TEXT-BOOKS OF TECHNOLOGY Prot, W. GARNETT, DCL axo Prot. J. WERTHEIMER, Sop fietmmenttetabat Soba Mee, Sl Bev talice Piel th Morhant Pentre Sele oh Sera, Map Pn celta Fyne ‘Teele Cl AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGNTEXT-BOOKS OF TECHNOLOGY ited ty Profesoe W. Garner, D.C.L., Secetary of the “Technical Education Board of the London County Counc, find Proesoe J. WERTHEIER, B.Sey Bits, TLC, FCS, Binet of the Merchant Ventre Fecha Coleg ‘Messrs Methuen and Co. are issuing a sales of elementary books ander the above Tile. They ace specially adapted {0 the nada Technica Scots and ‘Clogs ad ht he Fequlrements of Students preparing forthe Bsatinatons of the Giy and Grids of Landon latete. “Fe prces vary according to the sie ofthe Volumes, which ae stay unrated andre provided with mamserous examples tt examination papers ‘he flosing books are ready. ASLO, ROPERS, Mad Wey SR EAGT, MORAN, Pr .5- We Haene PRAGHICAL PHTBIGS, 1) Wy Semnoy ses Al Pero Fa PATE! Cig SPs: Heke SPNTRY AND JORIERY. Wy, Wann Chet Lec OA leg ade Degen the Hach Vetrey Tsk Cae ee ere wow SAR A BEBE MeO Marae LAER TREE Tas A Cota Cassel ad te eas nl THOHNTGAL ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRY, FOR, UEE 11 "HacatioAl MEBUEES. Py Tearing Tate, Proc sa tnopgrion fe PEs TRUE OF, TARNRE pane Ned eet tg Bagnall =e" sews ‘The fling books are in preperation: -PADKZING AND DECORATING, ty W.S. Peau, Laue othe Mrasgjal Tbs Sto sian a iE BE OME, Same taeAN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGN ALDRED F, BARKER WITH NUMEROUS HLLUSTRATIONS AND DIAGRAMS METHUEN & CO. 36 ESSEX STREET W.c. LONDON 1903CONTENTS ‘THE PREPARATION OF THK WARP FOR THE LOOM AND |. THE HAND AND THE POWER LOOM ‘THE SCIENCE AND ART OF CLOTH CONSTRUCTION ‘THE DESIGNING OF INTERLACINGS ON POINT-PAPER ‘THE STRUCTURE AND CORRECT USE OF YARNS & ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS, ILLUSTRATED iY COLOUR AND WEAVE STYLES AND HACKED AND DOULA: cLorH srRUCTURES THR MANUFACTURE OF LUSTRE GOODS APPENDIX RLRMENTARY YARN CALCULATIONS DESIGNING ADVANCED YARN AND CLOTHE CALCULATIONS wor Iv 146 165 169) 195 204LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS LIST OF FIGURES 1. Plain Weave in Plan and Section 1A, Stages in the Drawing of Sections and Fi 2, Section of Plush 13 Flat Views of Gauze (Reasonable and Unreasonable) 3e. Stages in Drawing the Plan of Gauze . Views 4 Warp and Weft: Threads and Picks §. The Use of Point-Paper 6. Various Point or Design Papers 7. The Use of Point-paper: Flat Views and Point-paper Designs & * » 9, The Repetition of Design in the Loom 10, Heald-shafts, forming a Shed for the Passage of the Shuttle To face 11, The Production of a Fabric in the Loom: Section, Flat View, ec . 12, A Heald-shaft and a Mail : 13, Standard Sizes of Heald Cords © Toface 134, Standard Sizes of Mails ” 14, Hand-loom showing Going-par, ete * 14 Hand-loom Picking Action ” 15. A Reed and Sleying . 1G. Various Forms of Placing Yarns on the Market To fave 17, Bartrees and Vertical Creel for Warping . 18, Warping with Semicircular Creel Tofuce 19, Bradford Warping Mi . 20. Scotch Warping Mill fo : 21, Warpers’ Beam System of Warping : (vi) 5 9 6 7 5 5 6 18 24 36 36 26 28 28 29 7° 4 34 34 34 Fdviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Sta and 2, Warp Dressing Topuce 22" Diawingina Warp ar 25. Standard Stes of eed Hooks nr 2. Sling a Warp. ne? 25. Twining or Fagin the Loon 5 oS 26 and Treadleoom @ 27. Dotted Wich or Dobby Hand Noam 4 3%, Dasignand Pequot Lage % 28a, Design and Pegged Lays for Dobos Loot 2 25. Cenr-Shed Witeh or Doty Handoom 8 52. Genel View of Tappet Laem So 3h. Section of appt Loom : 3 532 Dobby Loom, Underewang = 35 Leting-off Moin, Regulated by Warp Tension ok 3 Jacquard Loom eee 3. Graph anraions of Yarn Counts é 56 (Ato) Graph Mikstrations ofthe Twisting of Yarns) 53. Graphic nation of Changes in Area and Diameters 70 38 Graphic Martation of the County Length Arcam, and Diameters of Yarna ea 49. The Angle of Cavture ina Plan Cath | Dh 4p. The Angle of Corre ina? Twi Chath. 74 41, WeteRib Cloth: Pan and Section 8 422 Twill asa WefsipStmactare oe 48, Graph Mastration of the Calesation fr the Weight of a Wap % an pe aan oa Capa he Weighs o Fares x 46 Tosraons of Twisting aod Twting LL ser {p. Hering-bone or Cheon fect. tas 4 Grape twacon ofthe Counts of Yaron |] on {Pan and Section of «Sateen Cloth Ns $2. The Divisions of Space in Various Seen Orders | A37 $i The Innes of Lag: Pegging, Poston and Working of the Dobby andthe Dra on the Divecon of the wil in the Clot 151 52. Varios Systems of Indicating tbe Dra || ag $5, Plan and Seton of Doble Cloth : ie $e: Grape Iason of Cavingout in Gears) 68 55, Mlustrating Right and Left Step Pattern Figuring © +175LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ix LIST OF PLATES: POINT-PAPER PLANS AND FABRICS. 1. Mlustrating Plain, Hop-sack, Twill, and Crape Structures. "30 2, IMlustrating the Difference between Twill, Warp-rib and Wett-rib : 6 3 Mlustrating the Construction of Compound Twill 104 4 Mlustrating the Rearrangement of Twills m 5A. Ilustrating the Construction of an Ordinary Sateen Twill | 128 50. Illustrating the Construction of an Upright Sateen Twill | 131 6. Illustrating the Construction ofa Sateen Check and a Sateen Diaper. Le 135 27, Mlustrating Colour and Weave Effects. 27% 8 Illustrating the Correct Tying of Backed or Double Cloths | 186 9, Illustrating Double Plain Cloth Modifications S189) LIST OF POINT-PAPER DESIGN SHEETS 1. Standard Weaves 33 2 Plain Weave Developments + 96 3. Simple Twill Origination » '& The Repetition of Weaves coe 103 5. Compound Twills so 105 6. Combination Twills : St 106 7. Crape Weaves - fo S109 8 The Rearrangement of Twills Sola 9. Combinations and Permutations cong 10, The Origination of Sateens f oye ee 18 nm) © upto Sixteen | 120 15, The Origination of Regular and Irregular Sateen Derivatives 122 Th. Motive Weave Efects 135 5A. Twill Rearrangement. : 136 ny * - a7 16. Sateen Twills ”. fo 129 7A. The Completion of Weaves toe 132 um * » fo bex LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IB Sten Stipes and Checks 1p sna Dien Bhai amanemeit of Figures is Stee Orde nies batty 7.” eee Sine) Self tampeiys Bel D Gyntesy! 3 pose cand cymes 2 canain 24 235, Illustrating Effective and Ineffective Textile Design 136 138 139 140 mat 144 47 8 149 153, 156 37 176 7 8 Bo 182 183 185 187 190 91 192 193,PREFAC ‘Tins work includes within its pages the information which the student of Textile Design should seek to thoroughly master during the first two years he attends the Textile School, Some of the information is new, much is in sense old; but all is placed hefore the student in stich a way that not only is the necessary knowledge gained, but also that mental capacity which ix absolutely necessary if trade changes—which now come upon us day by day—are to be satisfactorily faced and made the basis of suecess rather than of failure, ‘A series of examination papers of considerable educa tional value is given in the appendix. When the student can clearly and concisely answer these he will have so trained himself that this hook may he dispensed with, He will, further, have laid # sound foundation upon which to build in the future, whatever may be the particular branch of the textile industries he clects to work in, ‘The author's thanks are due to Messrs. AL M. Bell, uyxi PREFACE. T. Barrett, F. W. Barwick, E. Priestley, and several others of the staff and students of the Textile Industries Department of the Bradford Municipal Technical College for valuable assistance in preparing the work for the press. BRADFORD MUNICIPAL TECHNICAL COLLEGE.INTRODUCTORY REMARKS INSTRUCTIONS TO THE READER ALL instruction has two values :* 1. As absolute knowledge. 2. As discipline.t Elementary and secondary education, although in part necessarily concerned with absolute knowledge, are princi- pally engaged in discipline—i.., in the right development of the individual and in conformation to type. Technical education is supposed by many to deal simply with absolute knowledge and physical training.t No greater fallacy than this can weld be imagined. If industries were stationary, and did not develop or evolve, absolute knowledge might be the royal road to advancement in commercial life, and there would be no such thing as technical education ; there would only be technical instruction, which might be defined as the im- parting of the accumulated knowledge respecting any industry. Such was technical instruction in its early * Soe Mr, Herbert Spencer's work on “Education? + That is true education ifthe discipline results in development on All planes of human activities, { See Hunley's Science and Education Essays, “Technical Education’ Usiit}xiv INTRODUCTORY REMARKS stages, when thousands of students (sic) congregated to be told secrets which would make them into merchant princes. Now, there is really a ‘slump’ simply because technical instructors have told too many of these money- making secrets which, through their wholesale distribu- tion, have become, as special knowledge, valueless. But this same information—rightly imparted—may not only in itself be valuable to the student, but may also be made the basis of a most useful and truly educational discipline. Just as the child requires the absolute knowledge of the alphabet and of the atmosphere of humanity, so does the youth require the alphabet of the industry in which he is to work, and the absolute knowledge—both mental and physical—upon which the industry, or perhaps his own particular