From Gene to Protein Transcription and Translationi

In this activity you will learn how the genes in our DNA influence our characteristics. For example, how
can a gene cause albinism (very pale skin and hair)?
Basically, a gene is a segment of DNA that provides the instructions for making a protein and proteins
influence our characteristics. This chart describes how two different versions of a gene can result in
either normal skin and hair color or albinism.
DNA

Protein

Version of the gene that provides

instructions to make
normal protein enzyme
Version of the gene that provides
instructions to make
defective enzyme

Characteristic

Normal enzyme that makes the

Normal skin and hair
pigment molecule in skin and

color
hair
Defective enzyme that does
Albinism (very pale
not make this pigment

skin and hair)

molecule

A gene directs the synthesis of a protein by a two-step process.

The first step is transcription of the gene in the DNA.

Transcription produces a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule.
m

The second step is translation of the mRNA.

Translation produces a protein molecule.

During transcription, the sequence

of nucleotides in the gene in the
DNA is copied into a corresponding
sequence of nucleotides in mRNA.

A G

During translation, the sequence of

nucleotides in the mRNA determines
the sequence of amino acids in the
protein.
After translation, the sequence of amino acids in the protein determines the structure and function of
the protein.

Notice that DNA and RNA are polymers of four types of nucleotides, A, C, G, and T for DNA and A, C, G,
and U for RNA. In contrast, proteins are polymers of 20 types of amino acids.
1

1. To summarize how a gene directs the synthesis of a protein, label the process indicated by each
arrow and fill in the blank with the appropriate molecule.

Gene in DNA

_______________

protein

2. Complete the following sentence to describe how differences in a gene can result in normal skin and
hair color vs. albinism.
Differences in the sequence of _____________________ in the gene
result in differences in the sequence of ______________________ in mRNA which
result in differences in the sequence of _______________________ in the protein which
result in normal vs. defective enzyme to make the pigment in skin and hair which
results in normal skin and hair color vs. ___________________.
3. In this activity, you will model how a cell carries out transcription and translation to make the
beginning of the hemoglobin molecule. What type of molecule is hemoglobin?

Transcription
During transcription, the enzyme, RNA
polymerase, separates the two strands
of DNA and makes the mRNA molecule
by adding RNA nucleotides, one at a
time. Each RNA nucleotide is joined to
the previous nucleotide by a covalent
bond.

DNA

Each DNA nucleotide in the gene is

matched with a complementary RNA
nucleotide which has a matching
The template strand of the DNA contains the gene that is being transcribed.
A = adenine; C = cytosine; G = guanine; T (in DNA) = thymine; U (in RNA) = uracil
shape and charge distribution. The
base-pairing rules summarize which pairs of nucleotides are complementary. The base-pairing rules
for transcription are very similar to the base-pairing rules in the DNA double helix.
4. Use the information in the figure to complete the following table.
Base-Pairing Rules for Complementary Nucleotides:
between DNA and RNA
between two strands of DNA
(during transcription)
G pairs with C.

G pairs with ____.

T pairs with A.

T in DNA pairs with ____ in RNA.

A in DNA pairs with ____ in RNA.

The base-pairing rules ensure that the message from the nucleotide sequence in the gene in the DNA is
copied into a corresponding nucleotide sequence in the mRNA molecule.

5. Why is RNA polymerase a good name for the enzyme that carries out transcription?

Transcription Modeling Procedure

Note: You will work with a partner to model the actual sequence of steps used by the cell to carry out
transcription. You probably will be able to think of a faster way to make the mRNA, but you should
follow the sequence of steps described below in order to learn how the cell actually makes mRNA.
Remember, the goal is for you to simulate the actual molecular process of transcription in which the
enzyme RNA polymerase carries out a step-by-step chemical process that adds one nucleotide at a
time to the growing mRNA molecule.
To model the process of transcription, you and your partner will need a page showing an RNA
polymerase molecule inside a nucleus, a paper strip showing a single strand of DNA labeled
"Beginning of Hemoglobin Gene", RNA nucleotides and tape.
One of you will act as the RNA polymerase, and the other one will be the cytoplasm which
surrounds the nucleus and supplies the nucleotides which are used to make the RNA molecule.
RNA polymerase: Insert the "Beginning of
Hemoglobin Gene" DNA molecule through
the slot in the RNA polymerase diagram so
the first two nucleotides of the DNA are
on the dashes labeled DNA.
Your RNA polymerase should look like this
figure.

