Aircraft Construction, Repair, and Modification

Aircraft Construction, Repair, and Modification

AIRCRAFT
MATERIALS
AND
AIRCRAFT MATERIALS AND PROCESSES
PROCESSES
prepared by : Engr. Eric John Velasco
prepared by : Engr. Eric John Velasco

RECIPROCATING
ENGINE

Aircraft Construction,
Repair, and Modification
(15%)
Aircraft Materials and Processes; Methods
and Techniques in Repair and Modification in
Accordance With Civil Aviation Regulation;
Manufacturing, Production Processes and
Quality Assurance

IV. AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR,

AND MODIFICATION
A. Objective: To determine the basic knowledge of the Examinees on Aircraft
Materials, Construction Repair,and Modification
Subject Contents:
1. Aircraft Materials and Processes
a. Physical and Chemical Properties of Ferrous
Metals and Alloys, Non-Ferrous Metals and
Alloys, Non-Metals (Wood, Fiberglass, others)
b. Identification of Metals
c. Heat Treatment processes
d. Forming/Shaping and Forging
e. Joining of Metals
2. Aircraft Hardware, Cables, and Tools,Equipment
a. Bolts, Nuts, Screws, Rivets, others
b. Control Cables and Cable Assemblies
c. Tools and Fabrication/Repair Equipment

Subject Contents:
3. Construction, Repair, and Modification
a. Aircraft Structural Components
b. Metal Structures
c. Non-Metal Structures
d. Composite Materials
4. Testing and Inspection
a. Testing of Metals - Hardness Tests
b. Non-Destructive Test and Inspection

5. Corrosion Protection and Control

a. Types of Corrosion
b. Corrosion Protection and Removal

6. Aircraft Weight and Balance

a. Weighing Procedure
b. Weight and Balance Computations
c. Weight and Balance Extreme Conditions Most
Forward and Rearward CG Positions

C. References:
1. Aircraft Materials and Processes - Titterton
2. Aircraft Inspection and Repair US Printing Office
3. Maintenance and Repair of Aerospace Vehicle -McKinkey
and Bent

Physical and Chemical Properties of

Ferrous Metals and Alloys,

Non-Ferrous Metals and
Alloys,
Non-Metals (Wood, Fiberglass,others)

5 Major Stresses to which all

Aircraft Subjected

TENSION is the stress that resist a force tends to null

apart.
COMPRESSION is the stress that resist a crushing
force.
TORSION is the stress that produce twisting.
SHEAR is the stress that resists the force tending to
cause one material to slide over an adjacent layer.
BENDING is a combination of compression and
tension.
STRESS is an internal force of a substance which opposes or

resist deformation can cause strain.

STRAIN is the deformation of a material or substance.

5 Major Stresses to which all

Aircraft Subjected

5 Major Stresses to which

all Aircraft Subjected

PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

HARDNESS - The property of a material that enables it to resist

penetration, wear, or cutting action or permanent distortion.
BRITTLENESS is the property of a metal which allows little
bending or deformation without shattering.
MALLEABILITY property of metals which allows them to be bent
or permanently distorted without rupture.
STRENGTH - The ability of a material to resist deformation.
PLASTICITY - The capability of an object or material to be
stretched and to recover its size and shape after its deformation.
DUCTILITY - The property which allows metal to be drawn, bent or
twisted into various shapes without breaking.
ELASTICITY property which enables a metal to return to its
original shapes when the forces which causes the change of shape
is removed.

TOUGHNESS a material which possesses toughness will

withstand tearing or shearing and maybe stretched or otherwise
deformed without breaking.
DENSITY the weight of a unit volume of the materials.
FUSIBILITY the ability of a metal to become liquid by the
application of heat.
CONDUCTIVITY the ability of a metal which enables to carry heat
or electricity
THERMAL EXPANSION
Contraction ability of metals to shrink when subjected to cooling.
Expansion expand upon the application of heat.

Aircraft Metals

Two Main Group of Aircraft Metals:

NON-FERROUS METALS the term that

describes metals which are have elements other

than Iron as their base. Aluminum, Copper,
Titanium, and Magnesium are some of the
common non-ferrous metals used in Aircraft
Construction and Repair.
FERROUS METALS any alloy containing iron
as its chief constituent, most common ferrous
metal in aircraft structure is steel, an alloy of iron
with a controlled amount of carbon added.

NON-FERROUS METALS:
1. ALUMINUM AND ITS ALLOYS
- Pure aluminum lacks sufficient strength to be used in aircraft Quenching
construction. However, its strength increases considerably when it is

ALLOYED, or mixed with compatible metals.

TYPES OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS:
1. Cast Alloys those suitable for casting in sand, permanent mold or die
casting.
2. Wrought Alloys those which may be shaped by rolling, drawing or
forging. These are the most widely used in aircraft construction, being
used for stringers, bulkheads, skin, rivets, and extruded sections.
GENERAL CLASSES OF WROUGHT ALUMINUM ALLOYS:
1. Non-Heat Treatable Alloy the mechanical properties obtained by cold
working are destroyed and any subsequent heating cannot restore it
except by additional cold working.
2. Heat Treatable Alloy alloy which responds readily to heat treatment
which results in considerable improvement of the strength characteristics.
Greater strength is obtained and used for structural purposes.

2. MAGNESIUM AND ITS ALLOYS

Magnesium alloy are used for cast and wrought form available in sheets, bars, tubing,

and extrusions. Magnesium is one of the lightest metals having sufficient strength and
suitable working characteristics for use in aircraft hardware. However, it is susceptible
to corrosion and tends to crack.

3. TITANIUM AND ITS ALLOYS

Titanium and its alloys are light metals with very high strength. It has an excellent

corrosion resistance characteristics, particularly to the effects of salt water.

4. NICKEL AND ITS ALLOYS

Nickel is the base element for most of the higher temperature heat-resistant alloys.

While it is much more expensive than iron, nickel provides an austenitic structure that
has greater toughness and workability than ferrous alloys of the same strength.

MONEL contains about 68 % nickel and 29% copper, along with iron and
manganese. It works well in gears and parts that require high strength and
corrosion resistance at elevated temperature.
INCONEL high strength, high temperature alloys containing approximately
about 80% nickel, 14 % chromium, and small amounts of iron and other
elements.

5. COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS

It is easily identified by its reddish color and by the green and blue colors of its oxides

and salt. Copper has excellent electrical and thermal conductivity and it is primary
metal used for electrical wiring.
BRASS an alloy of copper and zinc.
BRONZE an alloy of copper and tin.

FERROUS METALS:

1. IRON
Is like a chemical which is fairy soft, malleable and ductile in its pure form. It is silvery

white in color and is quite heavy, having a density of 7.9 grams per cubic centimeter.

2. STEEL
To make steel, pig iron is re-melted in a special furnace. Pure oxygen is the forced

through the molten where it combines with carbon and burns. A control amount of
carbon is then put back into the molten. The molten steel is then poured into molds
where it solidifies into ingots. The ingots are then placed in a soaking pit where they are
heated to a uniform temperature of about 2200 degrees F. They are then taken from the
soaking pit and passed through steel rollers to form late or sheet metal.

a. CARBON
Carbon is the most common alloying element found in steel. When mixed with iron

core compounds of iron carbides called CEMETITE form. It is the carbon in steel
that allows the steel to be heat treated to obtain varying degrees of hardness,
strength and toughness. The greater the carbon content, the more receptive steel
is to heat treatment and therefore, the higher its tensile strength, and hardness.
However, higher carbon content decreases the malleability and weldability of steel.
LOW CARBON STEELS contains between 0.10 and 0.30 percent carbon. Primarily
used in safety wire, cable bushing, and threaded rod ends.
MEDIUM CARBON STEELS contains between 0.30 and 0.50 percent carbon.
HIGH CARBON STEELS contains between 0.50 to 1.05 percent carbon and are
very hard. Primarily used in springs, files, and some cutting tools.

b. SILICON
When it is alloyed with steel it acts as a hardener. When used in small quantities, it

also improves ductility.

c. PHOSPHOROUS
Raises the yield strength of steel and improves low carbon steels resistance of

atmospheric condition. However, no more than 0.05 percent is normally used in

steel, since higher amounts cause the alloy to become brittle when cold.

d. NICKEL
Adds strength and hardness to steel and increase yield strength. It also slows the

rate of hardening when steel is heat treated, which increases the steels contains 3%
nickel and 0.30% carbon, and used in producing aircraft hardwired such as bolts,
nuts, rod end and pins.

e. CHROMIUM
Alloyed with steel to increase strength and hardness as well as improve its wear

and corrosion resistance. It is used in balls and rollers of anti-friction bearings.

f. STAINLESS STEEL
Is a classification of CORROSION-RESISTANT STEEL (CRES) that contain large

amount of chromium and nickel. Their strength and resistant to corrosion make than
well suited for high-temperature applications such as firewalls and exhaust system
components. It contains 18% chromium and 8% nickel. It is referred as 18-8.
AUSTENITIC STEELS refers to 200 and 300 series stainless steel. Hardened only
by cold-working.
FERRITIC STEELS contains no carbon. They do not respond to heat treatment.
MARTENSITIC STEELS - the 400 series of stainless steel. These are magnetic and it
becomes extremely hard if allowed to cool rapidly by cooling from an elevated
temperature.

g. CHROME MOLYBDENUM (chrome-moly) STEELS

Commonly used alloy in aircraft. Making it an ideal choice for landing gear

structures and engine mounts.

h. VANADIUM
When combined with chromium, vanadium produces a strong, tough, ductile steel

alloys. Most wrenches and ball bearings are made of chrome-vanadium steel.

i. TUNGSTEN
Has an extremely high melting point and adds this characteristics to steel when it

is alloyed. Typically used for breaker contacts in magnetos and for high speed
cutting tools.

ALLOYS

ALLOYS

WOOD STRUCTURES:

WOOD wood structures requires a great deal of handwork and

therefore, are extremely expensive.
SOLID WOOD used for some aircraft wing spars and is made of solid pie cut from a

log. Most solid cut by quarter sawing to prevent war page.

LAMINATED WOOD made up of two or three pieces of thin wood glued together with
the same direction.
PLY WOOD consist of three or more layers of thin veneer glued together so the grain
of each successive layer crosses the others at an angle of 45 degrees of 90 degrees.

2 BASIC SPECIES OF WOOD USED IN AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION:

1. HARDWOOD come from deciduous trees having broad leaves.
a. MAHOGANY this hardwood is heavier and stronger than spruce. Primary use in
aircraft construction is for face sheets of plywood used in aircraft skin.
b. BIRCH a heavy hardwood with very good shock resistant characteristics. It is
recommended for the face plies of plywood used as reinforcement plates on wing spars and
in the construction of wooden propellers.

2. SOFTWOOD come from coniferous trees with needle like or

scale like leaves.
a. SITKA SPRUCE most common wood used in aircraft structures. It is
relatively free from defects, has a high strength to weight ration and available in large
size. FAA chosen Sitka Spruce as the reference wood for aircraft construction.
b. DOUGLAS FIR the strength properties exceed those of spruce; however, it
is much heavier. Further more, it is more difficult to work than spruce, and has a
tendency to split.
c. NOBLE FIR slightly lighter than spruce and is equal or superior to spruce
in all properties except hardness and shock resistance. It is often used for structural
parts that are subject to heavy bending and compression loads such as spars, spar
flange, and has tendency to split.
d. BALSA an extremely light wood. Balsa lacks of structural strength, it is
often sliced across its grain for use as a core material for sandwich-type panels that
requires lightweight and rigidity.

QUALITY OF WOOD:
Some of the categories a woods quality is based on include how straight

the grain is, the number of knots, pitch pockets, splits and presence of
decay.
1. GRAIN DEVIATION regardless of the species of wood used aircraft construction, it must

2.
3.
4.

5.

have a straight grain. This means all of the woods fiber must be oriented parallel to the
materials longitudinal axis. A maximum of deviation of 1:15 is allowed. In other words, the
grain must not slope more than 1 inch in 15 inches.
KNOTS it identifies where a branch grew from the tree trunk.
PITCH POCKETS small opening within the annual rings of a tree can fill resin and form
pitch pocket. It slightly weaken the piece of wood.
CHECKS, SHAKE AND SPLITS
CHECKS a crack that runs across the annual rings of a board and occurs during the
seasoning process.
SHAKE a crack or separation that occurs when two annual rings separates along
their boundary.
SPLITS a lengthwise separation of the wood caused by the wood fibers tearing apart.
STRAINS AND DECAY
STRAINS It is caused by decay usually appears streaks in the grain. Strains that uniformly
discolor the annual rings are evidence of decay.
DECAY is caused by fungi that grow in damp wood, and is prevented by proper seasoning
and dry storage. A simple way of identfying decayed wood is to pick at a suspected area with
the point of a knife. Sound wood will splinter, while a knife point will bring up a chunk of
decayed wood.

PLASTICS OR RESINS
1. THERMOSETTING RESINS it hardens or set when heat of the
correct value is applied. It cannot softened and reshaped after
having been solidified.
2. THERMOPLASTIC RESINS can be soften by heat and
reshaped or reformed many times without changing composition,
provided that the heat applied is held with proper limits.

Types of Thermoplastic Material used for Aircraft Windshield

and Side Windows:
1. CELLULOSE ACETATE transparent and lightweight. It has a tendency to

shrink and turn yellow. When applied with acetone it softens.

2. ACRYLIC identified by trade names as Lucite or Plexiglas or in Britain
Perspex. It is stiffer than cellulose acetate. More transparent and for all purpose
is colorless. It burns with a clear flame and produces a fairly pleasant odor. If
acetone is applied to acrylic it leaves a white residue but remains hard.

THERMOPLASTIC RESINS:
1. CELLULOSE ACETATE
2. POLYETHYLENE is made in low and high-density qualities. Low-

density polyethylene is made in thin, flexible sheet or film and is used for
plastic bags, protective sheeting and electrical insulation. High-density
polyethylene is used for containers such as fuel tanks, large drums and
bottles.
3. VINYLS manufactured in a variety of types and has a wide range of
application. Their used in aircraft includes seat covering, electrical
insulation, moldings, and tubing. They are flexible and resistant to most
chemical and moisture.
4. ACRYLIC RESIN a water clear plastic that has a light transmission
of 92%. This property, together with its weather and moisture resistance,
makes it an excellent product for aircraft windows and windshields.
5. POLYTETRAFLOUROETHYLENE (Teflon) is encountered in nonlubricated bearings, tubing, electrical devices and other applications.

