Understanding

Toxic
Substances

An Introduction to
Chemical Hazards
in the Workplace

State of California
Department of Public Health
Department of Industrial Relations

2008 edition
This booklet was originally prepared in 1986 by
the Hazard Evaluation System and Information
Service (HESIS) and the Labor Occupational
Health Program (LOHP), University of
California, Berkeley. The design was originated
by Michael Cox. Revision layout is by Autumn
Press.
HESIS is a joint service of the Occupational
Health Branch, in the California Department of
Public Health, and Cal/OSHA, in the California
Department of Industrial Relations.

Arnold Schwarzenegger, Governor

State of California

Kim Belsh, Secretary
California Health and Human Services Agency

Victoria L. Bradshaw, Secretary
Labor and Workforce Development Agency

Mark B Horton, MD, MSPH, Director
California Department of Public Health

John Duncan, Director
Department of Industrial Relations

Free copies of HESIS publications can be obtained by calling (866) 627-1586,

or via www.cdph.ca.gov/programs/hesis/Documents/hesisorderform.pdf
To obtain a copy of this booklet in an alternate format, please contact OHB
at (510) 620-5757. Please allow at least 10 working days to coordinate
alternate format services.

Permission is granted to copy this publication for free distribution only.

Understanding
Toxic
Substances

An Introduction to
Chemical Hazards
in the Workplace

HESIS
Occupational Health Branch
California Department of Public Health
(510) 620-5757
CA Relay Service: (800) 735-2929 or 711
www.cdph.ca.gov/programs/hesis

Table of Contents
Introduction

What makes a chemical toxic?

How can toxic substances harm the body?

11

What are the different forms of toxic materials?

15

What are exposure limits?

18

How can exposure be measured and monitored?

21

How can exposure be reduced?

24

Checklist for researching toxic substances

26

Resources

27

Glossary

29

Introduction

azardous substances are used in many workplaces

today. Working people are discovering that they
need to know more about the health effects of chemicals
they use or may be exposed to on the job. Textbooks, fact
sheets, and Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) provide
important information, but they are often written
in technical language.
To help you better understand technical information about
hazardous workplace chemicals, this booklet explains:

how chemicals can affect the body,

what to look for when reading health information,
the different types of exposure limits for chemicals in
the workplace,
how to know if you are exposed and what
you can do to reduce exposure, and
where to go for additional information.

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What makes a chemical toxic?

oxicity is the ability of a substance to cause harmful

health effects. These effects can strike a single cell,
a group of cells, an organ system, or the entire body.
A toxic effect may be visible damage, or a decrease in
performance or function measurable only by a test.
All chemicals can cause harm at a certain level. When a
small amount can be harmful, the chemical is considered
toxic. When only a very large amount of the chemical can
cause damage, the chemical is considered to be relatively
non-toxic.

Toxic
and hazardous
are not the same

The toxicity of a substance depends on three factors:

its chemical structure, the extent to which the substance is
absorbed by the body, and the bodys ability to detoxify
the substance (change it into less toxic substances) and
eliminate it from the body.
The toxicity of a substance is the potential of that
substance to cause harm, and is only one factor in
determining whether a hazard exists. The hazard of
a chemical is the practical likelihood that the chemical
will cause harm. A chemical is determined to be a hazard
depending on the following factors:
toxicity: how much of the substance is required to cause
harm,
route of exposure: how the substance enters your body,
dose: how much enters your body,
duration: the length of time you are exposed,
multiple exposures: other chemicals you are exposed to,
and
individual susceptibility: how your body reacts to the
substance, compared to other individuals.
Some chemicals are hazardous because of the risk of
fire or explosion. These are important dangers, but are
considered to be safety hazards. Toxic hazards are more
fully explained in this booklet.

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Toxicity

Why are some chemicals more harmful than others?

A products toxicity is determined by its chemical
composition how the atoms and molecules it is made
of interact with living tissues. Substances with similar
chemical structures often cause similar health problems.
For example, many organic (carbon-based) solvents can
cause dizziness, affecting the brain in a similar way.
However, sometimes a slight difference in chemical
structure can lead to important differences in the type
of health effect produced. For example, certain organic
solvents can cause cancer.
The way the atoms and molecules cause harm to living
tissues is called the mechanism of toxicity. The mechanism
of hydrocarbon toxicity to the brain is not fully understood.
Some mechanisms, such as the action of carbon monoxide
on hemoglobin in red blood cells, are well understood.

Route of exposure

How can chemicals enter the body?

Exposure normally occurs through inhalation, skin or eye
contact, and ingestion. These are known as the routes of
exposure.
Inhalation. A very important type of workplace exposure
occurs when you breathe a substance into the lungs.
The lungs consist of branching airways (called bronchi)
with clusters of tiny air sacs (called alveoli) at the ends of
the airways. The alveoli absorb oxygen and other chemicals
into the bloodstream. The surface area of a persons alveoli
is roughly equal to that of half of a tennis court.
Some chemicals are irritants and cause eye, nose,
and throat irritation. They may also cause discomfort,
coughing, or chest pain when they are inhaled and come
into contact with the bronchi (chemical bronchitis). Other
chemicals may be inhaled without causing such warning
symptoms, but they still can be dangerous.

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Sometimes a chemical is present in the air as small

particles (dust or mist). Some of these particles, depending
on their size, may be deposited in the bronchi and/or
alveoli. Many of them may be coughed out, but others
may stay in the lungs and may cause lung damage. Some
particles may be absorbed into the bloodstream, and have
effects elsewhere in the body.
Skin Contact. The skin is a protective barrier that helps
keep foreign chemicals out of the body. However, some
chemicals can easily pass through the skin and enter the
bloodstream. If the skin is cut or cracked, chemicals can
penetrate through the skin more easily. Also, corrosive
substances, like strong acids and alkalis, can chemically
burn the skin. Others can irritate the skin. Many chemicals,
particularly organic solvents, dissolve the oils in the skin,
leaving it dry, cracked, and susceptible to infection and
absorption of chemicals.
Eye Contact. Some chemicals may burn or irritate the
eye. The eyes are easily harmed by chemicals, so any eye
contact with chemicals (particularly liquids) should be
taken as a serious incident.
Ingestion (swallowing). Chemicals can be ingested if
they are left on hands, clothing, or beard, or when they
accidentally contaminate food, drinks, or cigarettes. Metal
dusts, such as lead or cadmium, are often ingested this
way. Also, particles trapped in nasal or lung mucus can be
swallowed.

