Diode

For data diodes, see Unidirectional network. For other

uses, see Diodes (disambiguation).
In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic com-

Closeup of a diode, showing the square-shaped semiconductor

crystal (black object on left).

Various semiconductor diodes. Bottom: A bridge rectier. In

most diodes, a white or black painted band identies the cathode
into which electrons will ow when the diode is conducting. Electron ow is the reverse of conventional current ow.[1][2][3][4]

ponent that conducts primarily in one direction (asymmetric conductance); it has low (ideally zero) resistance
to the ow of current in one direction, and high (ideally

extreme macro photo of a Chinese diode of the seventies

Glass Envelope
Plate (anode)

Filament (cathode)

HISTORY

than this simple ono action, because of their nonlinear

current-voltage characteristics. Semiconductor diodes
begin conducting electricity only if a certain threshold
voltage or cut-in voltage is present in the forward direction (a state in which the diode is said to be forwardbiased). The voltage drop across a forward-biased diode
varies only a little with the current, and is a function of
temperature; this eect can be used as a temperature sensor or as a voltage reference.
A semiconductor diodes currentvoltage characteristic
can be tailored by selecting the semiconductor materials and the doping impurities introduced into the materials during manufacture. These techniques are used
to create special-purpose diodes that perform many different functions. For example, diodes are used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes), to protect circuits from
high voltage surges (avalanche diodes), to electronically
tune radio and TV receivers (varactor diodes), to generate radio-frequency oscillations (tunnel diodes, Gunn
diodes, IMPATT diodes), and to produce light (lightemitting diodes). Tunnel, Gunn and IMPATT diodes exhibit negative resistance, which is useful in microwave
and switching circuits.
Diodes, both vacuum and semiconductor, can be used as
shot-noise generators.

Structure of a vacuum tube diode. The lament may be bare, or

more commonly (as shown here), embedded within and insulated
from an enclosing cathode.

2 History

innite) resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode,

the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of
semiconductor material with a pn junction connected to
two electrical terminals.[5] A vacuum tube diode has two
electrodes, a plate (anode) and a heated cathode. Semiconductor diodes were the rst semiconductor electronic
devices. The discovery of crystals' rectifying abilities was
made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874. The
rst semiconductor diodes, called cats whisker diodes,
developed around 1906, were made of mineral crystals
such as galena. Today, most diodes are made of silicon,
but other semiconductors such as selenium or germanium
are sometimes used.[6]

Thermionic (vacuum tube) diodes and solid state (semiconductor) diodes were developed separately, at approximately the same time, in the early 1900s, as radio receiver
detectors. Until the 1950s vacuum tube diodes were used
more frequently in radios because the early point-contact
type semiconductor diodes were less stable. In addition,
most receiving sets had vacuum tubes for amplication
that could easily have the thermionic diodes included in
the tube (for example the 12SQ7 double diode triode),
and vacuum tube rectiers and gas-lled rectiers were
capable of handling some high voltage/high current rectication tasks better than the semiconductor diodes (such
as selenium rectiers) which were available at that time.

2.1 Vacuum tube diodes

Main functions

The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diodes
forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can
be viewed as an electronic version of a check valve. This
unidirectional behavior is called rectication, and is used
to convert alternating current to direct current, including extraction of modulation from radio signals in radio
receiversthese diodes are forms of rectiers.

Further information: Vacuum tube

In 1873, Frederick Guthrie discovered the basic principle
of operation of thermionic diodes.[7][8] Guthrie discovered that a positively charged electroscope could be discharged by bringing a grounded piece of white-hot metal
close to it (but not actually touching it). The same did
not apply to a negatively charged electroscope, indicating
that the current ow was only possible in one direction.

However, diodes can have more complicated behavior Thomas Edison independently rediscovered the princi-

2.3

Etymology

ple on February 13, 1880. At the time, Edison was investigating why the laments of his carbon-lament light
bulbs nearly always burned out at the positive-connected
end. He had a special bulb made with a metal plate sealed
into the glass envelope. Using this device, he conrmed
that an invisible current owed from the glowing lament
through the vacuum to the metal plate, but only when the
plate was connected to the positive supply.
Edison devised a circuit where his modied light bulb effectively replaced the resistor in a DC voltmeter. Edison
was awarded a patent for this invention in 1884.[9] Since
there was no apparent practical use for such a device at
the time, the patent application was most likely simply
a precaution in case someone else did nd a use for the
so-called Edison eect.
About 20 years later, John Ambrose Fleming (scientic
adviser to the Marconi Company and former Edison employee) realized that the Edison eect could be used as
a precision radio detector. Fleming patented the rst
true thermionic diode, the Fleming valve, in Britain on
November 16, 1904[10] (followed by U.S. Patent 803,684
in November 1905).

2.2

Solid-state diodes

3
isfactory thermionic diode for microwave reception.