Cytoplasm: Use the base-pairing rules to choose an RNA nucleotide that is complementary to the
first DNA nucleotide. Give this nucleotide to the RNA polymerase person.
RNA polymerase: Put the first RNA nucleotide in the box labeled RNA nucleotide.
Cytoplasm: Give the next RNA nucleotide (complementary to the next DNA nucleotide) to the RNA
polymerase person.
RNA polymerase: Put this nucleotide in the box labeled "next RNA nucleotide" and join the two
nucleotides together with transparent tape. The tape represents the covalent bond that forms
between the adjacent RNA nucleotides as the mRNA molecule is synthesized. Then, move the DNA
molecule and the growing mRNA molecule one space to the left.
Repeat the last two steps as often as needed to complete transcription of the beginning of the
hemoglobin gene, adding one nucleotide at a time to the mRNA molecule. Be careful to follow the
base-pairing rule accurately, so your mRNA will provide accurate information for synthesizing the
beginning of the hemoglobin protein when you model translation.

6. Describe three or more similarities between the process of

transcription and the process of DNA replication.

DNA Replication
(not showing the
enzymes involved)

7. Fill in the blanks in this table to summarize the differences between DNA replication and
transcription.
DNA replication
Transcription

The whole chromosome is replicated.

___________________is transcribed.

DNA is made.
DNA is double-stranded.

mRNA is made.
mRNA is _______________ -stranded.

DNA polymerase is the enzyme which carries out

DNA replication.

_____ polymerase is the enzyme which carries

out transcription.

T = thymine is used in DNA,

so A pairs with T in DNA.

T = thymine is replaced by ___ = uracil in RNA,

so A in DNA pairs with ___ in mRNA.

8. To summarize what you have learned about transcription, explain how a gene directs the synthesis
of an mRNA molecule. Include in your explanation the words and phrases: base-pairing rules,
complementary nucleotides, DNA, gene, mRNA, and RNA polymerase. Give your explanation in
sentences and a labeled figure.

Translation
As you know, transcription is followed by
translation. During translation, the
sequence of nucleotides in mRNA
determines the sequence of amino acids
in a protein.

A G

Each set of three nucleotides in an mRNA

molecule codes for one amino acid in a
protein. This explains why each set of
three nucleotides in the mRNA is called a
codon. Each codon specifies a particular
amino acid.
9. Fill in the blanks to complete the following sentence.

In the figure above, the first codon, _____, codes for the amino acid ____ (arginine) in the protein.
But how is translation accomplished in a cell? Translation is more complicated than transcription; the
shape and chemical structure of each amino acid do not match the shape and chemical structure of the
corresponding mRNA codon. Instead, a special type of RNA, transfer RNA (tRNA), is required to ensure
that the correct amino acid is brought in for each codon in the mRNA.
There are multiple different types of tRNA. Each type of tRNA molecule has three nucleotides that
form an anti-codon. The three nucleotides in the tRNA anti-codon are complementary to the three
nucleotides in the mRNA codon for a specific amino acid. For each type of tRNA, there is a specific
enzyme that recognizes
the anti-codon and
attaches the correct
amino acid to the tRNA
(step 2).
A ribosome is a tiny
organelle where
protein molecules are
synthesized. The tRNA
with amino acid enters
the ribosome where
the anti-codon in the
tRNA is matched with a
codon in the mRNA
molecule (step 3). The
tRNA brings the correct
amino acid for that
position in the growing
protein molecule. Each amino acid is joined to the previous amino acid by a covalent bond (step 4). The
ribosome moves along the mRNA, matching each codon with a complementary tRNA anti-codon and
adding the appropriate amino acids one at a time to produce the protein coded for by the mRNA.
10. Circle the anti-codon in one tRNA molecule in the figure. In the ribosome, put a rectangle around
an anti-codon in a tRNA and the complementary codon in the mRNA.