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Dose

How much is too much?

In general, the greater the amount of a substance that enters
your body, the greater is the effect on your body. This
connection between amount and effect is called the doseresponse relationship.
For example, solvents such as toluene, acetone, and
trichloroethylene all affect the brain in the same way, but
to different degrees at different doses. The effects of these
solvents are similar to those which result from drinking
alcoholic beverages. At a low dose, you may feel nothing
or a mild, sometimes pleasant (high) sensation. A larger
dose may cause dizziness or headache. With an even larger
dose you may feel as if you are drunk, pass out, or even
stop breathing.
When you inhale a toxic chemical, the dose you receive
depends on four factors:
the level (concentration) of chemical in the air,
how hard (fast and deep) you are breathing, which
depends on your degree of physical exertion,
how much of the chemical that is inhaled stays in your
lungs or is absorbed into your bloodstream, and
how long the exposure lasts.
It is safest to keep exposure to any toxic substance as
low as possible. Since some chemicals are much more
toxic than others, it is necessary to keep exposure to some
substances lower than others. Some toxic effects appear to
have a threshold of exposure, below which effects are
unlikely to occur. Others, such as increased risk of cancer,
are believed to be without a threshold.

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Duration

How long is too long?

The longer you are exposed to a chemical, the more likely
you are to be affected by it. Chemical exposure which
continues over a long period of time can be particularly
hazardous because some chemicals can accumulate in the
body or because the health damage does not have a chance
to be repaired.
The body has several systems, most importantly the liver,
kidneys, and lungs, which change some chemicals to a
less toxic form (detoxify) or eliminate them. If your rate of
exposure to a chemical exceeds the rate at which you can
eliminate it, some of the chemical will accumulate in your
body. Illness that affects the organs for detoxification and
elimination, such as hepatitis (inflammation of the liver),
can also decrease their ability to eliminate chemicals from
the body.
Accumulation may not continue indefinitely. There may be
a point where the amount in the body reaches a maximum
and remains the same as long as your exposure remains the
same. This point will be different for each chemical. Some
chemicals, such as ammonia and formaldehyde, leave the
body quickly and do not accumulate at all. Other chemicals
are stored in the body for long periods. For instance, lead
is stored in the bone, cadmium is stored in the liver and
kidneys, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are stored
in the fat. There are a few substances, such as asbestos
fibers, that can remain in the body forever.
How long does it take for a toxic effect to occur?
The effects of toxic substances may appear immediately
or soon after exposure, or they may take many years to
appear. An acute exposure is a single exposure or a few
exposures. Acute effects are those which occur following
acute exposures. Acute effects can occur immediately, or
be delayed and occur hours or days after exposure. Chronic
exposure is repeated exposure that occurs over months and
years. Chronic effects are those which occur following
chronic exposures, and so are always delayed.

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A toxic chemical may cause acute effects, chronic effects,

or both. For example, if you inhale high levels of solvents
on the job, you may experience acute effects such as
headaches and dizziness which go away at the end of the
day. Over months, you may begin to develop chronic
effects such as liver and kidney damage.
The delay between the beginning of exposure and the
appearance of disease caused by that exposure is called
the latency period. For example, the latency period of lung
injury after exposure to nitrogen dioxide gas may be a few
hours. Cancers due to chemical exposure have very long
latency periods. Most types of cancer develop following
a latency period of many years after a workers first
exposure.
The length of the latency period for chronic effects
can make it difficult to establish the cause-and-effect
relationship between the exposure and the illness. Since
chronic diseases develop gradually, you may have the
disease for some time before it is detected. It is, therefore,
important for you and your physician to know what chronic
effects might be caused by the substances with which you
work.

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What are the differences between acute and chronic effects?

Acute

Chronic

Occurs immediately
or soon after exposure
(short latency).

Occurs over time or long after

exposure
(long latency)

Often involves a high

exposure (large dose
over a short period).

Often involves low exposures

(small and repetitive doses)
over a long period.

Can be minor or severe.

For example, a small amount
of ammonia can cause
throat or eye irritation; higher
concentrations can cause
serious or even fatal lung
damage.

Often involve inflammation and

scarring of organs, such as the
lung or kidney. Chronic effects
are still unknown for many
chemicals. For example, most
chemicals have not been tested
in experimental animals for
cancer or reproductive effects.

Relationship between
chemical exposure and
symptoms is generally,
although not always, obvious.

It may be difficult to establish

the relationship between
chemical exposure and illness
because of the long time delay
or latency period.

Knowledge often based on

human exposure.

Knowledge often based

on animal studies.

Chemical
combinations

What if youre exposed to more than one chemical?

Many jobs expose workers to several chemicals. There
may be several ingredients in one mixture or product, or
there may be several separate chemicals used for different
parts of the job. There may also be non-occupational toxic
exposures from polluted air, from contaminated food and
water, or from alcohol, drugs, and tobacco use. Many toxic
chemicals can be found in the body at the same time.
Normally we think of each chemical as having a separate
toxic effect inside the body. When some chemical
combinations are present, however, the reality is more
complicated. For instance, one chemical may interfere with

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the bodys defenses against another chemical, resulting in

an increased toxic impact. Combination toxic effects may
be additive, synergistic, or potentiating types.

Combination
toxic effects

Additive effects. If several chemicals are similar in their

toxic effects, the health effect is usually like being exposed
to a larger dose of one chemical. A common example
is exposure to several solvents, each of which affects
brain function in a similar way, causing acute dizziness,
drowsiness, and difficulty concentrating. When the results
simply add up in this way, the combination is called
additive.
Synergistic effects. Sometimes a chemical combination
produces a health effect that is greater than the sum of
the individual effects. This kind of interaction is called
synergism. An example of synergism is the increased
risk of developing lung cancer caused by exposures to
both cigarette smoking and asbestos. By either smoking
one pack of cigarettes per day or being heavily exposed
to asbestos, you may increase your risk of lung cancer to
five to ten times higher than someone who does neither.
But if you smoke a pack a day and are heavily exposed to
asbestos, your risk may be 50 times higher than someone
who does neither.
Potentiating effects. Another type of interaction occurs
when an effect of one substance is increased by exposure
to a second substance, even though the second substance
does not cause that effect by itself. For example, although
the solvent methyl ethyl ketone does not damage the nerves
of the arms and legs by itself, it increases n-hexanes
ability to cause this kind of nerve damage.
Unfortunately, few chemicals have been tested to
determine if interactions occur with other chemicals.