Composite
ABBREVIATIONS:
AFRP - Aramide Fibre Reinforced Plastic
CFRP - Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic
GFRP - Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic
HOBE - Honeycomb before Expansion
MSDS - Material Safety Data Sheet
NDT - Non Destructive Testing
NTM - Non Destructive Testing Manual
Prepeg - Pre impregnated Fabric
SRM - Structural Repair Manual

Advantage
Composite materials are mainly used to reduce weight, that means if

weight can be saved, more cargo, fuel or passengers can be carried.

More advantages are:
high strength to weight ratio
reducing of parts and fasteners
reducing wear
corrosion resistance

Disadvantage
Disadvantages are:
general expensive
not easy to repair; that means you need well trained staff, tools,
equipment and facilities to repair composite components

Elements of Composite Structure

Reinforcing Materials
Core Materials
Matrix

Aircraft Fabric

Aircraft Fabric Covering

Aircraft fabric covering is a term used for both

the material used and the process of covering
aircraft open structures. It is also used for
reinforcing closed plywood structures
Early aircraft used organic materials such as
cotton and cellulose dope, modern fabric
covered designs usually use synthetic materials
such as Nylon and butyrate dope for adhesive,
this method is often used in the restoration of
older types that were originally covered using
traditional methods.

Aircraft Dope
Aircraft dope is a plasticised lacquer that is
applied to fabric-coated aircraft. It tautens
and stiffens fabric stretched over airframes
and adheres and protects fabric applied to
other skin material.
Typical doping agents include nitrocellulose,
cellulose acetate and cellulose acetate
butyrate. Liquid dopes are highly flammable;
nitrocellulose, for instance, is also known as
the explosive propellant "guncotton". Dopes
will often include colouring pigments to
facilitate even application.

Problem Areas
a.) Deterioration
Fabric deteriorates only by exposure
to ultraviolet radiation as used in an
aircraft covering environment
b.) Tension
Most Fabrics obtains maximum
tension on an airframe at 350 degrees
Fahrenheit and will not be excessive on
aircraft originally covered and doped

Aircraft Fabric Synthetic

a.) STC approved covering material
Difference in fabric may be denier, tenacity,
thread count, weight, shrink, tension and
weave style
*tenacity- customary measure of strength of a
fiber or yarn.
* denier is a measure of the linear density, the
tenacity works out to be not a measure of force
per unit area, but rather a quasi-dimensionless
measure analogous to specific strength

b.) Polyester Filaments

Manufactured by polymerization of various
select acids and alcohols, then extruding the
resulting molten polymers through spinnerets
to form filaments

c.) Covering Procedures

Coating types, covering accessories and
covering procedures also may vary;
therefore, the covering procedures given in
the pertinent manuals must be followed to
comply with the STC.
d,.) Installation
Initial installation of polyester fabric is
similar to natural fabric. The fabric is installed
with as little slack as possible, considering
fittings and other protrusions. *slack-not
using due diligence, care, or dispatch

Aircraft Fabric-Natural

Physical Specifications and minimum

strength requirements for natural fabric
fiber, cotton and linen, used to recover
or repair components of an aircraft.

Recovering Aircraft
Recover or repair aircraft with a fabric of equal
quality and strength to that used by the original
aircraft manufacturer
*note:
recovering or repairing aircraft with any type fabric
and/or coating other than the type used by the
original aircraft manufacturer is considered a major
alteration. Obtain approval form from then FAA on
fabric and installation data. Cotton and linen rib
lacing cord, machine and hand sewing thread, and
finishing tapes should not be used with polyester
and glass fabric covering

Reinforcing tape

Reinforcing tape should have a

minimum 40 lbs. resistance without
failure when static tested in shear
against a single rib lace, or a pull
through resistance when tested against
a single wire clip, rivet screw, or any
other type of fabric to rib attachment.

Finishing tape

Sometimes referred as surface tape, should have

the same properties as the fabric used to cover
the aircraft

Using the 2" Dacron straight

finishing tape, measure and cut
strips of the tape to be long enough
to overlap both the leading and
trailing spars.

Lacing Cord

Should have a minimum breaking

strength of 40 lbs.. Rib lace cord should
have a micro-crystalline fungicidal wax,
paraffin free wax, or beeswax coating, or
other approved treatment to prevent
wearing and fraying when pulling
through the structure

Machine Thread and Hand

sewing Thread

Machine Thread-Shall have a minimum breaking

strength of 5 lbs
Hand sewing Thread-Shall have a minimum breaking
strength of 14 lbs
Hand Sewing Thread (FAA approved)
Polyester cord. Replaces cotton.

Flutter Precautions
When recovering or repairing control
surfaces, especially on high performance
airplanes, make sure that dynamic and
static balances are not adversely
affected. Weight distribution and mass
balance must be considered to preclude
to possibility of induced flutter
*flutter- To wave or flap rapidly in an
irregular manner:

Preparation of the structure for

covering
a.) Battery Box Treatment
An Asphaltic, rubber based acid-proof coating
should be applied to the structure in the area of a
battery by box, by brush, for additional protection
from battery acid
b.) Worn holes
Oversized screw holes or worn size 4 self tapping
screw holes through ribs and other structures
used to attach fabric may be redrilled a minimum
1-1/2 hole diameter distance from the original
hole location with a # 44 (0.086) drill bit.

Fairing Precautions

Aluminum leading edge replacement fairings

installed in short sections may telescope
during normal spar bending loads or from
thermal expansion and contraction. This
action may cause a wrinkle to form in the
fabric, at the edge of the lap joint. Trailing
edges should be adequately secured to
prevent movement and wrinkles.

Dope Protection

Solvents found in nitrate and butyrate dope

will penetrate, wrinkle, lift, or dissolve mostone part wood varnishes and one-part metal
primers. All wood surfaces that come in
contact with doped fabric should be treated
with a protective coating such as aluminum
foil, cellulose tape, or dope proof paint to
protect them against the action of the
solvents in the dope

SEALANT COMPOUND
SEALANTS used to contain fuel, maintain cabin
pressure, reduce fire hazards, exclude moisture,
prevent corrosion, and fill gaps and smooth
discontinuities on the aircraft exterior.
SEALING is a process that confines liquids and
gases within a given area or prevents them from
entering areas from which they must be excluded.

Categories of Compounds
Sealing compounds are divided into two categories, silicone and nonsilicone.

1.Silicone compounds are usually white, red, or grey in colour and are used in
general where heat resistance is required.

2.Nonsilicone compounds can be any colour and are used where heat
resistance is not required.
Specification / Classification
The classification system for sealants in Boeing material specifications (BMS.s) is
as follows:

Class A Brushcoat Sealant. (Thinned with solvent to provide viscosity

suitable for brushing).

Class B Filleting Sealant. (Relatively heavy consistency with good thixotropic

(low-slump) properties).

Class C Faying Surface Sealant. (Medium consistency for good

spreadability).

Class D Hole-Filling Sealant. (Similar to Class B but with very low slump).

Classes E and F Sprayable sealant

Identification of Metals

Basic Designation for Wrought

and Cast Aluminum Alloys (AANumbering System)
Wrought Alloys
Alloy Number Major Identifying Elements
1XXX Pure Aluminum (99.00% minimum aluminum)
2XXX Copper
3XXX Manganese
4XXX Silicon
5XXX Magnesium
6XXX Magnesium and Silicon
7XXX Zinc
8XXX Other elements
9XXX Unused series

Cast Alloys
Alloy Number Major Identifying Elements
1XXX 99.00 % minimum aluminium
2XXX Copper
3XXX Silicon with added copper and/or magnesium
4XXX Silicon
5XXX Magnesium
6XXX Unused series
7XXX Zinc
8XXX Tin
9XXX Other elements

Aluminum Alloys

Type of Alloy

Classification

Pure (99% above)

1xxx

Copper

2xxx

Manganese

3xxx

Silicon

4xxx

Magnesium

5xxx

Magnesium Silicon

6xxx

Zinc

7xxx

Other Element

8xxx

Temper Designation for Heat Treatable

Alloys

T1 Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and naturally

aged to a substantially stable condition
T2 Annealed
T3 Solution heat treated and cold worked.
T4 Solution heat treated and naturally aged.
T42 Solution heat treated from 0 temper to demonstrate response to
heat treatment by the user, and naturally aged to a substantially stable
condition
T5 Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and artificially
aged
T6 Solution heat treated and artificially aged.
T62 Solution heat treated from 0 F temper to demonstrate response to
heat treatment by the user, and artificially aged
T7 Solution heat treated and stabilized
T8 Solution heat treated, cold worked, and artificially aged
T9 Solution heat treated, artificially aged, and cold worked
T10 Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process, cold
worked, and artificially aged

Aluminum Association Numbering

System

Aluminum Cladding

Several aluminium alloys as for example 2024 and 7075 are very
susceptible tocorrosion. Sheets of such material are clad with a thin
layer of pure aluminium with 1 % zinc on both sides as a means of
corrosion protection. These layers are permanently welded to the
base material in a rolling process at high temperature. Other than
electroplated stock, clad material can be formed. The thickness of
the clad layers is about 3 or 5 % of the material thickness. An
ink print on US sheet metal that reads ALclad, Clad or ALC
indicates that such sheet is clad.

Steel Numbering
System

Steel Numbering
System
Type of Steel

Classification

Carbon

1xxx

Nickel

2xxx

Nickel Chromium

3xxx

Molybdenum

4xxx

Chromium

5xxx

Chromium Vanadium

6xxx

Tungsten

7xxx

Silicon Manganese

8xxx

Temper Designation System

Basic Temper Designation

F As fabricated
O Annealed
H Strain hardened (Non heat treatable products only)
W Solution heat treated
T Heat treated to produce stable tempers other than F, O, or H

Temper Designation for Non Heat Treatable Alloys

H 1 Strain hardened produced by cold working the metal to the desired

dimension.
H2 Strain hardened, then partially annealed to remove some of the hardness.
H3 Strain hardened, then stabilized.

The degree of hardening is indicated by a second digit following one of the

above designations:

2
4
6
8
9

1/4 hard
1/2 hard
3/4 hard
full hard
extra hard

A third digit may be used to indicate a variation of a two digit number.

Temper Designation System

Fabricated (F) Denotes that the metal has been
fabricated to ordered dimensions without any attempt
on the part of the producer to control the results of
either strain hardening operations or the thermal
treatments. There are no mechanical property limit,
and the strength levels may vary.
Annealed (O)- Applies to wrought that have undergone a
thermal treatment to reduce their mechanical property
levels to their minimum. Often describe as soft dead
metal.
Strain Hardened (H)- applies to those wrought products
which have had an increase in strength by reduction
through strain hardening or cold working operations.
H is followed by two or more digits

Temper Designation System

Thermally Treated ( T) Produce temper other
than F,O, H. Applies to those products which
have had an increase in strength due to
thermal treatments, with or without
supplementary strain hardening operations. T
is always followed by two or more digits.
Solution Heat Treated ( W) An unstable
temper applying to the certain of the (7xxx)
heat treatable alloys that, after heat
treatment spontaneously age harden at room
temperature. Only when the period of natural
aging is indicated

Materials

Carbon Content

Wrought iron

Trace to 0.08%

Low carbon steel

0.08% to 0.30%

Medium carbon
steel

0.30% to 0.60%

High carbon steel

0.60% to 2.2%

Cast iron

2.3% to 4.5%

Heat Treatment
Processes
METALWORKING PROCESSES
Hot-working
Forging
Rolling

Pressing
Hammering
Cold Working
Cold Rolling

Cold Drawing
Extrusions

Heat Treatment Processes for

Aluminum

HEAT TREATMENT is a series of operations involving the heating and

cooling of metals in their solid state. Its purpose is to make the metal more
useful, serviceable and safe for a definite purpose.

SOLUTION HEAT TREATMENT is the process of heating certain

aluminum alloys to allow the alloying elements to mix with the
base metal.

QUENCHING rapid cooling by means of water, oil, brine, etc.

SOAKING or HOLDING held the temperature within about plus

or minus 10 degrees Fahrenheit of this temperature and the base
metal until the alloying elements is uniform throughout.

NATURAL AGING when an alloy is allowed to cool at room

temperature and can take several hours or weeks.
ARTIFICIAL AGING accelerating the aging process by cooling at
an elevated temperature.
ANNEALING is the process that softens a metal and decrease
internal stresses.
STRAIN HARDENING also referred to as COLD WORKING or
WORK HARDENING. This requires mechanically working of metal
(stretches, compresses, bends, drawn, etc.) below its critical range

Steps of Heat Treatment

The heat treatment takes place in three steps.
Step 1: Solution heat treat, that is heating of the material to
a specified temperature and holding it there for a specified
time.
Step 2: Quenching
Step 3: Age hardening (precipitation) at room temperature
or elevated temperature
The quenching must occur rapidly. After quenching the material
initially is soft and ductile.

Methods of Heat
Treatment

HEAT TREATMENT FOR STEELS:

ANNEALING is a form of heat treatment that softens steel and

relieves internal stress. It is heated about 50 degrees F above its
critical temperature, soaked for specified time then cooled.
NORMALIZING the process of forging, welding, or machining
usually leave stresses to the steel that could lead to failure. To
normalize, it is heated about 100 degrees F above its critical
temperature and held there until the metal is uniformly heat soaked,
then removed from the furnace and allowed to cool in still air.
HARDENING is heated above its critical temperature so carbon can
disperse uniformly in the iron matrix.
TEMPERING reduces the undesirable qualities of martensitic steel.
It is heated to a level considerable below its critical temperature and
held there until it becomes heat soaked, then allowed to cool to room
temperature in still air.

CASE HARDENING TREATMENTS:

1. CARBURIZING forms a thin layer of high carbon steel on
the exterior of low carbon steel.
PACK CARBURIZING is done by enclosing the metal in a fire-clay

container and packing it with a carbon-rich material such as charcoal.

The container is then sealed, placed in furnace, and heated.
GAS CARBURIZING is similar to pack carburizing except the carbon
monoxide gas combines with gamma iron and forms a high-carbon
surface.
LIQUID CARBURIZING produces a high-carbon surface when a part is
heated in a molten salt bath of sodium cyanide or barium cyanide.

2. NITRIDING differs from carburizing in that a part is first

hardened, tempered and then ground to its finished
dimensions before it is case hardened.
3. CYANIDING is a fast method of producing surface
hardness on an iron-based alloy of low carbon content.