branch of it, is based. But few students can gain this knowledge—which will only maintain the status quo—by being told it ; each student must acquire it for himself, and its acquisition depends upon the develop- ment of the student’s own physical and intellectual senses. Now, the moment the development of the in- dividual is admitted, the value of discipline—in contrast to mere information—of education as distinct from mere instruction, must also be admitted. ‘The primary object of this work is to show clearly how the special knowledge required in the Textile Industries may be co-ordinated into a truly educational discipline—a discipline using the knowledge of value for to-day in such a way that the student himself will be a better man to-morrow. ‘When the perpetual development of trade is realized, it will be evident that, whilst absolute knowledge isINTRODUCTORY REMARKS xv essential, still more is it essential that the youth should be disciplined in such a way that he can face trade changes with confidence, and push out into unexplored fields of physical and mental activities to the ultimate advantage of himself and of his fellow-men, From another point of view—that of commercial life —the question of discipline is paramount. Given the necessary absolute knowledge and physical qualifications, it is, after all, character which tells. Now, it is a strange kind of reasoning which asserts that character can be better built up by reading of past heroic ages, or even of past scientific achievements, rather than by a well- regulated life in the actual present. The few only have the gift of living in the past, and therefrom drawing lessons for the present, and it is a deplorable mistake to base the education of the many on the requirements of the few—almost as bad as to base the education of the few on the requirements of the many.* If our technical schools are organized as they should be, they will not be mere emporiums of facts, but living centres of human activities, stimulating and invigorating the youths of to-day, who will be the commercial leaders of to-morrow, and developing the faculties of accuracy, reasonableness, smartness, and application, which are the pass-words to success. To develop the innate capabilities of the student through the industry in which he must work should be the desideratum of education in industrial centres, since the two-fold advantage is obtained of— (a) The absolute knowledge necessary for earning a livelitiood ; and * Hence, also, the folly of endeavouring to graft German or American ‘educational methods on to our English system, or vice versd.xvi INTRODUCTORY REMARKS (6) The discipline which will enable the student to realize to the full his own innate capabilities.* With these points in view, no apology is necessary from the author for writing this work in terms of the student and not of the industry. Many think that industries are a necessary evil ; this, book is written as a protest against this attitude, in the hope that it may assist in the development of the textile industries towards that state of efficiency in which life in these industries may become a pleasure rather than a burden, Such a state may be far distant, but the author will feel that his time in writing this work has not been thrown away if it results in those engaged in the industry realizing the absorbing interest of many of the problems which must be faced. In order that the student may spend his time to the best advantage, reap the greatest benefit, and develop a progressive interest in his work, he is strongly recommended to pay special attention to the following points: 1, Read carefully, and be sure that you understand every word; many most important points are hidden from the casual reader which the careful reader cannot fail to realize, 2, Study the diagrams and point-paper plans very carefully ; each one usually explains itself and suggests ‘much more than is given in the text. 3. Never accept a statement without realizing truly what it means. Be reasonable in all your work and thoughts. + These innate capabilites being frequently evolved after college life the technical college can do litte fr him directly, but by discipline it may indirectly do much,INTRODUCTORY REMARKS xvii 4. Endeavour to work in stages from the simple to the complex. Difficulties which are apparently unsur- mountable become quite easy when approached by studies running in sequence from the simple to the complex. 5. Test yourself to insure accuracy in your work by repeating designs, or in any way which occurs to you ; without accuracy you can do nothing. 6. In carrying out designs (after you have carefully done the scheming) always work at high tension for a short time rather than slackly for a long time. 7. In all designing arrange to work to the greatest advantage and quickly ; if you make two strokes at every square instead of one the design will take double the time it should take. 8, Finally, remember that if it is true that A bad workman quarrels with his tools,’ it-is even truer that ‘A good workman employs good tools.’AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGN CHAPTER 1 SIMPLE INTERLACINGS studies, the first essential is an all-round knowledge of the subject; an appreciation of the general before proceeding to the particular. It cannot be denied that the present-day tendency is to specialize, but this really emphasizes the value of an all-round knowledge as part of the specialist’s equipment; for, in order that he may work to the greatest advantage, he must have some knowledge of all the surrounding influences bearing upon hisown particular work, and he must be able to gain this, knowledge with the least possible expenditure of time and energy; hence the value of our technical schools and technical education. In these schools specially arranged ‘experiences are gone through, and these experiences, with the experiences of practical commercial life, are integrated into a science of the textile industries—ie., the conserved experience not merely stored up, but stored up in a form ready to be used with precision. The textile designer, then, should at least have a good I T the study of textile fabrics, as in many other2 STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGN general knowledge of all textile structures before proceed- ing to specialize, and he should also be trained to apply the experiences gained by others to his own particular work and advantage. This aspect of the student's training will be noted from time to time in the following ages as opportunity offers. Texte Faprics GENERALLY CoNSIDERED. The principal structures are the following : x. Felt structures. 2. Knitted structures, 3. Woven structures. 4- Lace structures, etc. Felt is given first in the above list, and lace comes last, as this is probably the natural sequence. One would imagine that the matting of wool fibres together would be naturally suggested to the parents of our race emerging from the barbarous state, and that they would endeavour to fashion some sort of clothing on the lines thus sug- gested. To-day the felt industry is a very large one, comprising the making of felt hats, table-covers, curtains, carpets, etc. The operations in making felt are few and com- paratively simple. ‘A wool with a strong tendency to felt is fed into an ordinary carder, it is taken out in a broad semi-trans- parent film, say 80 inches wide, then, by a suitable con- tinuous arrangement, film is laid upon film until a bed of fibres, say 20 yards long, 80 inches wide, and several inches ‘+ Embroideries and appliqué work come under the heading Ora. ‘mentation, not Structure,SIMPLE INTERLACING 3 thick—according to the requited thickness of the re- sultant felt—is formed. This is ‘ milled” or beaten up, and forms the ‘felt’ cloth or baize as placed on the market. Briefly, it may be defined as fibre structure, as distinct from thread structure, in every other case. Knitted fabrics present greater variety than felts; stockings, stockinette coatings, curtains, hosiery, and a great variety of fabrics for ladies’ wear are produced on this principle. In this case the ordinary method of knitting or crocheting is employed—wviz., the principle of interlacing one thread with itself—hence by pulling at one thread usually the whole structure may be un- ravelled. The knitting-frame is usually circular in form, and the recently introduced Millar loom is really on the knitting principle with two additional series of threads at right angles. Woven fabrics are by far the most important struc- tures produced, including a great variety of fabrics for men’s and women’s wear, in addition to tapestries, Plushes, gauzes, etc. The principle upon which they are made is very simple. The usual definition of a woven fabric is: Two series of threads which cross one another at right angles and interlace with one another according to the style of structure required. There are, however, several Vatieties or modifications, such as plush and gauze, which will require special explanation. Again, lace structures are possibly the most complex of all. Curtains and laces of all descriptions are included in this class. The principle upon which these are made is, Somewhat analogous to that of knitted structures, but in ‘this case several threads or series of threads are employed ra4 STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGN and passed round one another in a most bewildering way to the uninitiated. Needless to say, however, there is absolute order from beginning to end in every machine- made lace pattern.