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Susceptibility

Are some people more affected than others?

Yes. People vary widely in their susceptibility to the
effects of a chemical. Many things determine how an
individual will react to a chemical. These include age,
sex, inherited traits, diet, pregnancy, state of health, and
use of medication, drugs, or alcohol. Depending on these
characteristics, some people will experience the toxic
effects of a chemical at a lower (or higher) dose than other
people.
People may also become allergic to a chemical. These
people have a different type of response than those who
are not allergic. This response frequently occurs at a very
low dose. Not all chemicals can cause allergic reactions.
Substances that are known to cause allergies are called
allergens, or sensitizers.
For example, formaldehyde gas has irritating effects, and
is also a sensitizer. Everyone will experience irritation
of the eyes, nose, and throat, with tears in the eyes and
a sore throat, at some level of exposure. All people will
experience irritation if exposed to high enough levels. A
person may be more sensitive to formaldehyde and have
irritation at low levels of exposure. Formaldehyde also
occasionally causes allergic reactions, such as allergic
dermatitis. People who are allergic to formaldehyde may
develop these reactions at very low levels, although most
people will not get allergic reactions no matter how much
they are exposed to formaldehyde.

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How can toxic substances

harm the body?

hen a toxic substance causes damage at the point

where it first contacts the body, that damage is
called a local effect. The most common points at which
substances first contact the body are the skin, eyes, nose,
throat, and lungs. Many toxic substances can also enter
the body and travel in the bloodstream to internal organs.
Effects that are produced this way are called systemic.
The internal organs most commonly affected are the liver,
kidneys, heart, nervous system (including the brain), and
reproductive system.
A toxic chemical may cause local effects, systemic effects,
or both. For example, if ammonia gas is inhaled, it quickly
irritates the lining of the respiratory tract (nose, throat, and
lungs). Almost no ammonia passes from the lungs into the
blood. Since damage is caused only at the point of initial
contact, ammonia is said to exert a local effect. An epoxy
resin is an example of a substance with local effects on
the skin. On the other hand, if liquid phenol contacts the
skin, it irritates the skin at the point of contact (a local
effect) and can also be absorbed through the skin, and may
damage the liver and kidneys (systemic effects).
Sometimes, as with phenols, the local effects caused by
a chemical provide a warning that exposure is occurring.
You are then warned that the chemical may be entering
your body and producing systemic effects which you cant
yet see or feel. Some chemicals, however, do not provide
much warning, so they are particularly hazardous. For
example, some toxic solvents can pass through the skin
and cause serious internal damage without producing any
observable effect on the skin.

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Do all toxic chemicals

cause cancer?

No. Cancer, the uncontrolled growth and spread of

abnormal cells in the body, can be caused by some
chemicals but not by others. It is not true that everything
causes cancer when taken in large enough doses. In fact,
most substances do not cause cancer, no matter how high
the dose. Only a relatively small number of the many
thousands of chemicals in commercial use today cause
cancer.
Chemicals that can cause cancer are called carcinogens,
and the ability to cause cancer is called carcinogenicity.
Evidence for carcinogenicity comes from either human
or animal studies. As of 2008, there is enough evidence
for about 500 chemicals to be considered carcinogenic
in humans by the California Environmental Protection
Agency. Determining the causes of cancer in humans is
difficult. There is a long latency period (12 to 25 years or
more for most tumors) between the start of exposure to a
carcinogen and the diagnosis of cancer. Thus, a substance
must be used for many years before enough people will be
exposed to it long enough for researchers to see a pattern
of increased cancer cases. It is often difficult to determine
if an increase in cancer in humans is due to exposure to a
particular substance, since exposure may have occurred
many years before, and people are exposed to many
different substances.
Since the study of cancer in humans is difficult and
requires that people be exposed to carcinogenic chemicals
and possibly get cancer, chemicals are sometimes tested
for carcinogenicity using laboratory animals. If animals
were exposed to the low levels typical of most human
exposure, many hundreds of animals would be required
for only a few to get cancer. To avoid this expense, animal
cancer tests use large doses of chemicals in order to be
able to detect an increase in cancer in a reasonable number
of animals, such as 25-50. However, animal tests are still
expensive, take about three years to perform, and are often
inconclusive. When an animal cancer test is positive,
the risk to a small number of animals at high doses must
be used to try to predict the risk to humans at much
lower doses. Chemicals that cause cancer in animals are

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considered likely to cause cancer in humans, even if the

degree of risk is uncertain.
The issue of whether there is a safe dose for a carcinogen
is complex. Some scientists believe that any exposure
to a carcinogen, no matter how small, carries some risk.
However, at very low exposures, the risk may be so
small that it cannot be distinguished from background
(naturally occurring) risk. Most carcinogens appear to
require either exposure over a number of years or very high
doses before the risk of developing cancer from exposure
to them becomes of serious concern.

Mutagens

Toxic chemicals can also cause genetic damage.

The genetic material of a cell consists of DNA, which is
organized into genes and chromosomes. DNA contains the
information that tells the cell how to function and how to
reproduce (form new cells).
Some chemicals may change or damage the genes or
chromosomes. This kind of change, or damage in a cell, is
called a mutation. Anything that causes a mutation is called
a mutagen. Mutations may affect the way the cell functions
or reproduces. The mutations can also be passed on to
new cells that are formed from the damaged cell. This can
lead to groups of cells that do not function or reproduce
the same way the original cell did before the mutation
occurred.
Some kinds of mutation result in cancer. Most chemicals
that cause cancer also cause mutations. However, not all
chemicals that cause mutations cause cancer.
Tests for the ability of a chemical to cause a mutation take
little time and are relatively easy to perform. These tests
are often performed on microorganisms or cell cultures.
If testing shows a chemical to be a mutagen, additional
testing must be done to determine whether or not the
chemical also causes cancer.

Can future generations

be affected?