Hardening of Aluminum Alloys

Forming/Shaping and
Forging

Bending Lay-out

Joining of Metals

Aircraft Welding
Fusion welding is the blending of compatible molten
metals into one common part or joint. Fusing of
metals is accomplished by producing sufficient heat
for the metals to melt, flow together and mix. The
heat is then removed to allow the fused joint to
solidify.
Non-fusion welding is the joining of metals by
adhesion of one metal to another. The most
prominent non-fusion welding processes used on
aircraft are brazing and soldering, which are covered
in detail later in this section.

FUSION WELDING PROCESSES

The three principal methods of fusion welding are

gas, electric arc, and electrical resistance. Fusion
welding results in superior strength joints because
the metal parts are melted together into a single
solid object. Since fusion-welded joints are used
extensively in high-stress applications, their failure
is likely to have catastrophic consequences. To
fully appreciate the level of detail that must be
exercised when inspecting welded components,
you must be aware of the characteristics that
define a quality fusion-welded joint.

OXYACETYLENE WELDING
Oxyacetylene welding, often referred to as gas
welding, gets its name from the two gases, oxygen and
acetylene, that are used to produce a flame. Acetylene
is the fuel for the flame and oxygen supports
combustion and makes the flame hotter. The
combination of these two gases results in sufficient
heat to produce molten metal. The temperature of the
oxyacetylene flame ranges from 5,600 to 6,300 F

ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

Electric arc welding includes shielded metal arc
welding, gas metal arc welding, and tungsten inert
gas [TIG) arc welding. Although TIG welding is the
method that is predominantly used in aircraft fabri
cation and repair, a technician is also required to
understand the other methods.

SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

In SMAW welding, a metal wire rod, which is composed
of approximately the same chemical composition as the
metal to be welded, is clamped in an electrode holder. This
holder, in turn, is connected to one terminal of the TR power
supply by a heavy gauge electrical cable. The metal to be
welded is attached to the other terminal of the power supply
through another electrical cable usually equipped with a
spring clamp.

GAS METAL ARC WELDING

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), formerly called Metal Inert
Gas (MIG) welding, is used primarily in large volume production
work. An advantage of GMAW over stick welding is that no slag is
deposited on the weld bead. An uncoated filler wire acts as the
electrode. It is connected to one terminal on the power supply, and
fed into the torch. An inert gas such as argon, helium or carbon
dioxide flows out around the wire to protect the weld zone from
oxygen. The metal to be welded is connected to the other terminal
of the power supply. When power is supplied to the electrode, and it
is brought into contact with the work, it produces an arc, which
melts the metal and the filler wire.

TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING

Tungsten inert gas welding (TIG) is the form of electric arc
welding that is used most in aircraft maintenance. TIG welding
uses a tungsten electrode that does not act as filler rod. The
electrode is connected to an AC or DC electrical power supply
to form an arc with the metal being welded. The arc is
concentrated on a small area of the metal, raising its
temperature to as high as 11,000 F, without excessively heating
the surrounding metal. The base metal melts in the area of the
arc and forms a puddle into which the filler rod is added.

ELECTRIC RESISTANCE WELDING

Many thin sheet metal parts for aircraft, especially stainless steel parts,
are joined by one of the forms of electric resistance welding; either spot
welding or seam welding.
SPOT WELDING
When spot welding, two copper electrodes
are held in the jaws of a
vise-like machine and the pieces of metal to be welded are clamped
between them. Pressure is applied to hold the electrodes tightly
together while electrical current passes between the electrodes.
SEAM WELDING
While it would be possible to create a seam with a series of closely
spaced spot welds, a better method is to use a seam welder. This
equipment is commonly used to manufacture fuel tanks and other
components where a continuous weld is needed.

TYPES OF WELDED JOINTS

Weld inspection

~ A good weld is uniform in width, with

even ripples that taper off smoothly into
the base metal. There should be no burn
marks or signs of overheating, and no
oxide should form on the base metal
more than 1/2 inch from the weld.
Furthermore, a good weld must be free
of gas pockets, porosity, and inclusions

Weld inspection

Penetration is the depth of fusion in a

weld, and is the most important
characteristic of a good weld. Penetration
depends on the thickness of the material
to be joined, the size of the filler rod, and
welding technique. A typical butt weld
should penetrate 100 percent of the
thickness of the base metal, while a fillet
weld must penetrate 25 to 50 percent

Weld inspection

~Poor welds display certain telltale characteristics. For example, too

much acetylene makes the molten metal boil, causing bumps along
the center and craters along the weld's edge. A cold weld has irreg
ular edges and considerable variation in depth of penetration, while
excessive heat produces a weld with pitting along its edges and
long, pointed ripples. If a part is cooled too quickly after being
welded, cracks often appear adjacent to the weld. Whenever a
welded joint displays any of these defects, all of the old weld must
be removed and the joint rewelded

Aircraft Hardware, Cables,

and Tools, Equipment

AIRCRAFT RIVETS, BOLTS,

NUT, SCREWS AND
THREADED FASTENERS

RIVETS

Rivet Head Style

Rivet Head Markings

C = 1.5 D

N = 0.5 D
NOTE:
As a rule of thumb, to determine
fastener diameter to be used will be
3x the thickness of the thickest
sheet.

426 Countersunk
Head
(100 degrees)
470 Universal Head

The 2117-T rivet is designated as an

AD rivet, and has a dimple on the
head. A B designation is given to a
rivet of 5056 material and is marked
with a raised cross on the rivet head.
Each type of rivet is identified by a part
number to allow the user to select the
correct rivet. The numbers are in series
and each series represents a particular
type of head.

Countersunk head rivets (MS20426

supersedes AN426 100-degree) are used where
a smooth finish is desired. The 100-degree
countersunk head has been adopted as the
standard in the United States. The universal
head rivet (AN470 superseded by MS20470) has
been adopted as the standard for protrudinghead rivets, and may be used as a replacement
for the roundhead, flathead, and brazier head
rivet. These rivets can also be purchased in half
sizes by designating a 0.5 after the main length
(i.e., MS20470 AD4-3.5).

Identification marking of
rivet
MS 20470AD3-5
MS Military
20470
AD
3
5

Complete part number

standard number
Universal head rivet
2117-T aluminum alloy
3/32nds in diameter
5/16ths in length

Bulbed Cherrylock
Rivets.
One of the earlier types of mechanical-lock
rivets developed were Bulbed Cherrylock blind
rivets.
These blind rivets have as their main
advantage
the ability to replace a solid shank rivet
size for size.

The CherryMax
It uses one tool to install three standard rivet
diameters and their oversize counterparts.
This makes the use of CherryMax rivets very
popular with many small general aviation repair
shops.
The CherryMax rivets consists of five parts;
bulbed blind header, hollow rivet shell, locking
(foil) collar, driving anvil, and pulling stem.

An Olympic-Lok
is a light three-piece mechanically
locked,
spindle-type blind rivet. It carries its stem
lock
integral to the manufactured head.

Huck rivets
The Huck rivet has the ability to tightly
draw-up two or more sheets of metal
together while being installed.

Common pull-type Pop rivets

Produced for nonaircraft related
applications, are not approved for use on
certificated aircraft
structures or components.

AIRCRAFT BOLTS
( Threaded fasteners)
GENERAL PURPOSE BOLTS
The hex head AN 3 THROUGH AN 20 is an all
purpose structural bolt used for general
applications involving tension and shear
loads where a light drive fit is permissible.
Fabricated from SAE 2330 nickel steel and
cadmium plated. Identified by a cross or
asterisk

AIRCRAFT BOLTS
( Threaded fasteners)

AN BOLT HEAD
IDENTIFICATION
GENERAL PURPOSE - CROSS OR
ASTERISK

EX. AN4-8A

EX. AN4-8

AIRCRAFT BOLTS
( Threaded fasteners)
GENERAL PURPOSE BOLTS
The AN 73 - AN 81 (MS20073-MS20074) drilled
head bolt is similar to the standard hex bolt,
but has a deeper head that is drilled to receive
wire for safetying. The AN3-AN20 and AN73AN81 series bolts are interchangeable.

AIRCRAFT BOLTS
( Threaded fasteners)
CLOSE TOLERANCE BOLTS
This type of bolt is machined more accurately
than the general purpose bolt. They can be
Hex headed - (AN173-AN186) or have a
Countersunk head- (NAS80-NAS86) they are
used in applications where a tight drive fit is
required (the bolt will only move into position
only when struck with a 12-14 ounce hammer)

AIRCRAFT BOLTS
( Threaded fasteners)

AN BOLT HEAD IDENTIFICATION

CLOSE TOLERANCE - CROSS OR ASTERISK INSIDE
A TRIANGLE

AIRCRAFT BOLTS
( Threaded fasteners)
CLASSIFICATION OF THREADS
NC American national coarse
NF American national fine
UNC American standard unified coarse
UNF American standard unified fine

AIRCRAFT BOLTS
( Threaded fasteners)
THREAD designation
Threads are designated by the number of times
the incline (threads) rotates around a 1 inch
length of given diameter bolt or screw.
EX. 4-28 thread indicates that a dia. Bolt
has 28 threads in 1 of its thread length.

AIRCRAFT BOLTS
( Threaded fasteners)
THREAD designation
Threads are designated by the Class fit
(tolerance allowed in manufacturing).
Class 1 Loose fit (Easily turned by the fingers)
Class 2 Free fit (Aircraft Screws)
Class 3 Medium fit (Aircraft Bolts)
Class 4 Close fit (Requires a wrench to turn the nut onto
a bolt)

Limits and Fits

Clearance Fit in this assembly there is a space between the two parts. The shaft is
always smaller than the part it fits into.
Interference Fit in this assembly there is no space between the parts. The shaft is
always larger than the part it fits into. This means that force is required to assemble the
parts.
Transition Fit this is a range of fits which can be either clearance or interference. The
shaft can be larger or smaller than the part it fits into.

AIRCRAFT BOLTS
( Threaded fasteners)
AN4-8A
AN means the bolt is manufactured according to
Air Force-Navy specs.
4 identifies the diameter of the bolt shank in 1/16"
increments
8 identifies the length of the shank in 1/8"
increments
A means the shank of the bolt is un-drilled (no
letter here means a drilled shank)

AIRCRAFT BOLTS
( Threaded fasteners)
AN4-H8A

AN means the bolt is manufactured according to Air

Force-Navy specs.

4 identifies the diameter of the bolt shank in 1/16"

increments
H identifies the head is drilled
8 identifies the length of the shank in 1/8" increments
A means the shank of the bolt is un-drilled (no letter here
means a drilled shank)

AIRCRAFT BOLTS
( Threaded fasteners)

Within a given diameter (i.e. 1/4, 3/8, 1/2, etc.) of any AN/MS/NAS series,
all bolts will have the same thread length, no matter how long the bolt.
The thread lengths for each series bolt are on the specification prints and in a
chart under the "Aerospace Bolt Interchange" heading under Tech Info
In all MS and NAS series bolts, the dash number is the grip in 1/16" (0.0625")
increments, e.g. -18 = 18 x 0.0625" = 1.125" = 18/16".
Thus, to determine the overall length of a bolt, simply add the thread length
for that series and diameter to the grip length you desire, e.g. NAS 1306-24:
grip is 1.50" + threads: 0.578" = 2.078" overall length.
In AN series bolts, you must have a chart or bolt gauge to determine lengths,
grips or part numbers. THE DASH NUMBERS DO NOT INDICATE EITHER GRIPS
OR OVERALL LENGTHS.

AIRCRAFT BOLTS
( Threaded fasteners)

AIRCRAFT BOLTS
( Threaded fasteners)

BOLT GRIP LENGTH TOO SHORT

BOLT GRIP LENGTH CORRECT

BOLT GRIP LENGTH TOO LONG

AIRCRAFT BOLTS
( Threaded fasteners)

Types of Bolts

COUNTERSUNK HEAD BOLT

INTERNAL WRENCHING BOLT

DRILLED HEX HEAD BOLT

CLEVIS BOLT

AIRCRAFT BOLTS
( Threaded fasteners)

HEAD MARKINGS

CLOSE TOLERANCE
(STEEL OR ALUMINUM
ALLOY)

ALUMINUM ALLOY
(62,000 P.S.I.)

STEEL 125,000 P.S.I

CORROSION RESISTANT
STEEL (125,000 P.S.I.)

STEEL 150,000 P.S.I

MACHINE SCREW
COUNTERSUNK HEAD

grip
length

STRUCTURAL SCREW
ROUND HEAD

grip
length

SELF-TAPPING SCREW

CAUTION
CAUTION
Self-tapping
Screws
Self-tapping Screws should
should never
never be
be
used
used to
to replace
replace standard
standard screws,
screws, nuts,
nuts,
or
or rivets
rivets originally
originally used
used in
in the
the
structure.
structure.

BRAZIER HEAD

grip
length

Certain accepted practices prevail concerning the

installation of hardware. A few of these regarding
bolt installation follow:
1. In determining proper bolt length - no more than
one thread should be hidden inside the bolt hole.
2. Whenever possible, bolts should be installed
pointing aft and to the center of an airplane.
3. Use a torque wrench whenever possible and
determine torque values based on the size of bolt.
4. Be sure bolt and nut threads are clean and dry.
5. Use smooth, even pulls when tightening.
6. Tighten the nut first - whenever possible.

Certain accepted practices prevail concerning the

installation of hardware. A few of these regarding
bolt installation follow:
7. A typical installation includes a bolt, one washer
and a nut.
8. If the bolt is too long, a maximum of three
washers may be used.
9. If more than three threads are protruding from
the nut, the bolt may be too long and could be
bottoming out on the shank.

Certain accepted practices prevail concerning the

installation of hardware. A few of these regarding
bolt installation follow:
10. Use un-drilled bolts with fiber lock nuts. If you
use a drilled bolt and fiber nut combination, be sure
no burrs exist on the drilled hole that will cut the
fiber.
11. If the bolt does not fit snugly consider the use of
a close tolerance bolt.
12. Don't make a practice of cutting off a bolt that is
too long to fit a hole. That can often weaken the
bolt and allow corrosion in the area that is cut.

AIRCRAFT
NUTS

AIRCRAFT NUTS
Aircraft nuts usually have no identification on them
but they are made from the same material as bolts.
Due to the vibration of aircraft, nuts must have
some form of a locking device to keep them in
place. The most common ways of locking are cotter
pins used in castle nuts, fiber inserts, lockwashers,
and safety wire.
The aircraft nuts you will most likely encounter are
castle nuts, self-locking nuts, and plain nuts. Wing
nuts and anchor nuts are also used.