* Having thus briefly stated the principles involved in all textile structures, attention must now be particularly directed to the most important class—viz., woven struc- tures, Woven Sravctores ‘These may be conveniently studied under the following heads :t x. Ordinary woven structures, 2. Plush structures, 3. Gauze and Lappet structures. Ordinary woven structures fulfil perfectly the defi of a woven fabric previously given—i.., they are formed by two series of threads crossing one another at right angles and interlacing according to requirements. Some- times an additional series of threads is added to develop a figure or to add weight to the structure, and sometimes two or more structures are placed together—one on the top of the other—and are bound into one firm and solid cloth; but under any circumstances the foregoing defini tion is practically true, The simplest woven fabric, ‘ plain cloth,’ is represented in Fig.r, in which A is termed the plan o flat view, and B the section + See Felkin on ‘Lace Embroidery Machines.” +f Ifthe student has the opportunity he should take a mixed bundle of patterns and endeavour to classify these according to ‘material, “structure? or‘colour” 1 the write’s work on ‘Embroideries andSIMPLE INTERLACINGS 56 STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGN u sae Plush structures, | —__————— however, are not quite true to the definition of a woven fabric, since in addi tion to an ordinary foundation — say plain cloth — there is another series of threads which stands up from the cloth, and forms what is termed a ‘pile.’ Fig. 2 repre- sents diagrammati- cally this style of in- terlacing in section only, as nothing could well be under- + -stood from a flat view. Gauze structures, Fy _like plushes, do not answer perfectly to the definition of woven fabrics. In this case there is usually a foundation wooo cloth, as in the case 82 G8 of pluses, but, in addition, a series of threads twist round one another ing 1 chp 22400yde perl 40s tors. A FPA 12x50» ssoo yes feel 2 1s Worsled. 40x 840= 33600 yds Ber (5 = 40% B A 10x 840 = 8400.4dls frer U6, = 10's Glow. give a ‘rap; and 8 ‘raps’ are made up into a hank; thus the worsted hank=70x 8=560 yards, and the counts of a worsted yarn is really the hanks per pound. Example 1.—4o's count= 40 hanks of 560 yards= 22,400, yards per pound. Example 2.—10's count = 10 hanks of 560 yards=§,600 yards per pound. (See Fig. 35, A.) The cotton reel was 1} yards in circumference, hence the cotton hank is 560+} (560)=84o yards ; but as with worsted the hanks per pound equal the counts.SCIENCE OF CLOTH CONSTRUCTION 61 Example 1.—40's count = 40 hanks of 840 yards= 33,600 yards per pound. Example 2—t10's count=10 hanks of 840 yards=8,400 yards per pound. (See Fig. 35, B.) For practical calculations it is desirable to take all the materials with which one has to deal, and work out the yards per hank on the supposition that the hanks per pound give the counts. Thus the following list would be kept in view by a Yorkshire manufacturer." Metwons oF CountiNG YARNS Toten Bunefennn | Po dinh Wooutes sis Galashiels West of England American "Run? ‘American *Cut™ worst Conon 1 a ee i Sy = 1b 8 | TU Weight” ia“deams of | 1030 | o vatepoct | Mec of Cont a Nustat Metres perkilogramme | 1,900 metres Pane), Metres pet half ilo: Hono ‘seamie It will now be evident that the manufacturer, in pur- chasing yarns, will know on the one hand that he has to + Atthe end ofthe book a graphic diagram for converting one system fof yarn counts to another is given; the student will find it both useful and instructive. + Thus, 2/7;007,000 yards per oz, the thread being in two strands, ‘Alloss of one-third is allowed in ungumming ; thvs 2{6,000 becomes 2/8;000=8,000 yards per ox.62 STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGN pay for so many pounds, and on the other hand that he has a certain Jength of yarn from which he can make a certain length of cloth, In one case it is evident that length has been deemed. more important than weight, for in Bradford weft-yarns are sold by the ‘gross of hanks ’—ie., 144 hanks of 360 yards each—of which the weight will, of course, depend upon the counts. Supposing the counts to be 36's, then — 560% 144 Tox G6 74 1b. From this it is evident, since the two 560's cancel one another, that : To Ascertain the Weight of a Gross of Hanks of any given Count Method —Divide 144 by the counts, and the result is the weight in pounds. Example t.—Find the weight of a gross of 4o’s botany : 144-+40=36 pounds. Example 2.—Find the weight of a gross of 72's botany : 144-+72=2 pounds. Shortened methods of this character are frequently employed by manufacturers, and every manufacturer should be capable of discovering easy and convenient methods on similar lines to this. It will be noted that the defect of most of the systems in vogue for numbering yarns is that the heavier and thicker ‘the yarns the less the count number, and the lighter the yarn the greater the count number. This is expressed by saying that counts vary inversely to the weight.SCIENCE OF CLOTH CONSTRUCTION 63 Example 1—Comparing 8's and 16's counts: A given length of 8's is double the weight of the same length of 16's, Example 2—1 pound of 16's is double the length of x pound of 8's.” Thus it is evident that counts correspond with length, and that counts and length vary inversely to weight.* Denomination.—Care should be taken in dealing with the counts of a variety of yarns that they are all on the same basis—i.e., that they indicate relatively, for example, the same number of yards per pound. Example —20's cotton yarn = 30's worsted yarn, for— 840 x 20= 16,800 yards per pound, and 16,800+560= 30 hanks per pound—ie., 30's counts worsted. Rules for converting counts from one system into another may readily be originated if the yards per pound are first found. Pethaps the only dificult one is the dram silk counts, of which the following is an example Exdmple—Convert 5 dram silk into spun silk counts 1,000 yards=5 drams, therefore As 5 1 256 :: 1,000 : #=51,200 yards per pound. and §1,200+840=60'9's counts in spun silk. The metric systemt is based upon the kilometres (1,094 yards) per kilogram (2,204 pounds) and the French system is half the metric—ic., half a kilogram is the weight taken ‘The idea of taking fractional parts of the earth's circum- * The student should here decide for himself whether in divect pro- portion oF not See Appendix, p. 292, for Fix. 4864 STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGN ference and of its weight as the standards of measurement has really no other claim in this case than the extended use of the metric system, and the fact that it is not ex- clusively employed by the French is practically a feather in the cap of our own English cotton trade, the counts of which (based upon practical requirements) and the French counts are nearly alike. Ranges of Counts.—Most factories employ at least two or three ranges of counts. Thus, a fancy worsted manu- facturer might keep in stock, say, twenty-eight shades of 2/x6's serge yarns, of 2/28's botany, and of 2/48s botany. Two-Fold Yarns.—If two threads of a given count (cay, 40's) are twisted together, it will be evident that the count is just half that stated for—4o hanks* of 40's (=r pound) +40 hanks of 4o’s (=r pound) will give 40 hanks of twisted yarn=2 pounds, or 20 hanks per pound, and therefore 20's counts (Fig. 36, A). If the threads twisted together are unequal in thick- ness, then a count heavier (i.e. a smaller number) than the thickest component will be formed—not a count in between the two, This will be realized from Fig. 36, B, in which is repre- sented diagrammatically the twisting together of 30's and 15's worsted yarns. As shown at A, a conventent length must be taken to base the estimate on; in this case x pound of the highest numbered counts (30's) is the standard, giving 560 30= 16,800 yards=1 pound. To twist with this it is evident that 16,800 yards of 15's must be taken, weighing 2 pounds; therefore the length The word ‘hanks’ stands for lenyth.SCIENCE OF CLOTH CONSTRUCTION 65, |___ to Minin ch 402 _, 40 Kink Bho, a er 90 a ma 629042 AO} Aprons Gurl ra BO Hanke of 30% fame) Eee, £2 1082-20) Gonnage Count, “tqumeae Cig Wi sereanh oy "sa setts} ee 28 We 20) A. Counk. See Hanke e_thabong 30 { 0B tr fh oe Sb Cunt, Baginad {sent 04 15 agi i. sSmonare (ac wig ae ge ahr revo oan)66 STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGN of two-fold yarn will be 16,800 yards, weighing 3 pounds seyat0 hanks of two-fold yam per pound, or 10's “resultant? counts. The ‘average’ counts will be 10%2= 20's. This is all conveniently summed up as follows : 3=10's ‘resultant? counts or 20's ‘average’ counts.* But it is not necessary to take the highest count (30's) as the standard. With the lowest count as the standard the result is : 15730505 15415 xo's‘ resultant” counts or 20s ‘average? . counts. Again, the same result may be obtained by multiplying the two counts together, adding the two counts together, and dividing the one by the other. This is summed up as follows : 30X15 _ 450 30415” 45 ‘= 10's ‘resultant’ counts or 20's ‘average? counts. The question may also be put in the following form : ‘What counts of yarn must be twisted with 30's to yield a + The student should exercise himself in casting these two-fold yarns: the principle involved is so simple that it is not considered advisable to give it here.SCIENCE OF CLOTH CONSTRUCTION 67 10's resultant counts, or with 13's to yield a 10's resultant count, These two problems may be stated : °5 ya required to yield with 30's a resultant count of 10's. 15X70_150_ 9. sired to yi Tpoio™ g 730'S yam required to yield with 13's a resultant count of zo's ‘These varieties of the same calculations are clearly shown in Figs. 36, A to F. Of course, in estimating either the resultant or the average counts the yarns must be expressed in the same denomination, or incorrect results will be obtained, Thus the following example shows another method of working (which the student should think out), and at the same time illustrates the necessity of bringing to the same denomination. Example. —Find the resultant counts of 20's cotton and 40's worsted twisted together. 