2.3 Etymology
At the time of their invention, such devices were known
as rectiers. In 1919, the year tetrodes were invented,
William Henry Eccles coined the term diode from the
Greek roots di (from ), meaning 'two', and ode (from
), meaning 'path'. (However, the word diode itself,
as well as triode, tetrode, pentode, hexode, were already
in use as terms of multiplex telegraphy; see, for example,
The telegraphic journal and electrical review, September
10, 1886, p. 252).
2.3.1 Rectiers
Main article: Rectier
Although all diodes rectify, the term 'rectier' is normally
reserved for higher currents and voltages than would normally be found in the rectication of lower power signals;
examples include:
Power supply rectiers (half-wave, full-wave,
bridge)

In 1874 German scientist Karl Ferdinand Braun discov Flyback diodes

ered the unilateral conduction of crystals.[11][12] Braun
[13]
patented the crystal rectier in 1899.
Copper oxide
and selenium rectiers were developed for power appli2.4 Worlds smallest diode
cations in the 1930s.
Indian scientist Jagadish Chandra Bose was the rst to
use a crystal for detecting radio waves in 1894.[14] The
crystal detector was developed into a practical device for
wireless telegraphy by Greenleaf Whittier Pickard, who
invented a silicon crystal detector in 1903 and received
a patent for it on November 20, 1906.[15] Other experimenters tried a variety of other substances, of which the
most widely used was the mineral galena (lead sulde).
Other substances oered slightly better performance, but
galena was most widely used because it had the advantage of being cheap and easy to obtain. The crystal detector in these early crystal radio sets consisted of an adjustable wire point-contact, often made of gold or platinum because of their incorrodible nature (the so-called
cats whisker), which could be manually moved over the
face of the crystal in search of a portion of that mineral with rectifying qualties. This troublesome device
was superseded by thermionic diodes (vacuum tubes) by
the 1920s, but after high purity semiconductor materials
became available, the crystal detector returned to dominant use with the advent, in the 1950s, of inexpensive
xed-germanium diodes. Bell Labs also developed a germanium diode for microwave reception, and AT&T used
these in their microwave towers that criss-crossed the nation starting in the late 1940s, carrying telephone and network television signals. Bell Labs did not develop a sat-

Researchers from the University of Georgia and BenGurion University of the Negev (BGU) have developed a
diode made from a molecule of DNA. Professor Bingqian
Xu from the College of Engineering at the University
of Georgia and his team took a single DNA molecule
made from 11 base pairs and connected it to an electronic circuit a few nanometers in size. When layers of
coralyne were inserted between layers of DNA, the current jumped up to 15 times larger negative versus positive, which is necessary for a nano diode.[16][17]

3 Thermionic diodes
A thermionic diode is a thermionic-valve device (also
known as a vacuum tube, tube, or valve), consisting
of a sealed evacuated glass envelope containing two
electrodes: a cathode heated by a lament, and a plate
(anode). Early examples were fairly similar in appearance to incandescent light bulbs.
In operation, a separate current through the lament
(heater), a high resistance wire made of nichrome, heats
the cathode red hot (8001000 C), causing it to release
electrons into the vacuum, a process called thermionic
emission. The cathode is coated with oxides of alkaline

Glass tube

Anode
Heated
cathode
Heater

Diode vacuum tube construction

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES

so a current of electrons ows through the tube from cathode to plate. However, when the polarity is reversed and
the plate has a negative voltage, no current ows, because
the cathode electrons are not attracted to it. The unheated
plate does not emit any electrons itself. So electrons can
only ow through the tube in one direction, from the cathode to the anode plate.
In a mercury-arc valve, an arc forms between a refractory conductive anode and a pool of liquid mercury acting as cathode. Such units were made with ratings up to
hundreds of kilowatts, and were important in the development of HVDC power transmission. Some types of
smaller thermionic rectiers had mercury vapor ll to reduce their forward voltage drop and to increase current
rating over thermionic hard-vacuum devices.
Throughout the vacuum tube era, valve diodes were used
in analog signal applications and as rectiers in DC power
supplies in consumer electronics such as radios, televisions, and sound systems. They were replaced in power
supplies beginning in the 1940s by selenium rectiers
and then by semiconductor diodes by the 1960s. Today
they are still used in a few high power applications where
their ability to withstand transient voltages and their robustness gives them an advantage over semiconductor devices. The recent (2012) resurgence of interest among
audiophiles and recording studios in old valve audio gear
such as guitar ampliers and home audio systems has provided a market for the legacy consumer diode valves.

4 Semiconductor diodes
4.1 Electronic symbols
Main article: Electronic symbol
The symbol used for a semiconductor diode in a circuit
diagram species the type of diode. There are alternative
symbols for some types of diodes, though the dierences
are minor. The triangle in the symbols points to the forward direction.
Diode
The symbol for an indirect heated vacuum-tube diode. From top
to bottom, the components are the anode, the cathode, and the
heater lament.

earth metals such as barium and strontium oxides, which

have a low work function, to increase the number of electrons emitted. (Some valves use direct heating, in which
a tungsten lament acts as both heater and cathode.) The
alternating voltage to be rectied is applied between the
cathode and the concentric plate electrode. When the
plate has a positive voltage with respect to the cathode,
it electrostatically attracts the electrons from the cathode,

Light-emitting diode (LED)

Photodiode
Schottky diode
Transient-voltage-suppression diode (TVS)
Tunnel diode
Varicap
Zener diode
Typical diode packages in same alignment as diode
symbol. Thin bar depicts the cathode.

4.4

Currentvoltage characteristic

5
4.3.2 Schottky diode
Main article: Schottky diode
Another type of junction diode, the Schottky diode, is
formed from a metalsemiconductor junction rather than
a pn junction, which reduces capacitance and increases
switching speed.

4.4 Currentvoltage characteristic

A galena cats-whisker detector, a point-contact diode.

