . Z,+2u [(-24 + 7 2.6) + G.5+ j 30)] 1, = (-8.729 — j 2.118) = 8.983 |- 166.36" A “|? 9 "3 2 -3 Py= 03] Ry, x107? = 3 x 8.983? x 25.2 «10 Py = 6.1kW (iv) %n = 76.5%61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 6.10 611 6.12 6.13 6.14 615 6.16 617 618 6.19 Cuavrer 6 : Miscellancous Topics on Three Phase Induction Machines 137 REVIEW QUESTIONS Explain the principle of operation of an Induction Generator. List out the advantages and disadvantages of 3-phase Induction generators when compared with 3-phase Synchronous generators. Describe the constructional feature of a double-cage Induction motor and explain its operation. Show by a simple analysis (neglecting stator impedance) that a 3-phase Induction machine will behave as a motor below synchronous speed and as a generator if driven at above the synchronous speed. Describe how an Induction generator can be self-excited. Describe briefly how a high starting torque is obtained with a double-cage Induction motor. Briefly explain how a good starting characteristics and good running characteristics are obtained in a double-cage Induction motor. Write short notes on Induction generators. Explain the phenomenon of cogging and crawling in Induction motors. Explain how the performance of a separately excited Induction generator can be predicted from the circle diagram. Discuss the equivalent circuit representation of self-excited Induction generator. Explain with necessary diagrams the principle of operation and characteristics of the double-cage Induction motor. Discuss the factors governing the magnitude and frequency of generated voltage in self-excited and separately excited Induction generators. Write notes on high torque cage Induction motors. Write notes on harmonic synchronous torques. Discuss the motoring, generating and braking operations of a 3-phase Induction machines with the help of the circle diagram. What is an Induction generator? Explain how a large starting torque can be obtained by double-cage construction. Compare the performance of a double-cage motor with that of a single-cage motor. Explain the principle of operation of a double-cage motor and Sisgyss its merits over other types by drawing their typical torque-slip characteristics.138 61 62 63 64 65 66 Pakt I : Induction Machines EXERCISES ‘The equivalent standstill impedance per phase of the first cage and second cage respectively of a double-cage Induction motor are (4 +1 )Q. and (1 +/4)Q. ‘Compare the torques of the two cages (i) at standstill and (ii) at a slip of 4%. [Ans: (i) 4; (ii) 0.256] ‘An Induction motor has a double-cage rotor with equivalent impedance at standstill of (1 +/1) and (0.2 + 4) Q.. Find the relative values of torque given by each cage (i) at starting and (ji) at a slip of 3%, [Ans: (i) 32.09 (ii) 0.319] A 400 V, 4-pole, 50 Hz, star-connected, 3-phase Induction machine has the following impedance per phase referred to stator at standstill: Stator (0.4 +/ 1.0) Q ; Rotor (0.6 +/ 1.0) Q ; magnetising branch (10 +/ 50) QQ . Find (i) equivalent rotor current (ii) stator current (iii) stator pf (iv) power output and (v) efficiency by using approximate equivalent circuit at a slip of -4%. [Ans : (@) 1; = 15.67 A; (ii) 4, = 16A; (iii) P, =0.91 lead; (iv) P, = 10.15kW (v) 7 = 88.3%] A 115V, 6-pole, 50 Hz, star-connected, 3-phase, Induction machine has stator impedance of (0.07 +/0.3 )Q, and an equivalent rotor impedance at standstill of (0.08+7 0.3) Q.. Shunt branch has G, = 0.0225 and B,, = 0.158 S. Find (i) equivalent rotor current (ii) stator current (iii) stator pf (iv) real power output and (v) efficiency by using approximate equivalent circuit ata slip of -2%. [Ans: /5 = 