Translation Modeling Procedure

In this section you will simulate the steps in translation to produce the beginning of a hemoglobin
protein.
One of you will play the role of the ribosome and the other one will act as the cytoplasm,
which is the source of tRNA and amino acid molecules.
Preparation:
To prepare, you will need to have tRNA molecules, amino acids, the mRNA you made during
your simulation of transcription, a strip labeled "Second Part of mRNA", and a page showing a
ribosome. Tape the CUG end of the mRNA you made to the ACU end of the Second Part of
mRNA strip.
Cytoplasm: For tRNA molecules to function in translation, each tRNA must first be attached to
the correct amino acid that corresponds to the anti-codon in that type of tRNA. To know which
amino acid corresponds to each tRNA anti-codon, use the base-pairing rules to complete this
table.
Amino acid
mRNA codon
Anti-codon in tRNA
molecule that carries this
amino acid

Threonine
(Thr)
ACU

Histidine
(His)
CAU

Proline Leucine
(Pro)
(Leu)
CCU
CUG

Glutamic
acid (Glu)
GAG

Valine
(Val)
GUG

UGA

Cytoplasm: Use this table to match each model tRNA molecule with the correct amino acid for
that type of tRNA. Tape the amino acid to the tRNA very lightly, because they will only be
joined temporarily and will soon separate.
Note: Each model tRNA molecule only shows the three nucleotides of the anti-codon and the
binding site for the amino acid. A real tRNA molecule has many more nucleotides. Similarly, the
mRNA molecule has many more nucleotides than shown in your strip.
11. Your partner wants to move ahead quickly, so he lays out the mRNA strip and puts the
appropriate tRNA molecules above each of the six mRNA codons; then he tapes together all six
amino acids. Explain why this would not be a good simulation of the actual sequence of steps used
to carry out translation. (Hint: See page 5.)

Modeling the Steps in Translation:

Ribosome: Insert the mRNA through the slot in the model ribosome, with the first three
nucleotides of the mRNA in the "codon" position and the next three nucleotides in the "next
codon" position.
Cytoplasm: Use the base-pairing rules to supply the tRNA that has the correct anti-codon to
match the first codon in the mRNA.
Ribosome: Place this tRNA with its amino acid in position.
Your model ribosome should look like:

slot

additional nucleotides in mRNA

12. In the above diagram, put a rectangle around each codon in the mRNA in the ribosome. In the
tRNA, use an arrow to indicate the anti-codon, and use an * to indicate the amino acid.
Cytoplasm: Use the base-pairing rules to supply the tRNA that has the correct anti-codon to
match the second codon in the mRNA.
Ribosome: Place the tRNA in position. (Your model should look like the diagram below.) Now
the ribosome is ready to link the first two amino acids with a covalent bond to begin the
formation of the hemoglobin protein. Tape these two amino acids together; the tape
represents the covalent bond between the first two amino acids in the hemoglobin protein. At
this time, the first amino acid detaches from the first tRNA, so remove that tape.

additional nucleotides in mRNA

13. Draw a line to indicate the location where you put the piece of tape to represent the covalent
bond between the first two amino acids in the new hemoglobin protein that the ribosome is
making.
7

 Ribosome: Move the mRNA to the left so the second codon is in the first position in the
ribosome. At the same time, the matching tRNA with amino acid moves to the first position.
Also, the first tRNA is released into the cytoplasm where it would be reused in a real cell.
Cytoplasm: Put the first tRNA in the packet.
Your model should look like:

additional nucleotides in mRNA

14. Why isn't the first tRNA shown in this diagram? What happened to it?

Cytoplasm: Supply the tRNA that has the correct anti-codon to match the codon in the "next
codon" position.
Ribosome: Place the tRNA in position and tape the amino acid to the preceding amino acid.
Then, move the mRNA and matching tRNAs with amino acids one codon to the left, and
release the tRNA on the left to the cytoplasm person who will put it in the packet.
Repeat this pair of steps until you have attached all six amino acids to form the beginning
portion of the hemoglobin protein.
15. The proteins in biological organisms include 20 different kinds of amino acids. What is the
minimum number of different types of tRNA molecules that must exist in the cell? Explain your
reasoning.

16. What part of translation depends on the base-pairing rules?

17. Explain why a cell needs both mRNA and tRNA in order to synthesize a protein. Explain the
function of mRNA, the function of tRNA, and how tRNA and mRNA work together to put the right
amino acids in the right sequence as the protein is synthesized.

18. Explain why it makes sense to use the word translation to describe protein synthesis and why it
would not make sense to use the word translation to describe mRNA synthesis. (Hint: Look at the
figure on the top of page 5.)

19. Why does a cell need to carry out transcription before translation?

20. To summarize what you have learned about translation, explain how an mRNA molecule
directs the synthesis of a protein. Include in your answer the words amino acid, anti-codon, basepairing rules, codon, mRNA, protein, ribosome, tRNA, and translation. Give your explanation in
sentences and a labeled figure.