Exposure to chemical substances may affect your children

or your ability to have children. Effects of chemicals
on reproduction include a decreased ability to conceive
children (infertility, sterility, abnormal sperm, or a

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longer wait for conception), lowered sex drive, menstrual

disturbances, spontaneous abortions (miscarriages), low
birth weight, stillbirths, and defects in children that are
apparent at birth or later in the childs development.
Developmental problems detected after infancy may
involve the brain or reproductive system.
Teratogens are chemicals which cause malformations or
birth defects by altering the development of tissues in the
fetus in the mothers womb. Other chemicals that harm
the fetus are called fetotoxins. If a chemical causes health
problems in the pregnant woman herself, the fetus may
also be affected.
Endocrine disruptors are chemicals that can upset the
balance of hormones in workers, possibly affecting
reproductive function. It is believed that some endocrine
disruptors may affect development of the reproductive
organs of the fetus.
For purposes of regulating exposures, there is insufficient
information available on the reproductive toxicity of most
chemicals. In fact, most chemicals have not been tested for
reproductive effects in animals. Even for those chemicals
that have been tested in animals, it is difficult to predict
risk in humans using animal data. Despite these data
gaps, as of 2008, approximately 275 drugs and industrial
chemicals are considered to be reproductive risks by the
California Environmental Protection Agency.
For more information, see the HESIS booklet,
Workplace Chemical Hazards to Reproductive Health.

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What are the different forms of

toxic materials?

oxic materials can take the form of solids, liquids,

gases and vapors, as well as particles of various sizes,
including very small, or nanoparticles. Particles, in turn,
occur as dusts, fumes, fibers, and mists. How a substance
gets into the body and what damage it causes depends on
the form or the physical properties of the substance.
A toxic material may take different forms under varying
conditions, and each form may present a different type
of hazard. For example, lead solder as wire (solid) is not
hazardous because it is not likely to enter the body. If the
solid solder is rubbed with a file or an abrasive, this forms
small particles (dust) that may be inhaled or ingested and
absorbed. If lead is heated to a very high temperature
(for example, in brazing), a fume may be created; a fume
consists of very small particles which are extremely
hazardous as they are easily inhaled and absorbed. It
is thus important to know what form or forms a given
substance takes in the workplace. A description of each of
the forms follows.
Solid. A solid is a material that retains its form, like stone.
Solids are generally not hazardous since they are not
likely to be absorbed into the body, unless present as small
particles such as dust, fumes, fibers, and nanoparticles.
Liquid. A liquid is a material that flows freely, like water.
Many hazardous substances are in liquid form at normal
temperatures. Some liquids can damage the skin. Some
pass through the skin and enter the body, and may or
may not cause skin damage. Liquids may also evaporate,
producing vapors or gases which can be inhaled.
Gas. A gas is a substance composed of unconnected
molecules, such that it has low density and no shape of
its own, like air. Gases mix easily with air (air itself is a
mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and other substances). Some
gases, like carbon monoxide, are highly toxic. Others, like
nitrogen, are not toxic but can displace the air in a confined
space, causing suffocation due to lack of oxygen; these are
called asphyxiant gases.

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Vapor. A vapor is the gas form of a substance that can also

exist as a liquid at normal pressure and temperature. Most
organic solvents evaporate and produce vapors. Vapors can
be inhaled into the lungs, and in some cases may irritate
the eyes, skin, or respiratory tract. Some are flammable,
explosive, and/or toxic. The terms vapor pressure and
evaporation rate are used to indicate the tendency for
different liquids to evaporate.
Dust. A dust consists of small solid particles in the air
or on surfaces. Dusts may be created when solids are
pulverized or ground. Dusts may be hazardous because
they can be inhaled into the respiratory tract. Larger
particles of dust are usually trapped in the nose where they
can be expelled, but smaller particles (respirable dust) can
reach and may damage the lungs. Some, like lead dust,
may then enter the bloodstream through the lungs. Some
dusts, such as grain dust, may explode when they reach
high concentrations in the air.
Fume. A fume consists of very small, fine solid particles
in the air which form when solid chemicals (often metals
or plastics) are heated to very high temperatures, evaporate
to vapor, and combine with oxygen. The welding or
brazing of metal, for example, produces metal fumes.
Fumes are hazardous because they are easily inhaled, and
have a large surface area in contact with body tissues.
Some metal fumes can cause an illness called metal fume
fever, consisting of fever, chills, and aches like the flu.
Inhalation of other metal fumes, such as lead, can cause
poisoning without causing metal fume fever.
Fiber. A fiber is a solid particle whose length is at least
three times its width. The degree of hazard is affected by
the size of the fiber. Smaller fibers, such as asbestos, can
reach the lungs and cause serious harm. Larger fibers may
be trapped in the upper respiratory tract, and are expelled
without reaching the lung.
Mist. A mist consists of liquid particles of various sizes
which are produced by agitation or spraying of liquids.
Mists can be hazardous when they are inhaled or sprayed
on the skin. The spraying of pesticides and the machining
of metals using metal working fluids are two situations

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where mists are commonly produced.

Nanoparticles. These extremely small particles, measuring
1 - 100 nanometers in diameter (a nanometer is 1 billionth
of a meter), are engineered for useful properties that differ
from ordinary materials. They include highly structured
forms such as carbon nanotubes (hollow fibers), and
unstructured nano-sized versions of familiar materials,
such as metals. Airborne nanoparticles are easily inhaled
and absorbed into the bloodstream, nervous system, and
other organs. Absorption through the skin is also possible.
Because of their relatively large surface area, nanoparticles
have a high hazard potential relative to their weight.

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What are exposure limits?

xposure limits are established by health and safety

authorities to control exposure to hazardous
substances. In California the most important exposure
limits are the Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs). These
are set forth in California regulations. By law, California
employers who use regulated substances must control
exposures to be below the PELs for these substances. An
employer can be cited and fined if employees are exposed
over the PEL.
Exposure limits usually represent the maximum amount
(concentration) of a chemical which can be present in the
air without presenting a health hazard. However, exposure
limits may not always be completely protective, for the
following reasons:
1. Although exposure limits are usually based on the best
available information, this information, particularly for
chronic (long-term) health effects, may be incomplete.
Often we learn about chronic health effects only after
workers have been exposed to a chemical for many years,
and then as new information is learned, the exposure limits
are changed.
2. Exposure limits are set to protect most workers.
However, there may be some workers who will be affected
by a chemical at levels below these limits. For instance,
employees performing heavy physical exertion breathe in
more air and more airborne chemicals, and so may absorb
an excessive amount.
3. Exposure limits do not take into account chemical
interactions. When two or more chemicals in the workplace
have the same health effects, industrial hygienists use a
mathematical formula to adjust the exposure limits for
those substances in that workplace. This formula applies to
chemicals that have additive effects.
4. Limiting the chemical concentration in air may not
prevent excessive exposure through skin contact or
ingestion. Chemicals that may produce health effects
as a result of absorption through the skin have an S

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designation next to their numerical value in the

Cal/OSHA PEL table. Workers exposed to these chemicals
must be provided with protective clothing to wear when
overexposure through the skin is possible.
In California, Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs) are set
by the Occupational Safety and Health Standards Board,
and enforced by the Division of Occupational Safety and
Health (known as DOSH or Cal/OSHA). PELs have been
set for about 850 chemicals. They are periodically revised
when new information on toxicity becomes available.
California PELs can be the same as federal OSHA PELs,
or may be more protective.