16.68A; (ii) f, =19.9A; (iii) pf =0.76 lead; (iv) Py = 2.997 KW; 9 = 88%] Ina double-cage Induction motor, ifthe outer cage has an impedance at standstill of (2 +/ 1.2) Q. and the inner cage has an impedance at standstill of (0.5 + 3.5 )Q. determine the slip at which the two cages develop equal torques. [Ans: 0.251] Estimate the stator current, equivalent rotor current, efficiency, output and power factor at a slip of -5% for an Induction machine having the following data: Stator impedance, (1.0 +j 3.0) Q,, equivalent rotor standill impedance, (1.0+/2.0)Q; Shunt impedance (10 +j 50) Q ; Voltage per phase 250V. [Ans : /) = (-11.34— j 8.08); 2) = (-12.3— (3.2); 7 =83.47%; Py =85kW; Pf =0.816lead]CHAPTER7 Control of Three-phase Induction Motors 7.1 METHODS OF STARTING Three-phase Induction motors draw 5 to 7 times their full-load current when they are directly switched onto the supply mains, and develop 1.5 to 2.5 times their full load torque. Motors of smaller capacity drawing about 6 times the full load current from the supply mains may not be a problem and hence they may be directly switched on. For example, a2.2 kW, 415 V, 3-phase motor may have its full-load current around 4A and therefore 6 times full load current works out to be 24A, A sudden drawing of 24A current from the supply mains will not be a problem whereas the same 6 times full-load current for a 22 kW motor will work out to be around 240A which is highly unwarranted. It causes sudden depression in the voltage of the supply mains causing disturbances to other loads connected nearby on the same supply mains. Hence, the electrical supply authorities forbid the users of large capacity Induction motors to directly switch on their motors, Therefore, the main aim of starters used for large capacity motors is to reduce the starting current. With reference to Ohm’s law, the starting current in an Induction motor can be reduced by either reducing the voltage applied to the motor or by increasing the impedance of the motor circuit. The latter principle is possible only in slip-ring Induction motors. Apart from having necessary control devices to limit the starting current, all starters are provided with protective devices to protect the motor against overload and loss of supply voltage. The different methods of starting 3-phase Induction motors are given below: The methods of starting squirrel-cage motors alone are () _ Direct-on-line (DOL) starting Gi) Stator resistance starters The methods of starting both squirrel-cage and slip-ring motors are Autotransformer starters140 Parr I: Induction Machines (iv) Star-delta starters ‘The method of starting slip-ring motors alone is (v) Rotor resistance starters 7.1.1 DOL Starter This starter, as its name implies, switches the motor directly onto the supply. As these starters do not have any control devices to reduce the starting current, the use of this starter is restricted to motors of smaller capacity, upto about 2.2 kW. The DOL starter essentially consists of a main contactor and other protective devices as shown in Figure 7.1. M, — TOLRC es ee START Fig 7.1 DOL starter MI, M2 and M3 are the main contactors capable of making and braking the motor line currents. They are of normally-open (NO) type contactors. Contactor A is also a NO type contactor of lesser current carrying capacity. These contactors are operated by arelay coil UVRC, the under voltage relay coil which is excited from the supply line voltage. S, is also.a NO type contactor connected in series with UVRC. S,, 5; and S, are of normally - closed (NC) type and are connected in series with UVRC. NC contactor Sy, is operated by relay coils OLRC, the over load release coils connected