HillaryGonzalez

DigestiveSystemLabReport
Thislabreportaddressesthethreemajorcomponentsofthedigestivesystemwhich
includethemouthstructure,thestomachandesophagus,andsmallandlargeintestine.The
mouth,alsocalledthealimentarycanal,orbuccalcavity,isthefirststructureofthethedigestion
processbymechanicallybreakingupfoodintosmallerpiecesandmixingitwithsaliva.Taste
budsaresensoryorgansthatarefoundonyourtongueandallowyoutoexperiencetastesthatare
sweet,salty,sour,andbitter.Themouthopenstotheoutsideatthelipsandemptiesintothe
throatattherearitsboundariesaredefinedbythelips,cheeks,hardandsoftpalates,andglottis.
Theesophagus,whichpassesfoodfromthepharynxtothestomach,isabout10inchesinlength
andthewidthisabout1inch.Theesophagusliesbehindthetracheaandheartandinfrontofthe
spinalcolumnitpassesthroughthediaphragmbeforeenteringthestomach.Partialdigestionof
thefoodtakesplaceinthestomach.Thechurningactionofthestomachmusclesphysically
breaksdownthefood.Thestomachreleasesacidsandenzymesforthechemicalbreakdownof
food.Theenzymepepsinisresponsibleforproteinbreakdown.

TheEffectsofSalivaryAmylaseonStarch
Alllivingbeingsneedenergytosurvive.Itisfromthefoodweconsumethatwegetour
energy.Weknowthattheenergywearegettingisbytheprocessofdigestionthatbreaksdown
thecomplexsubstanceofstarchintosimplermoleculesofglucose,whicharefurther
metabolizedintocarbondioxideandwaterthroughtheprocessofglycolysis.Thehuman
digestivetractstartsatthemouthandendsattheanus.Thesalivacontainsanenzymecalled
salivaryamylasewhichhydrolysesstarchintomaltose.Thedigestionofthebolusstartsassoon
asweputfoodinourmouth.Ourteethcutthefoodintosmallpiecesandthesalivaryglands
secretesalivathatmixeswiththesefoodmaterials.Thesalivacontainsanenzymecalledsalivary
amylasewhichhydrolysesstarchintomaltose.Thecompletedigestionofstarchoccursonlyin
thesmallintestinebytheactionofpancreaticamylase.Theactivityofenzymesisstrongly
affectedbyseveralfactors,suchastemperatureandpH.Atalowertemperature,theenzyme
salivaryamylaseisdeactivatedandatthehighertemperature,theenzymeisdenatured.
Therefore,moretimewillbetakenbyanenzymetodigestthestarchatlowerandhigher
temperatures.TheoptimumpHfortheenzymaticactivityofsalivaryamylaserangesfrom6to7.
Ourstomachhashighlevelofaciditywhichcausesthesalivaryamylasetodenatureandchange
itsshape.

Amylaseandstarchlabsetup
TestTube1

TestTube2

1dropofiodine
30dropsofsaliva
crushedcracker

1dropofiodine
30H20drops
crushedcracker

Figure#1:Thelabsetup.Twotesttubessetupexactlythesameexceptonehadsalivaandtheotherone
hadwater.Thepurposeofthisdatawastoseewhatamylase(enzyme)doestoastarch(cracker).The
amylasebrokedownthecrackeronthesecondday.

TheContributionofSmellandTexturetoTaste
Atastebudisasmallorganonthetongue.Tastebudsaresensoryorgansthatarefound
onyourtongueandallowyoutoexperiencetastesthataresweet,salty,sour,andbitter.Taste
receptorcells,withwhichincomingchemicalsfromfoodandothersourcesinteract,occuronthe
tongueingroupsof50150.Eachofthesegroupsformsatastebud,whichisgroupedtogether
withothertastebudsintotastepapillae.Thecomplicatedprocessofsmellingandtastingbegins
whenmoleculesreleasedbythesubstancesaroundusstimulatespecialnervecellsinthenose,
mouth,orthroat.Thesecellstransmitmessagestothebrain,wherespecificsmellsortastesare
identified.
Theolfactory(smellnerve)cellsarestimulatedbytheodorsaroundus
thefragrancefrom
arose,thesmellofbreadbaking.Thesenervecellsarefoundinatinypatchoftissuehighupin
thenose,andtheyconnectdirectlytothebrain.Thegustatory(tastenerve)cellsareclusteredin
thetastebudsofthemouthandthroat.Theyreacttofoodordrinkmixedwithsaliva.Manyof
thesmallbumpsthatcanbeseenonthetonguecontaintastebuds.Thesesurfacecellssendtaste
informationtonearbynervefibers,whichsendmessagestothebrain.
Food

5sec.Placedon
tongue

Cucumber

5sec.chew

5sec.Unplug
nose&chew

DoesntIDfood

Carrot

Cheese

Banana

Potato

Figure#2:Theresultsofthetastelab.Cucumberwastheonlyidentifiedfoodwhenplacedonthetongue
for5sec.Everyotherfoodfromcheesetopotatowereidentifiedafterchewing.
Thepurposeofthislabwastoidentifywhetherornotsmellis80%taste.Conclusionforthislabisthat
smellisnot80%taste.