These are three types

of Cal/OSHA PELs:

1. The 8-Hour Time Weighted Average (TWA) is the

average employee exposure over an 8-hour period,
based on chemical measurements close to the worker.
The measured level may sometimes go above the TWA
value, as long as the 8-hour average stays below it. Most
chemicals with PELs have a TWA value. Some chemicals
have Ceiling or Short Term Exposure Limits in addition
to or instead of TWA values.
2. The Ceiling Limit (C) is the maximum allowable level.
It must never be exceeded, even for an instant.
3. The Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL) is a level that
must not be exceeded when averaged over a specified short
period of time (usually 15 minutes).
When there is an STEL for a substance, exposure still must
never exceed the Ceiling Limit, and the 8-hour average still
must remain at or below the TWA.

Recommended
exposure limits

An independent professional organization, the American

Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
(ACGIH), recommends exposure limits. These are called
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs). TLVs are reviewed and
updated each year as new information becomes available,
and published each year in a booklet. Suggested changes
are first published as proposals and are given two years
for review before being adopted by ACGIH. TLVs are
not enforceable standards; however, applying them is

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19

considered by many occupational health professionals as

good work practice. The Documentation of the Threshold
Limit Values summarizes the information on which each
TLV is based.
NIOSH, the National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health, publishes recommended exposure limits
(RELs) for some chemicals. RELs are usually highly
protective to health. Neither RELs nor TLVs are
enforceable by Cal/OSHA.

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20

How can exposure

be measured and monitored?
Air sampling

Biological
monitoring

hen toxic chemicals are present in the workplace,

your exposure can be estimated by measuring
the concentration of a given chemical in the air and the
duration of exposure. This measurement is called air or
environmental monitoring or sampling and is usually
done by industrial hygienists, using various types of
instruments. Laboratory analysis may be required. The air
is collected from your breathing zone (the air around your
nose and mouth) so that the concentrations measured will
accurately reflect the concentration you are inhaling. The
exposure levels calculated from this monitoring can then
be compared to exposure limits for that chemical.
Environmental monitoring is the most accurate way to
determine your exposure to most chemicals. However, for
chemicals that are absorbed by routes other than inhalation,
such as through the skin and by ingestion, air monitoring
may underestimate the amount of chemical you absorb.
The levels of the chemical (or its breakdown products) in
the body can sometimes be measured in the blood, urine,
or exhaled air. Such testing is called biological monitoring,
and the results provide an estimate of the actual dose
absorbed into the body. For several substances, biological
monitoring is required by law when air monitoring results
are above a certain level. The American Conference
of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) has
recommended test methods, and the acceptable range of
test results, for biological monitoring for some chemicals.
There are approximately 50 of these Biological Exposure
Indices (BEIs); they are published together with TLVs.
For most workplace chemicals, however, biological
monitoring is neither practical nor informative.

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21

Practical clues
to exposure

Odor. If you smell a chemical, you are inhaling it.

However, some chemicals can be smelled at levels well
below those that are harmful, so that detecting an odor
does not mean that you are inhaling harmful amounts. On
the other hand, some chemicals cannot be smelled even at
levels that are harmful.
The odor threshold is the lowest level of a chemical that
can be smelled by most people. If a chemicals odor
threshold is lower than the amount that is hazardous, the
chemical is said to have good warning properties. One
example is ammonia. Most people can smell it at 5 ppm,
below the PEL of 25 ppm. It is important to remember
that for most chemicals, the odor thresholds vary widely
from person to person. In addition, some chemicals, like
hydrogen sulfide, cause you to rapidly lose your ability
to smell them; this is called olfactory fatigue. With these
cautions in mind, knowing a chemicals odor threshold
may serve as a rough guide to your exposure level.
Dont depend on odor to warn you. Remember that your
sense of smell may be better or worse than average, that
some very hazardous chemicals have no odor (carbon
monoxide), some chemicals of low toxicity have very
strong odors (for example, mercaptans added to natural
gas), and other chemicals produce olfactory fatigue.
Taste. If you inhale or ingest a chemical, it may leave a
taste in your mouth. Of course, you should not taste toxic
or unknown chemicals on purpose to identify them.
Particles in Nose or Mucous. If you cough up mucous
(sputum or phlegm) with particles in it, or blow your nose
and see particles or discoloration, then you have inhaled
some chemical in particle form. Unfortunately, most
particles which are inhaled into the lungs are too small to
see.
Settled Dust or Mist. If chemical dust or mist is in the air,
it will eventually settle on work surfaces or on your skin,
hair, and clothing. It is likely that you inhaled some of this
chemical while it was in the air.

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22

Immediate Symptoms. If you or your co-workers

experience symptoms known to be caused by a chemical
during or shortly after its use, you may have been
overexposed. Symptoms might include irritation and
tearing of the eyes, a burning sensation of skin, nose, or
throat, and cough, dizziness, or headache.

Can you be tested

for health effects
of exposure?

Sometimes. Medical surveillance is a program of medical

examinations and tests designed to detect early warning
signs of disease. A medical surveillance program may
discover small changes in health before severe damage
occurs. Testing for health effects is called medical
monitoring. The type of testing needed in a surveillance
program depends upon the particular chemical involved.
Unfortunately, medical monitoring tests that accurately
measure early health effects are available only for a
small number of chemicals. A complete occupational
surveillance program should consist of industrial hygiene
monitoring, medical monitoring, and biological monitoring
when appropriate. Tests for health effects when you are
already sick are not part of medical surveillance, and must
be selected by your physician on a case-by-case basis.
When there is employee exposure to certain chemicals,
such as asbestos, arsenic, cadmium, formaldehyde,
hexavalent chromium, and lead, employers are required by
Cal/OSHA regulations to establish medical surveillance
programs. You have the right under Cal/OSHA regulations
(CCR, Title 8, Section 3204) to see and copy your
own medical records and records of exposure to toxic
substances. Your employer must keep these records for at
least 30 years after the end of your employment.

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23

How can exposure be reduced?

he surest way to prevent toxic chemicals from causing

harm is to minimize or prevent exposure. Below are
some methods of controlling exposure.