in series with the motor supply line. Terminals of the auxiliary contactor A are connected with the terminals of NO contactor 5, On pressing contactor S, the UVRC gets excited which causes the main contactors M1, M2, M3 and the auxiliary contactor A to get closed. Closing of contactor A retains the supply to the UVRC even after the start button, contactor Sj, is released. The motor is thus connected (o the normal supply voltage directly and draws a current of Typ, per phase at the time of switching on. /,,, is the blocked rotor current per phase at normal voltage, the estimation of which was explained in section 5.2Charter 7 : Control of Three-phase Induction Motors 141 Contactors S, is used to disconnect the supply from the motor by manually pressing it. Remote operation of the same can be achieved with the help of contactor S; . When the supply voltage cither fails totally or falls below certain value, the holding power given by UVRC comes down causing the main contactor to be opened and thus protecting the motor against under voltage or loss of voltage. Overload protection to the motor is given by contactor S, operated by OLRC. When the line current exceeds the preset value, OLRC causes S, to open causing loss of voltage to UVRC which in turn opens the main contactors. - 2a N,Ty twas derivedin section 3.2 that Power inputto the rotor fi, = —E9—= = @, qT, and rotor copper loss W;4) = 5 P, o. BIRR, = Se,T, 2 Tal Since /ya/, approximately Rr Ta (rl) Ss At the time of starting, $ = 1 Hence Tal? (72) where /, is the starting current per phase in the stator winding. At full-load, if Sy, is the slip and /y, is the stator current per phase, then the full load torque developed. Ey y Tye 3) fi. From equations (7.2) and (7.3), Tn. (#4) Sy a) Th. Ty, When the motor is directly switched on with DOL starters 1a = lon 7) Hence the ratio of starting torque to full torque with DOL starters is Tat _{ Lon) Tau _| Ln.) a6) Tq [ 1) * 4 Fo: example, if J, =Zoq = 71 4, and Sy, = 0.04, then Tat. 7? 0.04=1.96 id T,.142. Par! : Induction Machines 7.1.2 Stator Resistance Starter In this type of starters, the starting current is limited by adding a resistance in the stator circuit causing a drop in voltage and hence by applying the reduced voltage to the stator. Figure 7.2 shows the schematic diagram of stator resistance starter. a= *'bnu Nelo 3-ph variable resistance Fig 7.2 Stator resistance starter schematic diagram Addition of a resistance in the stator side causes the voltage available to the motor x times the normal voltage. Hence starting current per phase /,, Ty = ly = 8 bog (7) The motor line current J,,, and supply line current /,, get reduced in same Proportion. =p =¥ Lit (78) ay for Y — connected motor where Ly Tins, = V31 pq for 3 — connected motor Substituting equation (7.7) in equation (7.4) Tae Lm} 5 Me (79) Te iP Tage = 3? Tet (7.10) Hence in stator resistance starter, the starting current drawn by the motor as well as the current drawn from the supply gets reduced by x? times whereas the starting torque developed gets reduced by x’ times. Because of this nature of large reduction of starting torque, stator resistance starter is very rarely used. 7.1.39 Autotransformer Starter This starter again makes use of applying reduced voltage to the motor to limit the starting current. The reduced voltage is obtained with the help of fixed tap autotransformer. An autotransformer starter is suitable for all types of 3-phase Induction motor be it squirrel -cage or slip-ring, and star-connected or delta-connected. Figure 7.3 shows the wiring diagram of a manually operated type autotransformer starter.