The Influence of the Enlightenment

Purpose of this mini-unit:

Provide background to the intellectual/philosophical movement that gave birth to
the exploratory/scientific impulse that eventually led to scientific voyages of
exploration (eg Captain Cooks voyage to Tahiti to observe the Transit of Venus
across the sun) and enabled men like Cook to rise to prominence despite his
humble background.
Provide some insight into the beginning of modernist history with Leopold von
Ranke, the father of History. Prior to Ranke those we might call historians always
started out with the goal of discerning Gods Plan through the evidence contained
in past actions/events such as battle outcomes, political decisions etc. In other
words, the outcome of their studies was pre-determined. Ranke also aimed to
discern Gods Plan but he took the revolutionary approach of analysing the
evidence carefully to let it tell the story of Gods Plan. Others took on this
scientific method and eventually the goal of discerning Gods Plan fell out of
favour, replaced by the search for the objective truth.
Challenges to the traditional roles of Church and rulers.
An influence on revolutionary wars such as those in America and France.

The Influence of the Enlightenment

In a nutshell, the Enlightenment saw an increasingly
rational and scientific approach to religious, social, political,
and economic issues. It eventually led to a secular [nonreligious] view of the world and a general sense of
mankinds progress, along with a belief in the perfectibility
of both knowledge and society.

Historians often date modern history from the 18th century, not just because this period saw the
American (17751783) and French (17891799) Revolutions, but because at this time a fundamental
change took place in the way educated people thought. This thinking was in fact a major influence on
both Revolutions. Writers of the time felt that they were emerging from a period of darkness and
ignorance (caused to a large extent by the stranglehold the Church had on peoples thinking) into the
light of knowledge and reason. The Enlightenment was to have significant consequences, not just for
philosophy and science but also for politics and the way people were governed both then and now.
The roots of Enlightenment thinking go back long before the 18th century. The scholars of the
Renaissance (beginning in late 14th century northern Italy) had begun insisting on going back to the
original texts of the ancient Greeks and Romans, rather than simply accepting traditional Church
teachings on subjects they covered. By the 17th century, this habit of looking and thinking for
oneself had spread to science.
In the 16th-century, Polish scientist Nicholas Copernicus had noted
that the earth appeared to go around the sun and not vice versa as the
Church taught. A hundred years later, the Italian astronomer Galileo
Galilei was able to demonstrate from his own observations and from
mathematical calculation that Copernicus had been right. This
discovery was not welcome news to the Church, and Galileo got into
trouble, but it couldn't reverse the way scientific thinking was going.
Close observation, measurement and deduction based on precise
mathematical calculation were rapidly challenging faith in the
teachings of the Church, and even the classical authors. Might they
even go one step further and replace faith in God?
The views of many Enlightenment thinkers challenged the commonly
accepted attitudes of 17th-century Europe, where people were born
into "better" or "lower" families, and ones position in life and society did not easily change
(although it could). It suited those in power, and the Church, to maintain the stability associated with
this structure. However, if Enlightenment thinking was true, then by what right did nobles claim to
be of higher birth than peasants? And by what right did they hold their lands and wealth while others
had nothing? The implications [effects]of such thinking were enormous and revolutionary.

NOTE: dont fall into the trap of thinking that the lower classes were all revolutionaries waiting
for a chance to overthrow the upper classes - most accepted the social order as natural and
simply tried to do as best they could in whatever position life - and God - had decided for them.
There would be, however, local uprisings when heavy taxes combined with poor harvests made
life intolerable.