Training

Everyone who works with toxic substances should know

the names, toxicity, and other hazards of the substances
they use. Employers are required by law to provide this
information, along with training in how to use toxic
substances safely. A worker may obtain information about
a chemicals composition, physical characteristics, and
toxicity from the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS).
Under California law manufacturers are required to supply
an MSDS for products that contain toxic substances.
Employers obtain the MSDS when they purchase the
product and must make the MSDS available to employees.
Unfortunately, the precise chemical composition may be
proprietary (trade secret) information, and the toxicity
information on an MSDS may be incomplete and unreliable.
HESIS can help you interpret the information on an MSDS.

Engineering controls

Limiting exposure at the source is the preferred way to

protect workers. The types of engineering controls, in order
of effectiveness, are listed below.
Substitution is using a less hazardous substance. But
before choosing a substitute, thoroughly consider its
physical and health hazards. For example, mineral
spirits (Stoddard solvent) is less of a health hazard than
perchloroethylene for dry cleaning, but is more of a fire
hazard. Also consider environmental aspects such as air
pollution and waste disposal.
Process or equipment enclosure is the isolation of
the source of exposure, often through automation. This
completely eliminates the routine exposure of workers. For
example, handling of radioactive materials is often done by
mechanical arms or robots.
Local exhaust ventilation is a hood or intake close to the
source of exposure to capture or draw contaminated air
from its source before it spreads into the room and into

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24

your breathing zone. All ventilation systems require careful

engineering design and regular maintenance.
General or dilution ventilation is continual replacement
and circulation of fresh air sufficient to keep concentrations
of toxic substances diluted below hazardous levels.
However, concentrations will be highest near the source,
and overexposure may occur in this area. If the dilution
air is not well mixed with the room air, pockets of high
concentrations may exist.

Work practices

Personal protective
equipment

Work practices are behaviors performed by workers in

order to reduce exposures. Controlling dust dispersion
by spraying water (or dust suppressant products), closing
containers of volatile chemicals when not in use, and
labeling containers of hazardous substances, are common
and effective chemical control work practices.
The following devices should be used only when
engineering controls are not possible or are not sufficient to
reduce exposure.
Respiratory protective equipment consists of devices
that cover the mouth and nose to prevent substances in the
air from being inhaled. A respirator is effective only when
used as part of a comprehensive program established by the
employer, which includes measurement of concentrations
of hazardous substances, selection of the proper respirator,
training the worker in its proper use, fitting of the respirator
to the worker, maintenance, and replacement of parts when
necessary. A health care professional must first determine
whether the individual worker can wear a respirator safely.
Protective clothing includes gloves, aprons, goggles,
boots, face shields, and any other materials worn as
protection. It should be made of material designed to
resist penetration by the particular chemical being used.
Such material may be called impervious to that chemical.
However, most materials do not remain impervious for
very long. The manufacturer of the protective clothing
usually can provide some information regarding the
substances that are effectively blocked and how often
replacement is necessary.

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25

Checklist for researching toxic

substances used on the job
In order to determine the health risks of substances, and to
find out how to work with them safely, you need to obtain
information from many sources including Material Safety
Data Sheets (MSDSs), medical and monitoring records,
and reference materials. The law requires your employer
to make much of this information available to you. The
following checklist will help you gather facts which you
can use along with the information in this pamphlet to get
the answers you need.
1. What is the substance? Whats in it? How toxic is it?

Are potential health effects acute, chronic, or both?
2. Is there evidence based on studies of animals or humans

that the substance is a carcinogen? A mutagen?
A teratogen or reproductive toxin?
3. How does this substance enter the body (routes of

entry): inhalation, skin absorption, ingestion?
4. What is the legal exposure limit (PEL) or recommended

TLV?
5. How much of the substance are you being exposed to?

Has the concentration of the substance in the workplace

air been tested? How long are you exposed?
6. Are you exposed to other chemicals at the same time?

Can they have a combined effect?
7. What symptoms, if any, are you or your co-workers

experiencing?
8. Do you have any medical conditions or take any drugs

that might interact with chemicals?
9. What controls are recommended to prevent
overexposure?
10. Is any type of medical testing recommended?
The glossary in this booklet explains the terms that you
are likely to see when you use various reference materials
to answer these questions.

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26

Resources
Cal/OSHA (California Division of Occupational Safety
and Health)
Cal/OSHA is Californias workplace health and safety
agency. Cal/OSHA enforces rules to protect workers.
You can make a complaint or ask questions about unsafe
working conditions, including toxic substances. Your name
will remain confidential.
There are Cal/OSHA offices throughout the state. To find
a local office, call headquarters at (510) 286-7000, link
to www.dir.ca.gov/DOSH/DistrictOffices.htm, or see
the blue Government Pages of your phone book under:
State Government Offices, Industrial Relations Dept.,
Occupational Safety and Health Cal/OSHA Enforcement.
See www.dir.ca.gov for workplace health and safety rules
and publications. For chemical exposure limits in general
industry, see www.dir.ca.gov/title8/ac1.pdf
The Cal/OSHA Consultation Service helps employers who
want free, non-enforcement help to evaluate the workplace
and improve the health and safety conditions. Employers
can call (800) 963-9424.
www.dir.ca.gov/dosh/consultation.html
HESIS (Hazard Evaluation System and Information
Service)
HESIS provides information to California workers,
employers, and health professionals about the health
effects of toxic substances, and ways to prevent workrelated injuries and illnesses.
www.cdph.ca.gov/programs/hesis
NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health)
NIOSH is the federal agency for education and research
on occupational safety and health. Use their Topics
indexes to look up chemicals, safety hazards, diseases, or
occupations. (800) 356-4674
www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics

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27

Federal OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health

Administration)
Use the OSHA indexes to find information on chemicals,
other hazards, or industries.
www.osha.gov/SLTC/index.html
LOHP (Labor Occupational Health Program)
LOHP provides training and technical assistance to
employees and labor groups on occupational safety and
health in Northern California. (510) 642-5507
www.lohp.org
LOSH (Labor Occupational Safety and Health
Program)
LOSH provides training and technical assistance to
employees and labor groups on occupational safety and
health in Southern California. (310) 794-5964
www.losh.ucla.edu

Internet Resources

The California Department of Public Health has up-to-date

links to helpful, reliable information on:

Workplace hazards
Worker rights
Workers compensation
Spanish-language resources
Resources for employers
Information for health care providers
Finding workplace health and safety specialists
Cal/OSHA regulations
www.cdph.ca.gov/healthinfo/workplace