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Cuaprer 7 : Control of Three-phase Induction Motors 145 Hence, the supply line current and starting torque are reduced by the same ratio, K? times than in DOL starting. 7.1.4 Star—Delta Starter This starter can be used for 3-phase Induction motors which are built to run normally with a delta-connected stator winding. At the time of starting, the starter reconnects the stator winding in star, thus causing only 1/./3 times the normal voltage available across each winding which will result in reduction of starting current. Figure 7.5 shows the wiring diagram of a manually operated star-delta starter. Fig 7.5 Star—Dela starter The manual star-delta starter essentially consists of only a six pole double throw switch apart from other protective devices. The 3-phase supply lines obtained through amain TPST switch are connected to moving contacts 1, 3 and 5. Connections from moving contacts 2, 4 6 are taken to motor stator winding finishing terminals 2, 4 and 6 through over Toad release coils, OLRC. Connections from the lower fixed contacts 1,3 and S are taken to motor stator winding starting terminals 1, 3 and 5. The lower fixed contacts 2, 4 and 6 are connected together to form the star point during starting conditions. Among the top fixed contacts, 2 and 3, 4 and 5, 6 and 1 are connected together. Further there are interconnections between top and bottom fixed contacts with numbers 1, 3, 5. The operating handle mechanism is similar to that explained for autotransformer starter in section 7.1.3. To start the motor, the handle is pushed downwards to the START position which causes the stator winding to get connected in star. With U,, as the line voltage applied to the motor terminals, the per phase voltage available across each stator winding is U,, /,/3 , i.e.1/ 3 times the normal voltage. After the motor has accelerated to about its normal speed, the operating handle is pushed upwards suddenly to theaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.148. Parr I: Induction Machines ROTOR RESISTANCE UNIT STATOR CONTROL UNIT Fig 7.7 Rotor resistance starter Example 7.1: A fractional kW, 3-phase Induction motor has its blocked rotor current at normal voltage 6 times the full load current and the full load slip as 5%. Estimate the starting current and starting torque developed if the stator resistance starter is used to reduce the applied voltage to 60% of normal value. Data: /y,=6 Ly: Sy, =5%=0.05; x= 60% = 0.6 Aim: 1,2 Typ? Solution: For stator resistance starter Tey = ¥ 1 5p On = 0.6%6 1p, Wp = 3.61 Tar _ 2 | Lom | site x?|-] Sy (79) T, [3 " = 0.67 x 6? x 0.05 = 0.648 Tay = 0.648 Typ Example 7.2: Estimate approximately the starting torque of a 3-phase Induction motor in terms of its full load torque when started by means of (i) an autotransformer starter with 60% tapping and (ii) a star-delta starter. The motor draws 6 times the full-load current when switched on directly and its full load slip is 4%.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.150 Parr 1: Induction Machines ” PB 11x10? @ D.. = ?¥ VB Us, Xa * ph V3 x 415 x 0.88% 0.86 Tq = 20.224 Given Igy = 71, Hence, Vig, = Ty, = 7 20.22 = 141.54 A Gi) Ting = K Tsu, (7.12) Tyyy = 0.7143 x 141.54 Ing = VOLLA (iv) ' Tig = K Ing = K Tyas, (7.13) = (0.7143)? x 141.54 Iyg = 217A Example 7.4: Determine a suitable autotransformer ratio for starting a 3-phase Induction motor witha supply currentnot exceeding twice the full-load current. Use the following data: locked rotor current with normal voltage 5 times the full load current, fulll-load slip = 4%. Also estimate the starting torque in terms of full-load torque. Ignore shunt branch current. Dataz 1), = 2 Fp stin =S 1p, OF Lom, = S30 yy Si =4%= 0.04 Aim: KT ,? Solution : /,, = K? Ti, (7.13) 2, =K? Bla) =04 3 K = 0.6325 or K = 63.25% Tiss — >| tin) Sie = K?