4.2

Point-contact diodes

A point-contact diode works the same as the junction

diodes described below, but its construction is simpler.
A pointed metal wire is placed in contact with an n-type
semiconductor. Some metal migrates into the semiconductor to make a small p-type region around the contact.
The 1N34 germanium version is still used in radio receivers as a detector and occasionally in specialized analog electronics.

IV (current vs. voltage) characteristics of a pn junction diode

4.3
4.3.1

Junction diodes
pn junction diode

Main article: pn diode

A pn junction diode is made of a crystal of
semiconductor, usually silicon, but germanium and
gallium arsenide are also used. Impurities are added to
it to create a region on one side that contains negative
charge carriers (electrons), called an n-type semiconductor, and a region on the other side that contains positive
charge carriers (holes), called a p-type semiconductor.
When the n-type and p-type materials are attached together, a momentary ow of electrons occur from the n
to the p side resulting in a third region between the two
where no charge carriers are present. This region is called
the depletion region because there are no charge carriers
(neither electrons nor holes) in it. The diodes terminals
are attached to the n-type and p-regions. The boundary
between these two regions, called a pn junction, is where
the action of the diode takes place. When a suciently
higher electrical potential is applied to the P side (the
anode) than to the N side (the cathode), it allows electrons
to ow through the depletion region from the N-type side
to the P-type side. The junction does not allow the ow
of electrons in the opposite direction when the potential is
applied in reverse, creating, in a sense, an electrical check
valve.

A semiconductor diodes behavior in a circuit is given

by its currentvoltage characteristic, or IV graph (see
graph below). The shape of the curve is determined
by the transport of charge carriers through the so-called
depletion layer or depletion region that exists at the pn
junction between diering semiconductors. When a pn
junction is rst created, conduction-band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diuse into the P-doped
region where there is a large population of holes (vacant places for electrons) with which the electrons recombine. When a mobile electron recombines with a
hole, both hole and electron vanish, leaving behind an immobile positively charged donor (dopant) on the N side
and negatively charged acceptor (dopant) on the P side.
The region around the pn junction becomes depleted of
charge carriers and thus behaves as an insulator.
However, the width of the depletion region (called
the depletion width) cannot grow without limit. For
each electronhole pair recombination made, a positively
charged dopant ion is left behind in the N-doped region,
and a negatively charged dopant ion is created in the Pdoped region. As recombination proceeds and more ions
are created, an increasing electric eld develops through
the depletion zone that acts to slow and then nally stop
recombination. At this point, there is a built-in potential across the depletion zone.
If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the
same polarity as the built-in potential, the depletion zone

continues to act as an insulator, preventing any signicant electric current ow (unless electronhole pairs are
actively being created in the junction by, for instance,
light; see photodiode). This is called the reverse bias
phenomenon. However, if the polarity of the external
voltage opposes the built-in potential, recombination can
once again proceed, resulting in a substantial electric current through the pn junction (i.e. substantial numbers of
electrons and holes recombine at the junction). For silicon diodes, the built-in potential is approximately 0.7 V
(0.3 V for germanium and 0.2 V for Schottky). Thus, if
an external voltage greater than and opposite to the builtin voltage is applied, a current will ow and the diode
is said to be turned on as it has been given an external forward bias. The diode is commonly said to have a
forward threshold voltage, above which it conducts and
below which conduction stops. However, this is only an
approximation as the forward characteristic is according
to the Shockley equation absolutely smooth (see graph
below).

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES

is called the knee voltage or cut-in voltage and is

equal to the barrier potential of the p-n junction.
This is a feature of the exponential curve, and appears sharper on a current scale more compressed
than in the diagram shown here.
4. At larger forward currents the current-voltage curve
starts to be dominated by the ohmic resistance of the
bulk semiconductor. The curve is no longer exponential, it is asymptotic to a straight line whose slope
is the bulk resistance. This region is particularly important for power diodes. The diode can be modeled
as an ideal diode in series with a xed resistor.
In a small silicon diode operating at its rated currents, the
voltage drop is about 0.6 to 0.7 volts. The value is dierent for other diode typesSchottky diodes can be rated
as low as 0.2 V, germanium diodes 0.25 to 0.3 V, and red
or blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can have values of
1.4 V and 4.0 V respectively.

A diodes IV characteristic can be approximated by four At higher currents the forward voltage drop of the diode
regions of operation:
increases. A drop of 1 V to 1.5 V is typical at full rated
current for power diodes.
1. At very large reverse bias, beyond the peak inverse
voltage or PIV, a process called reverse breakdown
occurs that causes a large increase in current (i.e., a
large number of electrons and holes are created at,
and move away from the pn junction) that usually
damages the device permanently. The avalanche
diode is deliberately designed for use in that manner.
In the Zener diode, the concept of PIV is not applicable. A Zener diode contains a heavily doped pn
junction allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction
band of the n-type material, such that the reverse
voltage is clamped to a known value (called the
Zener voltage), and avalanche does not occur. Both
devices, however, do have a limit to the maximum
current and power they can withstand in the clamped
reverse-voltage region. Also, following the end of
forward conduction in any diode, there is reverse
current for a short time. The device does not attain
its full blocking capability until the reverse current
ceases.
2. For a bias less than the PIV, the reverse current
is very small. For a normal PN rectier diode,
the reverse current through the device in the microampere (A) range is very low. However, this is
temperature dependent, and at suciently high temperatures, a substantial amount of reverse current
can be observed (mA or more).
3. With a small forward bias, where only a small forward current is conducted, the currentvoltage curve
is exponential in accordance with the ideal diode
equation. There is a denite forward voltage at
which the diode starts to conduct signicantly. This

