Traffic flow elements

The time-space diagram is

a graph that describes the
relationship between the
location of vehicles in a
traffic stream and the
time as the vehicles
progress along the
highway. Figure 6.1 shows
a time-space diagram for
six vehicles, with distance
plotted on the vertical
axis and time on the
horizontal axis, At time
zero, vehicles 1, 2, 3, and
4 are at respective
distances d1, d2, d3, and
d4 from a reference point,
whereas vehicles 5 and 6,
cross the reference point
later at times t5 and t6
respectively.

 The

primary elements of traffic flow are:

flow, density, and speed. Another element
associated with density, is the gap or
headway between two vehicles in traffic.
The definitions of these elements follow.
Flow (q) is the equivalent hourly rate at which
vehicles pass a point on a highway during a
time period less than 1 hr.
It can be determined by
n 3600
vph
q=
T
Where:

n = the number of vehicles passing a

point in the roadway in T secs; q = the
equivalent hourly flow.
.

 Density (k) ( concentration,)

is the number of vehicles traveling

over a unit
length of highway at an instant in time. The unit
length is usually 1 mile thereby making vehicles
per mile (vpm) the unit of density.
Speed (u) is the distance traveled by a vehicle
during a unit of time. It can be expressed in
miles per hour (mph), kilometers per hour
(km/h), or feet per second (ft/sec). The speed of
a vehicle at any time t is the slope of the timespace diagram for that vehicle at time t. Vehicles
1 and 2 in Figure 6.1, for example, are moving at
a constant speed because the slopes of the
associated graphs are constant. Vehicle 3 moves
at a constant speed between time zero and time
t3, then stops for the period t3 to t3(the slope of
the graph equals zero), and then accelerates and
eventually moves at a constant speed

Cont

There are two types of mean speeds: time

mean speed and space mean speed.
Time mean speed ( u ) is the arithmetic mean
of the speeds of vehicles passing a point on a
highway during an interval of time. The time
1 n
mean speed is found by

ut

u
i 1

Where: n =number of vehicles passing a point

on the highway; ui = speed of the ith vehicle
(ft/sec)

 Space

mean speed ( ) is the harmonic mean of

the speeds of vehicles passing a point in a
highway during an interval of time. It is obtained
by dividing the total distance traveled by two or
more vehicles on a section of highway by the total
time required by these vehicles to travel that
distance. This is the speed that is involved in flowdensity relationships. The space mean speed is
n
nL

found by
us
n
n

i 1

t
i 1

s
Where:
= space mean speed (ft/sec); n = number of
vehicles; ti = the time it takes the ith vehicle to travel across
a section of highway (see); Ui =speed of the ith vehicle
(ft/sec); L = length of section of highway (ft)

Time headway (h) is the difference between

the time the front of a vehicle arrives at a
point on the highway and the time the front
of the next vehicle arrives at that same
point. Time headway is usually expressed in
seconds. For example, in the time-space
diagram (Figure 6.1), the time headway
between vehicles 3 and 4 at d1 is h3-4.
Space headway (d) is the distance between
the front of a vehicle and the front of the
following vehicle. It is usually expressed in
feet. The space headway between vehicles 3
and 4 at time t5 is d3-4 (see Figure 6.1).

Flow-density relationships

The general equation relating flow, density, and

space mean speed is given as
Flow = (density) x (space mean speed)
Each of the variables in Eq. 3.5 also depends on
several other factors, including the characteristics
of the roadway, the characteristics of the vehicle,
the characteristics of the driver, and
environmental factors such as the weather.
Other relationships that exist among the traffic flow
variables are given below.
Space mean speed = (flow) x (space
headway)

qd

Where: d = (1/ k) = average space headway

Density = (flow) x (travel time for unit

k qt
distance)
Where: is the average time for unit distance
Average space headway = (space mean
speed) x (average time headway)
d us h

Average time headway = (average travel

time for unit distance) x (average space
headway)
h td

Fundamental diagrams of traffic flow

The relationship between the density (veh/mi) and the
corresponding flow of traffic on a highway is generally
referred to as the fundamental diagram of traffic
flow
1.When the density on the highway is 0, the flow is also 0
because there are no vehicles on the highway.
2. As the density increases, the flow also increases.
3. However, when the density reaches its maximum,
generally referred to as the jam density (kj), the flow
must be 0 because vehicles will tend to line up end to
end.
4. It follows that as density increases from 0, the
flow will also initially increase from 0 to a maximum
value. Further continuous increase in density will then
result in continuous reduction of the flow, which will
eventually be 0 when the density is equal to the jam
density.