| | s (7.14) T), ( In) =0.4x5* «0,04 =04 Dyg = 04 Ty =40% Ty, Example 7.5: Find the percentage tapping required on an autotransformer used for starting a squirrel-cage Induction motor against one-third of full-load torque. The blocked rotor current on normal voltage is 5 times the full load current and full-load slip is 4%. Data : Ty. =4ti Igy =5 1,3 Sp, =4% = 0.04 Aim: K?Carrer 7 : Control of Three-phase Induction Motors 151 Solution: ; i Fae. x2} tm) sg, (1.14) Tp In Ll 2x3? x0.08 K = 0.5774 K = 57.74% or Example 7.6 : A 15 kW, 4-pole, 50 Hz, 415V, 3-phase Induction motor runs at 1455 rpm on full-load with an efficiency of 90% and a power factor of 0.86. If it takes 162 A on direct switching, find the ratio of starting torque to full load torque when started with a star—delta starter. Data: P.=15kW; P=4; f,=50H2;U,, =415V; N, =1455 rpm; Nip, = 90% = 0.9; fl pf = 0.86; 1, =162A Aim ; Ets = Th Solution: P, VB Uy, x9 * pf -— 15x? 6.064 V3 x 415 x 0.9 x 0.86 ine Tne _ 26.9% a Ing = Ia = V3 law —" 716) BB LU. a1, =15S7A Tip = 9353.4. N, = 1500rpm N,-N, _ 1500-1455 S_,=— += R 1500 Sp. = 003% 2 Ta (4) ee (7.19) T, 3 In } _ 1( Ba) i 3\15.57182 Parr J: Induction Machines Tass, a Tg, = 36.08% Ty, Example 7.7: A 3-phase, squirrel cage Induction motor takes 190% of full-load line current and develops 36% of full-load torque at starting by a star-delta starter. What would be the starting torque and current if an autotransformer with 70% tapping were used? Data: /,, = 190% Ip2: Tass 36% Th. = 0.3608 Aim :Ty,2 Liq? with K = 70% =0.7 Solution: With star-delta starter us lu 7.18) 5 oo Lig = NB My, = V3 %1.90F 4, My, 23.29 Ly, Taup, = V3 Tan = V3 X3.29 x Typ, = 5.698 I py Fas 1) tin |g (7.19) Tj) 3\Tn 1 2 0:36 = 5 *5.698 Sy, 7.14) = 0.7? x 5.698" x 0.033 = 0.525 Teg = 52.5% Tp Tig = K? Din, (7.13) = 0.77 x 5.698 Iq, Lig = 2.31 pu, Tyg = 230% I pyCuarrer 7 : Control of Three-phase Induction Motors 153 Example 7.8: A 3-phase Induction motor takes a blocked rotor current, at normal voltage, 6 times the full-load value and its full-load slip is 4%. What value of the autotransformer ratio would enable the motor to be started with not more than twice full-load current drawn from the supply? What would be the starting torque under this condition? Data: [y,=61¢ OF lg, =61p,3 Sq, =4% = 0.04; [,, = 21 yy, Aim: K2 Tyg? Solution: Vig = K? Vig, (7.13) 2 21g = Ko Olay Ke K=0.5774 or 57.74% Tas 2{ ty y tae x?| | 5 7.14) eoe(ie) aw = Lor x004 ds = 0.48 or Ty, =48% Ty M Example 7.9: A 3.7 kW, 3-phase Induction motor has a locked rotor current of 5 times the full-load current and the full-load slip is 5%. Find the starting torque as a percentage of full-load torque if the motor is started by (i) DOL starter (ii) star-delta starter (iii) - auto-starter and (iv) stator resistance starter. The starting current from the supply in case (iii) and (iv) is to be limited to 2 times the full load current. Data: ly, =51 oF I, =51 93 Spy =5%= 0.05; 1). = 11, =21 gy Aim 2) Ty? Gi) Tay? (lt) Tas? GY) Tre? Solution: (i) DOL starter: Tag { tin) aid oe || ss Th Tn ge (7.6) = 5? «0.05 Tass 24,95 Tn Tang = 128% Ty,154 Part: Induction Machines (ii) Star— delta starter Fo 21} tn | s, 7.19) Th 3 In or Tay = AT ag 720) 3 = tx1.257, | ee Tags = O-AN6T of Ty = 41.67% Tp (iii) Auto starter Lig = Hing 2p, Ki x5 Lgy 2 K = 0.6325 or 63.25% Tessa = K? Tass (7.15) 2 =Sx125Ty 5 ‘i Tau = 05 Ty Tagg = 50% Ty isa (iv) Stator resistance starter 1 =X Lin (78) 2p =x ST yy x= en fes Tap =x Ta (7.10) 2 =|/= 1287, (3) aa Tay = 0.27 y Tiyy = 20% Ty, Example 7.10: A 15 kW, 415V, 6-pole, 50 Hz, 3-phase Induction motor runs at 965 rpm on full-load with an efficiency of 89% and a power-factor of 0.87 lagging. In the blocked rotor test the full-ioad current was circulated with a line voltage of 80V. If the motor is to be started by means of a star—delta starter, find approximately the starting current taken from the supply lines and starting torque developed. Data: P, = ISKW; Uj, =415V; P=6; f, =50 Hz;= N, =965 rpm ng. = 89% = 0.8% fl.pf =08T; In, =! 