JIS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT

Computer Networks Lab (CS 692) Manual

Compiled By: Sainik Kumar Mahata and Sudipta Sahana

Syllabus

1. Familiarization with
Networking cables (CAT5, UTP)
Connectors (RJ45, T-connector)
Hubs, Switches, Router, Gateway
Basic Networking Commands(Windows/Linux)
2. Implementation of
Data Link Layer Error Detection Mechanism (Parity Check)
Data Link Layer Error Detection Mechanism (Cyclic Redundancy Check)
Data Link Layer Error Detection Mechanism (Check Sum)
3. TCP/UDP Socket Programming

EXPERIMENT NO. 1. Transmission Media

THEORY: There are 2 basic categories of Transmission Media:

Guided and Unguided.

Transmission Media - Guided

Guided Transmission Media uses a "cabling" system that guides the data signals along a specific
path.The data signals are bound by the "cabling" system. Guided Media is also known as Bound
Media.
Cabling is meant in a generic sense in the previous sentences and is not meant to be interpreted
ascopper wire cabling only.
The data signals are not bound to a cabling media and as such are often called Unbound Media.
There 4 basic types of Guided Media:
Open Wire
Twisted Pair
Coaxial Cable
Optical Fiber
Coaxial cables have a copper wire running through the middle encased in plastic insulation. The
plastic insulation is itself encased in a metal braid which is covered by an outer layer of plastic
insulator. The electrical signals run through the central wire and the metal braid acts as both an
earth and as a shield against electromagnetic interference.Coaxial cables are connected to
devices by means of a special plug with a bayonet connection. This is called a BNC plug.

Fig: A BNC connector on a network card

Cable Type Bandwidth
Open Cable 0 - 5 MHz
Twisted Pair 0 - 100 MHz
Coaxial Cable 0 - 600 MHz
Optical Fiber 0 - 1 GHz

Transmission Media - Unguided

Unguided Transmission Media consists of a means for the data signals to travel but nothing to
guidethem along a specific path. Unguided Transmission Media is data signals that flow through
the air. They are not guided or bound to a channel to follow. They are classified by the type of
wave propagation.
RF Propagation
There are 3 types of RF (Radio Frequency) Propagation:
Ground Wave,

 Ionospheric and
Line of Sight (LOS) Propagation.

EXPERIMENT NO. 2: CABLES

To transmit the data the medium must exist, usually in the form of cables or wireless media.
Here are some most commonly used cable types.
1. Thick Coaxial Cables (thick net) (RG-11)
This cable is mostly used as backbone cable, distributing Ethernet signal through out a building,
an office complex or other large installation. every 2.5-meter to allow taps into the cable.
2. Thin coaxial cables (thin net) (RG-58)
RG-58 is typically used for wiring laboratories and offices, or another small group of computers.
The maximum length of thin wire Ethernet segment is 185 meters, Which is due to the nature of
the CSMA/CD method of operation, the cable attenuation, and the speed at which signals
propagate inside the coax. The length is limited to guarantee that collision is detected when
machines that are apart transmit at the same time.
3. Twisted pair cables
Twisted pair is probably the most widely used cabling system in Ethernet in networks. Two
copper wires twist around each other to form the twisted pair cable. Depending on category
several insulated wire strands can reside in the cable. Twisted pair is available in two basic types
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
Unshielded Twisted Pair
Mostly the UTP is used. A twisted pair segment cant exceed 100 meters. This limitation is the
only drawback to twisted pair. Twisted pair is used for 10/100 based Ethernet networks. UTP
cables are wired as straight through or crossover cables. Straight through cables typically connect
the computers networks interface cant to be a port on the hub. Crossover cables are used for
NIC to communication and for hub-to-hub connections when no crossover port is available
UTP CATAGORIES
CATEGORY
1
2

DESCRIPTOR

Used for voice

Contains four twisted pair and a data transmission up to 4 Mbps. Used for
some token ring network.
3
Contains four twisted pair and a data transmission up to 10 Mbps. Used for
some token ring network.
4
Contains four twisted pair and a data transmission up to 16 Mbps. Used for
some token ring network.
5
Contains four twisted pair and a data transmission up to 100 Mbps. Used for
some token ring network.
Shielded Twisted Pair
It is 150 cable containing additional shielding that protects signals against electromagnetic
Interference (EMI) produced by electric motors power lines etc. It is primarily used in Token
Ring Network & where UTP cable would provide insufficient protection against interface.
4. Fiber Optic.