THE ENLIGHTENMENT
European politics, philosophy, science and communications were radically reoriented during the
course of the long 18th century (1685-1815) as part of a movement referred to by its participants as
the Age of Reason, or simply the Enlightenment. Enlightenment thinkers in Britain, France and
throughout Europe questioned traditional authority and embraced the
In his essay "What Is
notion that humanity could be improved through rational change. The
Enlightenment?" (1784), the
Enlightenment produced numerous books, essays, inventions,
German philosopher Immanuel
scientific discoveries, laws, wars and revolutions. The American and
Kant summed up the era's
French Revolutions were directly inspired by Enlightenment ideals
motto in the following terms:
and respectively marked the peak of its influence and the beginning
"Dare to know! Have courage
of its decline. The Enlightenment is said to mark the change from the
to use your own reason!"
Late Medieval world to the Modern Era, which we are still in today.
THE EARLY ENLIGHTENMENT: 1685-1730
The Enlightenments important 17th-century precursors
[forerunners] included the Englishmen Francis Bacon and Thomas
Hobbes, the Frenchman Renee Descartes [pronounced Day-cart] and
the key natural philosophers of the Scientific Revolution, including
Galileo, Kepler and Leibniz. Its roots are usually traced to 1680s
England, where in the span of three years Isaac Newton published his
Principia Mathematica (1686) and John Locke his Essay Concerning
Human Understanding (1689)two works that provided the
scientific, mathematical and philosophical toolkit for the
Isaac
Enlightenments major advances.
Locke argued what was at the time a remarkable idea: that human nature was mutable [could be
changed] and that the knowledge to change it could be gained through experience rather than
through some sort of outside truth (eg God). Newtons calculus and optical theories provided the
powerful Enlightenment metaphors [symbols] for precise measurement and illumination.
Highlighting this overarching belief in reason, the French philosopher, mathematician and scientist
Ren Descartes saw mans ability to reason as the very proof of his existence, declaring Cogito,
ergo sum (I think, therefore I am), in his Discourse on Method in 1637. Descartes rejected all forms
of intellectual authority except the conclusions of his own thought, which he then used to prove the
existence of God.
It is important to keep in mind that there was no single, unified Enlightenment. Instead, it is possible
to speak of the French Enlightenment, the Scottish Enlightenment and the English, German, Swiss or
American Enlightenment. Individual Enlightenment thinkers often had very different approaches.
Locke differed from Hume, Rousseau from Voltaire, Thomas Jefferson from Frederick the Great.
Their differences and disagreements, though, emerged out of the common Enlightenment themes of
rational questioning and belief in progress through testing ideas.

THE HIGH ENLIGHTENMENT: 1730-1780

Centred on the dialogues and publications of the French philosophes
[thinkers/intellectuals] (such as Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Buffon and
Diderot), the High Enlightenment might best be summed up by one historians
summary of Voltaires Philosophical Dictionary: a chaos of clear ideas.
Foremost among these was the notion that everything in the universe could be
rationally demystified and catalogued. The signature publication of the period
was Diderots Encyclopdie (1751-77), which brought together leading authors
to produce an ambitious compilation of all human knowledge. Modern
encyclopedia, including Wikipedia, follow this same ambitious goal.

Frederick the
Prussia in between
birth to enlightened
Thomas Jefferson,
framed the
of Lockes essays
from tyrants.

The High Enlightenment was an age of

forward thinking despots [absolute rulers] like
Great, who unified, rationalized and modernized
brutal multi-year wars with Austria. It also gave
would-be revolutionaries like Thomas Paine and
whose Declaration of Independence (1776)
American Revolution in terms taken from one
that stressed individual liberty and freedom

It was also a time

of religious (and anti-religious) innovation [new
ideas], as
Christians sought to reposition their faith along
rational lines and
atheists, both moderate and radical, argued that
the universe
seemed to determine its own course without
Gods intervention. Secret societiesthe Freemasons, the Bavarian Illuminati, the Rosicrucians
flourished, offering European men (and a few women) alternatives to the
Benjamin Franklin, John Adams
fellowship of the Church, esoteric [mysterious] ritual and community.
and Thomas Jefferson drafting
Coffeehouses, newspapers and literary salons [book clubs] emerged as new
the Declaration of
Independence
venues for ideas to circulate.
THE LATE ENLIGHTENMENT AND BEYOND: 1780-1815
The French Revolution of 1789 was the culmination of the
High Enlightenment vision of throwing out the old
authorities to remake society along rational lines, but it
devolved into bloody terror that showed the limits of its own
ideas and led, a decade later, to the rise of the dictator
Napoleon. Still, its goal of egalitarianism [equality] attracted
the admiration of many. So too did the enormous leaps in
technology and productive capacity evident during the
Industrial Revolution, beginning first in Britain in the late
18th century. Huge industrial cities such as Manchester and
Birmingham sprang up, based not around the estates of
wealthy aristocrats but around the new factories that
dominated (and polluted) the skyline. It seemed that
machinery was finally triumphing over nature and that there
Liberty leading the people by Eugne Delacroix
was nothing that mankind
could not do.
Romanticism: backlash against the Enlightenment