423 Uy, =80V Aim: 1,5? Ta?aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.156 Paar I: Induction Machines 60xP, _ 60x 22x10? “ln N, — 2nx1440 Ty, =145.89 Nm Th, U, = Uy, =415V teeth ot wresr a lZ,| 35 Typ, = V3 Tpq = V3 «118.57 Ins = 205.37 A (i) DOL starter Tia = Hone (7.16) Iyg = 205.37 A > 5 Tat (ts } [i St =| 4) S, = Ss Tj! Un) ” Wu) ” = (2) + 0.04= 1.109 Tit = 1.109 Ty, =1-109% 145.89 Tyg = 161.79 Nn (iii) Autotransformer starter with K = 0.6 Tig = K7 lig (7.13) = 0.6? x 205.37 lig = BBA Tg = K? Tass Gh) = 0.6? x 161.79 Tagg = 58.24 Nm (iii) Star-delta starter 1 hee 5 ha @.18) = ; x 205.37 11, = 68.468 =15161.79 3 Tys = 53.93 NmCuarrter 7 : Control of Three Phase Induction Motors 157 Example 7.12: A slip ring Induction motor has a rotor resistance of 0.032 anda standstill reactance of 0.12 ©. Find approximately the value of external resistance to be added to the rotor resistance starter in order to develop maximum torque at starting. Data: R, = 0.030; Xy = 0.120; Ty = Tmax Aim: R, Solution: For 7), = Tuma R= X, Ry =(R, +R.) R, =X, -R, =0.12-0.03 R= 0.092 Example 7.13: A six pole, 50 Hz, 3-phase Induction motor has its rotor winding resistance of 0.08 Q per phase. If its stalling speed is 800 rpm, find approximately the value of external resistance to be added in the rotor-resistance starter to obtain maximum torque at starting. Data: P= 6; f, =50H,; R, =0.080; N,, = 800 1pm; Ty, = Tce Aim: R,? 20x Sotution: N, = 220L2 .120*50 _ 009 spin P 6 &< = Ne _ 1000-800 _ 95 nN, 1000 Atcritical slip R= Sy X> 1. Xy = R,/S,, =0.08/0.2 X= 040 For Tas = Tamas Ry =(R, +R.) =Xy R, =X) - R, =0.4- 0.08 R, = 0322 Example 7.14: A 3-phase, 415 V, star-connected Induction motor has a star-connected rotor winding with a stator to rotor turns ratio of 6. The rotor winding resistance and standstill reactance per phase are 0.05 and 0.26 respectively, Find approximately the value of external resistance per phase to be added in the rotor circuit to obtain maximum torque at starting. What will be the stator current? Data: U,, =415V; star—connected; K = R, = 0.08; X; = 0.260 Aim :R,? 1,2 for Ty = Tmax Solution: For Ty, = Tymas R= (R, + R)=X) oR, = Xz -R, =0.26 -0.05 =0.210aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Cuapter 7: Control of Three-phase Induction Motors 159 frequency. Hence, the speed of the motor can be controlled right from zero to twice the normal speed in a continuous manner. Frequency variation from zero to 50 Hz is accompanied by corresponding variation with output voltage so that the required operating flug a (U/f) is maintained. At higher frequency range, the output voltage is held constant at the rated voltage of the motor. ret Power | Mu electronic Vaan U, f, 415v. 1 controller sonnet ° Feedback Fig 7.8 Variable frequency drive The following are some of the advantages of this method of speed control by power electronic controllers: () continuous speed variation from zero to twice the normal speed is available. ii) controller units are compact in size occupying less space. Units may also be fitted within the motor frame. (ii) controllers also provide soft-starting facility. No extra starter is required. (iv) programmable controllers enable the operator to enter instructions, like required speed, change in speed, etc. in digital form. (¥)__ closed loop operation is also possible, making the motor to runat the desired speed irrespective of change in load condition. (vi) controllers also provide electric braking and reversing. The disadvantages are (i) cost of the controller may be around ten times the cost of the motor. Of course this is likely to decrease in the future. (i) a skilled operator is required for improving reliability of operation. 