Fiber Optic relies on pulsed as light to carry information. Two types of plastic or glass with
different physical properties are used (the inner core and the outer cladding) to allow a beam of
light to reflect off the boundary between the core and cladding. Some fiber optic cables allow
many different paths other allow one single mode.
REPEATER
A Repeater is a purely electrical device that extends maximum distance a LAN cable can span by
Amplifying signals passing through it. A Repeater connects two segments and broadcasts
packets between them. Since signal loss is a factor in the maximum length of a segment, a
Repeater is used to amplify the signal and extend the usable length. A common Ethernet rule is
that no more than four repeaters may be used to join segments together. This is a physical
limitation designed to keep collision detection working properly. Repeaters operate at layer 1
(Physical layer) of the OSI model.
BRIDGES
This networks bridge provides an inexpensive and easy way to connect network segments. A
bridge provides Amplification function of a repeater plus, ability to select filter packets based on
their addresses. When network grows in size, it is often necessary to partition it in to smaller
group of nodes to help isolate traffic and improve performance. One way to do this is to use
bridge, the operation of it is to keep one segment traffic to that side and other side will cross the
bridge, The bridge learns which packets should cross it as it is used.

ROUTERS
A router is a device that connects two LANs together to form an inter-network. A router is the
basic building block of the Internet. Each router connects two or more networks together by
providing an interface for an Ethernet network and ring network to which it is connected. The
router examines each packet of information to detection weather the packet must be translated
form on one network to another network performing a function similar to a bridge. Unlike a
bridge, a router can connect network that use different technologies, addressing methods, media
type, frame format and speeds. A router is a special purpose device designed to interconnect
networks. Such that three networks can be connected using two routers. Routers maintain routing
tables in their memories to store information about the physical connection on the network; the
router examines each packet of data, checks the routing table and then forwards the packet if
necessary. Every other router in the path (between any state destinations) performs a similar
procedure. Note that a router does not maintain any state information about the packets; it simply
moves them along the network. Routers are operated at layer 3(network) of OSI model.
GATEWAYS
A node on a network that serves as an entrance to another network. In enterprises, the gateway
node often acts as a proxy server and a firewall. The gateway is also associated with both a
switch, which provides the actual path for the packet in and out of the gateway. It is also known
as a computer system located on earth that switches data signals and voice signals between
satellites and terrestrial networks. A gateway can operate at any layer of the OSI/RM. The hob of
a gateway, also called a protocol converter, is much more complex than that of a router or
switch. Typically a gateway must convert from one protocol stack to another.An Application
Level Gateway provide much stricter form of security that packet filters, but they are designed to

regulate access only for a particular application. TANSCEIVERS A transceiver converts from
one media type to another. It is common to use more than one media type an installation, so
many different kinds of transceivers are available.
HUBS
Hubs are also called concentrators; expand one Ethernet connection into many. For example, a
four-port hub connects up to four machines via UTP cables. The hub provides a star connection
for the four ports. One pot is desired to operate in either straight through or crossover mode,
selected by a switch on the hub. Hubs that can connect in this fashion are called stackable hubs.
A hub is similar to a repeater, expect it broadcasts data received by any port to all other ports on
the hub. Most hubs contain a small amount of intelligence as well. Examining received packets
and checking them for integrity. If a bad packet arrives or the hub determines that a port is
unreliable. It will shut down the line under the error condition is appears. The hub also acts like a
repeater.
There are three types of HUB-passive hub, active hub and intelligent hub. The Passive hubs do
not process data signals with only purpose to combine the signal form several networks cables
segments. All devices attached to the passive hub receive another packets that pass through the
hub .Hub does not clear up or amplify the signals, on the contrary absorbs a small part of the
signals that is why the distance between a hub and a computer should not be more than half of
the permissible distance between two computers. Passive hubs have limited functionality so are
inexpensive and easy to configure. It has four ports with four BNC (British Naval Connectors)
female connectors to configure networks station or terminated with a 93 BNC Terminator. The
active hubs incorporate electronic components that amplify and cleanup the signals, that flaw
between devices on the network. The process of cleaning up signal is called signal
regeneration. The benefits of signals regeneration are:
A network is more robust i.e. less sensitive errors.
Distance between devices can be increased.
Active hubs cost is considerable more than passive hub (active hub function impart as multiport
repeaters). Intelligent hubs are enhanced active hubs the following functions add intelligence to a
hub. Intelligent Hubs are units have form of integrated management capability. Hub
Management A hub supports networks network management protocols that enable the hub to
send packets to central network console. Theses protocols enable network console to manage or
control hub. Switching hubs include circuitry that quickly routes signals between ports on the
hub. Insured of repeating a packet to all ports on the hub, it repeats a packet only to the port that
connects to the destination computer for the packet.
SWITCHES
It is similar to a bridge, with some important enhancement. First, as witch may have multiple
ports, thus directing packets to several different segments further partitioning and isolating
network traffic in as way similar to router. For ex., if 8-port n way switch is there it can route
packets from any input to any output. Some or all of incoming packet is called store and forward,
which stores the received packet before examining it to for error before retransmitting. Bad
packets are not forwarded. A switch typically has auto-sensing 10/100 mbps ports and will just
the speed of each port accordingly; furthermore, a managed switch supports SNMP for further
control over network traffic. Switches operated at layer 2 (Data Link) of OSI model

