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Theories of Attitude Formation and Change

The University of the West Indies
Faculty of Humanities and Education
School of Education

EDRS 6302 – Social Psychology of Education

Research Paper Assignment

[Theories of Attitude Formation and Change and Strategies for Changing Students’
Negative Attitudes toward Learning]

Jason C. Joseph

DATE: March 29, 2010

Lecturer: Professor Arthur G. Richardson
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Theories of Attitude Formation and Change
Theories of Attitude Formation and Change and Strategies for Changing Students’
Negative Attitudes toward Learning
The kinds of thoughts we harbor in our minds determine to what extent we love or hate,
succeed or fail, or whether we see the glass as half full or half empty. What we think and believe
form our attitudes, which influences the way we react to our environment and the way we
behave. In this paper, some of the theories underpinning attitude formation and change will be
examined. Three approaches to attitude change which can be employed within a teaching-
learning environment to improve student learning will also be discussed.
The concept of attitudes is multidimensional and has been one of the main concepts used
to explain individual differences, and to understand and predict changes in human behaviour.
The essence of the construct is succinctly expressed in a definition by Baron, Branscombe, and
Byrne, (2008), which states that “attitude refers to people’s evaluation of virtually any aspect of
their social world” (p. 148). We are constantly evaluating people, objects, and situations and
arrive at some judgement. Dennis and Wartella, (2007), adds that we have a natural tendency to
want to make sense of our world by evaluating stimuli as either positive or negative, or favorable
and unfavorable. Those evaluations, or beliefs, are expressed in our opinions and influence our
behavior.
It is generally agreed that an attitude consists of three components: an affective,
cognitive, and behavioral component. When a child has a positive attitude toward a teacher, for
example, it implies that the child has formed positive thoughts and beliefs through knowledge
gained about the teacher (cognitive). The child also feels happy, excited, or comfortable around
the teacher (affective) and has a tendency to behave in ways which demonstrate his positive
attitude, such as, wanting to be in the teacher’s presence, or his eagerness to help the teacher
(behavioral).
Where consensus about attitude lacks, however, is in the amount of prominence which
psychologists give to the affective or cognitive components and the degree to which they believe
each component contributes toward attitude formation. Some theorists contend that beliefs play a
pivotal role in the formation of attitudes while others posit that affect is directly responsible for
determining attitudes (Bodur, 2000). Others believe that our attitudes are inferred from our past
behaviours (Aiken, 2002). Attitudes, in general, tend to have the following attributes (Crano,
2008):
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Theories of Attitude Formation and Change
• An attitude, such as one’s preference for spicy foods, is learned over a period of time, as
compared to hunger, which is a physiological motive.
• Attitudes are relatively stable despite changes in our moods or emotional state.
• Attitudes are targeted at specific objects, individuals, groups, or situations.
• There is a motivational-affective characteristic involved which distinguishes an attitude
from other predispositions, such as habits. Attitudes, therefore, can range from strongly
positive, to ambivalent, to strongly negative, and can either be explicit or overt, or
implicit or covert. An attitude can also be extreme, as in the case of prejudice, which can
lead to discrimination.
Theories of Attitude Formation
Theories of attitude formation, like learning theories, range from early stimulus-response
explanations of behaviorist theorists to more recent approaches which emphasize the role of
extensive cognitive processing. Although many of the theories of attitude formation are also
applicable to attitude change, a distinction will be made here of those theories which explain
the manner in which attitudes are formed initially. Those can be classified into five
categories according to Crisp & Turner, (2007): (1) Mere Exposure, (2) Associative
Learning, (3) Observational Learning, (4) Self-Perception Theory, and (5) Functional
Theory.
Mere Exposure
The mere exposure effect postulates that people tend to develop a liking for something if
they are frequently exposed to it. The more often a song is heard or the more time is spent
with a person, the more appealing the song or person will appear to be. In a series of
experiments by Robert Zajonc, subjects were repeatedly exposed to unfamiliar stimuli, such
as paintings, songs, or words and were subsequently asked to rate how much they liked them.
It was generally found that participants’ perceptual fluency increased, or in other words, they
became better at perceiving the object with subsequent encounters which was interpreted as
liking for the object (Crano, 2008). This was an illustration of how affect played a more
dominant role in attitude formation than cognition.
Associative Learning
Associative learning refers to classical conditioning and operant conditioning. The
Classical conditioning method of attitude formation involves the implicit pairing of a neutral
stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus - one which is known to evoke an emotional response.
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Theories of Attitude Formation and Change