How the Gene for Sickle Cell Hemoglobin Results in Sickle Cell Anemia
Different versions of the same gene are called different alleles. These different alleles share the same
general sequence of nucleotides, but they differ in at least one nucleotide in the sequence.
Different alleles can result in different characteristics as follows:
Different alleles of a gene have a different nucleotide sequence

different nucleotide sequence in messenger RNA (mRNA)

transcription
different amino acid sequence in a protein
translation
different structure and function of the protein
(e.g. normal enzyme vs. defective enzyme)
different characteristics
(e.g. normal skin and hair color vs. albinism)
In this section, you will learn about another example of how different alleles produce different
characteristics. To begin, you will work to understand how a difference between the alleles for normal
and sickle cell hemoglobin results in two different types of hemoglobin protein.
21. In the table below, compare the nucleotide sequence in the DNA for the Beginning of the Normal
Hemoglobin Gene vs. the Beginning of the Sickle Cell Hemoglobin Gene. What is the only difference?
22. Complete this table. (Use the table on page 6 to help with translation.)

Beginning of Normal Hemoglobin Gene

CACGTAGACTGAGGACTC

Transcription produces:

codon1

codon 2

codon 3

codon 4

codon 5

codon 6

amino
acid 1

amino
acid 2

amino
acid 3

amino
acid 4

amino
acid 5

amino
acid 6

Beginning of Normal Hemoglobin mRNA

Translation produces:
Beginning of Normal Hemoglobin Protein

Beginning of Sickle Cell Hemoglobin Gene

CACGTAGACTGAGGACAC

Transcription produces:

codon 1

codon 2

codon 3

codon 4

codon 5

codon 6

amino
acid 1

amino
acid 2

amino
acid 3

amino
acid 4

amino
acid 5

amino
acid 6

Beginning of Sickle Cell Hemoglobin mRNA

Translation produces:
Beginning of Sickle Cell Hemoglobin Protein
23. Compare the beginning of the hemoglobin molecules synthesized by translating the sickle cell vs.
normal hemoglobin mRNA molecules. What difference in the amino acid sequence do you observe?

10

Sickle cell hemoglobin and normal hemoglobin differ in only a single amino acid out of more than 100
amino acids in the complete hemoglobin protein. This difference in a single amino acid results in the
very different properties of sickle cell hemoglobin, compared to normal hemoglobin.
If a person inherits two copies of the sickle cell hemoglobin allele and produces only sickle cell
hemoglobin, then the sickle cell hemoglobin molecules tend to clump together in long rods. These rods
can change the shape of the red blood cells from their normal disk shape to a sickle shape. Sickleshaped red blood cells can block blood flow in the smaller blood vessels. This causes pain and damage
to body organs. In addition, sickle-shaped red blood cells do not last nearly as long as normal red blood
cells, so the body cannot produce enough replacement red blood cells and the person develops
anemia (not enough red blood cells).
Genotype (genes)
Protein
Phenotype (characteristics)

Disk-shaped red blood cells can

Normal hemoglobin dissolves in
squeeze through the small blood
the cytosol of red blood cells.
vessels normal health
2 copies of the allele
that codes for

normal hemoglobin
(SS)

Sickle cell hemoglobin

can clump in long rods
in red blood cells.
2 copies of the allele

that codes for

sickle cell hemoglobin (ss)

When sickle cell hemoglobin

clumps in long rods
sickle-shaped red blood cells
clogged small blood vessels
+ fragile red blood cells
pain, damage to body organs

+ anemia = sickle cell anemia

24. Circle the arrows in the chart that represent transcription + translation.
In summary, the sickle cell allele results in production of the sickle cell hemoglobin protein, which
results in the health problems observed in sickle cell anemia. This illustrates the importance of the
nucleotide sequence in a gene, which determines the amino acid sequence in a protein, which in turn
influences the characteristics of an individual.
25. Considering that we are all made up of the same 4 nucleotides in our DNA, the same 4 nucleotides
in our RNA, and the same 20 amino acids in our proteins, why are we so different from each other? For
example, why do some people have sickle cell anemia and others don't?

By Drs. Ingrid Waldron and Jennifer Doherty, Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Copyright, 2015. Teachers are encouraged to copy
this Student Handout for classroom use. A Word file (which can be used to prepare a modified version if desired) and Teacher Preparation Notes
are available at http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/sci_edu/waldron/#trans .

11