EXPERIMENT 3. List of few basic Commands and its action

Command

Action/Display

ls
ls a
ls l
ls t
adduser
passwd
date
date +%m
date +%h
cal
who
ps
command > filename
cat > filename
cat >> filename
cat filename
wc filename
command1 | command2
echo $PATH

List filenames present in the directory

All filenames including those beginning with a dot
Long listing in ASCII collating sequence
Filenames sorted by last modification time
Create user
Change password of current user
Shows the date and time in the form used on the Internet
Shows the current month number
Shows the current month name
Shows the calendar for the current month
Users of the system
Shows all processes
Direct output to a file
Creates file with the name specified
Append in the file
Shows the file content
Shows the number of lines, words, characters of a file
Output of command1 works as input to command2 (pipes)
Sequence of directories that the shell searches to look for a
command
Documentation of the command
Displays the message
Filename of the terminal user is using
Shows home directory
Shows current directory
Creates directory
Changes the current directory to the directory specified
Returns to home directory
Removes directory specified
Copies file1 to file2
Delete file
Rename file1 to file2
Two files are compared byte by byte, location of first
mismatch is displayed
Shows the common content of two files(third column)
Compress the file
Decompress the file
Creates an archieve containing file1 file2
Extracts file from archieve
Compress and creates archieve
Decompress and extracts file from archieve
Change the permission of the file
Displays the first few lines of a file content(first 10 lines
when without any option)
Displays the last few lines of a file content(last 10 lines by
default)
Cut columns specified of a file and displays

man command
echo message
tty
echo $HOME
pwd
mkdir dirname
cd dirname
cd
rmdir dirname
cp file1 file2
rm filename
mv file1 fil2
cmp file1 file2
comm file1 file2
gzip filename
gunzip zipfile
tar cvf filename.tar file1 file2
tar xvf filename.tar
zip filename.zip file1 file2
unzip filename.zip
chmod permission filename
head filename
tail filename
cut c columns filename

sort filename
grep option pattern filename(s)

Arranges data in ascending/descending order

Searches for pattern in file and displays the lines containing
that pattern

ERROR DETECTION:
Error detection uses the concept of redundancy, which means adding extra bits for detecting errors at the
destination.

A parity bit, or check bit, is a bit added to the end of a string of binary code that indicates
whether the number of bits in the string with the value one is even or odd. Parity bits are used as
the simplest form of error detecting code.
There are two variants of parity bits: even parity bit and odd parity bit. In case of even parity,
the parity bit is set to 1 if the count of ones in a given set of bits (not including the parity bit) is
odd, making the count of ones in the entire set of bits (including the parity bit) even. If the count
of ones in a given set of bits is already even, it is set to a 0. When using odd parity, the parity bit
is set to 1 if the count of ones in a given set of bits (not including the parity bit) is even, making
the count of ones in the entire set of bits (including the parity bit) odd. When the count of set bits
is odd, then the odd parity bit is set to 0.
In parity check, a parity bit is added to every data unit so that the total number of 1s is even
(or odd for odd-parity).
Even-parity concept

EXPERIMENT 4. Write a program in C to implement for 1D parity check Error Detection