The neutral stimulus eventually begins to evoke an emotional response of its own. According to
Staats and Staats, as cited in Crisp & Turner, (2007), this associative learning usually results in
stronger attitude formation when the individual has no previous beliefs about the attitude object.
The best illustration of this is the manner in which racial prejudice is learnt. People who have
never been exposed to, or who have little knowledge of another race, are more likely to develop
stronger negative attitudes toward that race if negative labels were constantly associated with the
race. Conversely, people who “know better”, or who have friends belonging to that race, are less
likely to form a negative attitude. One example of a stimulus-response theory of attitude
formation is the Implicit Response Theory of Leonard Doob.
Doob, as cited in (Reardon, 1991), defines an attitude as “an implicit, mediating response
between an objective stimulus and an overt response.” In this theory, an attitude or implicit
response is formed as a result of a sequence of behavior or chaining. In other words, somewhere
in between the stimulus and the overt response, there is another response that occurs which is not
directly observable. This hypothetical construct or “intervening variable” is referred to as an
attitude. The intensity of the attitude depends on the intensity of the stimulus object and the
degree to which our implicit responses drive us to respond overtly. Generalization also takes
place when implicit responses become attached to patterns of stimuli which are indirectly related
to the original stimuli.
Such theories have been criticized as being too limited in their explanation of how attitudes
are formed. The generalization aspect of the theory also implies that it is not always possible to
decide which observable stimulus is responsible for the formation of an attitude. Also, the
experiments used to test the theory were few and were criticized as being too contrived.
The second example of the use of associative learning in attitude formation is through
Operant or Instrumental Conditioning, where our behaviors are either rewarded or punished.
When our behaviors are followed by positive outcomes they are strengthened and are more likely
to be repeated. On the other hand, behavior which is followed by ridicule or other negative
reinforcements is weakened and less likely to happen again. We eventually learn not only which
views and beliefs are acceptable, but also how to adjust our attitudes to suit our social
environment based on the reception that we believe we will get.To illustrate further, a man who
is afraid of a cockroach is more likely to appear brave in public since he knows that showing fear
might be viewed as being effeminate.
Observational Learning of Attidues
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Theories of Attitude Formation and Change
In Social or Observational Learning, attitudes are formed as a result of our everyday
interaction with others. We observe the behaviors and expressions of attitude of others and tend
to learn vicariously from the reinforcements which they receive. We are more likely to adopt
behaviors that are followed by positive consequences than behaviors that are followed by
negative consequences. The learning of attitudes through observation can be clearly
demonstrated as we watch television. Our attitudes toward fashion, romantic relationships, and
certain minority groups, to name a few, can all be influenced by what is portrayed in the
television media.
According to Festinger’s social comparison theory, as cited in (Suls, 2000) people have an
instinctive desire to compare their opinions, ideas, and abilities with other people in an effort to
evaluate or improve their own behaviour. The tendency to adjust our attitudes is greater when
our reference group consists of individuals whose opinions we value and with whom we can
identify. This concept explains why, in some cases, the attitudes of some adolescents are more
likely to be influenced by their peers than by their own parents, since at that stage of identity
formation, their peer relations and the opinions of their friends are of utmost importance.
The Self-perception Theory
Contrary to most attitude formation theories which view behaviour as a consequence of
attitude, the self –perception theory proposed by Bem postulates that attitudes are formed
consequent to one’s behaviour. He asserts that we evaluate our attitudes and make internal or
external attributions based on what we believe might have caused them. Both our previous
experiences and the stimulus conditions in which the overt behaviour happens are important
(Bohner, 2002). Inferring our attitudes from our behaviour is most likely to happen when we
have no prior knowledge about, or strong attitude toward the situation.
The idea of behaviour preceding attitude was demonstrated by several psychologists in
experiments which required the subjects to perform different behaviours, like making facial
expressions, and adopting certain postures. It was found that after performing a certain behavior,
like smiling for example, the participants reported feeling happier. In another experiment,
teenagers reported feeling more caring and considerate to others after participating repeatedly in
community service activities.
The Functional Theory of Attitude Formation
The functional approach to attitude formation is based on the premise that people engage in
the deliberate processing of situations, events, and ideas, and arrive at some sort of judgment.
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Theories of Attitude Formation and Change
Unlike the cognitively-passive process involved in the previous methods, the functional theory
states that attitudes are formed in order to satisfy certain psychological needs. We believe things
not necessarily because they are true but because they are useful to us. According to (Crano,
2008), attitudes tend to serve four basic psychological functions: utilitarian, knowledge, ego-
defensive, and value-expressive.
The utilitarian attitudes are formed to satisfy our need for approval or to get along with
others. They express a desire to seek whatever is of benefit to us and avoid punishment. In order
to conform, we sometimes tend to have a public attitude which is concordant with that of others,
and a private attitude which is different form our public attitude.
Attitudes which have a knowledge function help us to organize, simplifiy, and predict certain
aspects of our social world. They help us to evaluate the vast and varied information that we
assimilate on a daily basis in an attempt to bring meaning to our lives. They are usually biased,
like stereotypes for example, and represent a simplified version of reality.
Attitudes which serve an ego-defensive function help to keep our self esteem in tact by
justifying actions which make us feel guilty or humiliated. An example of this would be a
student who has a strong negative attitude toward all stage performances because he experienced
an embarrassing or humiliating moment on stage. By adopting this attitude the student preserves
his self-image by avoiding future embarrassment and further damage to his ego.
The function of Value-expressive attitudes is to convey values that are important to us and
which reflect and reinforce our self concept. People who value religion, for example, and
consider themselves christians, are likely to adopt attitudes which are in harmony with their
values and which will strengthen their self-image.
Knowing how and why attitudes are formed helps us to better understand and predict human
behaviour. However, predicting someone’s behaviour from their attitude is not always a straight-
forward process. There are instances when people’s behaviours are not always a reflection of
how they feel or what they believe.
Attitude and Behaviour
An investigation by Richard LaPierre in 1934 revealed an example of such inconsistencies
between attitude and behaviour. LaPierre reportedly accompanied a Chinese couple to 251
restaurants, hotels and other establishments in the USA. The couple was refused service only
once. However, in a questionnaire six months later, 90% of those same proprietors said that they
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Theories of Attitude Formation and Change
would not entertain Chinese guests at their establishments. This showed that people’s behaviours
can be inconsistent with their attitudes depending on the social context.
According to Fazio and Ewoldsen-Roskos, (2004), there are four moderating variables, or
factors which determine the strength of the relationship between attitudes and behaviour. The
first is the qualities of the behaviour. Simply put, a specific behaviour is best predicted by a
specific attitudinal question which takes into consideration the specific context in which the
action occurred. Conversely, general attitude measures best predict general patterns of behaviour.
The second variable is the qualities of the person. People with a high level of moral reasoning
and who are guided by their own internal feelings display more attitude-behaviour consistency
than those who rely more on external or situational cues. The third variable, the qualities of the
situation, refer to the norms and beliefs which influence our behaviour, and the amount of
pressure we are under to make a quick decision. The final moderating variable is the qualities of
the attitude. Some attitudes tend to be clearer and stronger than others depending on how they
were formed; for example, attitudes which were formed as a result of direct experience. Attitudes
formed in this manner are more likely to be better predictors of behaviour than attitudes formed
from indirect experience. Such attitudes are also more accessible to memory and tend to evoke
more habitual, and automatic responses when dealing with our social environment.
In addition to the above variables, Ajzen and Fishbein also proposed that behavior is guided
by attitude via the theory of reasoned action (TRA). TRA suggests that a person’s intention to
behave in a particular way depends on the person’s attitude about the behaviour and the
importance which the person places on the opinions of others toward the intended behaviour, or
the subjective norms. People with an intention to behave a particular way, therefore, will most
likely do it.
Theories of Attitude Change
Since people’s attitudes are generally indicative of their behaviour, it is important to
understand how attitudes can be changed in order to also alter people’s behaviour. There are
several theories on attitude change. A summary of three of the most pertinent ones will be
discussed, namely, the theory of cognitive dissonance, social judgment theory, and persuasion
theory.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Cognitive dissonance happens when an individual experiences two conflicting or
inconsistent beliefs which cause a state of discomfort and tension. Dissonance is also created
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Theories of Attitude Formation and Change
when a person’s behaviour is incompatible with his thoughts (Coon, 2010). According to
Festinger, as a result of our natural desire for consistency among our cognitions, cognitive
dissonance creates an internal drive to eliminate the dissonance by either causing us to change
our attitudes or our behaviour. The following schematic diagram summarizes the dissonance
model:

Two State of Motivation Attitude

conflicting dissonance to reduce change
cognitions dissonance
or
inconsistenc Justification for
y between UNLESS counter-attitudinal
attitude and behaviour

No No attitude
dissonance change

Figure 1. Schematic Diagram showing dissonance model (Adapted from

http://psych.umb.edu/Faculty, n.d).

The strength of the dissonance depends on how important the subject is to us, how
conflicting and incompatible the beliefs and thoughts are, and our ability to rationalize and
justify our behaviour. The obviation of tension is usually achieved by either changing our
behaviour, justifying our behaviour by changing the incompatible thoughts, or justifying our
behaviour by adding more consonant beliefs in order to outweigh the dissonant cognitions.
To illustrate further, someone who smokes but believes that smoking is a danger to one’s
health, will experience dissonance. The strength of the dissonance depends on how much the
individual likes to smoke and how dangerous he believes smoking is. The greatest dissonance
will occur if both alternatives appear equally attractive (Kearsley, 2010). In order to
eliminate the dissonance, the individual can stop smoking, which is usually the most difficult
alternative, or justify his behaviour by convincing himself that he is not such a heavy smoker,
or that life is short and we all must die anyway.
In other instances, where it is difficult or impossible to reduce cognitive dissonance
because of the strength of our beliefs, we tend to engage in self-affirmation, which is a
process whereby we focus on positive self-attributes in order to feel better about ourselves
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(Baron, 2008). Using the previous example, the smoker could remind himself that he is only
human, with weaknesses like everyone else.
Persuasion Theory
Persuasion theory, developed by Carl Hovland et al., is based on the premise that
people’s attitudes and opinions can be changed as a result of persuasive communication.
Persuasion leads to change by creating uncertainty in the minds of those who strongly oppose
the persuader’s view, reducing the audience’s resistance, changing or amplifying their
attitudes, and stimulating action from those who may already agree with the persuader
(McGaan, 2010). There are six main elements of the theory (Straker, 2010):
1) Intent: Although persuasion can occur accidentally, most persuasion happens
intentionally.
2) Coercion: While compliance and behavioral change can be achieved through
coercion, changes in attitude or inner cognitions may not occur.
3) Context: A changed behaviour may be limited to a particular context.
4) Plurality: Persuasion can influence oneself, one individual, or several people.
5) Presence: One does not have to be physically present for persuasion to be used.
6) Media: A range of media can be used to communicate.
Researchers have identified three dimensions which affect the persuasiveness of a message,
namely, the target characteristics, the source characteristics, and the message characteristics.
The target characteristics refer to the traits of the person who receives and processes the
message. One of those qualities is the degree to which the individual consciously resists the
persuasion. Some people are naturally more argumentative than others and may resist persuasion
attempts in order to protect their freedom and right to choose, and to maintain strong beliefs that
are meaningful to them (Baron, 2008). Other factors such as intelligence, self esteem and mood
levels have also been found to affect persuasion attempts.
The source characteristics refer to those qualities in the communicator which help to make the
message more persuasive. People are more likely to be persuaded by someone who is credible,
trustworthy, and attractive.
The message characteristics include the manner in which the argument is framed, the
amount of emotion induced, and the overt or covert nature of the communicator’s intentions.
Messages which do not appear to intentionally set out to change our attitudes tend to have more
success than those which we know in advance are geared towards this goal. This explains why
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some vagrants in their quest to solicit money sometimes disguise their intentions by prefacing it
with innocent small talk.
One of the modern theories of persuasion which explains the cognitive processes that we go
through when faced with a persuasive message is the elaboration-likelihood model (ELM).
The ELM is a dual-process theory of information processing which distinguishes between two
routes to persuasion: the central route and the peripheral route. The central route to persuasion,
or systematic processing, involves a deep and careful analysis of the persuasive message. The
outcome of the processing determines the direction and magnitude of the attitude change. The
peripheral route to persuasion, also known as heuristic processing, is taken in circumstances that
encourage low elaboration
Three Strategies for Influencing a Change of Attitude among Students toward Learning
In order for the teacher as a “learning physician” to prescribe the correct medication, he
must first diagnose the nature of the problem. A meaningful change in the attitudes of students
can only be effected if the teacher knows exactly what those attitudes are and the functions
which they serve for students. The most common method of obtaining such information is
through the use of self-report attitude scales, such as the likert-type or semantic differential scale.
The kinds of attitudes which students have towards learning will also give an insight into the root
of the problem and the manner in which students’ learning is being affected. Brophy, (2004), for