4.5 Shockley diode equation

The Shockley ideal diode equation or the diode law
(named after transistor co-inventor William Bradford
Shockley) gives the IV characteristic of an ideal diode in
either forward or reverse bias (or no bias). The following
equation is called the Shockley ideal diode equation when
n, the ideality factor, is set equal to 1 :
( VD
)
I = IS e nVT 1 ,
where
I is the diode current,
IS is the reverse bias saturation current (or
scale current),
VD is the voltage across the diode,
VT is the thermal voltage, and
n is the ideality factor, also known as the quality
factor or sometimes emission coecient. The
ideality factor n typically varies from 1 to 2
(though can in some cases be higher), depending on the fabrication process and semiconductor material and is set equal to 1 for the case of
an ideal diode (thus the n is sometimes omitted). The ideality factor was added to account
for imperfect junctions as observed in real transistors. The factor mainly accounts for carrier
recombination as the charge carriers cross the
depletion region.

7
The thermal voltage VT is approximately 25.85 mV at
300 K, a temperature close to room temperature commonly used in device simulation software. At any temperature it is a known constant dened by:

VT =

kT
,
q

where k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute temperature of the pn junction, and q is the magnitude of
charge of an electron (the elementary charge).
The reverse saturation current, IS, is not constant for a
given device, but varies with temperature; usually more
signicantly than VT, so that VD typically decreases as T
increases.

device does not attain its blocking capability until the mobile charge in the junction is depleted.
The eect can be signicant when switching large currents very quickly.[18] A certain amount of reverse recovery time t (on the order of tens of nanoseconds to a
few microseconds) may be required to remove the reverse
recovery charge Q from the diode. During this recovery
time, the diode can actually conduct in the reverse direction. This might give rise to a large constant current in
the reverse direction for a short time while the diode is reverse biased. The magnitude of such a reverse current is
determined by the operating circuit (i.e., the series resistance) and the diode is said to be in the storage-phase.[19]
In certain real-world cases it is important to consider the
losses that are incurred by this non-ideal diode eect.[20]
However, when the slew rate of the current is not so severe (e.g. Line frequency) the eect can be safely ignored. For most applications, the eect is also negligible
for Schottky diodes.

The Shockley ideal diode equation or the diode law is derived with the assumption that the only processes giving
rise to the current in the diode are drift (due to electrical
eld), diusion, and thermal recombinationgeneration
The reverse current ceases abruptly when the stored
(RG) (this equation is derived by setting n = 1 above). It
charge is depleted; this abrupt stop is exploited in step
also assumes that the RG current in the depletion region
recovery diodes for generation of extremely short pulses.
is insignicant. This means that the Shockley ideal diode
equation doesn't account for the processes involved in reverse breakdown and photon-assisted RG. Additionally,
it doesn't describe the leveling o of the IV curve at 5 Types of semiconductor diode
high forward bias due to internal resistance. Introducing the ideality factor, n, accounts for recombination and
generation of carriers.
Under reverse bias voltages the exponential in the diode
equation is negligible, and the current is a constant (negative) reverse current value of IS. The reverse breakdown
region is not modeled by the Shockley diode equation.
For even rather small forward bias voltages the exponential is very large, since the thermal voltage is very small
in comparison. The subtracted '1' in the diode equation
is then negligible and the forward diode current can be
approximated by
VD

I = IS e nVT
The use of the diode equation in circuit problems is illustrated in the article on diode modeling.

4.6

Small-signal behavior

For circuit design, a small-signal model of the diode behavior often proves useful. A specic example of diode
modeling is discussed in the article on small-signal cir- Several types of diodes. The scale is centimeters.
cuits.
There are several types of pn junction diodes, which emphasize either a dierent physical aspect of a diode often by geometric scaling, doping level, choosing the right
4.7 Reverse-recovery eect
electrodes, are just an application of a diode in a special
Following the end of forward conduction in a pn type circuit, or are really dierent devices like the Gunn and
diode, a reverse current can ow for a short time. The laser diode and the MOSFET:

5 TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

rectiers), and required a large heat sink (often an extension of the diodes metal substrate), much larger than the
later silicon diode of the same current ratings would require. The vast majority of all diodes are the pn diodes
found in CMOS integrated circuits, which include two
diodes per pin and many other internal diodes.

