DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS
AND
METROLOGY LABORATORY MANUAL
( 10 MEL 37 B / 47 B)
(Document No. SCE/ME/LM/MMM-02/2013)

Prepared by :
P.RAGHUTHAMA RAO
Asst.Prof. Gr2
Department of Mechanical Engineering
BANGALORE

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS & METROLOGY LAB
MANUAL
(Document No. SCE/ME/LM/MMM-02/2013 as per VTU syllabus 10MEL37B/47B)

Prepared by :
P.RAGHUTHAMA RAO
Asst.Prof. Gr2, Department of Mechanical Engineering

TABLE OF CONTENTS
S.NO.
1
2
3

DESCRIPTION
VTU syllabus of Mechanical Measurements & Metrology Laboratory
List of Equipments in MMM Laboratory
Introduction to experiments of MMM Laboratory

I PART A MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11.1
11.2
11.3
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19

Calibration of Pressure gauge

Calibration of Thermocouple
Calibration of Linearly Variable Differential Transformer(LVDT)
Calibration of load cell
Determination of Modulus of Elasticity of a Mildsteel specimen using strain
gauges

II PART B METROLOGY
Measurements using optical(Profile) Projector
Measurements of angle using Bevel Protractor
Measurements of angle using Sine bar
Measurements of angle using Sine centre
Measurements using Roller set
Measurement of cutting tool forces using (a) Lathe tool dynamometer and
(b) Drill tool Dynamameter
Measurement of Screw thread parameters using 2wire/3wire method
Measurements using Mechanical Comparator
Measurement of gear tooth Profile using GeartoothMicrometer/Vernier caliper
Calibration of Micrometer using Slipgauges
Measurement using Optical flats
Viva-Voce Question bank

PAGE
NO.
1
2
3
4
5
8
11
14
16
21
22
25
27
30
32
35
35
39
42
44
48
51
54

1
MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AND METROLOGY LABORATORY
VTU SYLLABUS
Subject Code : 10MEL37B / 47B

IA Marks : 25

Hours/Week : 03

Exam Hours : 03

Total Hours : 48

Exam Marks : 50

PART-A: MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS

1. Calibration of Pressure Gauge
2. Calibration of Thermocouple
3. Calibration of LVDT
4. Calibration of Load cell
5. Determination of modulus of elasticity of a mild steel specimen using strain gauges.

PART-B: METROLOGY
1. Measurements using Optical Projector / Toolmaker Microscope.
2. Measurement of angle using Sine Center / Sine bar / bevel protractor
3. Measurement of alignment using Autocollimator / Roller set
4. Measurement of cutting tool forces using
a) Lathe tool Dynamometer

b) Drill tool Dynamometer.

5. Measurement of Screw thread Parameters using Two wire or Three-wire method.

6. Measurements of Surface roughness, Using Tally Surf/Mechanical Comparator
7. Measurement of gear tooth profile using gear tooth vernier /Gear tooth micrometer
8. Calibration of Micrometer using slip gauges
9. Measurement using Optical Flats
Scheme of Examination:
ONE question from part -A: 20 Marks
ONE question from part -B: 20 Marks
Viva -Voice: 10 Marks
Total : 50 Marks