Enlightened rationality, and the cities and factories of the

Industrial Revolution it spawned, created its own backlash
amongst those in Europe who were appalled by the loss of
the idyllic [heavenly] past of their memories. For them the
scientific method meant the loss of what it meant to be
human, which was primarily a connection to nature. This
new movement, known as Romanticism, did what its name
suggested: romanticised a mythical past. It had its greatest
impact on art and literature, but also in the way history
was written. The evidence-based approach that had been
developing during the Enlightenment was side-lined as
Romanticism placed higher value on the great men of the past who were seen as the heroes of the
more honest and virtuous ideals of the pre-industrial world. This style of writing about the past
took on a nationalistic flavour and brought with it suggestions that a new hero would be needed to
restore the nation to its glorious past. From such ideas fascism would eventually develop, with Nazi
Germanys Hitler seen as such a hero.

How the Enlightenment Affected Politics and Government

The Enlightenment, or Age of Enlightenment, rearranged

politics and government in earth-shaking ways. This cultural
movement embraced several types of philosophies,
or approaches to thinking and exploring the world. Generally,
Enlightened thinkers thought objectively and without any preconceived ideas about what the answers were to the questions
being asked. (In the pre-Enlightenment period, such answers
were usually to be found in the Bible.) They would observe and
measure and then let the evidence tell them the answer.
Reasoning, rationalism, and empiricism [an evidence-based
approach to finding answers] were some of the schools of thought that composed the Enlightenment.
The triumph of Newtonian science coincided with and helped to produce a fundamental intellectual
change. By the early eighteenth century, the focus of speculation [theorising] was shifting from
theological [religious] to secular [non-religious] concerns. This change is at once evident when we
compare two rulers who exemplify [typify] the old and new outlooks. Louis XIV of France (16431715) was a typical seventeenth-century sovereign, in that he had seen his primary duty to the State
as being a religious leader. In contrast, the eighteenth-century ruler Frederick the Great of Prussia
(1740-86) was basically a secular leader. To Frederick, his subjects religions were their own affair, a
matter of private conscience, and not a public matter of state. Fredericks overriding concern instead
was with building an army and a stable bureaucracy, and putting in
place a tax structure to fund them. His rationally organized state
machine would assure the security and prosperity of his subjects
[people]. The old religious hostilities that had divided Europe since
the Reformation no longer preoccupied him. Science and rational
inquiry now came to be seen as the common ground which reunited
men who had previously been polarized into Catholic or Protestant,
in what the Declaration of Independence would call the pursuit of
happiness - happiness to be achieved in this world, not the next.
Reason provided a unifying doctrine [set of beliefs] and the key to
increasing human happiness, taking over the position once held by
religion. With the right use of reason, it was believed, all societys
problems could be solved and all mankind could live prosperously
and contentedly.
Frederick the Great of Prussia

The Enlightenment and Women

The Enlightenment gave birth to a new feminist consciousness as some
advocated [promoted] the idea that liberty and equality should apply to
women as well as men. During the Enlightenment some women of the upper
classes were greatly affected by the ideas of Enlightenment and began to
demand a greater role in intellectual life. In 1792 Mary Wollstonecraft wrote
A Vindication of the Rights of Women, advocating equality of the sexes and
womens right to education. These ideas laid the foundations of modern
feminism and gave birth to a new era of demands for womens rights.
However, during this time old notions of womens inferiority and
subjugation [to be controlled] persisted. Women were generally excluded
from discussions of liberty, equality, reason and science as it was believed
that they belonged in the private sphere of family and home.

Mary Wollstonecraft

The Enlightenment: Key Points

1. The Enlightenment had its origins in the
scientific and intellectual revolutions of the
17th century, following on from ideas raised
first in the Protestant Reformation and to
some extent in the earlier Renaissance.
2. Enlightenment thinkers felt that change and
reason were both possible and desirable, for
the sake of human liberty.
3. Enlightenment philosophes
[thinkers/intellectuals, rather than philosophers] provided a major source of ideas that
undermined whether intentionally or not - existing social and political structures.
4. Early Enlightenment thinkers sought to use reason and the scientific approach to discover and
better know Gods workings, not to displace God. Secularism evolved out of the Enlightenment.