A
D

A
C
Typical datasheet drawing showing the dimensions of a DO-41
diode package

Avalanche diodes These are diodes that conduct in the

reverse direction when the reverse bias voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage. These are electrically very similar to Zener diodes (and are often
mistakenly called Zener diodes), but break down
by a dierent mechanism: the avalanche eect.
This occurs when the reverse electric eld applied
across the pn junction causes a wave of ionization, reminiscent of an avalanche, leading to a large
current. Avalanche diodes are designed to break
down at a well-dened reverse voltage without being
destroyed. The dierence between the avalanche
diode (which has a reverse breakdown above about
6.2 V) and the Zener is that the channel length of
the former exceeds the mean free path of the electrons, resulting in many collisions between them on
the way through the channel. The only practical difference between the two types is they have temperature coecients of opposite polarities.
Cats whisker or crystal diodes These are a type of
point-contact diode. The cats whisker diode consists of a thin or sharpened metal wire pressed
against a semiconducting crystal, typically galena
or a piece of coal. The wire forms the anode and
the crystal forms the cathode. Cats whisker diodes
were also called crystal diodes and found application
in the earliest radios called crystal radio receivers.
Cats whisker diodes are generally obsolete, but may
be available from a few manufacturers.
Constant current diodes These are actually JFETs[21]
with the gate shorted to the source, and function
like a two-terminal current-limiting analog to the
voltage-limiting Zener diode. They allow a current through them to rise to a certain value, and
then level o at a specic value. Also called CLDs,
constant-current diodes, diode-connected transistors,
or current-regulating diodes.
Esaki or tunnel diodes These have a region of operation showing negative resistance caused by quantum
tunneling,[22] allowing amplication of signals and
very simple bistable circuits. Because of the high
carrier concentration, tunnel diodes are very fast,
may be used at low (mK) temperatures, high magnetic elds, and in high radiation environments.[23]
Because of these properties, they are often used in
spacecraft.

Normal (pn) diodes, which operate as described above,

are usually made of doped silicon or, more rarely,
germanium. Before the development of silicon power
rectier diodes, cuprous oxide and later selenium was
used. Their low eciency required a much higher forward voltage to be applied (typically 1.4 to 1.7 V per
cell, with multiple cells stacked so as to increase the Gunn diodes These are similar to tunnel diodes in that
they are made of materials such as GaAs or InP
peak inverse voltage rating for application in high voltage

9
that exhibit a region of negative dierential resis- PIN diodes A PIN diode has a central un-doped, or
tance. With appropriate biasing, dipole domains
intrinsic, layer, forming a p-type/intrinsic/n-type
form and travel across the diode, allowing high frestructure.[27] They are used as radio frequency
quency microwave oscillators to be built.
switches and attenuators. They are also used as
large-volume, ionizing-radiation detectors and as
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) In a diode formed from
photodetectors. PIN diodes are also used in power
a direct band-gap semiconductor, such as gallium arelectronics, as their central layer can withstand high
senide, charge carriers that cross the junction emit
voltages. Furthermore, the PIN structure can be
photons when they recombine with the majority carfound in many power semiconductor devices, such
rier on the other side. Depending on the material,
as IGBTs, power MOSFETs, and thyristors.
wavelengths (or colors)[24] from the infrared to the
near ultraviolet may be produced.[25] The forward Schottky diodes Schottky diodes are constructed from a
metal to semiconductor contact. They have a lower
potential of these diodes depends on the wavelength
forward voltage drop than pn junction diodes.
of the emitted photons: 2.1 V corresponds to red,
Their forward voltage drop at forward currents of
4.0 V to violet. The rst LEDs were red and yellow,
about 1 mA is in the range 0.15 V to 0.45 V, which
and higher-frequency diodes have been developed
makes them useful in voltage clamping applications
over time. All LEDs produce incoherent, narrowand
prevention of transistor saturation. They can
spectrum light; white LEDs are actually combinaalso
be used as low loss rectiers, although their
tions of three LEDs of a dierent color, or a blue
reverse
leakage current is in general higher than
LED with a yellow scintillator coating. LEDs can
that of other diodes. Schottky diodes are majority
also be used as low-eciency photodiodes in signal
carrier devices and so do not suer from minorapplications. An LED may be paired with a phoity carrier storage problems that slow down many
todiode or phototransistor in the same package, to
other diodesso they have a faster reverse recovery
form an opto-isolator.
than pn junction diodes. They also tend to have
much lower junction capacitance than pn diodes,
Laser diodes When an LED-like structure is contained
which provides for high switching speeds and their
in a resonant cavity formed by polishing the parallel
use in high-speed circuitry and RF devices such as
end faces, a laser can be formed. Laser diodes are
switched-mode power supply, mixers, and detectors.
commonly used in optical storage devices and for
high speed optical communication.
Super barrier diodes Super barrier diodes are rectier
diodes that incorporate the low forward voltage drop
Thermal diodes This term is used both for conventional
of the Schottky diode with the surge-handling capapn diodes used to monitor temperature because of
bility and low reverse leakage current of a normal
their varying forward voltage with temperature, and
pn junction diode.
for Peltier heat pumps for thermoelectric heating
and cooling. Peltier heat pumps may be made from Gold-doped diodes As a dopant, gold (or platinum) acts
semiconductor, though they do not have any rectias recombination centers, which helps a fast recomfying junctions, they use the diering behaviour of
bination of minority carriers. This allows the diode
charge carriers in N and P type semiconductor to
to operate at signal frequencies, at the expense of a
move heat.
higher forward voltage drop. Gold-doped diodes are
faster than other pn diodes (but not as fast as SchotPeruns diodes This is a special type of voltage-surge
tky diodes). They also have less reverse-current
protection diode. It is characterized by the symleakage than Schottky diodes (but not as good as
metrical voltage-current characteristic, similar to
other pn diodes).[28][29] A typical example is the
DIAC. It has much faster response time however,
1N914.
thats why it is used in demanding applications.
Snap-o or Step recovery diodes The term step recovPhotodiodes All semiconductors are subject to optical
ery relates to the form of the reverse recovery charcharge carrier generation. This is typically an undeacteristic of these devices. After a forward current
sired eect, so most semiconductors are packaged
has been passing in an SRD and the current is interin light blocking material. Photodiodes are intended
rupted or reversed, the reverse conduction will cease
to sense light(photodetector), so they are packaged
very abruptly (as in a step waveform). SRDs can,
in materials that allow light to pass, and are usually
therefore, provide very fast voltage transitions by the
PIN (the kind of diode most sensitive to light).[26] A
very sudden disappearance of the charge carriers.
photodiode can be used in solar cells, in photometry,
term
or in optical communications. Multiple photodiodes Stabistors or Forward Reference Diodes The
may be packaged in a single device, either as a linear
stabistor refers to a special type of diodes featuring
array or as a two-dimensional array. These arrays
extremely stable forward voltage characteristics.
These devices are specially designed for low-voltage
should not be confused with charge-coupled devices.