20%840 | 20% 360 one 3 30X40 _r.200hanks 20's cotton=" 30's worsted counts. rrr hanks pet Ib.= about 17's 30+ 40 _ on counts of worsted. 4os worsted 6-6 cotton counts of 4o's worsted. sec22 = 115 resultant counts in cotton 17's resultant counts in worsted, as already ascertained.68. STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGN This is not, strictly speaking, a proof, but practically it may be taken as such, Students should check their calculations in this way whenever possible Tue DIAMETER OF YARNS It is evident from the foregoing that the idea of con- structing cloths on scientific principles—based upon the diameters of yarns—had rarely or never occurred to our pre- decessors. In the early part of the past century, however, ‘a Mr. Beaumont thought of this, and actually worked out or suggested that the diameters of yarns might be ascer- tained by noting how many threads and picks per inch could be laid side by side in a plain cloth with warp and weft of a similar thickness—eg., if forty, then, he argued, the diameter of the yarn would be one-cightieth part of one inch (see Fig. 1). The greatest impetus was given to this, however, by the measurements carried out in 1889 by the late Mr. T. R. Ashenhurst, and from his results a reasonable rule for finding the approximate diameter of any given yarn has been worked out. To Ascertain the Diameter of any Given Yarn. Method—Find the square root of the yards per pound and extract 8 per cent.* for cotton and silk, 10 per cent. for worsted, and 15 per cent. for woollen. Example 1.—Find the diameter of 1/40's botany— 40 560= 22,400 yards per pound, and s/22,400= 149—To per cent.=135 or yy part of an inch, or 135 threads would lie side by side in x inch, * These percentages should be varied according to the designer's experience,SCIENCE OF CLOTH CONSTRUCTION 69 Example 2—Find the diameter of 2/60's cotton— 30x 840=25,200 yards per pound, and ¥/25,200=159—8 per cent.=148 or y}y part of an inch, or 148 threads would lie side by side in x inch, Example 3—Find the diameter of 20 skeins woollen— 20% 265,120 yards per pound, and /5,120=71—16 per cent. =60 or ay part of an inch, or 60 threads would lie side by side in x inch, Variations in the Diameters of Yarns. In buying yarns, the counts are always stated, but rarely or never the diameters. Nevertheless, the designer must know the approximate diameters under all condi- tions. From one known count and diameter any other may be readily ascertained. To find the rule for this is most interesting and instructive, and as it may be readily ‘understood by means of diagrams, it is here given in the hope that some of the more difficult problems may be treated by the student in a similar manner. Let A, B, C, Fig. 37, represent the sections (made square instead of round for convenience*) of three yarns whose counts may be respectively 9, 4, i.e, counts are in- versely to weight or area.t + my2=area of circle from which a precisely similar induction may be made. + The student should prove to his own satisfaction that counts, weight, and area are in practically the same proportion; this may be done graphically.70 STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGN 1. From A one might suppose that diameter and area (=counts) would always be in the same proportion. 2. From B one might suppose that the diameter would be half the area—ice., area = 4, diameter= 4+2= 2. A Diawaerauy Ares arts me ann et Ya Ye A 3. On drawing C to prove this, the method is found incorrect, for 9-+2= 4}, whereas the diameter is 3, It mow occurs to the investigator that possibly theSCIENCE OF CLOTH CONSTRUCTION — 71 diameter varies as the square root of the area (i.e., J counts), for Jrist, Y4is2, Jois 3. 4. To test whether this is so or not draw a diagram D, in which area (=counts) is 16 and /16=4 the diameter. On referring to p. 68 it will be seen that when dealing with the diameters of yarns it is stated that the diameters vary as the square root of the length. From Fig. 38 it, will be realized that length and area vary in the same proportion, inversely—extend a mass to four times the length, and it is one quarter the area; extend it to nine times the length, and it is one ninth the area. Now, count is in direct proportion to length, therefore counts and areas are in proportion (inversely) to one another. Further, as the square root of an area equals the diameter, therefore the square root of the count is in direct propor- tion to the diameter ; hence the following rule, To Ascertain the Diameter of any Yarn from a Known Count and Diameter. Method.—Work out in proportion to the square root of the counts inversely. Example—A 1/40's yarn (denomination not neces- sary) has a diameter of x43, what is the diameter of aro’s? As Vigo: Jt0 5: 135: or As[V4o : Vio :: 135: xP= As 40 : 10 :: 135% : a!=67 or yr of an inch. In order that calculations such as these may be readily solved it is useful to thoroughly realize and remember that = 67} or #y of an inch;paceeT3] = [at [28 = [se [es Bia unk. Relative ‘ho Shnonarmie nLusraarons oF Gnas oT, Aves a STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGN the counts of a yarn is in proportion to the area ‘and the square root of the counts to the diameter. Sets ap Ser CaLcura- Toss After studying the foregoing, the student would naturally take an inch as the unit of measurement, and state the set of the cloth as so many threads per inch. Two varying factors must, however, be taken into account: firstly, the practical fact that it is usually necessary to de- note the splits or dents per inch, and the threads through each; and, secondly, that the standard width taken has unfortunately been varied from 1 inch up to 45 inches, If the designer bases his art of cloth con- struction on the science of cloth construction,SCIENCE OF CLOTH CONSTRUCTION — 73 he will always work by the threads per inch—just as the picks are counted in a cloth—and will indicate the reed along with the set by stating the dents per inch and the threads per dent ; thus, 12's reed 4's=48 threads pet inch, as indicated in Chapter II. The other most important systems are : Leeds, based upon the porties (38 threads) in 9 inches. Bradford, based upon the beers (4o threads) in 36 inches. Blackowrn, based upon the beers (4o threads) in 45 inches. ‘Manchester, based upon the splits (2 threads) in 36 inches. Glasgow, based upon the splits (2 threads) in 37 inches. The last two, perhaps, illustrate the absurdity of having these varied systems, but as they are in existence the designer must thoroughly study them and learn to express a given set in any of them. Thus to convert a 12's reed 3's set into Bradford— 12x 3=36 threads per inch, 96%3 - 524 Bradford set, oF 349-85 porte set, Leeds. 12x 36 432 Manchester set, ete ‘The method of converting one set to the other isso very, simple that any further treatment here is not required; the student should for himself arrange all the systems in list form for reference. Crori Construction ‘The practical diameters of yarns may be made the basis, of certain interesting and useful calculations for cloth structures, The building of cloths on scientific lines may be treated under two heads—viz., the principles govern-4 STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGN ing the interlacing of flexible cylinders (representing threads) and the modifications which must be made in dealing with such variable materials as wool, cotton, silk, tc, in the equally variable yarn structures. Elementary Considerations of Interlacings.—If reference be made to Fig. 39, the elementary principles governing interlacings may readily be realized. In plain weave it is evident that every thread must be separated from its neighbour by about the diameter of the weft. So that if the warp and weft yarns are the same counts—say, 40's botany with a diameter of +; part of an inch—then 135-2 67'5 threads per inch will be required, and so on with yams of other diameters. In 7, twill cloth the section (see Fig. 40) shows that the threads are grouped in pairs, each pair being separated by a weft intersection. Thus the calculation for theSCIENCE OF CLOTH CONSTRUCTION 75 threads per inch, taking 4o’s botany again, will be (133-+6) x 4=90 threads per inch. For simple cloths requiring to be woven on the square —i.c., with an equal number of threads and picks—the above method works out satisfactorily for finding the set—i.e,, threads per inch in the loom, hence— To Find the Set in the Loom for any Ordinary We 2 as Plain, Twit, 3-5 Twill, ete. ‘Method.