Scheme.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int i,n,r,a[20],b[20],even_parity_bit,odd_parity_bit,sum,check_parity;
printf("\n\nSender side\n");
printf("Enter the number of bits ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter the data ");
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
printf("Odd parity\n");
sum=0;
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
sum=sum+a[i];
if(sum%2==0)
odd_parity_bit=1;
else
odd_parity_bit=0;
printf("\nData to be trasmitted\n");
a[n+1]=odd_parity_bit;
for(i=1;i<=n+1;i++)
printf("%d",a[i]);
printf("\n\nReceiver side\n");
printf("\nEnter the number of bits received ");
scanf("%d",&r);
printf("\nEnter the data received ");
for(i=1;i<=r;i++)
scanf("%d",&b[i]);
sum=0;
for(i=1;i<=r-1;i++)
sum=sum+b[i];
if(sum%2==0)
check_parity=1;
else
check_parity=0;
if(check_parity==b[r])
{
printf("No error\n");

printf("Original data\n");
for(i=1;i<r;i++)
printf("%d",b[i]);
}
else
printf("\nSingle bit error");
getch();
}

A checksum is a simple type of redundancy check that is used to detect errors in data.
Errors frequently occur in data when it is written to a disk, transmitted across a network or
otherwise manipulated. The errors are typically very small, for example, a single incorrect bit,
but even such small errors can greatly affect the quality of data, and even make it useless.
In its simplest form, a checksum is created by calculating the binary values in a packet or other
block of data using some algorithm and storing the results with the data. When the data is
retrieved from memory or received at the other end of a network, a new checksum is calculated
and compared with the existing checksum. A non-match indicates an error; a match does not
necessarily mean the absence of errors, but only that the simple algorithm was not able to detect
any.

EXPERIMENT 5. Write a program in C to implement Checksum Error Detection Scheme.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<math.h>
int sender(int b[10],int k)
{
int checksum,sum=0,i;
printf("\n****SENDER****\n");
for(i=0;i<k;i++)
{
sum+=b[i];
printf("SUM IS: %d\n",sum);
}
checksum=~sum;
printf("\nSENDER's CHECKSUM IS:%d",checksum);
return checksum;
}
int receiver(int k,int scheck)
{
int checksum,sum=0,i,c[10];
printf("\n\n****RECEIVER****\n");
printf("enter the elements: \n");
for(i=0;i<k;i++)
scanf("%d",&c[i]);
for(i=0;i<k;i++)
sum+=c[i];
printf(" RECEIVER SUM IS:%d",sum);
sum=sum+scheck;
checksum=~sum;
printf("\nRECEIVER's CHECKSUM IS:%d",checksum);
return checksum;
}
main()
{
int a[10],i,m,scheck,rcheck;
printf("\nENTER SIZE OF THE STRING:");
scanf("%d",&m);
printf("enter the elements: \n");
for(i=0;i<m;i++)
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
scheck=sender(a,m);
rcheck=receiver(m,scheck);
if(rcheck==0)
printf("\n\nNO ERROR IN TRANSMISSION\n\n");
else
printf("\n\nERROR DETECTED");

getch();
}

A cyclic redundancy check (CRC) is an error-detecting code commonly used in digital

networks and storage devices to detect accidental changes to raw data. Blocks of data entering
these systems get a short check value attached, based on the remainder of a polynomial division
of their contents; on retrieval the calculation is repeated, and corrective action can be taken
against presumed data corruption if the check values do not match.
CRCs are so called because the check (data verification) value is a redundancy (it expands the
message without adding information) and the algorithm is based on cyclic codes. CRCs are
popular because they are simple to implement in binary hardware, easy to analyze
mathematically, and particularly good at detecting common errors caused by noise in
transmission channels. Because the check value has a fixed length, the function that generates it
is occasionally used as a hash function.
CRC generator and checker

Binary division in a CRC generator

Binary division in CRC checker

EXPERIMENT 6. Write a program in C to implement Cyclic Redundancy Check Error

Detection Scheme.
#include<stdlib.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int i,j,n,g,a,arr[20],gen[20],b[20],q[20],s,l[20];
printf("Transmitter side:");
printf("\nEnter no. of data bits:");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter data:\n");
for(i=0;i< n;i++)
scanf("%d",&arr[i]);
printf("Enter size of generator:");
scanf("%d",&g);
printf("Enter generator:\n");
for(j=0;j< g;j++)
scanf("%d",&gen[j]);

printf("\nThe generator matrix:");

for(j=0;j< g;j++)
printf("%d",gen[j]);
a=n+(g-1);
printf("\nThe appended matrix is:");
for(i=0;i< j;++i)
arr[n+i]=0;
for(i=0;i< a;++i)
printf("%d",arr[i]);
for(i=0;i< n;++i)
q[i]= arr[i];
for(i=0;i< n;++i)
{
if(arr[i]==0)
{
for(j=i;j< g+i;++j)
arr[j] = arr[j]^0;