AIRCRAFT NUTS
Castle Nuts
AN310 and AN320 castle nuts are the most commonly used
(see Figure). Castle nuts are fabricated from steel and are
cadmium plated. Corrosion resistant castle nuts are also
manufactured (AN310C and AC320C - remember, when you
encounter a "C" it will designate stainless). Castle nuts are
used with drilled shank bolts, clevis bolts and eye bolts. The
slots in the nut accommodate a cotter pin for safetying
purposes. The thinner AN320 castellated shear nut has half
the tensile strength of the AN310 and is used with clevis
bolts which are subject to shear stress only. The dash
number following the AN310 or AN320 indicates the size bolt
that the nut fits. In other words, an AN310-4 would fit a 1/4
inch bolt.

AIRCRAFT NUTS
Castle Nuts

AN310 Cad Plated

AN310 Steel

AN320 Shear Cad Plated

AN320 Shear Steel

AIRCRAFT NUTS
Self-Locking Nuts
Self-locking nuts, as the name implies, do not need a locking device.
The most common method of locking is derived from a fiber insert.
This insert has a smaller diameter than the nut itself so that when a bolt
enters the nut it taps into the fiber insert producing a locking action.
This fiber insert is temperature limited to 250-deg. F.
The designation of these nuts is AN365 and AN364.
This brings us to an example of a cross-reference MS number. An
AN365 is also termed MS20365 with the AN364 being MS20364. Both of
these nuts are available in stainless.
The AN364 is a shear nut not to be used in tension.

AIRCRAFT NUTS
Nylon Insert

AN 365 Cad Plated

AN 364 Shear Cad Plated

AN 365 Steel

AIRCRAFT NUTS
Self-Locking Nuts
An all metal locking nut is used forward of the
firewall and in other high temperature areas.
In place of a fiber insert, the threads of a
metal locking nut narrow slightly at one end
to provide more friction. An AN363 is an
example of this type of nut. It is capable of
withstanding temperatures to 550-deg. F..

AIRCRAFT NUTS
Metal Locking Nut

MS21045 Cad Steel Torque Nut

(Old AN363)

Molybdenum Dry
Lube 450 Low Height
Hex Locknut

AIRCRAFT NUTS

The dash number following self-locking nut defines the

thread size. Self-locking nuts are very popular and easy to
use.
They should be used on un-drilled bolts. They may be
used on drilled bolts if you check the hole for burrs that
would damage the fiber. One disadvantage,
self-locking nuts should not be used on a bolt that is
connecting a moving part. An example might be a clevis
bolt used in a control cable application.

AIRCRAFT NUTS
Plain Aircraft Nuts
Plain nuts require a locking device such as a check
nut or lockwasher. They are not widely used in most
aircraft. AN315 is the designation used for a plain
hex nut. These nuts are also manufactured with a
right hand thread and a left hand thread. The check
nut used to hold a plain nut in place is an AN316. If
a lockwasher is used a plain washer must be under
the lockwasher to prevent damage to the surface.

AIRCRAFT NUTS
Other Aircraft Nuts
There are a number of other aircraft nuts available.
Wing nuts (AN350) are commonly used on battery
connections or hose clamps where proper tightness
can be obtained by hand. Anchor nuts are widely
used in areas where it is difficult to access a nut.
Tinnerman nuts, instrument mounting nuts, pal
nuts, cap nuts, etc. are all examples of other types
that are used.

AIRCRAFT NUTS
Tinnerman Nuts

Short U use with Type "B"

sheet metal screws

Flat use with Type "B"

sheet metal screws

AIRCRAFT NUTS
Basics of Aircraft Nut Installation
1. When using a castle nut, the cotter pin hole may not
line up with the slots on the nut. The Mechanics
General Handbook states "except in cases of highly
stressed engine parts, the nut may be over tightened
to permit lining up the next slot with the cotter pin
hole." Common sense should prevail. Do not over
tighten to an extreme, instead, remove the nut and
use a different washer and then try to line the holes
again.
2. A fiber nut may be reused if you are unable to tighten
by hand.

AIRCRAFT NUTS
Basics of Aircraft Nut Installation
3. At least one thread should be projecting past the fiber on
a fiber nut installation.
4. No self-locking nuts on moving part installations.
5. Do not use AN364 or AN365 fiber nuts in areas of high
temperature - above 250' F.
6. Shear nuts are to be used only in shear loads (not
tension).
7. Plain nuts require a locking device such as a lockwasher
or a check nut.

AIRCRAFT NUTS
Basics of Aircraft Nut Installation
8. When using a lockwasher, place a plain washer between
the surface of the airplane part and the lockwasher.
9. Shear nuts and standard nuts have different torque
values.
10.Use wing nuts only where hand tightness is adequate.

AIRCRAFT
WASHERS

AIRCRAFT WASHERS

The main purposes of a washer in aircraft

installation are to provide a shim when
needed, act as a smooth load bearing
surface, and to adjust the position of
castle nuts in relation to the drilled hole in
a bolt. Also, remember that plain washers
are used under a lockwasher to prevent
damage to a surface.

AIRCRAFT WASHERS
AN960 washers are the most common.
They are manufactured in a regular
thickness and a thinner thickness (one half
the thickness of regular). The dash number
following the AN960 indicates the size bolt
for which they are used.
The system is different from others we have
encountered. As an example, an AN960616 is used with a 3/8" bolt.

AIRCRAFT WASHERS

AN960 Cad plated

Standard Thickness
Flat Washers (Heavy)

Part No.

Size

AN960-6/50

AN960-8/50

AN960-10/50

3/16

AN960-416/50

1/4

AN960-516/50

5/16

AN960-616/50

3/8

AN960-716/50

7/16

AN960-816/50

1/2

AN960-916

9/16

AN960-1016

5/8

AN960-1216

3/4

AIRCRAFT WASHERS

AN960-6L/50

AN960 Cad plated Half

Thickness Flat
Washers (Light)

AIRCRAFT WASHERS

AN960C STAINLESS
STEEL Standard
Thickness Flat
Washers (Heavy)
AN960C-6/50

AN960C STAINLESS
STEEL Half Thickness
Flat Washers (Light)
AN960C-6L/50

AIRCRAFT WASHERS

Internal Tooth Cad

Plated Steel Lock
Washer
MS35333-36 B

Internal Tooth
Stainless Steel
Lock Washer
MS35333-70 B

AIRCRAFT WASHERS

Stainless 82 Cup
Interior Finishing
Washer FCW4

Stainless 100
Countersunk Washer
DD06SS

AIRCRAFT WASHERS

AN970 Cad
Plate Large
Area Washer

Natural Color
Nylon Flat Washer
NW-4 B

Control Cables and Cable

Assemblies

NONFLEXIBLE CABLE
In areas where a linkage does not pass over
any pulleys nonflexible cable can be used. It is
available in either a 1 x 7 or 1 x 19
configuration. The 1x7 cable is made up of one
strand comprised of seven individual wires,
whereas the 1 x 19 consists of one strand
made up of 19 individual wires. Nonflexible
cable is available in both galvanized carbon
steel and stainless steel.

FLEXIBLE CABLE
Flexible steel cable made up of seven strands of seven wires
each is called 7 x 7 or flexible cable,
To check the tension of aircraft control cables a and is available
in 1/16 and 3/32 inch sizes in both galvanized carbon steel and
stainless steel. Both types are preformed which means that
when the cable is manufactured each strand is formed into a
spiral shape. This process keeps strands together when the
cable is wound and also helps prevent the cable from spreading
out when cut. Furthermore, preforming gives cable greater
flexibility and relieves bending stresses when the strands are
woven into the cable.

EXTRA-FLEXIBLE CABLE
The most widely used cable, 7 x 19, is available in
sizes from 1/8 inch up. It is extra flexible and is made
of 133 individual wires wound in seven strands, each
strand having 19 wires. These cables are preformed
and are available in both galvanized and stainless
steel. Galvanized cable is more resistant to fatigue
than stainless steel, but in applications where
corrosion is a factor, stainless steel is used

ATTACHING CABLES
At one time, most cables were attached to bellcranks,
control surfaces, and flight controls with woven splices,
such as the Army-Navy five-tuck splice or the Roebling
roll. Because both types of woven splices require a great
deal of hand work and develop only 75 percent of the cable
strength, this method of attaching cables has almost been
completely replaced.

SWAGED TERMINALS
The cable fittings used most in large aircraft manu
facture are MS-type swaged cable terminals. To
install these terminals, cut the cable and insert it
into the end of a terminal. Then, use either a hand
or power swaging tool to force the metal of the ter
minal down into the cable. This forms a joint that is
at least as strong as the cable itself.

To ensure that a terminal is properly swaged, a measurement

is made of the swaged terminal with a go/no-go gauge. The
swaging process must decrease the terminal's diameter to the
extent that the go end of a go/no-go gauge passes over the
swaged terminal, but the no-go end does not. As an
inspection aid to ensure the cable does not pull out of the
terminal, a small mark of paint is placed over the terminal end
and onto the cable. A broken paint mark indicates the cable
has slipped inside the terminal.

NICOPRESS OVAL SLEEVES

Many light aircraft use Nicopress sleeves that are
squeezed onto control cables to form terminal
ends. A nicopress sleeve is made of copper and
has two holes to accommodate a control cable.
When a cable is wrapped around an AN100
thimble and properly squeezed with the correct
Nicopress squeezer, the terminal develops at least
the strength of the cable.

TURNBUCKLES
Turnbuckles are a type of cable fastener that
allows cable tension to be adjusted. A
complete turnbuckle assembly consists of two
ends, one with right-hand threads and the
other having left-hand threads, with a brass
barrel joining them. Minor cable adjustment is
made by rotating the turnbuckle which
effectively lengthens or shortens the cable's
length.

Part 2

AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR
AND MODIFICATION

Aircraft Structural
Components
Metal Structures
Non-Metal Structures
Composite Materials

Structural Design Philosophies

Fail Safe relies upon a duplication of certain structural members to
ensure that if one member failed, the other would assume the load of the
failed member.

Damage Tolerance requires an evaluation of the structure

to ensure that should serious damage, that is cracking or partial failure, occur
within the operational life of the aircraft, the remaining structure can withstand
reasonable loads without failure until the damage is detected.

Fatigue This phenomenon of fracturing after a series of cyclic loads,

maybe much less than the ultimate load.

Safe Life The period during which it is considered that failure of a

component is extremely unlikely. Life may be expressed in flying hours,
elapsed time, number of flights or number of applications of load.

AIRFRAME

FUSELAGE the main structure or body of the airplane.

TRUSS is a rigid framework made up of members such as beams, struts,

and bars to resist deformation by applied load.

SEMI-MONOCOQUE consist of a framework of vertical and longitudinal
members covered with a structural skin that carries the large percentage of
the stresses.
MONOCOQUE it involves the construction of a metal tube or cone without
structural member.
Bulkhead the vertical members of the fuselage frames. Structural partitions that

runs perpendicular to the longerons.

Frame - lateral fuselage or nacelle member giving cross-sectional shape which is
often circular. Also known as FORMERS or RINGS that maintains the uniform shape
of the structure.
Stringers (for semi-monocoque) the longitudinal members serves for stiffening the
metal skin and prevent it from bulging or buckling under severe stresses.
Gusset or Gusset Plates to reinforce the intersecting structural members and to
transfer stresses from one member to another.
Longeron the main longitudinal member of a fuselage or nacelle.
Skin the smooth outer cover of the aircraft. The materials used for the skin
covering is usually sheets aluminum alloy.

AIRFRAME

CRACK STOPPER - A reinforcing member normally placed at right angles

to the path of an anticipated crack which will reduce the rate of further propagation.

AERODYNAMIC LOADING - The loads imposed on an aircraft in

flight.

STATIC LOADING - The loads imposed on an aircraft when stationary.

STATION NUMBERS - Numbers allocated to certain components, e.g.

frames and ribs, to indicate their positions within the structure. The numbers may
represent in inches the distance from a datum point which could be the fuselage, nose or
the wing root.

FUSELAGE

WING aerofoil structure that produces lift of an airplane .

CANTILEVER no external bracing is needed.
SEMI-CANTILEVER uses external bracing (strut, wires, etc.)
Spars it is the principal structural members of the wing.
Ribs used to give the shape of the wing and to transmit the load from the skin to the
spars.
Wing Tip smooth out the wing tip airfoil to give wing a finish look.
Fairing/Fillets used to smooth the airflow over the angles formed by the wings and
other structural units with the fuselage, shaped rounded panels or metal skin are
attached
Tie rod (Tension rod) members taking tensile load.
Strut members taking compression load

EMPENNAGE the complete tail assembly of an aircraft.

HORIZONTAL TAIL
Horizontal stabilizers fixed surface
Elevators movable surface

VERTICAL TAIL
Vertical stabilizers fixed surface (FIN)
Rudder movable surface

WING

VERTICAL STABILIZER

HORIZONTAL STABILIZER

FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES

PRIMARY GROUP
AILERON attached to both wings of an aircraft that goes up and down, thus,
causing the aircraft to roll at longitudinal axis.
RUDDER hinged to TE of the vertical stabilizer to turn about its vertical axis.
ELEVATOR attached to the TE of the horizontal stabilizer use for control on pitch up
and pitch down at its lateral axis.
SECONDARY or AUXILIARY GROUP their purpose is to reduce the force

required to actuate the primary controls, to trim and balance the aircraft in flight,
to reduce speed or shorten the landing run and the change the speed of the
aircraft flight.
Trim tabs used to make fine adjustments to the flight path of the aircraft.
Balance tabs movement of the main control surface will give an opposite

movement to the tab.

Servo tabs referred to as flight tabs.
Flaps use to increase area of wing for the purpose of increasing lift.
Spoilers a device designed to reduce the lift of the wing. Use for speed brakes.
Leading edge devices a high lift device (SLATS) normally used on large transport
category.

LANDING GEAR - is the assembly that supports the aircraft

during landing or while resting or moving about on the ground.

FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACE

Repair Basic

Structural Repair Manual (SRM)

ATA Chapters
The manual is divided into the following chapters:
Chapter 51 - Structures, General
Chapter 52 Doors
Chapter 53 - Fuselage
Chapter 54 - Nacelles and Pylons
Chapter 55 - Stabilizers
Chapter 56 - Windows
Chapter 57 - Wings

Structural Repair Manual (SRM)

Page Block (PB) 001 IDENTIFICATION

Pages 1-99, Figures 1-99, Tables 1-99

Page Block (PB) 101 ALLOWABLE

DAMAGE
Pages 101-199, Figures 101-199, Tables 101-199

Page Block (PB) 201 REPAIRS

Pages 201-299, Figures 201-299, Tables 201-299

Aircraft Maintenance Manual

(AMM)

Page Block (PB) 001 Description and Operation

Page Block (PB) 201 Maintenance Practice
Page Block (PB) 301 Servicing
Page Block (PB) 401 Removal and Installation
Page Block (PB) 501 Adjustment and Test
Page Block (PB) 601 Inspection and Check
Page Block (PB) 701 Cleaning and Painting
Page Block (PB) 801 Repair
Page Block (PB) 901 Deactivation/ Activation

Aircraft Zoning System

Major Zones
100 - Lower Half of Fuselage
200 - Upper Half of Fuselage
300 - Empennage and Body Section 48
400 - Power Plants and Nacelle Struts
500 - Left Wing
600 - Right Wing
700 - Landing Gear and Landing Gear Doors (Fixed)
800 - Doors

TYPES OF MAINTENANCE, REPAIR, AND ALTERATIONS

PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE is defined as simple or minor preservation
operations and the replacement of small standard parts not involving complex
assembly operations. Operations classed as preventive maintenance are as
follows:

Removal, installation, and repair of landing gear tires.

Replacing elastic shock-absorber cords on landing gear.
Servicing landing-gear shock struts by adding oil, air, or both.
Servicing landing gear wheel bearings, such as cleaning and greasing.
Replacing defective safety wiring or cotter keys.
Lubrication not requiring disassembly other than removal of non-structural items such as
cover plates, cowlings, and fairings.
Making simple fabric patches not requiring rib stitching or the removal of structural parts
or control surfaces.
Replenishing hydraulic fluid in the hydraulic reservoir.
Refinishing decorative coating of fuselage, wings, tail group surfaces (excluding
balanced control surfaces), fairings, cowling, landing gear, cabin, or cockpit interior when
removal or disassembly of any primary structure or operating system is not required.
Applying preservative or protective material to components where no disassembly of any
primary structure or operating system is involved and where such coating is not
prohibited or is not contrary to good practices.
Repairing upholstery and decorative furnishings or the cabin or cockpit interior when the
repairing does not require disassembly of any primary structure or operating system or
affect the primary structure of the aircraft.

Making small simple repairs to fairings, non-structural cover plates, cowlings, and small
patches and reinforcements not changing the contour so as to interfere with the proper airflow.
Replacing side windows where that work does not interfere with the structure of any operating
system such as controls, electrical equipment, etc.
Replacing safety belts.
Replacing seats or seat parts with replacement parts approved for the aircraft, not involving
disassembly of any primary structure or operating system.
Troubleshooting and repairing broken circuits in landing light wiring circuits.
Replacing bulbs, reflectors, and lenses of position and landing lights.
Replacing wheels and skis where no weight and balance computation is involved.
Replacing any cowling not requiring removal of the propeller or disconnecting of flight controls.
Replacing or cleaning spark plugs and setting of spark plug gap clearance.
Replacing any nose connections except hydraulic connections.
Replacing pre-fabricated fuel lines.
Cleaning fuel and oil strainers.
Replacing batteries and checking fluid level and specific gravity.
Removing and installing glider wings and tail surfaces that are specifically designed for quick
removal and installation and when such removal and installation can be accomplished by the
pilot.
The holder of a pilot certificate issued under FAR Part 61, may perform preventive maintenance on
any aircraft owned or operated by him that is not used in air carrier service. Preventive maintenance
may also be performed by certificated mechanics, repair stations, repairmen, air carriers, and others
authorized by the FAA. A person who plans to perform preventive maintenance must ascertain that
the operation falls within this category and that he is authorized to perform the work.

Routine maintenance task

Towing
Taxiing
Parking
Mooring
Brake Service
360 degree inspection
Landing Gear service
Propeller Service
Tire Inflation
Battery Service
Replenishing
Refueling
Defueling
Replenishment of oil
Oil change

AIRCRAFT CLEANING

~ Appendix D of FAR Part 43 requires

that the airframe and engine be cleaned
before performing an annual or 100 hour
inspection. . Dirt can cover up cracked
or damaged components

EXTERIOR CLEANING
~ pitot tubes and static openings should always be
plugged or taped prior to cleaning an aircraft to
prevent water ingestion.
~ wheel and brake assemblies should be covered to
keep out cleaning agents
~ is extremely important to use the cleaning
compounds and other chemicals that are
recommended by the aircraft manufacturer, or are
MIL SPEC approved for the particular application.

EXTERIOR CLEANING
~ Hydrogen embrit-tlement results when a chemical
reaction produces hydrogen gas that is absorbed into a
metal
~Avoid washing an aircraft in the sun to help prevent the
surface from drying before the cleaner has time to
penetrate the film and dirt. For the main part of the
aircraft exterior, use a 1:5 or a 1:3 mixture of water and
an emulsion-type cleaner that meets MIL-C-15769
specifications. Brush or spray the mixture onto the
surface and allow it to stand for a few minutes, then
rinse it off with a high-pressure stream of warm water.

EXTERIOR CLEANING
~ The engine cowling and wheel well area usually have grease or oil
deposits that require special treatment. Typically, these areas must
be soaked with a 1:2 mixture of emulsion cleaner and water. After
allowing the cleaner to remain on the surface for a few minutes,
scrub the heavily soiled areas with a soft bristle brush to completely
loosen the dirt, and rinse it with a high-pressure stream of warm
water.
~Stubborn exhaust stains may require a 1:2 mixture of cleaner with
Varsol or kerosene. Mix these ingredients into a creamy emulsion
and apply it to the surface. Let it stand for a few minutes, then work
all of the loosened residue with a bristle brush and hose it off with a
high-pressure stream of warm water

EXTERIOR CLEANING
~ to remove oil, grease, or soft preservative compounds, dry-cleaning
solvent, or naphtha, is often used.
~ Aliphatic naphtha is a hydrocarbon solvent that dissolves oil and
grease but does not harm rubber or acrylic components. Aromatic
naphtha, on the other hand, attacks rubber and acrylic compounds.
~ Chemical cleaners must be used with great care in cleaning
assembled aircraft. The danger of entrapping a potentially corrosive
solvent in faying surfaces and crevices counteracts any advantages
in their speed and effectiveness.
~, caustic cleaners can cause corrosion on aluminum or magnesium
alloys

EXTERIOR CLEANING
~ Magnesium engine parts should be washed with a
commercial solvent and decarbonized, and then
scraped or grit blasted. Before they are painted,
magnesium engine parts should be wiped down with a
dichromate solution to improve paint adhesion.
~When cleaning aluminum, you should always use
cleaners which are relatively neutral and easy to
remove. If you must use an abrasive to remove cor
rosion products from aluminum structure, use aluminum
wool or aluminum oxide sandpaper. Carborundum
paper, crocus cloth, and steel wool must be avoided

EXTERIOR CLEANING
~ Magnesium engine parts should be washed with a
commercial solvent and decarbonized, and then
scraped or grit blasted. Before they are painted,
magnesium engine parts should be wiped down with a
dichromate solution to improve paint adhesion.
~When cleaning aluminum, you should always use
cleaners which are relatively neutral and easy to
remove. If you must use an abrasive to remove cor
rosion products from aluminum structure, use aluminum
wool or aluminum oxide sandpaper. Carborundum
paper, crocus cloth, and steel wool must be avoided

NON METALIC
CLEANING
~, the slightest amount of dust on a plastic
or plexiglass surface can scratch the
finish if rubbed with a dry cloth.
~ washing a plastic window, rinse the area
with water first. Once clean, dry the
window with a soft cloth to prevent
streaking

NON METALIC
CLEANING
~ Oil and hydraulic fluid attack and rapidly destroy the rubber
in aircraft tires. . The tire should then be washed with soap
and water Because most cleaning solvents are petroleumbased, soap and water are the only approved solution for
cleaning tires.
~ Rubber deice boots have a conductive coating to help
dissipate static charges.
~ as radomes are painted with special materials that are
transparent to radio signals. These areas should be
cleaned gently and never subjected to abrasives or stiff
brushes

POWERPLANT
CLEANING
~ Prior to washing an engine, inspect it for excessive
oil leakage. Then, apply a soap or solvent solution
to the engine and allow it to set for several
minutes. Heavy accumulations of dirt and grease
can be scrubbed with a bristle brush to loosen
them. The engine is then rinsed and allowed to dry.
If volatile solvent was used, be sure it has dried
before starting the engine to minimize the risk of
fire. Lubricate all controls and rod ends in the
engine compartment, and remove protective
covers that were installed on electrical
components.

POWERPLANT
CLEANING
~ electrical components in the engine
compartment must be protected from
solvent and soap. This includes wrapping
the magnetos so no water can get in the
vents. If the powerplant is located over a
landing gear, the gear's brake and tire
assemblies should be covered in plastic. If
you use a high-pressure water spray,
avoid spraying the starter, alternator, and
air intakes with solvent or water rinse.

CLASSIFICATION OF ALTERATIONS:
MAJOR ALTERATIONS is an alteration not listed in the aircraft, aircraft engine, or propeller

specifications (1) that might appreciably affect weight, balance, structural strength,
performance, power plant operation, flight characteristics and other factors of airworthiness or
(2) that is not done according to accepted practices or cannot be done by elementary
operations.
Alterations of the following parts and alterations of the following types, when not listed in the
aircraft specifications issued by the FAA, are airframe major alterations:
- Wings
- Tail Surfaces
- Fuselage
- Engine mounts
- Control system
- Landing gear
- Hull or floats
- Elements of an airframe, including spars, ribs, fittings, shock absorbers, bracing cowlings,
fairings, and balance weights
- Hydraulic and electrical actuating systems or components
- Rotor blades
- Changes to the empty weight or empty balance which result in an increase in the maximum
certificated weight or center-of-gravity limits of the aircraft.
- Changes in the basic design of the fuel, oil, cooling, cabin pressurization, electrical, hydraulic,
deicing, or exhaust systems.
- Changes to the wing or to fixed or movable control surfaces which affect flutter and vibration
characteristics.

The following alterations of a power plant, when not listed in the engine
specifications issued by the FAA, are power plant major alterations.
- Conversion of an aircraft engine from one approved model to another, involving any changes
in compression ratio, propeller reduction gear, impeller gear ratios, or the substitution of major
engine parts which requires extensive rework and testing of the engine.
- Changes to the engine by replacing aircraft engine structural parts with parts not supplied by
the original manufacturer or parts not specifically approved by the FAA administrator.
- Installation of an accessory which is not approved for the engine.
- Removal of accessories that are listed as required equipment on the aircraft or engine
specification.
- Installation of structural parts other than the type of parts approved for the installation.
- Removal of accessories that are listed as required equipment on the aircraft or engine
specification.
- Installation of structural parts other than the type of parts approved for the installation.
- Conversions of any sort for the purpose of using fuel of a rating or grade other than that
listed in the engine specifications.

Minor Alterations of either an airframe or a power plant are alterations

other than major alterations.

CLASSIFICATION OF REPAIRS
Repairs of airframes and power plants are classified as either major or minor depending upon the

type and effect of the repair. A major repair is one which, if improperly done, might appreciably
affect the weight, balance, structural strength, performance, power plant operation, flight
characteristics, or other qualities affecting airworthiness; or one which is not done according to
accepted practices or cannot be done by elementary operations.
Repairs to the following parts of an airframe and repairs of the following types, involving the
strengthening, reinforcing, splicing, and manufacturing of primary structural members, or their
replacement (when replacement is by fabrication such as riveting or welding), are airframe major
repairs:
- Box beams
- Monocoque or semi-monocoque wings or control surfaces
- Wing stringers or chord members
- Spars
- Spar flanges
- Members of truss-type beams
- Thin sheet webs of beams
- Keel and chine members or boat hulls or floats
- Corrugated sheet compression members which act as flange material of wings or tail surfaces
- Wing main ribs and compression members
- Wing or tail surface brace struts
- Engine mounts
- Fuselage longerons
- Members of the side truss, horizontal truss, or bulkheads
- Main seat support braces and brackets
- Landing gear brace struts

Axles
Wheels
Skis and ski pedestals
Parts of the control system such as control columns, pedals, shafts, brackets, or horns
Repairs involving the substitution of material
The repair of damaged areas in metal or plywood stressed covering exceeding 6 in. in any
direction
The repair of portions of skin sheets by making additional seams
The splicing of skin sheets
The repair of three or more adjacent wing or control surface ribs or the leading edge of wings
and control surfaces between such adjacent ribs
Repair of fabric covering involving an area greater than that required to repair two adjacent
ribs
Replacement of fabric on fabric covered parts such as wings, fuselages, stabilizers, and
control surfaces
Repairing of removable or integral fuel tanks and oil tank, including re-bottoming the tanks

Repairs of the following parts of an engine and repairs of the following

types are powerplant major repairs:

-

Separation or disassembly of a crankcase or crankshaft of a reciprocating engine equipped

with an integral superchargers
Separation or disassembly of a crankcase or crankshaft of a reciprocating engine equipped
with other than spur-type propeller reduction gearing
Special repairs to structural engine parts by welding, plating, metalizing, or other methods.

Annual and 100-hr inspections

According to the provisions of FAR, Part 91, no person may operate an aircraft unless, within the

preceding 12 calendar months, it has had an annual inspection and has been approved for
return to service by an authorized person. An inspection for the issuance of an Airworthiness
Certificate will serve as a substitute for the annual inspection.
A 100-hr inspection is similar to the annual inspection; however, it may not be substituted for
the annual inspection unless it is performed by a person certificated or otherwise authorized to
make annual inspections and is entered as an annual inspection in the aircraft maintenance
records (log book).
A 100-hr inspection is required on every aircraft used for carrying persons for hire other than
the crew or for giving flight instruction. This means the aircraft must undergo a complete
inspection, as set forth in FAR, Part 43, within every 100 hrs of operating time. After the 100-hr
limitation may be exceeded by not more than 10 hr if necessary to reach a place at which the
inspection can be made. The excess time, however, is included in computing the next 100 hr of
time in service.

Progressive inspection
A progressive inspection requires the setting up of a schedule, specifying the intervals in

hours or days when routine and detailed inspections will be performed, including instructions for
exceeding an inspection interval by not more than 10 hr while enroute, and for changing an
inspection interval because of service experience.
Progressive inspection are usually established by air carriers in order to provide for better
utilization of aircraft. Approval for such an inspection system requires that a properly authorized
person or agency supervise the inspection procedures and that an inspection procedures
manual be available and readily understandable to pilot and maintenance personnel. Aircraft
subject to an approved progressive inspection system need not undergo the 100-hr inspection
otherwise required.