—Divide the diameter of the yam by the threads-+ intersections, and multiply by the threads in the repeat of the weave. Example—Find the threads per inch for a 20 skein woollen yarn (ly diameter). (60+6)x No better practical rule than the above can be given ; but attention must be directed to where it fails in application, for a moment's consideration will serve to show that it will not serve under all conditions. The following are the chief modifying influences in cloth construction : (a) Modifications in the bending influences caused by using yarns of various diameters, or by employing weaves which group together certain threads or picks, thus strengthening themselves and modifying the structure. (®) Modifications of structure, é.e., changing the sup- porting positions of both threads and picks. (©) The averaging of the strain in fabrics—i.c,, the manner in which strains applied at one time and in one 2 3 twill with 40 threads per inch in the loom.76 STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGN POINT: PAPERS DESIGH- CLOTH -2 (es CISTH’ 3 Barve PST PAPER. DESICH WARE: PUB PeINT rare. DESIGN WEFT-RIBSCIENCE OF CLOTH CONSTRUCTION 77 part of the structure are sometimes distributed through- out the fabric, (@) Modifications caused by building cloths with the idea of modifying the structure in the finishing operations (crabbing, etc.). Before passing on to the consideration of each of the foregoing, attention must be directed to the fact that the deductions already made are slightly inaccurate, as the threads, for example, in perfect plain cloth will not be distant from one another quite the diameter of the weft taken here, for being slightly lifted and depressed alter- nately, taken horizontally they will be rather closer together. Mr. T. R. Ashenhurst was the first to point out that if yarns of equal thickness, and having practically an equal bending power on each other, were employed in warp and weft, then for warp and weft to attain to the same plane on each side of the centre of the cloth a curvature of 180° throughout—i.e., for both warp and weft—is the result (or 60° with the altitude of the triangle, the known side—or 30° with the centre plane of the cloth). This may be represented diagrammatically, as shown in Fig. 39. Construction.—1. Draw A, A’, representing the base-line or centre of the cloth ; then warp and weft, being equal in flexibility, will be bent equally out of the straight line 4ie., above and below this line. 2. Ata distance half the diameter of warp (or weft) from A, AY, rule in lines B, B’, C, C,’ representing the centres of the warp-threads (or weft-picks) in their highest and lowest positions respectively. 3. Take any convenient position on B, and with radius2B STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGN half diameter of yam, describe circle D, representing the highest position of the warp-thread. 4. With radius half diameter of yarn multiplied by 3, describe circle E, representing the bending influence of thread D, upon the outer edge of weft, and E’ for the inner edge of weft. 3. With half diameter of warp (or weft) and upon C, C’, but tangential to E, describe circle F, representing the lowest position of the warp-threads. 6. With radius half diameter of yarn multiplied by 3 describe circle G, representing the bending influence of thread F upon the outer edge of weft and G’ for the inner edge of the weft. 7. The weft will take the direction compounded of the action of the two spheres of influence, D and F, and the angle of the weft with A, A’ will be 30° (or, with the known side of triangle, whieh is here shown; 60°). For convenience the three sides of the triangle may now be represented by the letters @, 8, and c. ‘We are specially concerned, however, with the ratio of a : b, for in using any given yarn its diameter=a and the threads per inch to be employed for plain cloth will be— Asa : }, inversely—ie., Asb: a; or As 17732 : 1 :: diameter of yarn : the set; that is to say, for plain cloth divide the diameter of the yam by 1°732, and the result is the set or threads per inch.* Exactly the same principle applies in 2, 3 yates + If C is employed as the unit of measurement (twice diameter of yarn), B=0866, and two diameters of yarn may be taken.SCIENCE OF CLOTH CONSTRUCTION 79 twills and ordinary makes so far as the intersections are concerned. Thus in calculating the threads per inch for any of these structures proceed as follows : 1, Draw accurately a section of the cloth, being careful to draw more than one repeat and then to mark off clearly the exact repeat. 2. Find the number of repeats of the weave in x inch by dividing the diameter of the yarn by the units of space the weave occupies, threads counting as units and inter- section as 0°732. 3. Finally, ascertain the threads per inch by multiply- ing the repeats of the weave per inch by the number of threads in each repeat of the weave. Example 1—Find the threads per inch for 35 twill with a 32’s worsted (+45 diameter). As 7464" 2 3: 120 6 repeats of > and 16x 6=96 threads per inch. twill, Or, to put it in its simplest form : (520-+7'464) x6=96 threads per inch, Example 2.—Find the threads per inch for 2 twill (Gee Fig. 40) with a 20 skein woollen yarn (1/60). (a) 4 threads+ (2x 0"732)=5'464 units of space in * twill. (2) (60-+-5'464) x 4=44 threads per inch for 7 twill, ‘Thus it will be evident, as was to be expected, that on this system the sets obtained are rather closer than those # The 7464 is composed of 6 threads + (0732) intersection Lunts of space the weave occupies. a680 STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGN obtained by the previous system (see p. 75). Roughly speaking, the first system gives the set in the loom and the latter system the set of the finished cloth The latter system may be reduced to a rule as follows : To Find the Set of the Finished Cloth for any Ordinary 2 Weave, such as Plain, rwill, 3— 3 Twit, 5 Twit, ate. Method.—Divide the diameter of the yarn by the threads + intersections (each~0'732), and multiply by the threads in the repeat of the weave. Attention may now be directed to the first class of ‘modifying influences noted—viz., modifications caused by using yams of various diameters, or by weaves which Group certain threads and picks together, thus relatively strengthening them and modifying the structure. Tt is not here possible to do more than direct the attention of the student to these modifications, as it is very ques- tionable whether it is possible, with the many varying factors, to bring all structures within any one rule; it seems more probable that a point has been reached at which the art of textile design attains to a leading place ; but this art, nevertheless, may be most conveniently based upon the foregoing more or less scientific con- ditions. Certainly the following particulars, along with those already given, will prove most useful to the prac- tical designer. A recognised method of research is to go to extremes, and this method may be well applied here. The cloths so far considered have been formed with both componentsSCIENCE OF CLOTH CONSTRUCTION 8 —warp and weft—bending equally; now the two extreme types—viz., those in which weft only bends, the warp being perfectly straight, and those in which the warp only bends, the weft being perfectly straight—must be considered. The first are termed weft-rib structures, because the ribbed surface is formed by the weft; and the second warp-rib structures, because the ribbed struc ture is formed by the warp. Weft-rib Structures. —The conditions of weft-rib structures are shown in Fig. 4r, drawn in a similar manner to Fig. 39, but with all the warp-thread sec- tions d, d in a straight line, the weit ¢ ¢ doing all the bending. It is at once obvious that the condition is more or less unnatural, for unless (1) the threads d, d are much thicker than the picks ¢, ¢, causing them to bend, or (2) the threads d, d are pulled straight in the finishing operation, it is evident that this structure is impractical and simply a result obtained on paper. But suppose the result is possible, what is the distance apart of the warp threads? for this, to the designer, is the main question. Now, it is evident that the threads may be any distance apart greater than the diameter of the weft, but if a weit angle of 60? with the warp is considered suitable,* then the set of the cloth may usually be obtained from the altitude of the triangle, which is just the diameter of the warp plus the diameter of the weft, and the space occupied by a thread plus an intersection equals 1°732 of + ‘The student must here understand that 60” is only selected inthis case as a usual angle, but within certain limits any angle up t0 45° may be decided upon. 682 STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGN puns ¥ ZF eS aN EN Oe A 3 —— %SCIENCE OF CLOTH CONSTRUCTION 83 this, ora thread plus an intersection equal to 0°732 of the diameter of warp plus the diameter of weft. Example—Find the set for a botany cashmere twill) made as follows : Warp wp. Allov's Botany (6 (ota ofan teh). The altitude of the triangle is— vetobs =a part of an inch, and Jx1732= 41 of an inch for the base of the triangle A, B, C. ‘Then, since the 7. twill contains in one repeat two triangles and one thread— (etse)+ hos vet rte 2, of an inch, Thus, as 2, of an inch is the space occupied by each twill of three threads, then— 22% 3=066 threads per inch. ‘The picks per inch may be varied for quality from about 150 to 200. ‘This is a practical answer, as it happens, but it has not been worked out on precise and scientific lines, for the bending power of threads upon one another may be taken as the cubes of their diameters inversely ; thus 56's botany will bend 92"s botany— As 25: 114, and this has not been taken into account. Another matter worth further consideration is