}
else
{
arr[i] = arr[i]^gen[0];
arr[i+1]=arr[i+1]^gen[1];
arr[i+2]=arr[i+2]^gen[2];
arr[i+3]=arr[i+3]^gen[3];
}
}
printf("\nThe CRC is :");
for(i=n;i<a;++i)
printf("%d",arr[i]);
s=n+a;
for(i=n;i< s;i++)
q[i]=arr[i];
printf("\n");
printf("The data that is sent to the receiver side is:");
for(i=0;i< a;i++)
printf("%d",q[i]);
printf("\n");

printf("****************************************************************\nReceive
r side:");
printf("\nEnter the data that is sent along with the Cyclic Redundancy Code:" );
for(i=0;i<n+(g-1);i++)
scanf("%d",&q[i]);

for(i=0;i< n;++i)
{
if(q[i]==0)
{
for(j=i;j< g+i;++j)
q[j] = q[j]^0;
}
else
{
q[i] = q[i]^gen[0];
q[i+1]=q[i+1]^gen[1];
q[i+2]=q[i+2]^gen[2];
q[i+3]=q[i+3]^gen[3];
}

}
printf("\n\tThe CRC is :");
for(i=n;i < a;++i)
printf("%d",q[i]);
getch();
return 0;
}

EXPERIMENT 7. Write a program in C to implement socket in the client side

#include<sys/socket.h>
#include<netinet/in.h>
#include<stdio.h>
#include<unistd.h>
#include<string.h>
#define Max 100
#define Server_Addr 127.0.0.1
#define Server_port 15555
#define Client_Addr 127.0.0.1
#define Client_port 16655
main()
{
int sockfd,servlen,n;
struct sockaddr_in servaddr, cliaddr;
char line[Max];
bzero((char *)&servaddr,sizeof(servaddr));
servaddr.sin_family=AF_LOCAL;
servaddr.sin_addr.s_addr=inet_addr(Server_Addr);
servaddr.sin_port=htons(Server_port);
bzero((char *)&cliaddr,sizeof(cliaddr));
cliaddr.sin_family=AF_INET;
cliaddr.sin_addr.s_addr=inet_addr(Client_Addr);
cliaddr.sin_port=htons(Client_port);
sockfd=socket(AF_INET,SOCK_DGRAM,0);
bind(sockfd,(struct sockaddr *)&cliaddr,sizeof(cliaddr));
printf(\n Bound local port successfully \n);
do
{
printf(\n Enter the string to send to server: );
scanf(%s,line);
sendto(sockfd,line,strlen(line)+1,0,(struct sockaddr *)&servaddr,servlen);
printf(\n Data sent: %s \n,line);
}
while(strcmp(line,quit));
printf(\n Closing connection with server \n);
close(sockfd);
}

EXPERIMENT 8. Write a program in C to implement socket in the server side

#include<string.h>
#include<sys/socket.h>
#include<netinet/in.h>
#include<stdio.h>
#include<unistd.h>
#define Max 100
#define Server_Addr 127.0.0.1
#define Server_port 15555
#define Client_Addr 127.0.0.1
#define Client_port 16655
main()
{
int sockfd,len,clilen,n;
struct sockaddr_in cliaddr, servaddr;
char mesg[Max];
bzero((char *)&servaddr,sizeof(servaddr));
servaddr.sin_family=AF_LOCAL;
servaddr.sin_addr.s_addr=inet_addr(Server_Addr);
servaddr.sin_port=htons(Server_port);
bzero((char *)&cliaddr,sizeof(cliaddr));
servaddr.sin_addr.s_addr=inet_addr(Client_Addr);
sockfd=socket(AF_INET,SOCK_DGRAM,0);
printf(\n Successfully created socket \n);
bind(sockfd,(struct sockaddr *)&servaddr,sizeof(servaddr));
bind(sockfd,(struct sockaddr *)&servaddr,sizeof(servaddr));
printf(\n local port successfully bound \n);
printf(waiting\n);
while(1)
{
memset(mesg,0x0,Max)
clilen=sizeof(cliaddr);
n=recvfrom(sockfd,mesg,MAX,0,(struct sockaddr *)&cliaddr,&clilen);
printf(\n data received: %s,mesg);
}
}