Flow = (density) x (space mean speed)

Mathematical relationships describing traffic flow can

be classified into two general Categories :
-macroscopic
-microscopicdepending on the approach used in the development
of these relationships.
The macroscopic approach considers :
flow -density relationships,
whereas the microscopic approach considers:
spacings between vehicles and speed of
individual vehicles.

Macroscopic approach
The macroscopic approach considers traffic streams and develops
algorithms that relate the flow to the density and space mean
speeds.
The two most commonly used macroscopic models are :

Green shields

Greenberg models.

Green shields Model. Green shields

carried out one of the earliest recorded
works, in which he studied the relationship
between speed and density. He
hypothesized that a linear relationship
existed between speed and density,
which he expressed as

us u f

u
k

..eq.1
Corresponding relationships for flow and
density and for flow and speed can be
developed. Since substituting , for k in Eq.
1 gives
q u sk

eq.2
Also substituting
for
in Eq. 6.11 gives
us

u f .us

q
k

q uf k

u
k

f
j

u
k

u
2

..eq.3

Greenberg Model. Several researchers have

used the analogy of fluid flow to develop
macroscopic relationships for traffic flow.
One of the major contributions using the
fluid-flow analogy was developed by
Greenberg ink the form
u c ln k
..4
j

q ck ln

..5

Differentiating q with respect to k, we obtain

dq
k j c
c ln
dk
k

For maximum flow

d
d

q
k

0, ln

k
k

Cont..
Giving

ln k 1ln k
j

1
isln k
k
in eq. 4 gives
u0 c

That

ln 1 for
and substituting
k
j

Thus, the value of c is the speed at maximum

flow.

Model Application

Use of these macroscopic models depends on whether they satisfy the

boundary criteria of the fundamental diagram of traffic flow at the region that
describes the traffic conditions.

For example, the Green shields model satisfies the boundary conditions when
the density k is approaching zero as well as when the density is approaching the
jam density kj.

The Greenshields model therefore can be used for light or dense traffic.
The Greenberg model, on the other hand, satisfies the boundary conditions
when the density is approaching the jam density, but it does not satisfy the
boundary conditions when k is approaching zero. The Greenberg model is
therefore useful only for dense traffic conditions

The traffic models discussed thus far can be used to

determine specific characteristics
Calibration of Macroscopic Traffic Flow Models-

such as the speed and density at which maximum flow

occurs and the jam density of a facility.
This usually involves collecting appropriate data on the
particular facility of interest and fitting the data points
obtained to a suitable model.
The most common method of approach is regression
analysis. This is done by minimizing the squares of the
differences between the observed and the expected values
of a dependent variable

Cont

When the dependent variable is linearly

related to the independent variable, the
process is known as linear regression
analysis, and when the relationship is
with two or more independent variables,
the process is known as multiple linear
regression analysis.

If a dependent variable y and an

independent variable x are related by an
estimated regression function, then
Y= a + bx

The constants a and b could be

determined from
n

Where:

1
b
a y xi y b x
n i 1 i n i 1
and
1

x
i yi
n
i 1
n

x y
i

i 1

x
i
n
i 1
n

i 1
2

xi

i 1

n=
number of sets
of
observations;
xi = ith
observation for
x; yi = ith
observation for
y

Cont..

A measure commonly used to determine the

suitability of an estimated regression function
is the coefficient of determination (or square
of the estimated correlation coefficient)
,
R
which is given by
y y
2

i 1
n

yi y
i 1

Where: Yi is the value of the dependent

variable as computed from the regression
equations.
The closer R is to 1, the better the
regression fit.

shock waves
streams

in

traffic

Discontinuity ( difference in flow region)

Example-bridge area , traffic signal control,
junction, reduction in the number of lanes ,
accident, etc.
Flow = Concentration *
q=
u=
k=

Speed
k*u
q/k
q/u

Discontinuities:
As vehicles join rear of queue (backward
forming shockwave) and
As vehicles are discharged on green
(Backward recovery shockwave)
At the stop line during the red phase
(Frontal stationary shock wave)
Case where demand is constant and
capacity varies over time, an isolated
single restriction (Bottleneck) with
no entrances and exit in the
congested region