the question of picks per inch, for, as in weft-rib structures, the weft forms the surface of the texture (see Figs. 41 and 42), it is naturally a most important component. + ‘The student is recommended to drave the diagram for plain cloth to these conditions. f This is mer 62 ‘an approximation based upon observation.EXTILE DESIGN STUDY OF TE 84SCIENCE OF CLOTH CONSTRUCTION 85 In the examples given—with the warp perfectly straight—as many picks per inch can be inserted as the diameter of the yarn will allow ; but it is also well to note carefully that as greater value and more bending is given to the warp fewer picks will be required, until eventually equal quantities of warp and weft will be employed—i.e., an ordinary structure produced. Carrying out the idea still further, finally a warp-tib structure results, in which the warp-threads do all the bending, lying close to one another, and the picks straight and separated at least by the diameter of the warp-threads. Every possible condition may be expected in practice, but a thorough comprehension of the foregoing particulars will enable the designer to experiment under favourable conditions, For instance, a 25 hop-sack cloth presents the same section as the *-; twill, but owing to the manner ‘in which the picks follow one another, a different set is required ; for, while in one repeat of the, twill there are four points of intersection—all of which at one time or another are occupied by the weft—in 2 hop-sack the four possible points of intersection are only occupied twice out of the four, certain of the threads never being separated by weft intersections throughout the piece; hence a closer set may be employed (see also Fig. 49). ‘Warp-rib Structures —The treatment of warp-rib struc- tures will be exactly the reverse of weft-rib structures, so therelis practically no need to exemplify them here.86 STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGN SumMaRY ON THE SETTING oF CtoTHS Before leaving this subject the student should clear! realize how he is to make the scientific principles the basis, of the ‘Art of Cloth Construction,’ for he must be in 2 position not only to explain what has been done, but to press forward with confidence on to untrodden paths. The following will be the most convenient line of thought : x. The yams to be employed, their nature and their diameters. 2. The weave structure most suitable for each class of yarn, and the setting required for— (@) Ordinary structures (©) Welt-rib structures. (©) Warp-rib structures.* 43. The effects of finish, etc., on the resultant cloth. Example—Soft cloths are in fashion; what varieties can be obtained with *; twill ? x. With a mulespun 30's botany (diameter 5) and, say, a 40's welt (diameter 42), it is probable that a very nice cloth can be produced. 90 threads per inch.+ 90 picks per inch. 80 threads per inch. (0) Welt-rib structure { 134 picks per inch, {26 threads per inch. \ 84 picks per inch. * In sateen structores curious averaging up of the strains of the intersections takes place; hence neaely as many picks as threads can bbe introduced (see Fig. 49) “Finished cloth... Anangle of 45° is here taken. 2, (a) Ordinary structure { (6) Warp-rib structure}SCIENCE OF CLOTH CONSTRUCTION 87 3. As (a) would be a very ordinary style, a range of ex- periments is carried out with the interlacing indicated in Fig. 42, and to develop the weft-rib the fabric may be ‘crabbed’ and treated very strongly in finishing, thus straightening the warp and bending the weft as required to give a weft surface with ‘cuts? formed at varying distances, Other Factors to be Considered —In the foregoing treat- ment the main factors only have been taken into account. For the benefit of those who would consider the matter further, the following list of influences which have not been definitely taken into account is given : (a) The nature of the materials employed. (®) The arrangement of the fibres in the thread structure, (©) The influence of twist on the diameter of the yarn ‘and on its weaving and finishing properties. (@) The effect of direction of twist of warp and weft in relation to weave. (¢) The compression of yams in weaving. (/) Contraction of the cloth in weaving. (g) Contraction of the cloth in finishing and loss of oil, fibre, ete.* Weight and Cost Calculations —If the student has comprehended the foregoing calculations all else will be comparatively simple, For instance, in calculating the weight of a piece, if (a) the length of material in the piece, and (6) the yards per pound of the material, are given, the cost of the material in the piece may be ascer- tained in a few moments, * See the author's work on * Pattern Analysis”88 STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGN Example—Find the weight of a fabric woven as follows : warp. wet. All 2/40's botany, All 1/20 botany, 64 threads per inch. 64 picks per inch. Width of piece in reed 34 inches. Length of warp 70 yards, yielding 64 yards of cloth in the grey. Now, 64 x 34 = 2,176 threads, and as each one of these is 70 yards long, 2,176 x 70= 152,320 yards of material in the warp. But there are 560% 20= 11,200 yards of this material per pound ; s0 152,320-+11,200= 132 Ibs. of material in the warp. This is graphically repre- sented in Fig. 43. For the weft calculation work in a similar manner ; ‘iit thus 64% 34=2,176 inches i of yarn in T inch, therefore yards of yarn in 1 yard of the cloth, And 23176 64= 130,264 yeranotwarp seine yards of weft in the piece. But there are 560% 20= 11,200 yards of this material per pound, so 139,264-+11,200= 124", or about x2} Ibs. of material in the weft. It will here be noted that the length of the greySCIENCE OF CLOTH CONSTRUCTION 89 cloth (64 yards) and not the length of the warp (7o yards) is taken, but in worsted coatings, instead of allowing a percentage for waste of weft it is customary to calculate the weft for the full length of warp (70 yards in this case). ‘The cost of the materials in the piece may readily be found if the price per pound is given. Thus, if the cost of 2/40's is 2s. rod., and 4/20’s 2s. od., then— £s. a 18 64 4h Fy 33% pounds x 34= 46244. 12} pounds x 33= 412d. Total cost of materials 3 x All such calculations as these should be treated as certain heald and reed, ete., calculations in Chapter II. have been treated, Whenever possible practical tests—say, 10-yard pieces —should be made, and measured at every stage, in order that the bulk may be correctly estimated for. The following set of formulas will be readily under- stood ; such a set should be drawn up by each designer to suit his own particular needs, care being taken that cach formuta acts in all cases, not in one or two particular cases: NxWxL=PxCxH* o NXWXL, PxH Nx PxCxH NxL PXCKE xL PxCxH™ * Nethreads or picks per inch; Wewidth of piece in loom ; Lelength of warp or grey cloth; P=Ibs. weight; C=counts ; and H=yards per hank Le =W. Ne90 STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGN In this treatise the question of weaving, etc., wages, cost of finishing, ete., is not touched upon, being here out of place. Changing the Weights of Cloths —Heavy winter styles may be required in lighter summer makes, or light summer styles may be called for in heavier winter makes ; hence it is desirable to understand thoroughly the various methods of changing the weights of fabrics. ‘There are four methods—viz., (1) by changing the counts of yarn, (2) by changing the set or picks, (3) by changing both counts and set, (4) by any empirical method which fits a fair number of cases. One might add a fifth method—viz., adding a warp or weit back, or a‘ wadding? pick, or another cloth—i.c., double cloth. Example-—The set for 32"s worsted yarn in an ordinary 2 3 twill is found to be 88 threads per inch, 1. To make this cloth as heavy again a 16's yarn may be employed. But how can a 16's yarn with 2, twill be weavable if 32’s yarn is weavable ? 2, Similarly, 176 threads per inch may be employed ; but is it possible to get 176 threads of a 32's yarn into an inch with 7, twill weave ? 3. By changing both counts and set it is possible to (a) obtain the required weight, (6) retain the same balance of structure. Why this should be possible requires care- ful thought, but the following brief explanation will probably help the student to thoroughlyS comprehend the conditions. As shown in Figs. 44 and 45, to add weight to a clothSCIENCE OF CLOTH CONSTRUCTION — 9t its thickness must be increased ; to increase its thickness thicker yarns must be employed ; to employ thicker yarns fewer threads and picks must be employed.* The ques- tion now arises, In what proportion shall any increase or decrease be made in counts and set? If, for instance, a cloth is required double the weight—ie., As 1: 2—will the proportion for the count, set, and picks be—As x: 22 + Let the student, looking at the diagram, state the conditions for decreasing the thickness of a cloth in the same way.2 STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGN x. For the count the change will be inversely—viz., as 2:1, a lower number giving a thicker yarn, But, further, to change the thickness of the cloth it is the diameter of the yarn which must be changed as 1 + 2, and as the / counts=diameter, the required change in counts will be— As 2: rz: J counts in original cloth : J counts in new cloth. 