MammalTeethStructure
Teethinmammalscomeinfourdifferentsorts:Incisors,Canines,PremolarsandMolars.
Notallmammalshaveall,orevenanyofthemandtherolesanyparticularsortofteethplayin
ananimal'slifecanbequitediverse.Thearrangementofteethinanygivenmammalsmouthcan
beexpressedasa'dentalformula'.Thisformulagivesthearrangementofonesideofananimal's
jawsuchthatincisorsarealwayswrittenfirstthencaninesthepremolarsandthenmolars.
Teeth:FronttoBack
Incisors
=Cuttingteeththesearethefrontmostteethinthejawprimarilyusedfortheinitial
bitingoffood.Theyhaveastraight,sharpcuttingedgeandoneroot.
Canines
=Stabbingteethnormallyonly2pairs(oneeachside)perjaw.Theyhaveasharp,
pointededgeandareusedwiththeincisorstobiteintofoodandortokillprey.Likeincisorsthey
haveoneroot.
Premolars
=Nextbackfromthecanines.Theyaregenerallysimilartomolarsinformand
functioninbothherbivoresandomnivores,butincarnivoressomeofthematleastareslimmer
andareusedtocutflesh.Premolarsareteethweusetocrushandgrindourfood.Theirupper
surfaceshaveabroad,lumpytopinsteadofasharpbitingedge.Thesmallirregularlumpsare
calledcusps.Sometimespremolarsarecalledbicuspidsbecauseinmanycasestheyhave2
cusps.Thefirstupperpremolarsnormallyhavetworootswhiletheotherpremolarshaveone
root.
Molars
=Thesearelargerthanpremolarsandextremelyvariabledependingontheanimal'sdiet.
Likepremolarstheyareusedforcrushingandgrindingfood,andlikepremolarstheirupper
surfaceshaveridgescalledcuspsonthem.Molarsnormallyhavethreetofivecuspsandtwoor
threeroots.Inhumanswecallthethirdmolars,thoseclosesttothebackofthemouth'Wisdom
Teeth'.Ifthejawboneisnotlargeenoughtoaccommodatealltheteethinit,assometimes
happenswithhumans,thesewisdomteethcanbecomepainfullywedgedbetweenthebackofthe
jawboneandthe2ndmolars.Thisconditionisknownas'impactedwisdomteeth.

Figure#3

Thesearethedifferenttypesofteethandwheretheyarelocatedinthemouth.Fromfronttoback:
Canine,Incisors,Premolars,andMolars.

EsophagusandStomach
Theesophaguscontainsfourlayersthemucosa,submucosa,muscularis,andtunica
adventitia.Themucosaismadeupofstratifiedsquamousepitheliumcontainingnumerous
mucousglands.Thesubmucosaisathick,loosefibrouslayerconnectingthemucosatothe
muscularis.Togetherthemucosaandsubmucosaformlonglongitudinalfolds,sothatacross
sectionoftheesophagusopeningwouldbestarshaped.Themuscularisiscomposedofaninner
layer,inwhichthefibresarecircular,andanouterlayeroflongitudinalfibres.Bothmuscle
groupsarewoundaroundandalongthealimentarytract,buttheinneronehasaverytightspiral,
sothatthewindingsarevirtuallycircular,whereastheouteronehasaveryslowlyunwinding
spiralthatisvirtuallylongitudinal.Theouterlayeroftheesophagus,thetunicaadventitia,is
composedofloosefibroustissuethatconnectstheesophaguswithneighbouringstructures.
Exceptduringtheactofswallowing,theesophagusisnormallyempty,anditslumen,orchannel,
isessentiallyclosedbythelongitudinalfoldsofthemucosalandsubmucosallayers.

TheEffectsofpHonProteindigestion
Theprocessstartswithyourteethandsaliva,thenafteryouswallow,thefoodpasses
downyouresophagusandintoyourstomach,whereenzymesbreakdownthebolusfurther.
Digestionandtheabsorptionofnutrientscontinueintheintestines,usingenzymesmadeinthe
liver,gallbladderandpancreas.Enzymesareatypeofproteinthatcausechemicalreactions,
suchasthebreakdownofcarbohydratesintoglucose,proteinintoaminoacidsandfatintofatty
acidsandglycerol.DifferentenzymesaremoreeffectiveatdifferentpHlevels.IfthepHlevels
aretoohighortoolowforaparticularenzyme,itmightgetdenaturedandwillnolonger
performitfunction.Parietalcells,aretheepithelialcellsthatsecretehydrochloricacid(HCl)and
intrinsicfactor.Thesecellsarelocatedinthegastricglandsfoundintheliningofthefundusand
inthebodyofthestomach.
Control
20dropsofH2O
NoHCL
20dropsofpepsin(enzyme)
Smallcubedeggwhite(protein)2cm.

Experimental
20dropsofH2O
10dropsHCL
20dropsofpepsin(enzyme)
Smallcubedeggwhite(protein)2cm.