Find HESIS and Occupational Health Branch publications,

news, and project reports:
www.cdph.ca.gov/programs/ohb

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28

Glossary
This glossary defines terms used on Material Safety Data
Sheets (MSDSs) and other reference materials about toxic
chemicals.
ACGIH

American Conference of Governmental Industrial

Hygienists, a professional organization which recommends
exposure limits (TLV, BEI) for toxic substances.

acid

A substance which dissolves in water and releases

hydrogen ions (H+). Acids cause irritation, burns, or other
tissue damage, depending on the strength of the acid,
which is measured by pH.

alkali

A substance which dissolves in water and releases a

hydroxyl ion (OH-); it has the ability to neutralize an acid
and form a salt. Alkalis can be irritants or even caustic
to body tissues. A solution of alkali is often described
as alkaline.

allergen

A substance that can cause an allergy. Many plant

materials, and some industrial chemicals, are allergens.

allergy

A reaction to a specific substance, developed by an

individuals immune system. Allergies are usually
experienced by a minority of people exposed to an
allergen. Allergic reactions in the workplace tend
to affect the skin (see dermatitis) and lung (see asthma).

ANSI

American National Standards Institute, a private

organization that recommends safe work practices and
engineering designs.

asphyxiant

A vapor or gas that can cause loss of consciousness

and death due to lack of oxygen, or a chemical that can
interfere with the bodys use or transport of oxygen.

asthma

A lung disease characterized by increased reactivity

of the airways to various stimuli. Symptoms include
wheezing, coughing, and shortness of breath. It is a chronic
inflammatory condition with acute exacerbations (periods
when it is more severe). Exacerbations can be due to
irritant chemicals, allergens, and other factors.

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29

base

See alkali.

BEI

Biological Exposure Index, recommended by the ACGIH

as the maximum recommended value of a substance in
blood, urine, or exhaled air, at which most workers would
not experience an adverse health effect.

boiling point

The temperature at which a liquid boils and changes

rapidly to a vapor (gas) state at a given pressure. Expressed
in degrees Fahrenheit (F) or Centigrade (C) at sea level
pressure.

Cal/OSHA

A State of California agency which enforces worker health

and safety regulations and provides consultative assistance
to employers. Also known as the Division of Occupational
Safety and Health (DOSH).

carcinogen

A chemical or physical agent capable of causing cancer.

Such an agent is often described as carcinogenic. The
ability to cause cancer is termed carcinogenicity. Words
having similar meaning include oncogenic and tumorigenic.

CAS number

caustic

The Chemical Abstracts Service Registry Number is a

numeric designation which is given to identify a specific
chemical compound.
Something alkaline that strongly irritates, corrodes, or
destroys living tissue.

ceiling limit

The maximum concentration of a material in air that must

never be exceeded, even for an instant.

cell

The structured unit of which the bodys tissues are made.

There are many types of cells, such as nerve cells, muscle
cells, blood cells. Each type of cell performs a special
function.

chromosome

The part of a cell that contains genetic material (see gene).

combustible

Able to catch on fire and burn. The National Fire Protection

Association and the U.S. Department of Transportation
generally define a combustible liquid as having a flash
point of l00 F (37.8 C) or higher (see also, flammable).

concentration

The amount of a specific substance mixed into a given

volume of air or liquid. For workplace exposures,
concentration usually refers to the amount of a toxic
substance mixed into air.

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corrosive

cubic meter (m3)

decomposition
dermal
dermatitis

dose

edema
endocrine disruptors

epidemiology
evaporation
evaporation rate

explosive limits

A chemical that causes visible destruction or irreversible

alterations in human skin tissue, or other material, at the
place of contact.
A metric unit of volume, commonly used when expressing
concentrations of a chemical in a volume of air. One
cubic meter equals 35.3 cubic feet or 1.3 cubic yards. One
cubic meter also equals 1000 liters or one million cubic
centimeters (cc).
Breakdown of a chemical into simpler parts, compounds,
or elements.
Refers to the skin.
Inflammation of the skin; redness (rash) and often swelling,
pain, itching, cracking. Dermatitis may be caused by an
irritant or allergen, or by other factors.
The amount of a chemical that enters, or is absorbed by,
the body. Dose is usually expressed in milligrams of
chemical per kilogram of body weight (mg/kg).
A swelling of body tissues due to water or fluid
accumulation.
Substances that change the way natural hormones are
produced or work in our bodies to maintain a balanced
internal environment, including growth and development,
reproduction, behavior, and other functions. When normal
hormonal balance is changed, birth defects, reduced
fertility, behavioral problems, cancer, and other adverse
health effects are possible.
The scientific study of the pattern of disease in a
population of people.
The process by which a liquid is changed into a vapor and
mixed into the surrounding air.
The rate at which a liquid is changed to a vapor; usually
compared to the rate of another substance that evaporates
very quickly, such as ether.
The range of concentrations (% by volume in air) of a
flammable gas or vapor that can result in an explosion from
ignition. Usually given as Upper and Lower Explosive
Limits (UEL and LEL).

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31

exposed, exposure

Being in a position of risk froma chemical or other hazard.

The noun exposure often refers to a chemical to which
a person is exposed.

flammable

Catches on fire easily and burns rapidly. The National

Fire Protection Agency and the U.S. Department of
Transportation define a flammable liquid as having a flash
point below l00 F (37.8 C).

flash point

The lowest temperature at which a liquid gives off enough

flammable vapor to ignite and produce a flame when an
ignition source is present.

gene
g

IDLH

The part of the chromosome that carries a particular

inherited characteristic.
Gram, a metric unit of mass. One U.S. ounce equals 28.4
grams; one U.S. pound equals 454 grams. There are 1000
milligrams (mg) in one gram.
Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health. Describes
an environment which is very hazardous due to a high
concentration of toxic chemicals or insufficient oxygen.

ignition temperature

The lowest temperature at which a substance will catch on

fire and continue to burn.

incompatible

Materials which could cause dangerous reactions, such as

fire or explosion, from direct contact with one another.

industrial hygienist

inflammation

An occupational health professional who can recognize,

assess, and control workplace health hazards.
When tissues are injured by chemicals or other causes,
they usually respond by swelling, reddening, and leaking
fluids. This is called the inflammatory response. Although
inflammation can help defend the body and promote
healing, excessive or chronic inflammation can cause
additional health problems.
Taking in and swallowing a substance through the mouth.

ingestion
inhalation
irritant
kg

Breathing in a substance.
A substance which can cause an inflammatory response or
reaction of the eye, skin, or respiratory system.
Kilogram, a metric unit of mass, equal to 1000 grams.
Also equal to approximately 2.2 pounds.