2. As a yarn with a greater diameter is now to be employed, a lower set will be necessary just in this pro- portion—viz., as 2: 1:1 set of original cloth : set of new cloth. In Fig. 44 the increasing or decreasing of cloths in multiple proportion is shown, simply in squares, to em- phasize the principle, In Fig. 45 the thread structure is shown on similar lines. From these particulars the following induction may be made : Rule—Increase or decrease the thickness of the cloth i.e, the diameter of the yams (the ¥ of the counts inversely) employed—in the proportion required, Also decrease or increase the number of threads and picks in the same proportion, One of the most difficult calcula- tions is the following : 1. Design a cloth to a given weave—say, twill perfectly balanced in structure and of a given weight per yard—say, 16 ounces, 2. Change the cloth to } heavier (jc., four-fourths become five-fourths, therefore proportion isas 4 : 5)—i.e., 20 ounces.SCIENCE OF CLOTH CONSTRUCTION 93 43+ Change the weave from *, to 4 bwill (thus making the cloth more than 20 ounces). 4 Bring the cloth back to 20 ounces, retaining the 4 twill, and maintaining the perfect structure. In concluding this chapter the writer can only add that if the student has truly realized all that has been demon- strated, and has carried out for himself the graphic illustrations suggested, there are no calculations of any practical value which he will be unable to tackle,CHAPTER V THE DESIGNING OF INTERLACINGS ON POINT-PAPER other than one’s mother-tongue one must be able to think in that language. Similarly with textile design—in order that the designer may express what he wishes in textile structures he must think in the structure itself. Every medium lends itself to a particular style of design; thus, with a pencil one tends to design in line, with @ brush in mass; to design stained glass in broken mass, and so on, Now, squared paper (i.c., point-paper) lends itself to a particular style of design, and the first mistake the student invariably makes is to think in point-paper and not in the thread structure. This must be guarded against, the best way being to design a set of apparently effective plans on point-paper—say, 16 threads and 16 picks—and try them on a suitable warp. ‘The student will then appreciate the value of thinking in the structure itseli, employing point-paper only as a means of expressing his thoughts. But although this must be recognised and acted upon, it does not follow that point-paper may not be employed in working out new styles, The student should certainly Corl I is a recognised principle that to speak any languageDESIGNING OF INTERLACINGS 95 base his ideas on the structure itself, but he should also train himself to think in the structure while designing on point-paper. This is the basis of the following treatment, point-paper being employed as the medium for designing in, while the criticism of the results is based upon the actual appearance of the resultant structure DEVELOPMENTS FROM PLAIN WEAVE Plain weave is the simplest possible structure, but it, may be modified in several ways, yielding several interest- ing and useful effects for employing alone or in combina- tion. Thus No. x, on Design Sheet 2, is nothing but plain weave with 2 picks in a shed, No. 2 with 3 picks in a shed, and No. 3 with 4 picks in a shed. No. 4 has 2 threads working together, No. 5 has 3 threads working together, and so on, In No, 7 plain weave is the basis with 2 picks and 2 threads together, No. 8 with 3 picks and 3 threads together, and No. 9 with 4 picks and 4 threads together. Nos. 10 to 13 are mixed, and No. rg is the most complex style of the series.* It should be noted that while Designs 1, 2, 3 are the most easily produced, the shuttle simply being passed through the same shed twice, three times, and four times, yet designs 4 and 5 present an advantage, for in the three former designs a ‘catch-end ’ must be placed at one or both ends of the cloth (unless the loom is a box-loomf) to pre- vent the insertion of the second pick drawing out the first ick, and so on. ‘The same remark applies to Nos. 7, 8, 9, and 14. Nos. x to 3 are known as warp-ribs, as the cloth presents a warp surface, the weft being hidden ; * All these styles may be produced with two-heald shafts. +f The student should think very eleanly upon these practical points96 STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGN Nos. 4, 5, and 6 are known as weft-ribs for similar reasons, and Nos. 7, 8, 9, and 14 are known as hop-sack, Celtic, + The student should also experiment with these weaves in yarns of, different thicknesses-—say, for example, No. 10 warped 1 thread 2/80 cotton, 2 threads 2/20' cotton and welted 1 pick 2/10's cotton, 1 pick 280s cotton.DESIGNING OF INTERLACINGS ” cor mat weaves. As these have already been dealt with in Chapter IV., no further consideration is here called for.* ‘Twits AND Draconars A twill structure is one in which the interlacing pro- duces lines running diagonally across the piece. If the lines are only lightly defined, the structure is spoken of as a ‘twill’; if strongly defined and of a varied char- acter, as a ‘diagonal,’ although the terms are practically synonymous. ‘The angle of these lines to the horizontal (or perpen- dicular) may be varied by, first, the angle of the interlacing or the move (i.., the point-paper design) ; and, second, the proportion of threads to picks in the resultant cloth.t ‘There are many varieties of twills ; the following will bbe found a convenient classification : (a) Ordinary twills. (®) Compound twills. (¢) Combination twills and Crape weaves. (@) Broken twills (©) Sateens and sateen twills. Most authorities class the sateens as twills, but the idea of construction in the sateen is anything but the twill form. Thus the sateens really form a link between ordinary weave structures and the more elaborately figured styles. (a) Oxpiwary Twitts—The simpler twills are the first advance on plain weave, the idea of construction being to move the intersection one horizontally and one + Refer to pp. 82, 84 diagrams. + The student should clearly realize these points by making a few experimental sketches, or, better still, by tral on the loom. 78 STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGN vertically, leaving two or more threads and picks between the repetition. This will be fully understood by reference to Design Sheet x (p. 23). No. 15s the*-; twill warp face, No. 17 is the 7 twill with equal quantities of warp and weit, and No. 19 is the 3, twill weit face. Thus it will be evident that, in addition to the variations previously noted, twills may have equal quantities of warp and weft on the surface, or they may be warp-face—i., more warp ‘on the surface; or they may be wet-face—i.c., more weft on the surface. If the warp is good and the weft poor a warp-face twill is naturally employed; if the warp is poor and the welt good a weft-face is naturally employed. Again, the student must not forget that by varying the proportion of picks to threads in the actual structure a marked difference in the resultant cloth is to be noticed ; thus the 2; weft twill* and the +, weft sateent are fre- quently woven with twice as many picks as threads per inch, with the result that the face twill angle is much less than 45° while, strange to relate, the back appears plain— hence the term * plain back.” ‘The origination of simple twills—say, on 8, 10, 12, etc., threads and picks—is of much importance, since a good designer should realize to the utmost the capacity of his machinery. Further, the following principles of working are such that the designer who would be really capable cannot afford to ignore them. Suppose, for instance, that all possible twills producible + Cashmeres + Malians,DESIGNING OF INTERLACINGS 90 upon twelve shafts are req) sd, proceed as shown in Design Sheet 3. Commencing with a single row of 12 dots in No. x, add another row for No. 2, two rows for No. 3, and so on, eleven effects being thus obtained. Then two rows of dots, as shown in No. 12, should be taken, and gradually placed further apart, as indicated. Then one single and one double row should be taken, as illustrated in No. 41, and again all possible effects worked out, and so on. In other words, the designer should design the system upon =100 STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGN which he will originate new effects, working in such a manner that there is nothing haphazard, but rather efficient and complete work throughout. Tt may appear useless carry- ing out Designs x and rr, 2 and 10, 15 and 17, etc.; but complete results are worth a great deal as a basis for future research, and in this case, after one set of twills has been completed, the principles for research on other numbers of threads and picks are so apparent that no further trouble will be encountered in making as many twills as required. Another matter which concerns all twills, and to a cer- tain extent plain cloths also, is the ‘direction of twist’ in the warp and weft yarns. ie Influence of Twist on Cloth Structure.—Obviously, yarns may be twisted to the right (open-band) or to the left (cross-band), according to whether the spindle-bands upon the mule or frame are open or crossed, or the machine running reverse-twist or not (Fig. 46). Now, ‘on first thought, the direction of twist in yarns may not seem to be of pressing importance, but after the student has served a short apprenticeship to designing he will be struck with the appearance illustrated in Fig. 47— viz., that when a twill runs to the right it shows up much more distinctly than when it runs to the left. The reason for this is not far to seek. As shown in Fig. 46 at A, when warp and weft yarns are twisted in opposite directions, upon being laid across one another at right angles (as they will be in the cloth) the twists cross one another, since the upper surface of one yarn is in contact with the under surface of the other yarn ; hence they tend to stand off from one another, leaving the structure distinct.