Major Themes of the Era

A. Rationalism: logical reasoning based on facts/evidence rather than simply accepting traditional
or religious wisdom.
B. Cosmology: new world view based on Newtonian physics and analysis of the natural world as an
inter-related system that could be understood by careful study and analysis.
C. Secularism: application of scientific theories to religion and society.
D. Scientific method: developing and testing a hypothesis through experimentation and observation.
E. Utilitarianism: creating a society based on the common good, not just for the privileged few.
(Jeremy Bentham: The greatest good for the greatest number.)
F. Optimism and self-confidence: a belief that humankind is essentially good and that anything is
possible (this was a reversal of medieval thinking that saw human beings as fallen and unworthy).
During the 19th century this led to a powerful belief in Progress.
G. Tolerance: a greater acceptance of different societies and cultures.
H. Freedom and liberty: no human being is born naturally inferior to any other, and no human being
has the right to claim greater privileges than any other based solely on their birth.

Results of Enlightenment Thought

A. It was an important contributing factor in the
American and French Revolutions.
B. Enlightenment thinking is reflected in the US
Declaration of Independence.
C. Enlightened Despots; these were dictators who
actually encouraged Enlightenment ideas except
perhaps notions of liberty!
D. European thought became centred on a belief in
reason, science, individual rights, and the progress of
civilization. European voyages of exploration spread
these ideas to many other parts of the world.
E. By the 19th century, the scientific method of the
Enlightenment led to a powerful European belief in
Progress and the unlimited potential of humankind.

The Enlightenment Crossword

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The French Revolutions goal of _____________ inspired many

A counter movement to rationality and the Industrial Revolution was _______________, which
idealised man's connection to nature
Enlightenment thinkers used logical __________ based on evidence rather than accepting
traditional or religious wisdom
Frederick the Great was a secular leader, as he was less concerned with his subjects ________
than with building a rationally organised state machine
Enlightenment ideals of freedom and ___________ encompass the belief that no one has the
right to claim greater privileges than any other based on their birth
Voltaire, Rousseau and Diderot were all French _____________
French philosopher Rene _____________ believed Cogito, ergo sum, I think therefore I am
Early Enlightenment thinkers sought to use reason and the scientific approach to better
understand ____s workings
The ________ method is based on developing and testing a hypothesis through experimentation
and evidence
The Enlightenment is also known as the Age of ________

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Galileo ________ proved that the Earth travelled around the sun, challenging the authority of
the Church
Locke argued that human nature could be __________
Some Christians sought to reposition their faith along _________ lines
The period 1730-1780 is referred to as the '____ Enlightenment'
One of the key thinkers of the scientific revolution was Isaac ________
New venues for sharing ideas sprung up, such as coffeehouses and ________ salons
European voyages of _________ spread Enlightenment ideals to many parts of the world
The Declaration of _____________ stresses Enlightenment ideas of individual liberty and
freedom
Huge leaps in technology and capacity during the __________ Revolution encouraged the belief
that anything was possible
The French ___________ aimed to overthrow the old authorities and restructure society on
rational lines
Enlightenment thinkers took an evidence-based approach to finding answers, known as
_____________
Wikipedia is a modern descendant of _________s Encyclopdie
The Enlightenment eventually led to a ___________ [non-religious] view of the world
Romanticist historians emphasised the great ____ of the past

ENLIGHTENMENT IDEAS TODAY

Todays society is still essentially based on Enlightenment ideas and thinking. These ideas are
evident throughout popular culture. In groups, analyse the lyrics of the following popular songs to
find evidence of Enlightenment ideas in them:
Bob Marley Get Up, Stand Up
Aretha Franklin RESPECT
Nina Simone Aint Got No (I Got Life)

John Lennon Imagine

The Beatles Revolution
The Kinks 20th Century Man

Extension activity:
Choose your current favourite song and alter the lyrics to strongly reflect Enlightenment ideas.

MOCK INQUIRY
Decimal time: http://www.decimaltime.hynes.net/p/history.html. This is an example of
Enlightenment rationality extended even in the aftermath of the French Revolution.