7.2.2 Speed Control by Changing Number of Poles This method of speed control provides change in speed at two or four discrete levels by changing the number of poles of the rotating magnetic field. The squirrel cage rotor can adjust itself to the rotating magnetic field for different poles whereas the slip ring rotor is to be wound for the same number of poles as that of the stator winding. Hence, this method of speed control is applicable only for squirrel cage Induction motors.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either 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8021.605|-26.38° V P, = Phan, SVS + Py SiN 25 UIE 3. Pics SUE - l teas EnSaE 605 1, @ x10°° Pion = 30. 6 MW _ 3x6350.85? x(5~3)x10 2x5x3 0) Py = 8.067 MW P, = 30.566 sin 26.38 +8.067 sin 52.76 P, = (13.581+ 6.422) = 20.003MW Check: 2, = 2, =20MW 7 = ME oss dures -%.) Xy XX, = Pig COSO + 2P jp COS2T = 30.566 cos26.38 +2 x 8.067 cos52.76 P, = (27.383+9.764) = 37.147 MW/elect-rad (iiiy Ps =37.147x—~ = 0.648 MWielect-deg 180 cos2d) W/electrad 2 (iv) P, = 0. 6482 = =0. 64812 3.888 MW/mech deg 2: 2aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.434 174 17. a 176 17 a 17. Pe 179 Pant II : Synchronous’Machines pu when the generator delivers rated kVA at 0.8 pf lagging and at rated voltage. Hence, find the voltage regulation. [Ans: 1.823 pu.; 82.3%] A3-phase, 25 MVA, 13.8 kV Alternator delivers rated load at rated voltage and at 0.8 pf lagging. The values of resistance, direct and quadrature axis reactances are 0.150, 7.6Qand4.5Q. Compute the percentage voltage regulation. . {Ans: 78.1%] ASKVA, 220 V, star-connected, 3-phase, salient pole Alternator with direct and quadrature axis reactances of 129 and 7Q , delivers full load current at 0.8 pf lagging. Calculate the excitation voltage and reluctance power. {Ans: 437.118V; 1.0kW] ‘A400 V, 3-phase, star-connected Synchronous motor with Xy = 6Rand X, = 42 is operating on infinite bus-bars. If its field current is reduced to zero, find the maximum power the motor can develop. Also find the corresponding current and pf. [Ans: 6.667 MW; 49.06A; 0.196 lag} A salient Synchronous generator has the following pu. parameters: Xj =1.2 pu; X, =0.8 pu.and R=0.025 pu. Compute the excitation voltage in pu. when the generator delivers rated kVA at 0.8 pf lag and at rated voltage. (Ans: 1.97] A salient pole Synchronous generator has the following pu parameters: X, =1.2 pu; X, =0.8 pu and R=0.025 pu. Compute the excitationvoltage in pu when the generator delivers rated kVA at 0.4 pf leading and at rated voltage. [Ans: 0.345] A3.5 MVA, 3 phase, star-connected Synchronous generator rated at 6.6 KV has 28 poles. Its direct and quadrature axis Synchronous reactances obtained from Slip-test are 9.6Q and 6Q . Neglecting resistance, determine@the voltage regulation and the excitation emf needed when supplying a real power of 2.5 MW at 08 pflag toa 6.6 kV bus-bars. What maximum power can the generator supply, if the field circuit becomes open circuited? [Ans: 50.85%, 9.956 kV, 1.361 MW).aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.438 Induction and Synchronous Machines Phasor diagram of a 3-phase induction motor 