* This separation appears to be further accen- ‘+ Hence these conditions should be the bes for wear.DESIGNING OF INTERLACINGS a 3 8 s102 STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGN tuated by making the twill (if the structure is a twill), as indicated, oppose the surface direction of the twist of the yams. If, as in Mettons and many woollen goods a close, compact, structureless tex- ture is required, then warp and weft must be twisted in the same direction (Fig. 46, C), so that in the cloth they ‘bed’ into one another, while if the weave isa twill it must be made to run with the * bedding” twists of the yarns. Fig. 46 re- presents all the possible condi- tions except one which the student may draw for himself. A little thought and a few experiments with cords or rovings twisted and laid across one another will demon- strate the necessary conditions for any required structure. The Repetition of Twills.—A word of warming is necessary respecting the ‘repetition’ of twills. If the student refers to p. 25, and thoroughly under- stands what is there written, he will be able to repeat twills correctly, but under any circum- stances he should experiment with the repetition of complex twills, as indicated in Design Sheet 4. In No. 1 the dividing up of the design-paper into repeats of the weave is illustrated, the weave beingDESIGNING OF INTERLACINGS 103, filled into each repeat, perfect joining resulting. Nos. 2 and 3 are more difficult, while a distinct method of repeti- tion is shown in designs 5 and 6, (®) Compounn* Twrtts.—These twills are compound in the sense that two or more simple weaves are employed in their construction, as illustrated in Design , 4 CoMPLETED CemPLETED. Sheet 5, No. 1. The elements of which the large twill is compounded may be twills or weaves other than twills, but under any circumstances they are combined to give in the total result a twill of a more matked character. Two points must be specially attended to: Firsily, to select for combination weaves which naturally will fit well * ‘The word ‘compound!’ has no special significance ; it i here em- ployed simply because it is the most convenient word.104 STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGN together ; secondly, to sclect weaves which will weave well together—i.c., are of equal, or nearly equal wefting 1 ye ity at -CISTH: POINT-PAPER.- DESIGN: capacity, or are combined in such a way that they will weave well together. In No. 2 the angle of the resultantDESIGNING OF INTERLACINGS 105 twill is 45°, and the weaves in combination are twills at 45°. In No. 3, while the main twill runs at about 72°, the component twills run at different angles ; hence the diff- culty in ‘cutting’ or joining up the weaves one to the other. In No. 4 a practically perfect twill is indicated so far as wefting capacity is concerned, whilejin design No. 5 1 2 3 the weaves combined are of such different wefting capacity that one weave must be sacrificed to the other— in this case the sateen to the plain weave, this weave limiting the number of threads and picks per inch. (c) Comprwation* Twrtts.—These twills, in one sense, + The term ‘combination’ is employed just as ‘compound’—te,, because it is @ convenient term,106 STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGN are similar to compound twills—that is, they are com- pounded of two or mote weaves. As the order of com- bination is here the chief factor, they are given the title combination’ twills, ‘The idea lying at the basis of these structures is the ‘mixing up or combining of two or more weaves to produce another totally different weave. For example, weaves A and B on Design Sheet 6 may be employed in a thread and ‘thread combination.DESIGNING OF INTERLACINGS 107 ‘The following example illustrates the method, which is ‘the important thing for the student to note: 1. Mark off 16 threads x 8 picks for eight effects or designs. 2. Paint in all the even threads in some transparent colour. 3. Upon the odd threads insert weave A, always com- ‘mencing on the same thread. 4. Upon the even threads insert weave B, in the first design. commencing with the first thread, in the second with the second thread, and so on as indicated, thus pro- ducing apparently eight distinct twills which should now be painted in solid colour, in order to judge of their respective merits. Examination reveals that the four last effects are duplicates of the first four, and the fact that weave A is a four-thread weave suggests the explanation which the student must confirm experimentally. Thus in Nos. 9 and ro weaves A and C are combined, and two effects are evidently possible, as shown, and no more. Again, on combining weaves A and D one design only will be obtained, for if the weaves are put down ‘one alongside the other,* repetition occurs on the thirteenth thread, there being four repeats of the three- thread twill and three repeats of the four-thread twill. Hence, when the weaves are combined pick-and-pick, the design occupies 12 threads by 24 picks, and the picks, having been in every possible relationship to one another, only one effect, as here given, can be produced. The student should now, from these particular examples, * The student should do this for his own satisfaction,108 STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGN endeavour to induce a rule which will apply in all cases, thus : Weaves on 4 threads and 8 threads give four effects. Weaves on 4 threads and 6 threads give two effects. Weaves on 3 threads and 4 threads give one effect. Upon carefully thinking over these results, and others which may be obtained on similar lines, the student will speedily note that the number of combinations producible from the combination of any two weaves will be the greatest common measure of the two weaves. It will now be noted that the foregoing effects are very regular, but if an upright twill weave (E) be combined with an ordinary twill weave (A) the resultant twill is ‘more or less irregular, as shown, and experiments with various weaves show that— ‘Regular-+regular weaves give regular combinations. Irregular + irregular weaves give regular combinations. Regular + irregular weaves give irregular combinations. The drafting of these designs is very interesting, but as the student is at present studying weave structure it must be reserved for future treatment. Crare Weaves.—These are best treated here, as they are simply thread-and-thread and pick-and-pick combina- tion effects, receiving the name ‘crape’ owing to their broken-up mealy appearance, this being usually associated * The student must convince himself ofthis by carrying out atleast 1 dozen experiments + The student should note, however, that while weaves A and E, for example, combined thread and thread jwould give a design’ on 40 threads, yet there are only 9 orders of threads, thus only 9 heald- shafts will be required. He should also experiment with combinations ‘of threads in groups of two oF more,DESIGNING OF INTERLACINGS 109 with the term crape. In this case one weave only is ‘tequired, as illustrated in Design Sheet 7, weave A. Proceed as follows x, Taking twice as many threads and picks as the design occupies, paint every other thread and pick in some light shade—this is for convenience only. alate ‘us i a cog he al gos ad fhe Aachen Seb ot 2. Now put in the weave on the white spaces only, as shown in r, commencing on the first thread and pick. 3. Tum the paper round go®, and put the weave down as before, as shown in 2, 4 Turn the paper another go°, and again insert the weave, as shown in 3. 5. Tur the paper another go” and again insert the110 STUDY OF TEXTILE DESIGN weave, as shown in 4. Thus weave A will be contained four times in the new design, which, nevertheless, is quite unlike the initial design. 6. Having obtained the resultant weave, it should be painted out clearly, as shown, so that its merits may be fairly estimated. The following modifications of the system are possible : Weave B, by commencing with, say, the second or third thread instead of the first. Weave C, by painting in such a weave C as given for the first time, the reverse of C for the second, C for the third, and the reverse of C again for the fourth, the result being as indicated. WeaveD, by combining one weave or more with the twill running in the reverse direction—i.c, first to the right then turn the paper go° and insert twill to the left, and 50 on, as indicated. By employing two or more weaves on similar lines other styles may also be produced ‘The defect of this system of designing seems to be that, it is impossible to foresee the resultant effect ; but as very useful styles may thus be originated, the designer cannot afford to ignore this somewhat mechanical method.* ‘As suggestions for diaper, etc., designs this system is specially useful. (@ Broken Twitts—These are produced by taking any suitable twill as a basis and breaking it up, so that a more or less crape or broken appearance results. + As a patent for this system of designing is claimed by the originator—the late Director of the Aachen Textile School—those wishing to employ this method should communicate with him direct.DESIGNING OF INTERLACINGS ut POINT- PAPER.- + CLOTH: DESIGN: