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Introduction to Formula SAE

Suspension and Frame Design
Edmund F. Gaffney III and Anthony R. Salinas
University of Missouri - Rolla

ABSTRACT

Formula SAE.

This paper is an introduction to Formula SAE (FSAE)

suspension and frame design based on the experience of the
design team at UM-Rolla. The basic theories and
methodologies for designing these systems are presented so
that new teams will have a baseline for their first FSAE
design. Examples will be given based on UM-Rollas 1996
FSAE entry.

This paper covers some of the basic concepts of

suspension and frame design and also highlights the approach
UM-Rolla used when designing its 1996 suspension and
frame. The suspension section addresses the basic design
parameters and presents specific examples. The frame
section discusses how to achieve a compromise with the
FSAE design constraints. Finally, the design section gives a
brief overview of the design methodology used by UM-Rolla
for the 1996 race car.

INTRODUCTION
Formula SAE is a student competition, sponsored by
the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), in which
students design, build, and compete with a small formula
style race car. The basis of the competition is that a fictitious
company has contracted a group of engineers to build a small
formula car. Since the car is intended for the weekend
autocross racer, the company has set a maximum cost of
$8,500. The competition rules limits the race car engine to a
maximum displacement of 610cc with a single inlet restrictor.
Other rules require that the car must have a suspension
system with a minimum wheel travel of 50mm and a
wheelbase greater than 1524mm. The car must also satisfy
safety requirements such as side impact protection [1].

The 1996 team finished 12th in the engineering design

event, while the overall finish was 19th out of 77 competing
teams.
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SUSPENSION GEOMETRY

The suspension geometry section concentrates on some

of the basic areas of suspension design and highlights what
the UM-Rolla design team selected for its 1996 race car
suspension geometry.
FSAE suspensions operate in a narrow realm of vehicle
dynamics mainly due to the limited cornering speeds which
are governed by the racetrack size. Therefore, FSAE
suspension design should focus on the constraints of the
competition. For example, vehicle track width and wheelbase
are factors governing the success of the cars handling
characteristics. These two dimensions not only influence
weight transfer, but they also affect the turning radius.

The competition is separated into static and dynamic

events. The static events include the cost analysis, sales
presentation, and engineering design. The dynamic portions
of the competition are the 15.25 m diameter skid-pad, 91.44
m acceleration event, 0.8 km autocross, 44 km endurance
race, and fuel economy.

Not only does the geometry have to be considered for

FSAE suspension, but the components must also be
reasonably priced for the cost analysis and marketable for the
sales presentation. For example, inboard suspension could be
a more marketable design, while outboard suspension might
cost less and be easier to manufacture.

The FSAE competition was established to provide an

educational experience for college students that is analogous
to the type of projects they will face in the work force. To
participate in FSAE, student groups work with a project from
the abstract design phase until it is completed. Aspects of
engineering design, team work, project management, and
finance have been incorporated into the basic rules of

UM-Rolla chose to use a four wheel independent

suspension system with push rod actuated inboard coil-over
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shocks. This decision was mainly due to packaging

constraints. Furthermore, the appearance of inboard
suspension was considered important for both the design
judging and the sales presentation because of its similarity to
modern race cars.

cars to serve as a baseline for their own calculations. FSAE

car specifications for the competing teams, including track
width and wheelbase, are available in the event program
published by SAE.
The 1996 design team selected a 1727mm wheelbase,
1270mm front track width, and a 1219mm rear track width.
This selection was based on previous UM-Rolla cars.
Although this wheelbase was adequate for the FSAE
competition size courses, the UM-Rolla design team has
decided to increase the wheelbase for the next car to
1854.2mm. This increase in wheelbase is an attempt to
improve stability for high speed corner entry at the
competition.

Although this discussion is of short-long arm suspension

systems, many of the concepts are valid for other suspension
types.

Track Width
Track width is the distance between the right and left
wheel centerlines which is illustrated in Figure 1. This
dimension is important for cornering since it resists the
overturning moment due to the inertia force at the center of
gravity (CG) and the lateral force at the tires [2]. For the
designer, track width is important since it is one component
that affects the amount of lateral weight transfer [3]. Also,
the designers must know the track width before kinematic
analysis of the suspension geometry can begin.

Tire and Wheel

After track width and wheelbase considerations have
been addressed, the next step in the design process is tire and
wheel selection. Since the tire is important to the handling of
the vehicle, the design team should thoroughly investigate the
tire sizes and compounds available. The tire size is important
at this stage of the design since the height of the tire must be
known before the suspension geometry can be determined.
For example, the tire height for a given wheel diameter
determines how close the lower ball joint can be to the ground
if packaged inside the wheel.
Tire Size - The designers should be aware that the
number of tire sizes offered for a given wheel diameter is
limited. Therefore, considering the importance of the tire to
handling, the tire selection process should be methodical.
Since the amount of tire on the ground has a large influence
on grip, it is sometimes desirable to use wide tires for
increased traction. However, it is important to remember that
wide tires add rotating mass which must be accelerated by a
restricted FSAE engine. This added mass might be more
detrimental to the overall performance than the increase in
traction from the wider tires. Not only does a wider tire add
mass, but it also increases the amount of rubber that must be
heated. Since racing tires are designed to operate most
efficiently in a specific temperature range, this added material
may prevent the tires from reaching the optimum temperature
range [3]. The UM-Rolla team used tires for the 1996
competition that were designed to work most efficiently at a
minimum of 71o C.

Figure 1. Track Width

(1996 Front Suspension, Front View)
When selecting the track width, the front and rear track
widths do not necessarily have to be the same. For example,
track width is typically wider in the front for a rear wheel
drive race car. This design concept is used to increase rear
traction during corner exit by reducing the amount of body
roll resisted by the rear tires relative to the front tires [4].
Based on the corner speeds and horsepower-to-weight ratio of
FSAE cars, this concept should be considered by the designer.

Wheelbase

During the selection process the designers must consider

how the tires will influence the performance of the entire
package. For example, the weather conditions for the FSAE
dynamic events might determine which tire compound and
tire size should be used for the competition. Another
important consideration is the price of the tires, since the cost
can be a large portion of a teams budget.

The wheelbase also needs to be determined. Wheelbase

is defined as the distance between the front and rear axle
centerlines. It also influences weight transfer, but in the
longitudinal direction. Except for anti-dive and anti-squat
characteristics, the wheelbase relative to the CG location does
not have a large effect on the kinematics of the suspension
system. However, the wheelbase should be determined early
in the design process since the wheelbase has a large
influence on the packaging of components.

For the 1996 competition, UM-Rolla selected a 20 by 6

13 racing tire for both the front and rear of the car. Because
of the low vehicle mass, a narrow tire was selected so that tire
temperatures would be greater than previous UM-Rolla

For track width and wheelbase starting points, the

designers should research the dimensions of the opposition
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designs. This tire selection increased the operating

temperature from 48o to 60o C. For the competition, the
weather was predicted to be cool, so the team brought sets of
hard and soft compound tires. The team chose to use the
harder compound since the weather for the endurance was
predicted to be clear and warm.

When designing the geometry, it is important to keep in

mind that designing is an iterative process and that
compromises will be inevitable. For instance, the desired
scrub radius might not be possible because of packaging
constraints. When modeling the suspension, the designers
should not aimlessly modify points without first thinking
through the results. For example, the designer should
visualize how the wheel will camber relative to the chassis
when making the lower A-arm four times longer than the
upper A-arm. One method that can be used to visualize the
results is the instant center location for the wheel relative to
the chassis. Another method is to use the arcs that the ball
joints circumscribe relative to the chassis. For a complete
explanation about determining suspension point locations
from instant center locations refer to Milliken [4].

Wheel Selection - Once a decision has been made as to

which tire sizes to use, the wheel selection should be next.
Usually, the wheel dimensions are fixed and allow for little
modification. Therefore, it is important to have some design
goals in mind before investing in wheels. Generally, the
upright, brake caliper, and rotor are placed inside the wheel
which requires wheel offset for clearance. It is usually easier
to design the suspension geometry if the wheel profile is
known. For example, the ball joint location is limited to the
area defined by the wheel profile.

Scrub Radius, Kingpin Inclination, and Caster - The

scrub radius, or kingpin offset, is the distance between the
centerline of the wheel and the intersection of the line defined
by the ball joints, or the steering axis, with the ground plane
which is illustrated in Figure 2. Scrub radius is considered
positive when the steering axis intersects the ground to the
inside of the wheel centerline. The amount of scrub radius
should be kept small since it can cause excessive steering
forces [5]. However, some positive scrub radius is desirable
since it will provide feedback through the steering wheel for
the driver [5].

Other considerations for wheel selection include: cost,

availability, bolt circle, and weight. For example, three-piece
rims, although expensive, have the distinct advantage of
offering many offsets and profiles that can be changed during
the design process [3].
UM-Rolla designed the 1996 suspension geometry
around a wheel profile from a previous car and then acquired
a set of three-piece rims to meet the design specifications. All
four wheels selected for the 1996 competition were size 6 by
13. This wheel selection allowed for tire rotations, reduced
cost, and a wide selection of tire sizes, compounds, and
manufacturers.

Geometry
The designer can now set some desired parameters for
the suspension system. These usually include camber gain,
roll center placement, and scrub radius. The choice of these
parameters should be based on how the vehicle is expected to
perform. By visualizing the attitude of the car in a corner, the
suspension can be designed to keep as much tire on the
ground as possible. For example, the body roll and
suspension travel on the skid pad determines, to a certain
extent, how much camber gain is required for optimum
cornering. The amount of chassis roll can be determined
from roll stiffness while the amount of suspension travel is a
function of weight transfer and wheel rates.
Once a decision has been made about these basic
parameters, the suspension must be modeled to obtain the
desired effects. Before the modeling can begin, the ball joint
locations, inner control arm pivot points, and track width
must be known.

Figure 2. Scrub Radius

Kingpin inclination (KPI) is viewed from the front of
the vehicle and is the angle between the steering axis and the
wheel centerline [4]. To reduce scrub radius, KPI can be
incorporated into the suspension design if packaging of the
ball joints near the centerline of the wheel is not feasible.
Scrub radius can be reduced with KPI by designing the
steering axis so that it will intersect the ground plane closer
to the wheel centerline. The drawback of excessive KPI,
however, is that the outside wheel, when turned, cambers
positively thereby pulling part of the tire off of the ground.

The easiest way to model the geometry is with a

kinematics computer program since the point locations can be
easily modified for immediate inspection of their influence on
the geometry. Should a dedicated kinematics computer
program not be available, then a CAD program can be used
simply by redrawing the suspension as the points are moved.
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However, static camber or positive caster can be used to

counteract the positive camber gain associated with KPI.

crosses the ground plane for any reason during cornering,

then the wheels will raise or drop relative to the chassis
which might cause inconsistent handling.

Caster is the angle of the steering axis when viewed

from the side of the car and is considered positive when the
steering axis is tilted towards the rear of the vehicle [4]. With
positive caster, the outside wheel in a corner will camber
negatively thereby helping to offset the positive camber
associated with KPI and body roll. Caster also causes the
wheels to rise or fall as the wheel rotates about the steering
axis which transfers weight diagonally across the chassis [3].
Caster angle is also beneficial since it will provide feedback
to the driver about cornering forces [3].
Figure 3. Front Roll Center

The UM-Rolla suspension design team chose a scrub

radius of 9.5mm, zero degrees of KPI, and 4 degrees of caster.
This design required the ball joints to be placed near the
centerline of the wheel, which required numerous clearance
checks in the solid modeling program.

The roll center is 35.6mm below ground in the front and

35.6mm above ground in the rear for the 1996 UM-Rolla car.
Since none of the previous UM-Rolla cars had below ground
roll centers, the selection of the 1996 points was basically a
test to understand how the below ground roll center affected
the handling. Because of the large roll moment, the team
designed enough camber gain into the suspension to
compensate for body roll associated with soft springs and no
anti-roll bar. The team was very happy with the handling but
decided, for the next car, to have both roll centers above
ground for a direct comparison between both designs.

Roll Center - Once the basic parameters have been

determined, the kinematics of the system can be resolved.
Kinematic analysis includes instant center analysis for both
sets of wheels relative to the chassis and also for the chassis
relative to the ground as shown in Figure 3. The points
labeled IC are the instant centers for the wheels relative to the
chassis. The other instant center in Figure 3, the roll center,
is the point that the chassis pivots about relative to the ground
[6]. The front and rear roll centers define an axis that the
chassis will pivot around during cornering. Since the CG is
above the roll axis for most race cars, the inertia force
associated with cornering creates a torque about the roll
center. This torque causes the chassis to roll towards the
outside of the corner. Ideally, the amount of chassis roll
would be small so that the springs and anti-roll bars used
could be a lower stiffness for added tire compliance [3,4].
However, for a small overturning moment, the CG must be
close to the roll axis. This placement would indicate that the
roll center would have to be relatively high to be near the CG.
Unfortunately, if the roll center is anywhere above or below
the ground plane, a jacking force will be applied to the
chassis during cornering [3,4]. For example, if the roll center
is above ground, this jacking force causes the suspension to
drop relative to the chassis. Suspension droop is usually
undesirable since, depending on the suspension design, it can
cause positive camber which can reduce the amount of tire on
the ground. Conversely, if the roll center is below the ground
plane, the suspension goes into bump, or raises relative to the
chassis, when lateral forces are applied to the tires.
Therefore, it is more desirable to have the roll center close to
the ground plane to reduce the amount of chassis vertical
movement due to lateral forces [3].

Camber - Camber is the angle of the wheel plane from

the vertical and is considered to be a negative angle when the
top of the wheel is tilted towards the centerline of the vehicle.
Camber is adjusted by tilting the steering axis from the
vertical which is usually done by adjusting the ball joint
locations. Because the amount of tire on the ground is
affected by camber angle, camber should be easily adjustable
so that the suspension can be tuned for maximum cornering.
For example, the amount of camber needed for the small skid
pad might not be the same for the sweeping corners in the
endurance event.
The maximum cornering force that the tire can produce
will occur at some negative camber angle [3,4]. However,
camber angle can change as the wheel moves through
suspension travel and as the wheel turns about the steering
axis. Because of this change, the suspension system must be
designed to compensate or complement the camber angle
change associated with chassis and wheel movements so that
maximum cornering forces are produced.
The amount of camber compensation or gain for vertical
wheel movement is determined by the control arm
configuration. Camber gain is usually obtained by having
different length upper and lower control arms. Different
length control arms will cause the ball joints to move through
different arcs relative to the chassis. The angle of the control
arms relative to each other also influence the amount of
camber gain. Because camber gain is a function of link
geometry, the amount of gain does not have to be the same for
both droop and bump. For example, the suspension design
might require the wheels to camber one degree per 25mm of

Since the roll center is an instant center, it is important

to remember that the roll center will move with suspension
travel. Therefore, the design team must check the migration
of the roll center to ensure that the jacking forces and
overturning moments follow a relatively linear path for
predictable handling [3]. For example, if the roll center
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droop versus negative two degrees per 25mm of bump.

After building a test car that was hard to steer because of a

half a turn lock to lock system, the 1996 steering system was
designed to be one turn lock to lock. This was accomplished
by changing the rack and pinion ratio instead of increasing
the steering arm length because of packaging constraints.
The system specifications for the 1996 car are: 76mm steering
arms, 250mm diameter steering wheel, and 51mm of rack
travel per one pinion revolution. These specifications were
retained for the next race car design because the resulting
handling characteristics were thought to be satisfactory. The
1996 UM-Rolla design has a small amount of antiAckermann because of packaging.

Static camber can be added to compensate for body roll,

however, the added camber might be detrimental to other
aspects of handling. For example, too much static camber
can reduce the amount of tire on the ground, thereby affecting
straight line braking and accelerating. Similarly, too much
camber gain during suspension travel can cause part of the
tire to loose contact with the ground.
Caster angle also adds to the overall camber gain when
the wheels are turned. For positive caster, the outside wheel
in a turn will camber negatively, while the inside wheel
cambers positively. The amount of camber gain caused by
caster is minimal if the wheels only turn a few degrees.
However, FSAE cars can use caster angle to increase the
camber gain for the tight corners at the FSAE competition.

Conclusion
FSAE suspension designs not only have to be
competitive on the racetrack, but the suspensions must also
perform well in the static events. For the dynamic events, the
designers should concentrate on the geometry so that most of
the tire will stay in contact with the ground for all normal
driving situations: braking, accelerating, and cornering. The
suspension system must also be designed so that it is easy to
manufacture and is reasonably priced for the cost analysis.
To reduce the cost and complexity of the 1996 race car, UMRolla designed the system so that the wheels, hubs, and
bearings were the same for each corner of the car.

UM-Rolla designed for a relatively large amount of

camber gain since anti-roll bars were not used in the 1996
suspension design. The use of low wheel rates with a large
roll moment required the suspension to compensate for the
positive camber induced by chassis roll and suspension travel.
The camber gain for UM-Rollas 1996 car was from both the
caster angle and the control arm configuration.

Steering System
Designing the suspension geometry is only a small part
of building a vehicle. A well engineered suspension system
does not automatically make a fast race car. Although this
paper has concentrated on the design aspect, development is
just as important to the success of the package. Because the
design process must take place within a given time constraint,
the first suspension design might not provide the best
handling. It is not uncommon to make design changes after
the car is completed. It is more important for FSAE teams to
compromise on the overall design so that the car can be
completed and tested prior to competition.

The steering geometry has a large influence on the

handling characteristics of the vehicle. For example, if the
system is not properly designed, then the wheels will toe in or
out during suspension travel. This toe change is referred to
as bump steer which is described in detail in both references
[3,4]. Bump steer is basically undesirable since the car
changes direction when the driver does not expect a change
[4].
Ackermann steering must also be considered during the
design process. Ackermann steering occurs when the outside
wheel turns less than the inside wheel. This is possible since
the amount of steering angle for each wheel is determined by
the steering geometry. Reverse or anti-Ackermann occurs
when the outside wheel turns more than the inside wheel
during cornering [3,4].

FRAME

The purpose of the frame is to rigidly connect the front

and rear suspension while providing attachment points for the
different systems of the car [8]. Relative motion between the
front and rear suspension attachment points can cause
inconsistent handling [4]. The frame must also provide
attachment points which will not yield within the cars
performance envelope.

During a turn, the inside wheel travels around a smaller

geometric radius than the outside wheel. Ackermann steering
can be used so that the wheels travel about their
corresponding radii, theoretically, eliminating tire scrub.
However, designing for precise Ackermann steering might
not provide the best handling since tire slip angles influence
the actual turning radius [9]. The designer must decide,
based on the requirements, if the steering system design will
include Ackermann geometry.

There are many different styles of frames; space frame,

monocoque, and ladder are examples of race car frames. The
most popular style for FSAE is the tubular space frame. Space
frames are a series of tubes which are joined together to form
a structure that connects all of the necessary components
together. However, most of the concepts and theories can be
applied to other chassis designs.

UM-Rolla placed the rack and pinion in front of the axle

centerline near the lower control arms because of packaging
constraints. This placement required extra room in the frame
design since the driver had to straddle the steering column.
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training tool for several semesters.

As the 1996 frame evolved, the stiffness to weight ratios
of different designs were compared. A chassis can be made
extremely stiff by adding significant amounts of material to
the frame. However, this additional material might degrade
the performance of the car because of the added mass.
Obviously, torsional rigidity is not the only
measurement for analyzing the stiffness of a chassis.
Bending stiffness can also be used to analyze the efficiency of
a frame design. However, bending stiffness is not as
important as torsional stiffness because deflection due to
bending will not affect wheel loads [4]. Because the design
time is severely limited in FSAE, UM-Rollas team used a
torsional analysis to determine the relative stiffness of
different frame designs.

Figure 4. UM-Rollas 1996 Frame Design

Stiffness
The suspension is designed with the goal of keeping all
four tires flat on the ground throughout the performance
range of the vehicle. Generally, suspension systems are
designed under the assumption that the frame is a rigid body.
For example, undesirable changes in camber and toe can
occur if the frame lacks stiffness. An image of a frame
subjected to a torsional load is superimposed on an
undeflected frame in Figure 5.

Triangulation - Triangulation can be used to increase

the torsional stiffness of a frame, since a triangle is the
simplest form which is always a structure and not a
mechanism. Obviously, a frame which is a structure will be
torsionally stiffer than a mechanism [7]. Therefore, an effort
should be made to triangulate the chassis as much as possible.
Visualizing the frame as a collection of rods which are
connected by pin joints can help frame designers locate the
mechanisms in a design [8]. Designers can also evaluate
their frame by checking to see if each pin jointed node
contains at least three rods which complement the load path.
UM-Rolla chose to use thin wall steel tubing for the
1996 frame design. This required significant triangulation of
the frame, since thin wall tubing performs very well in
tension and compression but poorly in bending. The
components which produce significant amounts of force, for
example the engine and suspension, were attached to the
frame at triangulated points.

Figure 5. Chassis Deflection

UM-Rolla has found that in most cases, a chassis that is
stiff enough for competition will not yield. However, some
care should be taken to ensure that the attachment points of
the frame do not yield when subjected to design loads. For
example, the engine mounts should be made stiff enough to
reduce the possibility of failure.
Figure 6. Frame Triangulation
(Frame, Side View)

Torsional Stiffness - Torsional stiffness is the resistance

of the frame to torsional loads [4]. UM-Rolla used FEA to
analyze the torsional stiffness of the 1996 chassis. The
solution of the simple rod and beam element model for the
frame showed that the torsional rigidity was roughly 2900
Newton meters per degree of deflection. The mass of the
1996 frame is approximately 27kg, which UM-Rolla believes
is heavier than needed for a two day racing series. However,
some extra structure was added to the frame to increase its
safety. Also, the drivetrain mounts were significantly
strengthened so that the car would be able to serve as a driver

Previous UM-Rolla frames have lacked adequate

triangulation for highly loaded components. These
components were attached to the frame with load bearing tabs
which were welded at the midpoint of a single section of
tubing. As expected, this tube bent like a simply supported
beam and caused unwanted movement of the attached
component. Although these designs worked for the duration
of the competition, they invariably failed by fracturing the
tube or breaking the tab. For the 1996 car, all of the highly
6

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank Dr. Dan Stutts, the UM-Rolla
FSAE advisor, for all of his help and encouragement while
we were writing this paper. We also would like to thank the
numerous people who help to proofread this paper. We
would especially like to thank Conrad D. Humphrey, Vehicle
Dynamics and Analysis, General Motors for spending so
much time helping us through our first publication.
REFERENCES
[1] Formula SAE Rules. Warrendale, PA: SAE
International
[2] Puhn, Fred. How To Make Your Car Handle. Los
Angeles, CA USA : HPBooks 1981
[3] Smith, Carroll. Tune to Win. Fallbrock, CA : Aero
Publishers 1978
[4] Milliken, William F.,Miliken Douglas L. Race Car
Vehicle Dynamics. Warrendale, PA: SAE International
[5] Van Valkenburgh, Paul. Race Car Engineering and
Mechanics. Seal Beach, CA: Self Published 1986
[6] Staniforth, Allan. Competition Car Suspension.
Newbury Park, CA USA : Haynes Publications Inc. 1988
[7] Riley, William F., Sturges, Leroy D. Engineering
Mechanics Statics. New York, NY. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
1993
[8] Bamsey, Ian. The Anatomy and Development of the
Sports Prototype Racing Car. Osceola, WI : Motorbooks
International 1991
[9] Bamsey, Iam. Lis, Alan. Competition Car Controls.
Newbury Park, CA USA : Haynes Publications Inc. 1990
[10] Aird, Forbes. Racers Encyclopedia of Metals,
Fibers, and Materials. Osceola, WI : Moterbooks
International 1994
ADDITIONAL SOURCES
Smith, Carroll. Drive to Win. Palos Verdes Estates, CA
: Carroll Smith Consulting 1996
Smith, Carroll. Engineer to Win. Osceola, WI :
Motorbooks International 1984
Smith, Carroll. Nuts, Bolts, and Fasteners. Osceola, WI
: Motorbooks International 1990
Smith, Carroll. Prepare to Win. California : Aero
Publishers 1975

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