LIST OF EQUIPMENTS & INSTRUMENTS IN MMM LABORATORY, SCE

1.Granite Surface plates (2 nos.) of sizes 1 metre x 1 metre & 400mm x 400mm
2.Micrometer Mitutoyo make ranges 0 to 25mm & 25 to 50 mm with base stand(one no.digital 0-25mm(0.001)
3.Vernier caliper (2 nos.) both Mitutoyo make 0 to 150 mm range (1no. digital)
4.Geartooth vernier caliper & 0 to 100 mm range horizontal scale & 0-80mm vertical scale( s.no.n1-26)
5.Gertooth Micrometer(Flanged anvil) Mitutoyo make and 0 to 25 mm range(0.01)
6.Slip gauge set Yamayo make- M-87 as per DIN 861(1.001 to 100mm) with 2 protectoe slips.
7.Bevel Protractor Mitutoyo make (5 min. accuracy)
8.Sinebar 200 mm size supremo make
9.Sine centre 200 mm size supremo make
10. Ground,polished Rollers of sizes 3mm to 10mm(in steps of 1 mm & each size3 nos.) & I no. 2mm roller
11.Dial Test Indicator(DTI) Mitutoyo(2nos.), range 0 to 10mm(0.010) & base stand 1no. Digital-12.7mm(0.001)
12.Optical flats : 1 no. specimen convex & 1 no. optical flat
13. Monochromatic light source(Wave length : )
14.Bourdon Pressure gauge(Kamc make) range 0 to 14 Kg/cm2 mounted on compressor unit.
15.Pressure Transducer 1 no.
16.Load cell unit range 0 to 10Kg(0. 1kg )(M/s Contech. )
17. Mechanical Measurement unit for calibration of thermocouple (stainless steel container with water heating
& provisions for mounting (i) thermocouple(ii)RTD (iii) thermometer ) & digital readout. (M/s Contech.
Microsystems)
18.Mechanical Measurement unit for measuring E value of M.S. (A cantilever strip with loading provision,
Strain gauges mounted & connected to measurement system with digital readout)(M/s Contech.)
19.Air compressor unit of make M/s METRO of 1 H.P. & 650 rpm with provisions for calibration of Pressure
gauge & mounted with PressureTransducer
20.LVDT Measurement system mounted with Micrometer(Mitutoyo).(M/s Contech.)
21.Profile Projector unit (with a 300mm circular angular scale & 2 micrometers(Mitutoyo))(M/sBombay Tools
supplying agency.)
22.Drill tool dynamometer unit with digital readout system (M/s Contech.)
23.Lathe tool dynamometer unit with digital readout system.(M/s Contech.)
24. Wire set (for 2/3 wire method) of sizes : 0.17; 0.195; 0.22; 0.25; 0.29; 0.335; 0.390; 0.455; 0.530; 0.620;
0.725; 0.895; 1.100; 1.350; 1.650; 2.050 ( 3 nos. of wires for each size)
25.Thread plug gauges M11x1.5-6H & M7x6H 1 no. each
26.Magnetic v block- 1 no.
27.Magnetic stand for DTI Jafuji make- 1 no.
28.Tapered cones- 6 nos.& angle specimens(plates)- 2 nos.
29. Rigid base & stand for dial test indicator (comparator)
30. Bore gauge 0 to 34 mm range with DTI (0.01mm

INTRODUCTION TO EXPERIMENTS OF MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS & METROLOGY LABORATORY

Quality control & Inspection methods are very important steps in the realization of quality products
for any system realized by Industrial organization or research establishment. Success or failure of a system,
product depends primarily on the Quality control & inspection methodology adopted. Reliable & accurate
Measurements of dimensions & parameters form basis of Inspection & quality control . The basics of
CALIBRATION is introduced.Measurements can broadly be categorized as (a) Linear & Angular measurements
such as length,diameter,thickness etc.
(b) Mechanical parameters such as force,pressure,stress,strain,temperature etc.

I METROLOGY / DIMENSIONAL MEASUREMENTS :

Metrology is the science & technique of measurements.Dimensions can be Linear or
Angular.Compared to Mechanical measurements of parameters , Dimensional measurements are direct
measurements using Precision & accurate Instruments of Metrology. A mechanical Engineer is responsible for
guaranteeing quality of product supplied either for an industry or for research.
One part of MMM lab. Experiments are meant for imparting practical knowledge & some basic skills
in handling Measuring Instruments , taking accurate measurements,understanding the advantages,limitations of
standard set of metrology Instruments such as : Micrometer,Vernier caliper,BevelProtractor,Sinebar,Sine
Centre,Slipgauge set; & special instruments like :
(a)Geartooth Micrometer & calipers & Dial Test Indicator,Profile Projector & Tool makers microscope
for 2/3 wire methods for thread measurements
(b)Auto collimator for angular & other alignments of systems/assemblies,
(c) Tally surf for surface roughness inspections .
(d) Optical flats for flatness & contour measurements

II MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS ;
Another part of MMM lab. Experiments tries to impart basic knowledge of measurements of
mechanical parameters viz Force, Pressure,Torque,Stress,Strain,linear dimension,temperature,Youngs Modulus.
These are indirect methods of measurement & the principles behind these measurements are enumerated.
Transducers for linear,force,pressure,temperature,stress,torque used in different experiments gives direct
knowledge of conversion of mechanical parameters into electrical signals, its amplification,modifications,&
finally to measurable signals by digital display devices such as oscilloscope,digital meters etc.

PART -- A
MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS

5
1.0 CALIBRATION OF PRESSURE GAUGE

1.0 AIM : To calibrate Pressure Gauge with reference to pressure transducer.

2.0 APPARATUS:
Pressure Gauge , Pressure Transducer(calibrated), air compressor unit

3.0 THEORY :
Pressure is force exerted per unit area and is measured in N/m2 =Pascal in SI units; atmospheric pressure is
1bar=760mm of Hg=1.013Kg/cm2. Pressure is measured by several methods such as Bourdon pressure gauge,
Pressure transducers, manometer, pirani gauge, penning gauge, dead weight tester etc.

Bourdon pressure gauge is fully mechanical device which is an elastic pressure transducer. C-type bourdon type
pressure gauge inner mechanism is indicated in the sketch above.
It consists of an elliptical cross sectional tube (Bourdon tube) bent into a circular shape and the end of the tube is
closed and connected to a lever, toothed sector, pinion & linkage. The other end of the tube is assembled to a
threaded adopter for entry of air under pressure. As the air at high pressure enters the C tube it exerts a force on
the circularly bent tube and tries to straighten the tube but due to constraint of lever and other linkages, it translates

6
into linear, angular and rotational motion and ultimately rotates a pointer with magnification on a circular scale
which is calibrated for a pressure.
This pressure gauge is a transducer which converts pressure energy in to mechanical energy, that is, an angular
linear motion using elastic transducing property; the uncertainty of measurement is 0.5% for a pressure gauge.

Pressure transducer is another transducer where an elastic membrane converts pressure energy into an electrical
signal with the help of strain gauges bonded onto mem,brane & by using elastic transuding property.
It consists of a thin membrane in a housing of stainless steel,or phosphor bronze or beryllium- copper.

One side of the membrane is subject to the pressure p and on the other side of membrane strain gauge R t is bonded
and the 3 strain gauges R1,R2,R3 along with Rt form a balanced wheatstone bridge circuit which is powered by
external battery voltage Vin. Without pressure p all the strain gauge resistances are balanced. When the pressure is
applied the membrane deflects and thus cause strain in the strain gauge R t which cause change in the resistance.
This changes in strains cause imbalance of the wheatstone bridge. This unbalance can be measured as a voltage
output by the galvanometer as Vout in milli volts. This output of galvanometer can be amplified & measured as
electrical signal & also can be calibrated in terms of pressure applied as it is a function of pressure. The
uncertainty of the measurement of a pressure transducer is 0.25% or much better.
4.0 EXPERIMENTAL SET UP : (Assumed Pressure transducer is calibrated)
It consists of an air compressor unit with air storage reservoir mounted with an outlet pipe with exhaust valve.The
Exit pipe line is fitted with a Pressure transducer & A Bourdon Pressure gauge as shown in the sketch below:

5.0 PROCEDURE :
1) Empty the air in the air compressor fully so that pressure is zero.
2) Connect the pressure transducer cable to the digital instrument. After warm up, adjust the digital reading to
zero if not showing zero already. Pressure gauge also should show zero.
3) Close the outlet valve of the compressor and start the compressor and the pressure increases continuously.
4) After compressor reaches maximum pressure, switch off the compressor and allow the digital reading to
stabilize.
5) Read the stabilized pressure gauge reading which reads in bar/Kg/cm2 and convert this into N/m2 units say
it is P1. Both pressure transducer and pressure gauges give gauge pressures only. (For absolute pressure
atmospheric pressures have to be added to pressure gauge readings)
6) By opening the exhaust valve of compressor reduce the pressure in steps of 1Kg/cm2. With respect to
transducer digital meter readings for every step, note down the pressure gauge readings.
7) After reaching 1Kg/cm2 start the compressor so that pressure starts building up & again the readings of
Pressure gauge w.r.t. Pr. Transducer digital instrument to be noted down while pressure is ascending and
final reading at highest pressure may be taken.
8) Calculate the error of pressure gauge readings w.r.t the pressure transducer readings & also % errors.
9) Plot a graph of pressure gauge reading Vs % error both during ascent & descent of pressures.

s.no.

Pressure
Gauge
Readings
Pg (2) bar

Pressure
transducer
reading Pt (1) bar

Difference in
the readings Pt
Pt (1)- Pg (2)
bar

% of error of Pg
reading
= Pt(1)-Pg(2) x 100
Pt(1)

6.0 OBSERVATIONS,RESULTS & DISCUSSION:

Record the data of measurements in table shown above. Make your own observations about the two instruments
and record them.

2.0 CALIBRATION OF THERMOCOUPLE

1.0 AIM: To calibrate the given thermocouple using RTD & thermometer as refence for calibration.
2.0 APPARATUS: RTD(Resistance Temperature Detector), thermocouple,test setup for heating water,setup for
positioning RTD&thermocouple inside the hot water bath,digital indicators,power supply,thermometer.

3.0 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:

4.0 THEORY :
Thermocouple: Two dissimilar metals when joined into two junctions & if both the junctions are kept at
different temperatures then an e.m.f. will be produced across the junction & the current would flow in the
circuit if the loop is closed.The phenomenon is called seebeck effect.
The dissimilar metal loop is called as Thermocouple.The higher temperature junction is called hot junction
& the other one as cold junction

A thermocouple can be used to measure an unknown temperature by maintaining one junction at a

known temperature & 2nd junction , the unknown temperature & by measuring e.m.f produced .The relation
between emf & temperature is nonlinear.
e.m.f developed =eAB = aAB + bAB T2 ; aAB, bAB are constants.; T = temperature in Celsius
The thermocouple materials are (i) Rare earth materials: Platinum;Rhodium;Iridium;Rhenium etc.
(ii) Base metals : copper-constantan;Iron-constantan;Chromel-Alumel;
Chromel-constantan etc.
Note: Law of Intermediate metals allows introduction of measuring wires & devices without affecting e.m.f.
generated.
RTD: Resistance temperature detector: Electrical resistance of a conductor increases with increase of
temperature.The relation of resistance Vs temperature is non linear as given by equation:
RT = R0 ( 1+AT+BT2) where A,B are constants & T is temperature
Normally the change of resistance is measured thro a wheatstone bridge circuit in which RTD forms one of
the resistances which is a balanced circuit.When temperature changes RTD resistance changes & the bridge is
un balanced & the unbalance is measured as e.m.f. thro the potentiometer & is calibrated.The
potentiometer can be calibrated to measure temperature directly.This is the principle of RTD measurements.
Materials of RTD are : Platinum,Copper,or Nickel.
INSIDE CROSS SECTIONAL VIEW OF RTD

Calibration: In this experiment a calibrated RTD is taken as reference & however it is recalibrated at two
temperatures namely boiling point of water & room temperature(otherwise ice temperature also can be
taken) & further RTD readings are taken as reference & the thermocouple readings are taken & compared
with RTD & errors are computed.