10

RELATED DEVICES

stabilization applications requiring a guaranteed Device Engineering Council) about 1960. Most diodes
voltage over a wide current range and highly stable have a 1-prex designation (e.g., 1N4003). Among
over temperature.
the most popular in this series were: 1N34A/1N270
(germanium signal), 1N914/1N4148 (silicon signal),
Transient voltage suppression diode (TVS) These are
1N40011N4007 (silicon 1A power rectier) and
avalanche diodes designed specically to protect
1N54xx (silicon 3A power rectier)[31][32][33]
other semiconductor devices from high-voltage
transients.[30] Their pn junctions have a much
larger cross-sectional area than those of a normal 6.2 JIS
diode, allowing them to conduct large currents to
ground without sustaining damage.
The JIS semiconductor designation system has all semiVaricap or varactor diodes These are used as voltagecontrolled capacitors. These are important in PLL
(phase-locked loop) and FLL (frequency-locked
loop) circuits, allowing tuning circuits, such as those
in television receivers, to lock quickly on to the
frequency. They also enabled tunable oscillators
in early discrete tuning of radios, where a cheap
and stable, but xed-frequency, crystal oscillator
provided the reference frequency for a voltagecontrolled oscillator.

conductor diode designations starting with 1S.

As well as these common codes, many manufacturers or

organisations have their own systems too for example:

6.3 Pro Electron

The European Pro Electron coding system for active components was introduced in 1966 and comprises two letters followed by the part code. The rst letter represents
the semiconductor material used for the component (A =
germanium and B = silicon) and the second letter represents the general function of the part (for diodes, A = lowZener diodes These can be made to conduct in reverse power/signal, B = variable capacitance, X = multiplier, Y
bias (backward), and are correctly termed reverse = rectier and Z = voltage reference); for example:
breakdown diodes. This eect, called Zener breakdown, occurs at a precisely dened voltage, allowing
AA-series germanium low-power/signal diodes
the diode to be used as a precision voltage reference.
(e.g., AA119)
The term Zener diode is colloquially applied to sev BA-series silicon low-power/signal diodes (e.g.,
eral types of breakdown diodes, but strictly speakBAT18 silicon RF switching diode)
ing Zener diodes have a breakdown voltage of below
5 volts, whilst avalanche diodes are used for break BY-series silicon rectier diodes (e.g., BY127
down voltages above that value. In practical volt1250V, 1A rectier diode)
age reference circuits, Zener and switching diodes
are connected in series and opposite directions to
BZ-series silicon Zener diodes (e.g., BZY88C4V7
balance the temperature coecient response of the
4.7V Zener diode)
diodes to near-zero. Some devices labeled as highvoltage Zener diodes are actually avalanche diodes
Other common numbering / coding systems (generally
(see above). Two (equivalent) Zeners in series and
manufacturer-driven) include:
in reverse order, in the same package, constitute a
transient absorber (or Transorb, a registered trade GD-series germanium diodes (e.g., GD9) this is a
mark).
very old coding system
Other uses for semiconductor diodes include the sensing
OA-series germanium diodes (e.g., OA47) a
of temperature, and computing analog logarithms (see
coding sequence developed by Mullard, a UK comOperational amplier applications#Logarithmic output).
pany

Numbering and coding schemes

There are a number of common, standard and

manufacturer-driven numbering and coding schemes for
diodes; the two most common being the EIA/JEDEC
standard and the European Pro Electron standard:

6.1

EIA/JEDEC

The standardized 1N-series numbering EIA370 system

was introduced in the US by EIA/JEDEC (Joint Electron

HP diode 1901-0044 = JEDEC 1N4148

UK military diode CV448 = Mullard type OA81 =
GEC type GEX23

7 Related devices
Rectier

8.4

Logic gates

11

Transistor

are usually reverse-biased (non-conducting) under normal circumstances. When the voltage rises above the
Thyristor or silicon controlled rectier (SCR)
normal range, the diodes become forward-biased (conducting). For example, diodes are used in (stepper mo TRIAC
tor and H-bridge) motor controller and relay circuits to
DIAC
de-energize coils rapidly without the damaging voltage
spikes that would otherwise occur. (A diode used in such
Varistor
an application is called a yback diode). Many integrated
In optics, an equivalent device for the diode but with laser circuits also incorporate diodes on the connection pins to
light would be the Optical isolator, also known as an Op- prevent external voltages from damaging their sensitive
tical Diode, that allows light to only pass in one direction. transistors. Specialized diodes are used to protect from
over-voltages at higher power (see Diode types above).
It uses a Faraday rotator as the main component.