example, suggested that lack of motivation could cause students to develop attitudes toward
learning which lead to them being underachievers, or to developing learned helplessness or a
failure syndrome. Students could also develop negative attitudes toward a subject, a particular
type of teaching strategy, or the teacher.
Effective attitude change, therefore, requires a multi-pronged approach in order to address
cognitive, affective, social, and contextual factors which may be contributing simultaneously to
the formation of several attitudes in the same child. This section will present three main
approaches to attitude change among secondary school students, as well as a discussion of
various strategies which can be employed in each approach. The approaches are: 1) Teaching as
a persuasive practice, 2) Changing students experiences with learning, and 3) Helping students
to improve their cognitive skills.
Teaching as a persuasive practice
One of the assumptions which can be made, regardless of the type of attitudes students may
have, is that their negative attitudes are related to various experiences which they have had in the
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past. With this in mind, a teacher’s approach to teaching should be based on persuasive
strategies. The knowledge, experiences and activities which students are to receive should be
treated as the “message” or the “product”. Each of the three factors affecting the persuasiveness
of a message can also be applied in this context. In order to understand the target characteristics,
for example, and to use it to his advantage, the teacher should attempt to gain a fair idea of the
individual personalities, attitudes and needs of his students. The best way to accomplish this
would be to foster a good social atmosphere in the classroom and a healthy relationship with
pupils. Knowing pupils individually would assist the teacher in adjusting his approach to suit
each student and would make students more likely to respond. The kind of messages or feedback
an adolescent student with literacy problems would receive, for instance, would not be the same
as the feedback received by a more competent but lazy student. Also the needs of those students
would determine the kinds of activities or rewards they would find motivating or reinforcing.
The message characteristics in this scenario would refer to the manner in which all the
instructions, feedback, and lessons in general are delivered. Messages which are authoritarian in
nature, which force students to comply, and which evoke fear or competition in students will be
less effective than messages which are authoritative, encouraging, and which convey a belief in
students capabilities (Brophy, 2004). Every activity done in the class should be carefully
orchestrated with the purpose of motivating students, getting them to build confidence, and to see
the value of learning. Students who do not like a particular subject for example will be more
likely to show interest in what the teacher has to say if he introduces a topic by saying, “During
the next 40 minutes you are going to learn a set of skills that you will need for the rest of your
lives.” This sort of set induction would both arouse their curiosity and lead them to believe that
they are all capable of learning the skills to be taught. Using a more traditional and less
interesting approach, such as, “Can anybody tell me what is meant by the main idea of a story?”
or “Who can tell me what we did in the last class. James?” is less likely to evoke the same level
of interest and anticipation.
The next crucial step is to ensure that the set induction lives up to its expectations and that
the lesson is delivered in a way that maintains students’ interest. The persuasive teacher,
therefore, would be careful to pace his lessons properly, in order not to bore students, and use
activities which are engaging and which challenge students. Instead of the “chalk and talk”
method, which still appears to be the most practiced method at many secondary schools, a
variety of methods can be utilized, including discussion, cooperative learning activities, role
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Theories of Attitude Formation and Change
playing and demonstrations. This strategy is also likely to cause cognitive dissonance among
students who may have had negative attitudes toward the subject. In other words, the fact that
they are constantly enjoying a class which they are “not supposed” to enjoy may cause cognitive
discomfort and force a change in attitude.
The characteristics of the teacher or the source are also very important to the whole
approach. While it may not be possible for a teacher to enhance his attractiveness, other factors
such as, likability, expertise, and credibility can be used to influence students’ attitudes through
persuasion. According to Urdan & Pajares, (2001), as students progress from primary to
secondary school the quality of teacher-student relationships decrease, resulting in lower
motivation and achievement. Simple gestures such as eye contact, using students’ names,
smiling, humour, giving personal examples and anecdotes, and using “we” and “us” strengthens
the rapport between teacher and student. All these gestures which serve to convey teacher
warmth and to build a bridge between students and teacher are referred to as teacher immediacy
(Brophy, 2004). The expertise and credibility factors can be highlighted by demonstrating
teacher preparedness, a good grasp of the content area, and enthusiasm for the subject.
Teaching as persuasion, therefore, is meant to be a well orchestrated effort at motivating
students to learn, and changing their attitudes by using persuasive communication, building
rapport with students, and using a variety of engaging activities.

Helping students experience success

There are many secondary students who are low achievers, who appear to have given up on
trying, and who have become disinterested in school. While they may be able to grasp a concept
after it is taught, their lack of literacy skills prevents them from keeping up with the rest of the
class when written activities and assessments are given. In such a case, a combination of direct
instruction, to integrate low achievers with the rest of the class, and differentiated instruction
could be used. With differentiated instruction, students who are below par can be given exercises
and assessments which are challenging enough at their level, and which would allow them to
experience success. This may mean having to focus on only the essential objectives of each
curriculum unit and omitting others so that the low achievers could master them. With regular
experiences of success, students’ may begin to attribute their success internally, to their efforts,
and may begin to expect more success. This would lead to more motivation and an increase in
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Theories of Attitude Formation and Change
the sort of productive efforts and behaviours which are needed, rather than their defeatist
attitude. The self-perception theory also posits that this approach may lead students to analyze
and interpret their behaviours as being responsible for their success and will change their attitude
toward the subject area, and toward their ability to learn.
Another strategy which could also contribute to helping students experience success is the
foot-in-the-door technique. This technique is a form of compliance tactic which involves getting
a person to agree to a larger request by first having them agree to smaller requests (Weiton,
2010). As teachers, we sometimes make the mistake of trying to get students to change their
attitudes in a drastic manner. Some attitudes, particularly attitudes toward learning, were formed
over a period of time and an incremental and subtle approach to change would be more effective.
Students are also more likely to resist efforts at change because of the forewarning which comes
with the aggressive, wholesale change strategy (Baron, 2008). To illustrate the foot-in-the-door
technique, picture a child who refuses to participate, or grudgingly participates in class activities.
The teacher could first ask the child to assist in distributing materials to the class. This can be
followed by giving the student the role of timekeeper in a group until, gradually, the student is
led to actively participate in other ways and to not only feel good about it, but to experience
success in the process.

Helping students improve their cognitive skills

The term “cognitive skills” is used here to represent students’ ability to think critically,
logically, and reflectively. By helping students to become more aware of how they perceive
situations and of the link between their thoughts, beliefs and behaviour, teachers will be more
likely to influence students to change the way they process events and the outcomes of those
events in their lives. Research shows that people can learn to be more aware of the negative
thoughts which they have and consciously replace them with more constructive ones (Weiner,
2003).
One of the most challenging tasks for many secondary school teachers is to get students
to change their attitudes towards studying and to develop more effective study habits. Students
normally tend to engage in last minute rote learning for exams. In such an instance, the teacher
could first get the students to express how they feel about studying so that they could be clear as
to the underlying reasons behind their negative attitude. Through the use of appropriate
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Theories of Attitude Formation and Change
questioning techniques which encourage logical and critical thinking, students could be led to
decide for themselves how valid their ideas and beliefs are. By probing students further, the
teacher could get them to analyze the effectiveness of their study habits and to see the link
between their poor methods and their attitudes. Teaching students more effective ways to
organize their work, such as the use of schematic diagrams for example, and also ways to
memorize information would be a crucial part of the strategy.
Related to this approach is also the attribution retraining technique. This technique
involves getting students to attribute failure to a lack of effort or inappropriate strategy, rather
than to a lack of ability (Brophy, 2004). A teacher who notices that a student constantly gets
frustrated when faced with failure for instance, can engage the student in a discussion to find out
what attributions the student makes for her failures and whether those attributions adequately
represent the whole picture. By determining what the real problem is, the teacher can help the
student to focus on either increasing effort or learning a more effective strategy. Similarly, the
teacher can engage students in reflective thinking by discussing previous successes which the
student may have had and help the student to analyze why she succeeded and whether any
strategies from the successful experiences can be applied to the current one. The teacher can also
model more effective thought processes, for example, “I used to be terrible at Math and the
strategy I used was…”
Somewhere in between our students and academic achievement and success are our
students’ attitudes. Those attitudes are either positive and can propel students towards success, or
they are negative and can hinder student achievement. An effective teacher promotes learning
and achievement by identifying and addressing those negative attitudes. This can be done
through persuasive teaching methods, making the students’ learning experiences more positive,
and getting students to be more aware of their cognitive processing habits in an effort to make
the necessary changes.
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Theories of Attitude Formation and Change

References

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Baron, R. A., Branscombe, N. R., & Byrne, D. R. (2008). Social Psychology (12th Edition ed.).
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