Flow, speed and density change over space

and time
This is more or less a continuous process
When flow, speed and density change from
one state to another, the boundary of
this change is called a shock wave
Examples:
high speed vehicles approach a queue of slow
moving
Vehicles
signalized intersection
vehicles with low speed make a queue
different types of bottlenecks

Shock wave movements

Forward discontinuity propagating downstream in the same
direction of moving traffic
Stationary shockwave remains at the same position in space
Backward discontinuity propagating upstream in the opposite
direction of moving traffic
Forming shockwave propagation of shockwave is
resulting in the increase of the congested portion over time
Recovery shockwave - propagation of shockwave is
resulting in the decrease of the congested portion over time
Frontal/Rearthe shockwave is at the downstream/upstream
edge of the congested region

Classification of Shockwaves
Frontal Stationary: always present at bottleneck
locations (Demand exceed capacity)
Cause:
Recurrent situations: peak period demand
exceeding capacity at specific locations
Non-recurrent: normal demand exceeds
reduced capacity (accident or incident)
Backward Forming: always present if
congestion occurs
Area in time-space domain where excess
demand is being stored
Time-space domain to the left of this shockwave
has lower
densities, and higher to the right

Rear stationary:
May occur when arriving traffic demand is
equal to flow in the congested region for
some period of time
Higher densities downstream and lower
densities further upstream of the shockwave
location
Backward Recovery:
Encountered when congestion has occurred
but then due to increased bottleneck capacity
the discharge rate exceeds the flow rate
within the congested region
The congested region is to the left of the
shockwave and free-flow conditions are to the
right

Forward

Forming:
Not too common !!
Congestion is gradually extending to
sections farther and farther
downstream
Example: as trucks proceed along an
upgrade, their speeds are inhibited and a
forward forming shockwave results
Time-space domain to the left of this
shockwave has lower densities, and higher
to the right

Velocity of Shock Waves

Velocity of Shock Waves

With

r1

(u1 u w)

U1 equal speed of vehicles in the area with

density kl (section P), the speed of the vehicle in
this area relative to the line w is
The number of vehicles crossing line w from area
P during a time period t is

N u k t
1

r1

Similarly,

the speed of vehicles in the area

with density k2 (section Q) relative to w is

r2

(u 2 u w)

And

the number of vehicles crossing line w

during a time period t is

Since

u k t
N
the net change is zero
2

r2

N N
(u u ) k t (u u ) k t
u k u k u (k k )
1

 If

the flow rates in sections P and Q are ql and q2,

respectively, then

q u k ,q u k
2

Substituting

6.31 gives
is ,

Which

ql and q2 for k1u1 and k2u2 in Eg.

q q u (k k )
2

That

q
k

2
2

q
k

1
1

is also the slope of the line CD shown in

Figure 6.7. This indicates that the velocity of the
shock wave created by a sudden change of density
from kl to k2 on a traffic stream is the slope of the
chord joining the points associated with kl and k2
on the volume density curve for that traffic stream.

Gap and gap acceptance

An important aspect of traffic flow is the
interaction of vehicles as they join, leave,
or cross a traffic stream.
Examples of these include ramp vehicles
merging onto an expressway stream,
freeway vehicles leaving the freeway onto
frontage roads, and the changing of lanes
by vehicles on a multilane highway.

Following are the important measures that

involve the concept of gap acceptance
Merging

is the process by which a vehicle in one

traffic stream joins another traffic stream moving
in the same direction, such as a ramp vehicle
joining a freeway stream.
Diverging is the process by which a vehicle in a
traffic stream leaves that traffic stream, such as a
vehicle leaving the outside lane of an expressway.
Weaving is the process by which a vehicle first
merges into a stream of traffic, obliquely crosses
that stream, and then merges into a second
stream moving in the same direction; for example,
the maneuver required for a ramp vehicle to join
the far side stream of flow on an expressway.

Cont
Gap

is the headway in a major stream, which is

evaluated by a vehicle driver in a minor stream
who wishes to merge into the major stream. It is
expressed either in units of time (time gap) or in
units of distance (space gap).
Time lag is the difference between the time a
vehicle that merges into a main traffic stream
reaches a point on the highway in the area of
merge and the time a vehicle in the main stream
reaches the same point.
Space lag is the difference, at an instant of time,
between the distance a merging vehicle is away
from a reference point in the area of merge and
the distance a vehicle in the main stream is away
from the same point.

A driver who intends to merge must first

evaluate the gaps that become available to
determine which gap (if any) is large
enough to accept the vehicle, in his or her
opinion.
In accepting that gap, the driver feels that he
or she will be able to complete the merging
maneuver and safely join the main stream
within the length of the gap.
This phenomenon generally is referred to as
gap acceptance

Queuing Analysis
Delay is a more understated concept. It may
be defined as the difference between the
actual travel time on a given segment and
some ideal travel time of that segment.
This raises the question as to what is the ideal travel time. In
practice, the ideal travel time chosen will depend on the
situation; in general, however, there are two particular
travel times that seem best suited as benchmarks for
comparison with the actual performance of the system.
These are the travel time under free flow
conditions and travel time at capacity.

When demand exceeds capacity for a

period of time or an arrival time headway is
less than the service time (at the
microscopic level) at a specific location, a
queue is formed.
The queue may be a moving queue or a
stopped queue. Essentially, excess
vehicles are stored upstream of the
bottleneck or service area, and their
departure is delayed to a later time period.

There

are numerous examples of

queuing processes in highway systems,
such as at intersections, toll plazas, parking
facilities, freeway bottlenecks,incident
sites, merge areas, and behind slowmoving vehicles.
Queuing processes occur in all transportation
modes and in everyday situations,
such as at grocery checkout counters,
bank teller windows,
and at restaurants.

Queuing analysis can be employed for

deterministic or stochastic processes:

Deterministic: if both the arrival and

service times of each vehicle are known
Stochastic: if either the arrival distribution
and/or service distribution are probabilistic
(the exact arrival and/or service time of
each vehicle is unknown)

The input requirements for queuing analysis

include:

Mean arrival value/rate

Arrival Distribution
Mean service value/rate
Service distribution
Queue Discipline

Oversaturated Queues: arrival rate >

service rate
Under saturated Queues: arrival rate <
service rate

For the analysis of a queue system

Mean

arrival rate is rate at which

customers arrive at a service facility.
It is expressed in flow (customers/hr or
vehicles/hour) or time headway
(seconds/customer or seconds/vehicle). If
inter arrival
time that is time headway (h)

is known, the arrival rate can be found out

from the equation:
where
is in
3600

veh/hr
h

Mean service rate is the rate at which

customers/vehicles
depart
from
a
transportation facility.
It is expressed in flow (customers/hr or
vehicles/hour)
or
time
headway
(seconds/customer or seconds/veh. If inter
service time that is time headway (h) is
known, the service rate can be found out

3600
from the equation: where
is
in
veh/hr
h

The number of servers that are being utilized

should be specified and in the manner they
work that is they work as parallel servers or
series servers has to be specified

Deterministic Queuing
Analysis

Can be undertaken at two different levels of

detail:
Macroscopic:
arrival and service patterns are considered

continuous
normally selected when the arrival and service
rates are high

Microscopic:
arrival and service patterns are considered discrete
normally selected when the arrival and service rates
are low

Two measures of performance for time

duration of
queue:
time duration of queue and
percent time queue is present

the

analysis of delay normally focuses on

delay that results when demand exceeds
its capacity;
such delay is known as queuing delay, and
may be studied by means of queuing
theory
This theory involves the analysis of what is
known as a queuing system, which is
composed of a server; a stream of
customers, who demand service; and a
queue, or line of customers waiting to be
served.

system

Components of a basic queuing

 Queue

discipline is a parameter that explains how the

customers arrive at a service facility.
The various types of queue disciplines are:
First in first out (FIFO) If the customers are served
in the order of their arrival, then this is known as the
first-come, first- served (FCFS) service discipline.
First in last out (FILO) Sometimes, the customers
are serviced in the reverse order of their entry so that
the ones who join the last are served first..
Served in random order (SIRO) under this rule
customers are selected for service at random,
irrespective of their arrivals in the service system. In
this every customer in the queue is equally likely to
be selected.
Priority scheduling under this rule customers are
grouped in priority classes on the basis of some
attributes such as service time or urgency or
according to some identifiable characteristic, and FIFO
rule is used within each class to provide service

Fundamental Principles of Traffic Flow

Traffic flow theory involves the development of
mathematical relationships among the primary
elements of a traffic stream:
flow,
density,
speed.
These relationships help the traffic engineer in
planning,
designing,
and
evaluating
the
effectiveness of implementing traffic engineering
measures on a highway system.