Squared

Squared

Figure#4Thesetupofthepepsinlab.
Figure#5
Thetubeontherightisthe
experimentalandtheone
ontheleftisthecontrol.

Day

Control

Experiment

Clear,eggwhitestillvisible

Clear,eggwhitestillvisible

Clear,eggwhitestillvisible

Murkywater,eggwhitegone

PicturestakenbyLoganB.

Figure#6
Thestructureofthestomach
whichincludeloweresophageal
sphincter,rugae,andpyloric
sphincter.

Figure#7
Thestomachstructureofthe
stomachwhichincludethe
liver,fundus,body,stomach,
andpancreas.

Figure#8
Locationofthegallbladderand
esophagus.

SmallandLargeIntestines
Question:WhataretheeffectsofGIhormonesontheratsdigestivesystems?
ExperimentalDatafromtheVirusRats
Unknowns

1
ExperimentalData

DropsoffluidfromsalivaryductpHofstomach

pHofstomach

Phoffluidfrommainpancreaticduct

Dropsoffluidfromcommonbileduct

Motilityofstomach

Motilityofsmallintestine

Bloodglucoselevel

Strengthofcontraction

Dropsoffluidfrompancreaticduct

Figure#9:Comparisonoftheeffectsoftheunknownagentsonthedifferentfunctionoccurring
withinthevirtualrat.

Experimentaldata

Control

Dropsoffluidfromsalivary
duct,min1

10

10

10

70

12

pHofthestomachdropsoffluid
from

1.9

1.8

Pancreaticduct,min1

77

30

9.5

pHoffluidfromamain
pancreaticduct

7.2

10

7.6

7.2

Dropsoffluidfromcommonbile
duct,min1

64

2.3

2.4

2.4

Motilityofstomach,no.of
contractions/min

3.6

15

3.4

1.0

Motilityofsmallintestine,no.of
contractions/min

15

17

18

30

17

13

Bloodglucoselevel,mg/dl

100

101

100

104

102

60

StrengthofcontractionmmHg

10

12

12

50

12

Figure#10:Experimentaldatafromthevirtualrats.
Figure#11:Thecommonbile
ductoriginatesintheliver
andthegallbladderand
producesanotherimportant
digestivejuicecalledbile.
Thepancreaticjuicesand
bilethatarereleasedintothe
duodenum,helpthebodyto
digestfats,carbohydrates,
andproteins.

Figure#12:smallintestine
modificationsandan
ileocecalsphincter.

Figure#13:thethree
segmentsofthesmall
intestine.Duodenum:This
shortsectionisthepartof

thesmallintestinethattakesinsemidigestedfoodfromyourstomachthroughthepylorus,andcontinues
thedigestionprocess.Theduodenumalsousesbilefromyourgallbladder,liver,andpancreastohelp
digestfood.
Jejunum:Themiddlesectionofthesmallintestinecarriesfoodthroughrapidly,withwavelikemuscle
contractions,towardstheileum.
Ileum:Thislastsectionisthelongestpartofyoursmallintestine.Theileumiswheremostofthenutrients
fromyourfoodareabsorbedbeforeemptyingintothelargeintestine.

UnknownSubstances
Unknown#

Substance&SupportingFact

Unknown1

(CCK)causesthegallbladdertocontractandreleasebile.

Unknown2

SecretinWorksasnaturesantacidandneutralizestheacidicgastricjuices.

Unknown3

(ACh)/(GIP)mimicsthevagusnervecausingincreasedmotilityofthestomach
andsmallintestine.

Unknown4

GastrinStimulatestheparietalcells(foundinthemiddlethirdofthestomach)
thatsecretehClacidandintrinsicfactor.

Figure#14:Theunknownhormonesidentifiedbywhattheireffectsontheratdigestivesystems,

Whatpancreasdoesandliver.Smallintestineandlargeintestine
TherearefourmainhormonesfoundintheGIsystemgastrin,secretin,andcholecystokinin
(CCK),andgastricinhibitorypeptide(GIP).TheGIhormonesarestoredwithinendocrinecells
thataredispersedthroughoutthemucosaofthestomachandsmallintestine.Gastrinisprimarily
releasedfromGcellslocatedinthecaudadandduodenum,butitcanbepresentinthejejunum.
Thevagusnervecausesanincreaseinmotilityofthestomachandsmallintestineaswellas
releasegastrin.Oncesecretedintothebloodstream,gastrintravelsthroughthecirculationupto
theheartandreturnstothestomachtostimulatetheparietalcells.Secretinworksasnatures
antacidandneutralizestheacidicgastricjuices.Secretionisdischargedfromcellsprimarily
foundintheduodenum,butitcanalsobepresentinthejejunumandileum,whereasCCKis
releasedthroughoutthesmallintestine.CCKcausesthegallbladdertocontractandrelease
bile.Finally,GIPisemittedfromcellsfoundintheduodenumandjejunum.GIPorACHmimics
thevagusnervecausingincreasedmotilityofthestomachandsmallintestine.