CONTINUOUS AIRWORTHINESS INSPECTION PROGRAMS OF LARGE &

TURBINE-POWERED MULTI-ENGINE AIRPLANES:
AIRCRAFT INSPECTIONS this element deals with the routine inspections, servicing, and tests

performed on the aircraft at prescribed intervals. It includes detailed instructions and standards (or
related references) by work forms, job cards, and other records which also serve to control the activity
and to record and account for the tasks that comprise this element. Each airline is free to develop its
own terminology, which is assigned to the different parts the inspection program. The use of terms
such as A-check and D-Check as is illustrated in Figure 16-5 is common in a continuous inspection
program. Figure 16-5 provides an example of the continuous inspection program.
SCHEDULED MAINTENANCE this element concerns maintenance tasks performed at prescribed
intervals. Some are accomplished concurrently with the inspection tasks that are part of the inspection
elements and may be included on the same form. Other tasks are accomplished independently. The
scheduled tasks include the replacement of life-limited items and components requiring replacement
for periodic overhaul; special inspections such as X-rays, checks, or tests for on-condition items;
lubrications; and so on. Special work forms can be provided for accomplishing these tasks or they can
be specified by a work order or some other document. In any case, instructions and standards for
accomplishing each task should be provided to ensure that it is properly accomplished and that it is
recorded and signed for.
UNSCHEDULED MAINTENANCE this element provides instructions and standards for the
accomplishment of maintenance tasks generated by the inspection and scheduled maintenance
elements, pilot reports, failure analyses, or other indications of a need for maintenance. Procedures
for reporting, recording, and processing inspection findings, operational malfunctions, or abnormal
operations, such as hard landings, are an essential part of this element. A continuous aircraft logbook
can serve this purpose for occurrences and resultant corrective action between scheduled
inspections. Inspection discrepancy forms are usually used for processing unscheduled maintenance
tasks in conjunction with scheduled inspections. Instructions and standards for unscheduled
maintenance are normally provided by the operators technical manuals. The procedures to be
followed in using these manuals and for recording and certifying unscheduled maintenance are
included in the operators procedural manual.

Type

When

Who

No. 1 service
"walk-around"

No. 2 service

Before each flight

Mechanic and pilot
During overnight layovers at
maintenance locations; at least every
45 hours of domestic flying or 65
hours of international flying
Mechanics

A-check
Approximately every 200 flying
hours, or about every 15 to 20 days depending on type of aircraft
3-5 Mechanics
Heaviest level of routine line
B-/M-/L-checks maintenance; approximately every
550 flying hours or every 40-50 days;
work performed overnight
12-80 Mechanics

C-check

Every 12-15 months, depending on

aircraft type; airplane out of service
for 3-5 days

From 150-200 mechanics

and inspectors depending on aircraft type

D-check
Most intensive inspection; every 4-5 From 150-300 mechanics
years, depending on aircraft type;
and inspectors airplane out of service up to 30 days depending on aircraft type

Figure 16-5

What
Exterior check of aircraft and
engines for damage and
leakage; includes specific checks
such as brake and tire wear
Same as No. 1 service plus
specific checks including oils,
hydraulics, oxygen, and unique
needs by aircraft type
More detailed check of aircraft
and engine interior including
specific checks, services, and
lubrications of systems such as
ingnition, generators, cabins, air
conditioning, hydraulics,
structure, landing gear
Similar to A-check but in greater
detail, which specific aircraft and
engine needs such as torque
tests, internal checks, and flight
controls
Detailed inspection and repair of
aircraft, engines, components,
systems and cabin, including
operating mechanisms, flight
controls, and structural
tolerances
Major structural inspections for
detailed needs which include
attention to fatigue corrosion;
aircraft is dismantled, repaired
and rebuilt as required; systems
and parts are tested, repaired or
replaced

Testing and
Inspection
a. Testing of Metals - Hardness Tests
b. Non-Destructive Test and
Inspection

NON- DESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION

APPROVED PROCEDURE

Title 14 CFR, part 43 requires that all

maintenance be performed using methods,
techniques, and practices prescribed in the
current manufacturers maintenance manual
or instructions for continued airworthiness
prepared by its manufacturer, or other
methods, techniques, and practices
acceptable to the administrator.

FLAWS

Inspection personnel should

know where flaws occur or can be
expected to exist and what effect
they can have in each of the NDI
test methods.
Misinterpretation and/or
improper evaluation of flaws or
improper evaluation of NDI can
result in serviceable parts being
rejected and defective parts being
accepted.

A). CORROSION
This is the electrochemical deterioration of a

metal resulting from chemical reaction with the

surrounding environment.
Very common
Extremely critical defect

CORROSION

B). INHERENT FLAWS

This group of flaws is present in metal as the

result of its initial solidification from the molten

state, before any of the operations to forge or roll
it into useful sizes and shapes have begun.
The following are brief descriptions of some
inherent flaws.

B). INHERENT FLAWS

PRIMARY PIPE
BLOWHOLES
SEGREGATION
POROSITY
INCLUSIONS
SHRINKAGE

PRIMARY
PIPE

BLOWHOLES

SEGREGATIO
N

POROSITY

POROSITY

INCLUSION

SHRINKAG
E

CAVITY SHRINKAGE

FILAMENTARY
SHRINKAGE

SPONGE
SHRINKAGE

C.) PRIMARY PROCESSING

FLAWS
Flaws which occur while working the metal down

by hot or cold deformation into useful shapes

such as bars, rods, wires and forged shapes are
primary processing flaws.
The following are brief descriptions of some
primary processing flaws:

C.) PRIMARY PROCESSING

FLAWS
SEAMS- are surface flaws, generally long, straight

and parallel to the longitudinal axis of the material

LAMINATIONS- Metal defects with separation or
weakness generally aligned parallel to the worked
surface of the metal.
CUPPING- series of internal metal ruptures created
when the interior metal does not flow as rapidly as the
surface metal during drawing or extruding processes

C.) PRIMARY PROCESSING

FLAWS
COLD SHUT
INCOMPLETE WELD PENETRATION
INCOMPLETE WELD FUSION
SLAG INCLUSION

INCOMPLETE WELD
PENETRATION

INCOMPLETE WELD
FUSION

D.) SECONDARY
PROCESSING/FINISHING FLAWS
This category includes those flaws associated with

the various finishing operations, after the part has

been rough-formed by rolling, forging, casting or
welding. Flaws may be introduced by heat treating,
grinding, and similar processes. The following are
brief descriptions of some secondary processing or
finishing flaws.

D.) SECONDARY
PROCESSING/FINISHING FLAWS
MACHINING TEARS
HEAT TREATING CRACKS
GRINDING CRACKS
PLATING CRACKS
ETCHING CRACKS

E.) IN-SERVICE FLAWS

These flaws are formed after all fabrication has been

completed and the aircraft, engine, or related

component has gone into service. These flaws are
attributable to aging effects caused by either time,
flight cycles, service operating conditions, or
combinations of these effects. The following are
brief descriptions of some in-service flaws.

E.) IN-SERVICE FLAWS

STRESS CORROSION
OVERSTRESS CRACKS
FATIGUE CRACKS
UNBONDS/ DISBONDS
DELAMINATION

SELECTING THE NDI

METHODS

The NDI method and procedure to be used for any specific part or
component will generally be specified in the aircraft or component
manufacturers maintenance or overhaul manuals, SSIDs, SBs, or
in ADs.

A.) APPROPRIATE METHOD

The appropriate NDI method may consist of
several separate inspections. Making the correct NDI
method selection requires an understanding of the
basic principles, limitations, and advantages and
disadvantages of the available NDI methods and an
understanding of their comparative effectiveness and
cost.

B.) OTHER FACTORS

(1) The critical nature of the component;
(2) The material, size, shape, and weight of the part;
(3) The type of defect sought;
(4) Maximum acceptable defect limits in size and
distribution;
(5) Possible locations and orientations of defects;
(6) Part accessibility or portability; and
(7) The number of parts to be inspected.

B.) DEGREE OF INSPECTION

The degree of inspection sensitivity
required is an important factor in selecting the NDI
method. Critical parts that cannot withstand small
defects and could cause catastrophic failure
require the use of the more sensitive NDI
methods. Less critical parts and general hardware
generally require less-sensitive NDI methods.

B.) MATERIAL SAFETY DATA

SHEETS
The various materials used in NDI may contain
chemicals, that if improperly used, can be hazardous
to the health and safety of operators and the safety of
the environment, aircraft, and engines. Information on
safe handling of materials is provided in MSDS.
MSDS, conforming to Title 29 of the Code of Federal
Regulations (29 CFR), part 1910, section 1200, or its
equivalent, must be provided by the material supplier
to any user and must be prepared according to FEDSTD-313.

VISUAL INSPECTION

TYPES OF INSPECTION

Nondestructive testing methods are techniques used both in the

production and in-service environments without damage or
destruction of the item under investigation. Examples of NDI
methods are as follows:

TYPES OF INSPECTION
a. Visual inspection
b. Magnetic particle
c. Penetrants
d. Eddy current
e. Radiography
f. Ultrasonic
g. Acoustic emission
h. Thermography
i. Holography
j. Shearography
k. Tap testing

VISUAL INSPECTION

VISUAL INSPECTION
is the oldest and most common form of NDI for

aircraft. Approximately 80 percent of all NDI

procedures are accomplished by the direct visual
methods.
This inspection procedure may be greatly
enhanced by the use of appropriate combinations
of magnifying instruments, borescopes, light
sources, video scanners, and other devices
discussed in this AC.

SIMPLE VISUAL INSPECTION

It should be emphasized that the eye- mirror-

flashlight is a critical visual inspection process.

Aircraft structure and components that must be
routinely inspected are frequently located
beneath skin, cables, tubing, control rods,
pumps, actuators, etc.

A). Flashlights
Flashlights used for aircraft inspection
should be suitable for industrial use and,
where applicable, safety approved by the
Underwriters Laboratory or equivalent agency
as suitable for use in hazardous atmospheres
such as aircraft fuel tanks.

A). Flashlights
(1) Standard incandescent (for long- battery life).
(2) Krypton (for 70 percent more light than
standard bulbs).
(3) Halogen (for up to 100 percent more light than
standard bulbs).
(4) Xenon (for over 100 percent more light than
standard bulbs).

B.) Inspection Mirrors

An inspection mirror is used to view an area
that is not in the normal line of sight. The
mirror should be of the appropriate size to
easily view the component, with the reflecting
surface free of dirt, cracks, worn coating, etc.,
and a swivel joint tight enough to maintain its
setting.

C.) Simple Magnifiers

A single converging lens, the simplest form of a
microscope, is often referred to as a simple magnifier.
Magnification of a single lens is determined by the
equation M = 10/f. In this equation, M is the
magnification, f is the focal length of the lens in inches,
and 10 is a constant that represents the average
minimum distance at which objects can be distinctly
seen by the unaided eye. Using the equation, a lens
with a focal length of 5 inches has a magnifi- cation of 2,
or is said to be a two-power lens.

BORESCOPES

A borescope is an optical device similar in principle to a

telescope in that it enlarges objects like a magnifying glass.

~ A fiberoptic borescope is similar to a standard borescope,

but has a flexible, articulated probe that can bend around
corners. The maximum length borescopes is four feet

With a video scope, light is carried to an object by

fiberoptics or light-emitting diodes. The image is viewed
through a lens by a light sensitive chip and transmitted to a
video processor where the electronic signal from the chip is
assembled and output to a monitor and VCR as appropriate

BORESCOPES
These instruments are long, tubular, precision optical
instruments with built-in illumination, designed to allow
remote visual inspection of internal surfaces or
otherwise inaccessible areas.
The tube, which can be rigid or flexible with a wide
variety of lengths and diameters, provides the necessary
optical connection between the viewing end and an
objective lens at the distant, or distal tip of the
borescope.

BORESCOPES USES

to reduce or eliminate the need for costly tear-downs.

(Aircraft turbine engines have access ports that are
specifically designed for borescopes.)
used to determine the airworthiness of difficult-to-reach
components.
used to inspect interiors of hydraulic cylinders and
valves for pitting, scoring, porosity, and tool marks;
inspect for cracked cylinders in aircraft reciprocating
engines;
inspect turbojet engine turbine blades and combustion
cans;

BORESCOPES USES

verify the proper placement and fit of seals, bonds,

gaskets, and subassemblies in difficult to reach areas;
and assess Foreign Object Damage (FOD) in aircraft,
airframe, and power plants.
used to locate and retrieve foreign objects in engines
and airframes.

OPTICAL DESIGNS

Typical designs for

the optical connection between the borescope
viewing end and the distal tip are:

VISUAL INSPECTION
PROCEDURES

1. Preliminary Inspection
Perform a preliminary inspection of the overall
general area for cleanliness, presence of foreign objects,
deformed or missing fasteners, security of parts,
corrosion, and damage. If the configuration or location
of the part conceals the area to be inspected, use visual
aids such as a mirror or borescope.

2. Corrosion Treatment
Treat any corrosion found during preliminary
inspection after completing a visual inspection of any
selected part or area.

Inspection
(1) Surface cracks. When searching for surface cracks with a
flashlight, direct the light beam at a 5 to 45 degree angle to the
inspection surface, towards the face. (See figure 5-2.) Do not
direct the light beam at such an angle that the reflected light
beam shines directly into the eyes. Keep the eyes above the
reflected light beam during the inspection. Determine the extent
of any cracks found by directing the light beam at right angles to
the crack and tracing its length. Use a 10-power magnifying
glass to confirm the existence of a suspected crack. If this is not
adequate, use other NDI techniques, such as penetrant,
magnetic particle, or eddy current to ver.ify cracks

8.2 Inspection
(2) Other surface discontinuities. Inspect for other surface
discontinuities, such as: discoloration from overheating; buckled,
bulging, or dented skin; cracked, chafed, split, or dented tubing;
chafed electrical wiring; delaminations of composites; and
damaged protective finishes.

9. Recordkeeping
Document all discrepancies by written report,
photograph, and/or video recording for appropriate
evaluation. The full value of visual inspection can be
realized only if records are kept of the discrepancies
found on parts inspected. The size and shape of the
discontinuity and its location on the part should be
recorded along with other pertinent information, such as
rework per- formed or disposition. The inclusion on a
report of some visible record of the discontinuity makes
the report more complete.

Non-Destructive Testing
(NDT)

1. Visual Inspection
2. Tap Test
3. Liquid Penetrate Inspection
4. Magnetic Particle Inspection
5. Eddy Current Inspection
6. Ultrasonic Inspection
7. X-ray Inspection

COIN TAP TEST

Although it is one of the most simple tests
available, the coin tap test is also one of the
most effective on laminated, bonded, and
honeycomb materials.
~ Undamaged material produces a solid ringing
sound, while a damaged area. makes a hollow
thud. Impact damage to laminated structure,
such as ice and rain impingement on radomes,
is quickly and easily found using the coin tap
test.

LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION

~ inspection suitable for locating cracks, porosity, or other types of faults open to
the surface.
~usable on ferrous and non-ferrous metals, as well as nonporous plastic material
~Dye penetrant inspection is based on the principle of capillary attraction. The
area being inspected is covered with a penetrating liquid that has a very low
viscosity and low surface tension.
~ After sufficient time, the excess penetrant is washed off and the surface is
covered with a developer
~. The developer, by the process of reverse capillary action, blots the penetrant
out of cracks or other faults forming a visible line in the developer.
~. If an indication is fuzzy instead of sharp and clear, the probable cause is that
the part was not thoroughly washed before the developer was applied

LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION

~ When performing a liquid penetrant inspection, the penetrant is
spread over the surface of the material being examined, and
allowed sufficient time for capillary action to take place. (B) The
excess penetrant is then washed from the surface, leaving any
cracks and surface flaws filled. (C) An absorbent developer is
sprayed over the surface where it blots out any penetrant. The
crack then shows up as a bright line against the white developer.

LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION

~ There are two types of dyes used in liquid penetrant inspection:

fluorescent and colored. An ultraviolet light is used with the
fluorescent penetrant and any flaw shows up as a green line.

~ using liquid penetrant it is important that the surface be free of

grease, dirt, and oil. The best method of cleaning a surface is with a
volatile petroleum-based solvent. If vapor degreasing is not
practical, the part is cleaned by scrubbing with a solvent or a strong
detergent solution. Parts to be inspected with liquid penetrant
should not be cleaned by abrasive blasting, scraping, or heavy
brushing

LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION

PENETRANT APPLICATION
~ Penetrant is typically applied to a surface by immersing the part in
the liquid or by swabbing or brushing a penetrant solution onto the
part's surface
~The amount of time required for a penetrant to cure is called its
dwell time and is determined by the size and shape of the
discontinuities being looked for. For example, small, thin cracks
require a longer dwell time than large and more open cracks. Dwell
time is decreased if a part is heated. However, if the part gets too
hot the penetrant evaporates

LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION

REMOVAL OF SURFACE PENETRANT
~ Liquid penetrants are typically removed using either water, an
emulsifying agent, or a solvent. with water that is sprayed at a
pressure of 30 to 40 psi, spray nozzle is held at a 45
~ Some penetrants are neither water soluble nor emulsifiable, but
instead are solvent-removeable.
~ When using this type of penetrant, excess penetrant is removed with
an absorbent towel, and the part's surface is then wiped with clean
towels dampened with solvent. The solvent should not be sprayed
onto the surface nor should the part be immersed in the solvent,
since this will wash the penetrant out of faults or dilute

LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION

Three kinds of developers
~Dry developer is a loose powder material such as talcum that adheres
to the penetrating liquid and acts as a blotter to draw the penetrant
out of any surface faults
~Wet developer typically consists of a white powder mixed with water
that is either flowed over a surface, or a part is immersed in it. The
part is then air-dried a
~ Nonaqueous developer consists of a white chalk-like powder sus
pended in a solvent that is normally applied from a pressure spray
can, or sprayed onto a surface with a paint gun.

LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION

~ Colored dye is used in this penetrating liquid so that examination
under white light can be accomplished. (B) right A fluorescent dye is
used in this penetrant inspection and then the part is examined
under black or ultraviolet light where any fault appears as a vivid
green mark.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

~ made of iron or iron alloys
~, a part is magnetized and an oxide containing
magnetic particles is poured or sprayed over the
part's surface. Any discontinuities in the
material, either on or near the surface, create
disruptions in the magnetic field around the part
~ useful for detecting cracks, splits, seams, and
voids that form when a metal ruptures. It is also
useful for detecting cold shuts and inclusions of
foreign matter that occurred when the metal
was cast or rolled.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

MAGNETIC ORIENTATION
~, the part must be magnetized in such a way that the
lines of flux are perpendicular to the fault
~ To ensure that the flux lines are nearly perpendicular
to a flaw, a part should be magnetized both
longitudinally and circularly.
~ longitudinal magnetization, the magnetizing current
flows either through a coil in which the part is placed,
or through a coil around a soft iron yoke.
~CIRCULAR MAGNETIZATION . Current is sent
through the part by placing it between the heads of
magnetizing equipment.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

~ Large flat objects are circularly
magnetized by using test probes that
are held firmly against the surface with
current passed through them.
~ Either circular or longitudinal
magnetization can reveal defects that
are 45 degrees to the magnetic field.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

METHODS OF MAGNETIZATION
~ magnetic particle inspection employs direct current
magnetization, half-wave rectified DC magnetiza
tion, or alternating current magnetization.
DIRECT CURRENT. Pure direct current at voltages
from 110 to 440 has excellent penetrating qualities
and is suitable for magnetizing parts in coils and
with yokes. However, DC has the disadvantage of
being difficult to change its value as required for
inspecting objects of different sizes.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

HALF-WAVE RECTIFIED DC,, can be rectified to DC

with a half-wave rectifier. In addition, by controlling the
AC input the DC output can be adjusted to any value.
Half-wave DC has the identical penetrating qualities
as straight DC, and its pulsating nature helps
distribute the magnetic particles so they arrange
themselves over any fault
ALTERNATING CURRENT..The principle of
magnetization is based on the magnetic domains of a
material aligning with the external magnetizing force.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

TESTING MEDIUM
~ magnetic particle inspection is ferromagnetic. In other
words, the material is finely divided, has a high permeability,
and a low retentivity. Furthermore, for operator safety it is
nontoxic.
~ these materials are extremely fine iron oxides that are dyed
gray, black, red, or treated with a dye that causes them to
fluoresce when illuminated with ultraviolet light.
~ iron oxides are often used dry, but can be mixed with
kerosene or some other light oil and sprayed over a
surface.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

~ Dry particles are typically applied with hand
shakers, spray bulbs, or powder guns.
~ Wet particles are flowed over a part as a
bath.
~ Measuring particle concentration is
accomplished by collecting a sample of the
agitated bath in a centrifuge tube.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

TESTING METHOD
The two methods you must be familiar with are the residual magnetism
method and the continuous magnetism method.

RESIDUAL MAGNETISM- When a part is magnetized and the magnetizing

force is removed before the testing medium is applied, . The residual
procedure is only used with steels that have been heat-treated for stressed
applications
.
CONTINUOUS MAGNETISM -magnetization requires that a part be subjected
to the magnetizing force when the testing medium is applied. The continuous
process of magnetization is most often used to locate invisible defects since
it provides a greater sensitivity in locating subsurface discontinuities

MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

INSPECTION~ gray, black, or red dye is
used, the inspection is made in white
light. However, if a fluorescent dye is
used, the part is inspected using a black
light in a dark booth.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

~FATIGUE CRACKS give sharp, clear patterns, generally uniform and
unbroken throughout their length. These cracks are often jagged in
appearance. are only found in parts that were in service. These
cracks are usually in highly stressed areas of a part where a stress
concentration exists.
HEAT-TREAT CRACKS, have a smooth outline, and are usually less
clear with less buildup than fatigue cracks. a characteristic form,
consisting of short jagged lines grouped together
SHRINK CRACKS, give a sharp, clear pattern and the line is usually
very jagged
GRINDING CRACKS are fine, sharp, and seldom have a buildup
because of their limited depth.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

SEAMS Indications of seams are typically straight,
sharp, and fine. They are often intermittent and
sometimes have very little buildup.
HAIRLINE CRACKS are very fine seams in which the
faces are forced very close together during fabrica
tion.. Discontinuities of this type are normally
considered detrimental only in highly stressed parts.
INCLUSIONS,,are nonmetallic materials that have been
trapped in the solidifying metal during the manu
facturing process.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

DEMAGNETIZATION before a part is returned to service, it is
required to be thoroughly demagnetized.
~ AC DEMAGNETIZATION the part is subjected to a
magnetizing force opposite the force used to magnetize it.
the magnetizing force was AC, the domains alternate in
polarity, and if the part is slowly removed from the field
while current is still flowing, the reversing action
progressively becomes weaker.
~ DC DEMAGNETIZATION AC current does not penetrate a
surface very deeply. a part is placed in a coil and subjected
to more current than initially used to magnetize the part

EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION

~ Eddy current inspection is based on the
principle of current acceptance. In other words,
it determines the ease with which a material
accepts induced current.

~. The ease with which a material accepts the

induced eddy currents is determined by four
properties: its conductivity, permeability, mass,
and by the presence of any voids or faults.

EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION

~ The conductivity of a metal varies with alloy
type, grain size, degree of heat treatment, and
tensile strength
~, a comparison probe and a test probe are held
on a reference, or sample material and the
meter is balanced to a null indication.
~ The permeability of a material is the measure
of its ability to accept lines of magnetic flux.

EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION

~ eddy current meter indirectly measures current
flowing in the test probe, and the probe current is
proportional to the current induced into a test spec
imen. The mass of the material being tested deter
mines the ease with which eddy currents flow.

~probe passes over an area containing corrosion or

some sort of discontinuity, the meter needle deflects,
indicating a decrease in mass. However, as the
probe is moved over a surface free from faults, it
remains steady

EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION

ABSOLUTE METHOD OF INSPECTION
In the absolute method of inspection, bridge-type eddy
current equipment is used to identify a mater-ial's
characteristics by measuring the amount of probe current
that flows when current is induced into a test specimen.

COMPARISON METHOD OF INSPECTION The comparison

method of inspection uses a double-coiled probe. Instead
of zeroing to a standard piece of material, the comparison
method indicates differences in characteristics between
the material under the reference probe and that under the
test probe.

EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION

~ Several eddy current instruments which
use a two dimensional display, such as
an X-Y oscilloscope, are available
without the limitations associated with
the meter type instrument

ULTRASONIC
INSPECTION

~ that can be used on plastics, ceramics, and most metals. .

Ultrasonic energy bounces off a fault and is reflected on
the CRT screen as a peak on the base line between the
peaks representing the front and back surfaces.
~ Under normal conditions, these sound waves propagate
longitudinally from the source of vibration and are called
longitudinal waves. However, a second type of wave
propagation occurs at right angles to the direction of the
sound. This type of wave propagation occurs only in materials
made of tightly bonded molecules, such as solids, and are
called transverse, or shear waves. Shear waves that travel
along the surface of a material, and do not appreciably extend
into the material, are known as surface, or Rayleigh, waves.

ULTRASONIC
INSPECTION
~ Ultrasonic waves used for nondestructive inspection
vary in frequency from 200 kilohertz to 25 megahertz,
and are either reflected, focused, or refracted
~ but for sonar operation and for ultrasonic cleaning.
Some materials produce electricity when they are
struck, pressed, bent, or otherwise distorted.
Materials that possess this property are called piezo
electric materials. In addition to producing current,
piezoelectric materials vibrate when subjected to
alternating current. This makes these types of mate
rials useful as transducers

ULTRASONIC
INSPECTION
ENERGY INTRODUCED INTO TEST MATERIALThere are three
basic ways in which ultrasonic energy is introduced into the test
specimen. The first is by direct contact on only one side of the
material. The energy is transmitted from this point and the
return echo is received from the same side. The second method
uses a transducer on both sides of the material; one introduces
a pulse into the material, and the other receives the signal and
sends it to the CRT. The third way of inducing sound energy into
a material is the immersion method. the test specimen is
immersed in water and the transducer beams its energy
.
The desired orientation is achieved through the use of acrylic
wedges inserted between the transducer and the material's
surface

ULTRASONIC
INSPECTION
FAULT INDICATIONS
Two basic systems are used in ultrasonic inspection. They
are the pulse-echo system and resonance system. With
the pulse-echo system a cathode ray oscilloscope is
used in conjunction with a CRT as a fault indicator. . A time
based signal produces a straight line across a CRT screen
and when a pulse of energy is sent into the material, a pip,
or peak, occurs on this horizontal line.
~ Because ultrasonic test equipment indicates the thickness
of a material, it is an efficient means of inspecting for
corrosion on the inside of a structure

ULTRASONIC
INSPECTION
~ resonance system. Like the pulse-echo system, the
resonance system is also used to measure the thickness of
material However, its principle of operation differs from that
of the pulse-echo system in that the resonance system
depends on matching the oscillator's frequency to the
resonance point of the material being tested.

RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION
Radiographic inspection allows a photographic view inside a
structure. In other words, this method uses certain sections
of the electromagnetic spectrum to photograph an object's
interior.

RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION
~ X-ray and gamma ray radiation are forms of high energy, short
wavelength electromagnetic waves. amount of absorption is
proportional to the density of the material.
~ An x-ray generator consists of a tube containing a heavy
insulating envelope. A coil at one end of the tube serves as a
cathode that emits electrons when it is heated with electrical
current.

RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION
SET-UP AND EXPOSURE
For a permanent record of a radiographic inspection, a sheet of
photographic film is placed on one side of the object being
inspected, and the radiation source on the other.
~ The denser the specimen, the less radiation passes through,
and the less the film is exposed. The specimen is then
exposed to the radiation source.

RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION
Factors that determine the proper exposure include, but are not
limited, to the following:

Material thickness and density

Shape and size of the object
Type of defect to be detected
Characteristics of the equipment used
Exposure distance
Exposure angle
Film characteristics
Types of intensifying screen, if used

RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION
~ Photographic film is composed of flexible transparent plastic
sheets coated with a thin layer of gelatin. This gelatin
contains an emulsion of extremely fine silver bromide grains.
~ The exposed film is then treated with developer which reduces
only the silver bromide grains that were touched by the
radiation into clumps of black metallic silver. After all of the
affected emulsion is converted, the developing action is
stopped with an acid stop bath.
~ Because of this, less-dense areas or places with the most
radiation exposure are dark. Those places where the density
is the greatest get the least radiation and are the clearest.

RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION
~ Atypical camera is made of lead to contain the isotope's
gamma radiation. To expose a film and obtain an x-ray, the
cover is raised and the control rod is extended to expose the
source and provide a wider angle of coverage.
~ FLUOROSCOPY For high-speed radiographic inspection
where no permanent record is required, a fluoroscope is
used. main advantage of fluoroscopy is that objects are
viewed in real time. Furthermore, the test piece can be
moved or rotated in front of the screen by handling devices.
Moving the object closer to the x-ray tube for magnification is
also possible.

RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION

Corrosion Protection and

Control
a. Types of Corrosion
b. Corrosion Protection and Removal

CORROSION

CORROSION is a natural phenomenon which attacks metal by

chemical or electrochemical action and converts it into a metallic
compound. The corrosion occurs because of the tendency of metals
to return to their natural state.
Steel:
Corrosion of steel is easily recognized because the corrosion
product is red rust.
Aluminum:
Aluminum and its alloys exhibit a wide range of corrosion such as
crevice, stress, and fretting corrosion

Four Conditions must exist for

corrosion to start

Causes of Corrosion

Causes of Corrosion
ACIDS AND ALKALIS
Almost all acids and alkalis form effective
electrolytes as they react with metals to
form metallic salts,
~ Ferrous metals are subject to damage
from both acids and alkalis, but
aluminum is more vulnerable to strong
alkaline solutions than it is to acids.

Causes of Corrosion
SALTS
. In general, salts are the result of a metallic element combining with a
nonmetal. The resulting compound is almost always a good electrolyte,
and can promote corrosive attack. Magnesium is particularly vulnerable to
corrosive attack from an electrolyte formed by salt solutions.
MERCURY
Mercury attacks aluminum by a chemical reaction known as amalgamation.
In this process, the mercury attacks along the grain boundaries within the
alloy, and in a very short time completely destroys it
WATER
Pure water reacts with metals to form corrosion or oxidation, but water
holding a concentration of salts or other contaminants causes much more
rapid corrosion.

CORROSION DETECTION

~ Another means of corrosion detection

is through the use of ultrasonic
equipment. As discussed in the previous
chapter, there are two types of ultrasonic
indications used for corrosion detection:
the pulse-echo and the resonance
method.

CORROSION-PRONE AREAS

ENGINE EXHAUST AREA

BATTERY COMPARTMENTS AND VENTS
LAVATORIES AND FOOD SERVICE AREAS
WHEEL WELLS AND LANDING GEAR
EXTERNAL SKIN AREAS
ENGINE INLET AREAS
FUEL TANKS
PIANO HINGES
BILGE AREAS
LANDING GEAR BOXES
ENGINE MOUNT STRUCTURE
CONTROL CABLES
WELDED AREAS
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT

Types of Corrosion

INTERGRANULAR CORROSION

STRESS CORROSION - Stress corrosion cracking is an inter-granular cracking of

the metal which is caused by a combination of stress and corrosion. Stress may be
caused by internal or external loading. Internal stress are produced by non-uniform
deformation during cold working, by unequal cooling from high temperatures, and
by internal structural rearrangement involving volume changes.

FATIGUE CORROSION - Fatigue corrosion is caused by the combined effects

of cyclic stress and corrosion.

Electrode Potential of
Metals

ANODIC will give up electrons (corrode

easily)
CATHODIC least to corrode

TREATMENT OF
CORROSION

TREATMENT OF
CORROSION
Regardless of the type of corrosion or the
metal involved, corrosion treatment
requires three basic steps:
1.
2.
3.

Remove as much of the corrosion as

possible.
Neutralize any residual material.
Restore the protective surface film.

CORROSION
REMOVAL
~ All corrosion products must be removed as soon
as they are discovered, because corrosion
continues as long as the deposits remain on the
surface.
~ Corrosion under a paint film cannot be thoroughly
inspected without first removing all of the paint.
~ One thing to keep in mind is never use a caustic
paint remover.

CORROSION
REMOVAL
~ All corrosion products must be removed as soon
as they are discovered, because corrosion
continues as long as the deposits remain on the
surface.
~ Corrosion under a paint film cannot be thoroughly
inspected without first removing all of the paint.
~ One thing to keep in mind is never use a caustic
paint remover.

CORROSION
REMOVAL
~ When stripping large areas, spread a sheet
of polyethylene plastic over the wet paint
remover to slow its drying time.
~After all of the finish has swelled up and
broken away from the surface, it should be
rinsed off with hot water or with live steam.
A stiff nylon bristle brush may be required
around rivet heads and along seams to get
all of the stubborn paint that adheres to
these places

TREATMENT OF
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
~. Treatment includes the mechanical
removal of as much of the corrosion as
practicable, the neutralization of residual
materials by chemical means, and,
finally, the restoration of the permanent
surface coating.

TREATMENT OF
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
MECHANICAL CORROSION REMOVAL

~ After the paint is removed from a corroded area, all traces of

corrosion must be removed from the surface. Very mild
corrosion may be removed by using a neutral household
abrasive cleaner, such as Bon-Ami, but be sure that the
abrasive does not contain chlorine. Nylon scrubbers, such ( as
"ScotchBrite" pads, can also be used to remove mild corrosion.
More severe corrosion can be removed by brushing with
aluminum wool or with an aluminum wire brush. Under no
circumstances should you use a steel wire brush or steel wool
since traces of the steel can become embedded in the
aluminum and lead to severe corrosion

TREATMENT OF
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
MECHANICAL CORROSION REMOVAL
~ Blasting the surface with glass beads smaller than 500 mesh
can be used to remove corrosion from pits. After using
abrasives or brushing, examine the metal with a five- to tenpower magnifying glass to ensure that all traces of the
corrosion have been removed.
~Severely corroded aluminum alloys must be given more drastic
treatment to remove all corrosion. In these situations rotary
files or power grinders using rubber wheels impregnated
with aluminum oxide are used to grind out corrosion damage

TREATMENT OF
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
MECHANICAL CORROSION REMOVAL
~ After an examination with a five- or ten-power magnifying
glass shows no trace of corrosion remaining, remove about
two thousandths of an inch more material to be sure that the
ends of the intergranular cracks have been reached. Finish
by sanding the area smooth with 280-grit, then 400-grit,
sandpaper. Clean the area with solvent or an emulsion
cleaner, and neutralize the surface with an inhibitor.

TREATMENT OF
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
CHEMICAL NEUTRALIZATION
After removing all corrosion, treat the surface with a five
percent chromic acid solution to neutralize any remaining
corrosion salts. After the acid has been on the surface for at
least five minutes, it should be washed off with water and
allowed to dry.

TREATMENT OF
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
CHEMICAL NEUTRALIZATION
PROTECTIVE COATING

CLADDING

SURFACE OXIDE FILM

~ The process of applying an oxide film is performed in the
factories by an electrolytic process known as anodizing.
~ The anodizing process is an electrolytic treatment in which a
part is bathed in a lead vat containing a solution of chromic
acid and water. This process forms an oxide film on the part
that protects the alloy from further corrosion.

TREATMENT OF
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
CHEMICAL NEUTRALIZATION

SURFACE OXIDE FILM

~After the oxide film has formed, the part is washed in hot water and
air-dried. Aluminum treated by this process is not appreciably
affected with regard to its tensile strength, its weight, or its
dimensions
~ In addition to preventing corrosion, the anodic film produced by the
anodizing process also acts as an electrical insulator
~ When small parts are fabricated in the field, or when the protective
anodizing film has been damaged or removed, the part can have
a protective film applied through chemical rather than an
electrolytic process. This process is known as alodizing and uses
a chemical that meets specification MIL-C-5541 and is available
under several proprietary names, such as Alodine 1201.

TREATMENT OF
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
CHEMICAL NEUTRALIZATION

ORGANIC FILM

~ paint to have a rough surface to which it can adhere. An aluminum

surface is typically roughened with a mild chromic acid etch, or
by the formation of an oxide film through anodizing or alodizing.
~ The surface can also be mechanically roughened by carefully
sanding it with 400-grit sandpaper. When sandpaper is used, it is
absolutely imperative that every bit of sanding dust be removed
with a damp rag before the primer is applied. Shop rags or hand
towels obtained from a commercial service do not normally make
good rags for washing surfaces prior to painting. These rags,
though clean, frequently contain silicone or other surface
contaminants that are incompatible with finishing materials.

TREATMENT OF
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
CHEMICAL NEUTRALIZATION

~ After removing dust and contaminants, perform a final cleaning of

the surface with aliphatic naphtha or an approved prep solvent.
~ Zinc chromate primer has been used for years with laquer and
enamel. It is an inhibiting primer, meaning that the film is slightly
porous and water can enter it causing chromate ions to be
released and held on the surface of the metal.
~ A wash primer is used in aircraft factories for priming new aircraft
before they are painted. This two-part primer consists of a resin
and an alcohol-phosphoric acid catalyst.
~ Epoxy primers are one of the most popular primers for use
under polyurethane finishes because they provide maximum
corrosion protection

TREATMENT OF
FERROUS METALS
MECHANICAL CORROSION REMOVAL
Unlike aluminum, the oxide film that forms on ferrous metals is
porous and attracts moisture. Therefore, if any trace of iron oxide
remains on an iron alloy, it continues to convert the metal into
corrosion.
~The most effective method of removing rust is by mechanical
means. Abrasive paper and wire brushes can be used, but the
most thorough means of removing all corrosion from unplated
steel parts is by abrasive blasting. Abrasive blasting is typically
done using sand, aluminum oxide, or glass beads. If a part has
been plated, either with cadmium or with chromium, exercise
care to protect the plating, since it is usually impossible to restore
it in the field

TREATMENT OF
FERROUS METALS
MECHANICAL CORROSION REMOVAL
~ A fine stone, fine abrasive paper, or even pumice typically
works well. Wire brushes should not be used since they
cause minute scratches which can produce stress
concentrations that potentially weaken a part.
~ After all corrosion has been removed, any rough edges
caused by pitting must be faired with a fine stone, or with
400-grit abrasive paper. The surface should then be primed
as soon as possible.
~ Zinc chromate primer is used to protect most freshly cleaned
steel surfaces

TREATMENT OF
FERROUS METALS
SURFACE TREATMENT
NICKEL OR CHROME PLATING
This plating process produces an airtight coating over the
surface that excludes moisture from the base metal.
~There are two types of chrome plating used in aircraft con
struction: decorative and hard chrome
~ Decorative chrome is used primarily for its appearance and
surface protection, while hard chrome is used to form a
wear-resistant surface on piston rods, cylinder walls, and
other parts which are subject to abrasion.

TREATMENT OF
FERROUS METALS
SURFACE TREATMENT

CADMIUM PLATING

Almost all steel aircraft hardware is cadmium-plated. This soft,

silvery-gray metal is electroplated onto the steel to a
minimum thickness of 0.005 inch. It provides an attractive
finish as well as protection against corrosion
~ When the cadmium plating on a part is scratched through to
the steel, galvanic action takes place and the cadmium
corrodes.
~ similar to those which form on aluminum in that they are
dense, airtight, and watertight.

TREATMENT OF
FERROUS METALS
SURFACE TREATMENT
GALVANIZING
Steel parts such as firewalls are typically treated with a coating
of zinc in a process called galvanizing.
~ zinc corrodes and forms an airtight oxide film. Steel is
galvanized by passing it through vats of molten zinc and
then rolling it smooth through a series of rollers.

TREATMENT OF
FERROUS METALS
SURFACE TREATMENT

METAL SPRAYING

Aircraf1t engine cylinders are sometimes protected from

corrosion by spraying molten aluminum on their surface
~To accomplish this process, a steel cylinder barrel is sandblasted absolutely clean, then aluminum wire is fed into an
acetylene flame where the wire is melted and blown onto the
surface by high-pressure compressed air

TREATMENT OF
FERROUS METALS
SURFACE TREATMENT

ORGANIC COATINGS

~ Dry abrasive blasting typically removes all of the surface

oxides and roughens the surface enough to provide a good
bond for the paint. However, parts which have been
cadmium-plated must normally have their surface etched
with a five percent solution of chromic acid before the primer
adheres.

TREATMENT OF
MAGNESUIM ALLOYS
~Magnesium alloys do not naturally form a protective film on
their surfaces the way aluminum does, so special care must
be taken so that the chemical or electrolytic film applied dur
ing the manufacturing process is not destroyed

TREATMENT OF
MAGNESUIM ALLOYS
MECHANICAL REMOVAL OF CORROSION
~ Therefore, magnesium corrosion typically raises paint or, if it
forms between lap joints, it swells the joints. When corrosion
is found on a magnesium structure, all traces must be
removed and the surface treated to inhibit further corrosion.

TREATMENT OF
MAGNESUIM ALLOYS
MECHANICAL REMOVAL OF CORROSION
Since magnesium is anodic to almost all of the commonly used
aircraft structural metals, corrosion should not be removed with
metallic tools. Any metallic tool can leave contaminants embedded
in the metal that cause further damage. Therefore, stiff nonmetallic
bristle brushes or nylon scrubbers are used to remove corrosion. If
corrosion exists in the form of deep pits the corrosion must be cut
out with sharp carbide-tipped cutting tools or scrapers. If abrasive
blasting is used to remove corrosion from magnesium, use only
glass beads which have been used for nothing but magnesium.
Many engine parts are made of magnesium, and these parts require
special cleaning procedures. Because of the high temperatures
and contaminants in engine compartments, carbon deposits build
up on engine cases and become baked on. These contaminants
are removed through a process called decarbonization.

TREATMENT OF
MAGNESUIM ALLOYS
MECHANICAL REMOVAL OF CORROSION
A decarbonizing unit consists of a heated tank and a
decarbonizing agent, either water soluble or hydrocarbon
based. Parts are immersed in the heated liquid which
loosens the accumulated carbon. Complete removal,
however, sometimes requires brushing, scraping, or grit
blasting. Magnesium parts must not be placed in the decar
bonizing tank with steel parts, and metallic cleaning
materials such as brushes or abrasives are not to be used.

TREATMENT OF
MAGNESUIM ALLOYS
SURFACE TREATMENT
After all of the corrosion has been removed, a chromic acid
pickling solution, which conforms to MIL-M-3171A Type 1
(Dow No. 1), is applied. A satisfactory substitute for this
solution may be made by adding about 50 drops of sulfuric
acid to a gallon of 10 percent chromic acid solution. Apply
this to the surface with rags and allow it to stand for about
ten or fifteen minutes, then rinse the part thoroughly with hot
water.

CORROSION
PREVENTION
As stated earlier, the best way to prevent the formation of corrosion
is to eliminate one or more of its basic requirements. This is
typically done by removing the electrode potential difference
within the metal or preventing the introduction of an electrolyte.
DISSIMILAR METAL INSULATION
It is often necessary for different metals be held in contact with
each other. When this is the case, dissimilar metal or galvanic
corrosion can take place. In order to minimize this danger, the
areas to be joined are sprayed with two coats of zinc chromate
primer, and a strip of pressure-sensitive vinyl tape is placed
between the surfaces before they are assembled.