Applications
8.4 Logic gates

8.1

Radio demodulation

Diodes can be combined with other components to conThe rst use for the diode was the demodulation of struct AND and OR logic gates. This is referred to as
amplitude modulated (AM) radio broadcasts. The his- diode logic.
tory of this discovery is treated in depth in the radio article. In summary, an AM signal consists of alternating
positive and negative peaks of a radio carrier wave, whose
amplitude or envelope is proportional to the original au- 8.5 Ionizing radiation detectors
dio signal. The diode (originally a crystal diode) recties
the AM radio frequency signal, leaving only the positive
In addition to light, mentioned above, semiconductor
peaks of the carrier wave. The audio is then extracted
diodes are sensitive to more energetic radiation. In
from the rectied carrier wave using a simple lter and
electronics, cosmic rays and other sources of ionizing rafed into an audio amplier or transducer, which generdiation cause noise pulses and single and multiple bit erates sound waves.
rors. This eect is sometimes exploited by particle detectors to detect radiation. A single particle of radiation, with thousands or millions of electron volts of en8.2 Power conversion
ergy, generates many charge carrier pairs, as its energy
is deposited in the semiconductor material. If the depleMain article: Rectier
Rectiers are constructed from diodes, where they tion layer is large enough to catch the whole shower or
to stop a heavy particle, a fairly accurate measurement
of the particles energy can be made, simply by measuring the charge conducted and without the complexity of
a magnetic spectrometer, etc. These semiconductor radiation detectors need ecient and uniform charge collection and low leakage current. They are often cooled
by liquid nitrogen. For longer-range (about a centimetre) particles, they need a very large depletion depth and
Schematic of basic AC-to-DC power supply
large area. For short-range particles, they need any contact or un-depleted semiconductor on at least one surface
are used to convert alternating current (AC) electric- to be very thin. The back-bias voltages are near breakity into direct current (DC). Automotive alternators are down (around a thousand volts per centimetre). Germaa common example, where the diode, which recties nium and silicon are common materials. Some of these
the AC into DC, provides better performance than the detectors sense position as well as energy. They have a
commutator or earlier, dynamo. Similarly, diodes are nite life, especially when detecting heavy particles, bealso used in CockcroftWalton voltage multipliers to con- cause of radiation damage. Silicon and germanium are
vert AC into higher DC voltages.
quite dierent in their ability to convert gamma rays to
electron showers.

8.3

Over-voltage protection

Semiconductor detectors for high-energy particles are

used in large numbers. Because of energy loss uctuaDiodes are frequently used to conduct damaging high tions, accurate measurement of the energy deposited is
voltages away from sensitive electronic devices. They of less use.

12

8.6

11

Temperature measurements

REFERENCES

8.9 Clamper

A diode can be used as a temperature measuring device, Main article: Clamper (electronics)
since the forward voltage drop across the diode depends A diode clamp circuit can take a periodic alternating curon temperature, as in a silicon bandgap temperature sensor. From the Shockley ideal diode equation given above,
it might appear that the voltage has a positive temperature
coecient (at a constant current), but usually the variation of the reverse saturation current term is more signicant than the variation in the thermal voltage term.
Most diodes therefore have a negative temperature coefcient, typically 2 mV/C for silicon diodes. The temperature coecient is approximately constant for temperatures above about 20 kelvins. Some graphs are given
for 1N400x series,[34] and CY7 cryogenic temperature
sensor.[35]

8.7

Current steering

Diodes will prevent currents in unintended directions. To

supply power to an electrical circuit during a power failure, the circuit can draw current from a battery. An
uninterruptible power supply may use diodes in this way
to ensure that current is only drawn from the battery when
necessary. Likewise, small boats typically have two circuits each with their own battery/batteries: one used for
engine starting; one used for domestics. Normally, both
are charged from a single alternator, and a heavy-duty
split-charge diode is used to prevent the higher-charge
battery (typically the engine battery) from discharging
through the lower-charge battery when the alternator is
not running.
Diodes are also used in electronic musical keyboards. To
reduce the amount of wiring needed in electronic musical keyboards, these instruments often use keyboard matrix circuits. The keyboard controller scans the rows and
columns to determine which note the player has pressed.
The problem with matrix circuits is that, when several
notes are pressed at once, the current can ow backwards
through the circuit and trigger "phantom keys" that cause
ghost notes to play. To avoid triggering unwanted notes,
most keyboard matrix circuits have diodes soldered with
the switch under each key of the musical keyboard. The
same principle is also used for the switch matrix in solidstate pinball machines.

This simple diode clamp will clamp the negative peaks of the incoming waveform to the common rail voltage

rent signal that oscillates between positive and negative

values, and vertically displace it such that either the positive, or the negative peaks occur at a prescribed level.
The clamper does not restrict the peak-to-peak excursion
of the signal, it moves the whole signal up or down so as
to place the peaks at the reference level.

9 Abbreviations
Diodes are usually referred to as D for diode on PCBs.
Sometimes the abbreviation CR for crystal rectier is
used.[36]

10 See also
Active rectication
Diode modelling
Junction diode
Lambda diode
pn junction
Small-signal model

11 References
8.8

Waveform Clipper

Main article: Clipper (electronics)

[1] Tooley, Mike (2012). Electronic Circuits: Fundamentals

and Applications, 3rd Ed. Routlege. p. 81. ISBN 1-13640731-6.

Diodes can be used to limit the positive or negative excursion of a signal to a prescribed voltage.

[2] Lowe, Doug (2013). Electronics Components: Diodes.

Electronics All-In-One Desk Reference For Dummies. John
Wiley & Sons. Retrieved January 4, 2013.

13

[3] Crecraft, David; Stephen Gergely (2002).

Analog
Electronics: Circuits, Systems and Signal Processing.
Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 110. ISBN 0-7506-5095-8.
[4] Horowitz, Paul; Wineld Hill (1989). The Art of Electronics, 2nd Ed. London: Cambridge University Press. p. 44.
ISBN 0-521-37095-7.
[5] Physical Explanation General Semiconductors. 201005-25. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
[6] The Constituents of Semiconductor Components.
2010-05-25. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
[7] Guthrie, Frederick (October 1873) On a relation between
heat and static electricity, The London, Edinburgh and
Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, 4th
series, 46 : 257266.
[8] 1928 Nobel Lecture: Owen W. Richardson, Thermionic
phenomena and the laws which govern them, December
12, 1929
[9] Edison, Thomas A. Electrical Meter U.S. Patent
307,030 Issue date: Oct 21, 1884
[10] Road to the Transistor.
2008-09-22.

Jmargolin.com.

Retrieved

[24] Classication of components. Digikey.com (2009-0527). Retrieved 2013-12-19.

[25] Component Construction.
2010-08-06.

2010-05-25.

Retrieved

[26] Component Construction. Digikey.com (2009-05-27).

Retrieved 2013-12-19.
[27] Physics and Technology. 2010-05-25. Retrieved 201008-06.
[28] Fast Recovery Epitaxial Diodes (FRED) Characteristics
Applications Examples. (PDF). Retrieved 2013-12-19.
[29] Sze, S. M. (1998) Modern Semiconductor Device Physics,
Wiley Interscience, ISBN 0-471-15237-4
[30] Protecting Low Current Loads in Harsh Electrical Environments. Digikey.com (2009-05-27). Retrieved 201312-19.
[31] About JEDEC. Jedec.org. Retrieved 2008-09-22.

[11] Braun, Ferdinand (1874) Ueber die Stromleitung durch

Schwefelmetalle (On current conduction in metal sulphides), Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 153 : 556563.
[12] Karl Ferdinand Braun. chem.ch.huji.ac.il
[13] Diode. Encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net.
[14] Sarkar, Tapan K. (2006). History of wireless. USA: John
Wiley and Sons. pp. 94, 291308. ISBN 0-471-71814-9.
[15] Pickard, Greenleaf Whittier Means for receiving intelligence communicated by electric waves U.S. Patent
836,531 Issued: August 30, 1906
[16] Choi, Charles Q. (4 April 2016) Worlds Smallest Diode
Is Made of DNA. IEEE Spectrum
[17] Emmino, Nicolette (5 April 2016) The Worlds Smallest
Diode Has Been Developed. IHS Electronics360
[18] Diode reverse recovery in a boost converter. ECEN5817.
ecee.colorado.edu
[19] Elhami Khorasani, A.; Griswold, M.; Alford, T. L.
(2014). Gate-Controlled Reverse Recovery for Characterization of LDMOS Body Diode. IEEE Electron Device
Letters 35 (11): 1079. Bibcode:2014IEDL...35.1079E.
doi:10.1109/LED.2014.2353301.
[20] Inclusion of Switching Loss in the Averaged Equivalent
Circuit Model. ECEN5797. ecee.colorado.edu
[21] Current regulator diodes.
Retrieved 2013-12-19.

[23] Dowdey, J. E.; Travis, C. M. (1964). An Analysis of Steady-State Nuclear Radiation Damage of
Tunnel Diodes. IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science 11 (5): 55.
Bibcode:1964ITNS...11...55D.
doi:10.1109/TNS2.1964.4315475.

Digikey.com (2009-05-27).

[22] Jonscher, A. K. (1961). The physics of the tunnel

diode. British Journal of Applied Physics 12 (12):
654. Bibcode:1961BJAP...12..654J. doi:10.1088/05083443/12/12/304.

[32] Introduction dates of common transistors and diodes?".

EDAboard.com. 2010-06-10. Archived from the original
on October 11, 2007. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
[33] I.D.E.A. Transistor Museum Construction Projects Point
Contact Germanium Western Electric Vintage Historic
Semiconductors Photos Alloy Junction Oral History.
Semiconductormuseum.com. Retrieved 2008-09-22.
[34] 1N400x Diode Family Forward Voltage. Cliftonlaboratories.com. Retrieved 2013-12-19.
[35] Cryogenic Temperature Sensors. omega.com
[36] John Ambrose Fleming (1919). The Principles of Electric Wave Telegraphy and Telephony. London: Longmans,
Green. p. 550.

12 External links
Diodes and Rectiers Chapter on All About Circuits
Structure and Functional Behavior of PIN Diodes
PowerGuru
Interactive and animations
Interactive Explanation of Semiconductor Diode,
University of Cambridge
Schottky Diode Flash Tutorial Animation
Datasheets

14
Discrete Databook (Historical 1978), National
Semiconductor (now Texas Instruments)
Discrete Databook (Historical 1982), SGS (now
STMicroelectronics)
Discrete Databook (Historical 1985), Fairchild

12

EXTERNAL LINKS

15

13
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13.3

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