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32

latency
LEL

The time between exposure and the first appearance of an

effect.
Lower Explosive Limit (see Explosive Limits).

LC50 , LC50

(Lethal Concentration-50%) A concentration of chemical

in air that will kill 50% of the test animals inhaling it. It is
a rough measure of acute toxicity by inhalation.

LD50, LD50

(Lethal Dose-50%) The dose of a chemical that will kill

50% of the test animals receiving it. The chemical may
be given by mouth (oral), applied to the skin (dermal),
or injected (parenteral). It is a rough measure of acute
toxicity.

liter

A metric unit of volume. One U.S. quart is about 0.9 liter.

One liter equals 1000 cubic centimeters.

melting point

The temperature at which a solid substance changes to the

liquid state.

mg/kg

A way of expressing dose: milligrams (mg) of a substance

per kilogram (kg) of body weight.

mg/m3

A measure of concentration: weight of substance (mg) in a

volume of air (m3), often used to express PELs and TLVs,
or to report air sampling results.

mg
mmHg

monomer

Milligram, a metric unit of mass. One gram equals 1000

mg. One U.S. ounce equals 28,375 mg.
A unit of measurement for pressure, expressed in
millimeters (mm) of liquid mercury (Hg) in a tube
apparatus. At sea level, the earths atmosphere exerts 760
mmHg of pressure.
See polymerization.

MSDS

Material Safety Data Sheet, a form which lists the properties

and hazards of a product or a substance.

MSHA

Mine Safety and Health Administration, an agency in

the U.S. Department of Labor which regulates safety and
health in the mining industry.

mutagen

A chemical or physical agent able to change or damage the

genetic material in cells.

NFPA

National Fire Protection Association. NFPA has developed

a scale of 0 (no hazard) to 4 (severe hazard) for rating
the severity of fire, reactivity, and health hazards of

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33

substances. The ratings are often displayed in a divided

diamond shape.
NIOSH

odor threshold

organic chemicals

OSHA

PEL
pH

polymerization

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,

a federal agency which conducts research on occupational
safety and health questions. NIOSH tests and certifies
respirators.
The lowest concentration of a substance in air that can be
smelled. For a given chemical, different people usually
have very different odor thresholds.
A large,important class of chemical compounds.
The molecules of organic compounds contain carbon
atoms. (Not related to organic agriculture.)
Federal Occupational Safety and Health Administration, an
agency in the U.S. Department of Labor which establishes
workplace safety and health regulations. Many states,
including California, have their own OSHA programs.
State OSHA programs are monitored by federal OSHA to
ensure they are at least as effective as the federal OSHA
program.
Permissible Exposure Limit, a maximum allowable
exposure level under OSHA or Cal/OSHA regulations.
Expresses how acidic or how alkaline a solution or
chemical is, using a scale of 0 to 14. For example, a pH of
1 indicates a strongly acidic solution, a pH of 7 indicates
a neutral solution, and a pH of 14 indicates a strongly
alkaline solution.
A chemical reaction in which small molecules (monomers)
combine to form much larger molecules (polymers) such
as plastics. A hazardous polymerization is a reaction that
occurs at a fast rate, and releases large amounts of energy.
Many monomers are toxic in the liquid and vapor states,
but form much less toxic polymers.

ppb

Parts per billion, a measure of concentration, such as

parts of a chemical per billion parts of air or water (one
thousandth of one ppm).

ppm

Parts per million, a measure of concentration, such as parts

of a chemical vapor or gas substance per million parts of
air. PELs and TLVs are often expressed in ppm.

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34

psi
pulmonary edema
reaction
reactivity

reproductive
respirator
respiratory

Pounds per square inch, a unit of pressure. At sea level,

the earths atmosphere exerts 14.7 psi.
Filling of the lungs with fluid, which produces coughing
and difficulty breathing.
A chemical transformation or change.
The ability of a substance to undergo a chemical reaction,
such as combining with another substance. Substances with
high reactivity are often hazardous, due to the generation
of pressure, heat, or toxic products.
Refers to the ability of males and females to produce
healthy offspring.
A device that a person wears to reduce inhalation of
hazardous substances.
Refers to breathing.

solubility

The degree to which a chemical can dissolve in a solvent,

forming a solution.

solution

A mixture in which the components are uniformly

dispersed. All solutions consist of some kind of a solvent
(such as water or other liquid) which dissolves another
substance, usually a solid.

solvent

A substance, usually a liquid, into which another substance

is dissolved. Often refers to organic solvents, not to water.

STEL

Short-Term Exposure Limit, the maximum average

concentration allowed for a continuous 15 minute exposure
period.

teratogen

Something that can increase the risk of birth defects in

humans or animals.The ability to cause birth defects is
called teratogenicity.

TLV

Threshold Limit Value, an exposure limit recommended by

the ACGIH.

trade name

The trademark name or commercial name given to a

product by its manufacturer or supplier. The trade name on
the product label should be on the MSDS.

TWA

Time Weighted Average, the average concentration of

a chemical in air over the total exposure time, usually an
8-hour work day.

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35

UEL
vapor pressure

volatility

Upper Explosive Limit. See Explosive Limits.

A measure of the tendency of a liquid to evaporate and
become a gas; usually expressed in mmHg. The higher the
vapor pressure, the greater the tendency of the substance to
evaporate.
A measure of how quickly a substance forms vapors at
ordinary temperatures. The more volatile the substance is,
the faster it evaporates, and the higher the concentrations
of vapor in the air.

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36

On the Web
Do you want to learn more about workplace health and safety?
The California Department of Public Health has up-to-date links to helpful,
reliable information on:

Workplace hazards

Worker rights

Workers compensation

Spanish-language resources

Resources for employers

Information for health care providers

Finding workplace health and safety specialists

Cal/OSHA regulations
www.cdph.ca.gov/healthinfo/workplace

Find HESIS and Occupational Health Branch publications, news, and project
reports:
www.cdph.ca.gov/programs/ohb

Hazard Evaluation System and Information Service, HESIS

Occupational Health Branch
California Department of Public Health
(510) 620-5757
CA Relay Service: (800) 735-2929 or 711
www.cdph.ca.gov/programs/hesis