72, 73,81 Pilotexciter 359, 361 Pitch factor 218, 220, 221, 222, 224, Zl, 232 Plain single-phase induction motor 183, 184, 187, 188, 192 Plugging 174,175, 177, 178 Polar group 215, 218,219 Pole changing 174, 178, 179 Pole face 209, 210, 359, 360 Pole-axis 357 Potier method 265, 270, 290, 294, 295, 296 Potier triangle 288, 289, 290, 291, 293, 24 Power developed ,51, 56, 58, 59, 63, 64,65, 67, 74, 75,367, 423, Power electronic controller 158, 159, 166 Power electronic devices 158 Power flow equations 128 Power generated 255,256, 257, 252 Power input 367, 369, 370, 371, 381, 384, 389, 391 Power input to the rotor 50, $1, 52, 59 Power output 50, 51, 57, 60 Power scale 97 8, Power stages 50, 51, 5 Power supply system 331 Power-angle diagram 257 Prime-mover 301, 304, 305, 311, 312, 313,314, 316, 317, 320, 322, 325. 326 Prime-mover characteristic 311, 312, 313, 326, 327, 329 Prime-movers 205, 206, 207 Pull-in torque 360 Pump motors 183 Qaaxis 241, 248, 414, 416, 417, 418 Quadrature axis 241, 248, 414, 417, 418,420, 430, 433, 434 Quadrature axis reactance 420, 433, 434 Rating of alternators 228 Reactance emf 237 Refrigerators 183, 195 Regenerative braking 43, 174, 178 Regulation characteristics 251, 252,262 Reluctance power 427, 433 Repulsion start induction run motor 192, 196, 199 Residual flux 132 Resistance measurement 236 Rotating field system 204, 205 Rotating magnetic field 15, 18, 19 Rotor construction 8, 208, 232 Rotor copper loss 49, 50, 51, 52 53, 54, 56, 57, 58, 59 Rotor resistance control 165, 166 Rotor resistance starter 140, 147, 148 29, 30, 34 Running condition 2 Salient pole rotor 208 Self-excited alternators 259, 260 Self-excited induction generators. 132 Separately excited induction generator 129,130, 131, 137 Separation of losses 106, 107 Series-delta 162, 163 Series-star 162 Shaded region 195, 196 Shaded-pole motor 195, 196 Shading coil 195, 196 Shortcircuitcharacteristic 266, 267, 73 Short-pitch coil 216, 217 Short-pitch winding 214, 225 Single-layer winding 214ee er oe os ee es ae a Induction & Synchronous Machines This book is a sequel to the author's DC Machines & Transformers Comprehensive, lucid and student-friendly, it adopts a self-study approach and is aimed at demystifying the subject for students who consider ‘Electric Machines’ too tough. The book covers Induction Machines in 8 chapters and Synchronous Machines in 9 chapters. | Salient Features ‘Systematic presentation of concepts Simple language 185 illustrations wherever appropriate to supplement text 139 worked out examples. 342 review questions 126 unsolved exercises with end answers at the end of all chapters Textbook for engineering students and text reference for polytechnic students About the Author K Murugesh Kumar is Assistant Professor, Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore. He has over 22 years teaching experience. He has worked as a consultant in the areas of design and testing of electric machines and in the testing of electrical instruments for the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). * K Murugesh Kumar : DC Machines & Transformers + Jeyapoovan Engineering Drawing * SRajasekaran Engineering Mechanics: & G Sankarasubramanian Statics & Dynamics * Murugesh Kumar & : Basic Electrical & Electronics V Jagannathan Engineering * Salivahanan & Arivazhagan : Digital Circuits & Design + Rudramoorthy & Jayagopal Basic Civil & Machanical | Enginering s = ISBN # VIKAS” PUBLISHING HOUSE PVT LTD 9788125909262 Email: [email protected] A-22, Sector 4, Noida-201301 Phone: (0120) 4078900, Fax: (0120) 4078999 Regd. Office: 576 Masjid Road, Jangpura, New Delhi-110014 www.vikaspublishing.com 97881 25"909262' M.R.P.: 335 SS ——————