5.0 PROCEDURE OF CALIBRATION OF THERMOCOUPLE :

5.1 Fill the container with water to 3/4 level
5.2 Connect digital indicator instrument to the mains.(230 V,50Hz AC)
5.3 Allow it to warmup & adjust zero reading by zero knob without connecting any thermocouple.
5.4 Select one of the thermocouples say J type (iron-constantan) or K type (Chromel-constantan) or T
type(copper-constantan) & connect it as per colour code.
10

5.5 Keep the thermocouple & RTD probes into the water of bath & allow it to acquire the water
temperature & allow it to stabilize.
5.6 Using zero knob adjust the thermocouple temperature to the same value indicated by RTD for room
temperature(water temp.)
5.7 Heat the water by switching on the heater power supply & raise the temperature of water to boiling
point.
5.8 Change the function knob to cal. Position & at boiling point temp. (100 or 95 or whatever is the.
indicated by RTD) & adjust with cal. Knob thermocouple temp. to the same temp. indicated by RTD.
5.9 With this thermocouple is calibrated at room temp. & boiling temp.(keeping RTD as Ref.)
5.10 Switch off heating & remove both RTD & thermocouple probes from hot water bath/container &
place them in air or cool water ensuring both probes are separated.
5.11 As both probes cool down notedown temp. of thermocouple probe with respect to RTD temp. for
every 50C till it reaches room temp.These values are recorded in descending table.
5.12 After reaching RT keep both probes into hot water container & switch on heater & notedown
thermocouple & RTD readings while ascending in steps of 50C till boiling point.
5.13 Calculate errors indicated by thermocouple temperatures w.r.t. RTD as reference & calculate
percentage errors w.r.t. RTD both for ascending & descending order .
5.14 Plot RTD temp. Vs % error of thermocouple for both ascending & descending orders of
temperatures.
TABULATION OF OBSERVATIONS
s.no Type of
thermocouple

1
2
3

RTD temp.
T1 c

Thermocouple
Readings
Ascending
Descending
T2
T3

Error
E
T1-T2
Or
T1-T3

%
error

Temp as
Per
thermometer

J-type
K- type
T- type

6.0 RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS:

Make your own observations of experiment,comments & results etc.
Draw the graphs of (i) RTD Temperature vs Thermocouple reading & (ii) RTD Temp. vs % error in
thermocouple reading.

11
3.0 CALIBRATION OF LVDT (Linearly variable Differentional Transformer)

1. AIM:
To measure the LV D T output readings with respect to the micrometer linear movements & determine errors of
LVDT with respect to the micrometer readings.

2. APPARATUS /EQUIPMENT:
LVDT Cell with micrometer. Sketch & images are as shown.

3.0 THEORY: Linearly variable differential transformer is a transducer which transduces linear

displacement into
electrical signal and consists of hollow transformer(cylindrical) with hollow core. The main winding is at the center of
the hollow cylinder while the secondary coils are at the ends, one secondary winding is in the opposite direction to the
other winding ;hence when e.m.f is induced they oppose each other & hence cancel. The hollow core is filled with a solid
core cylinder which is a part of a micrometer that is extension of spindle. The movement or rotation of the thimble of
micrometer makes the solid core move in and out of the hollow core of the transformer.

The main coil of the transformer is excited by AC which generates e.m.f in secondary coils by mutural induction, but as the
coils are wound in opposing direction they cancel each other and when core is at the center exactly, the secondary output
is zero and this is called null position. When the core is moved on either side of the null position, it gives an output which
keeps on increasing on either side of null position of the core. It reaches a maximum and reduces as shown in sketch.Upto
some range of movement of the core the output is linear on either side ofnull position of the core.The movement of the
core can be accurately read by the micrometer reading. The output of secondary coils can be directly calibrated in terms of
linear movement of the core.
This transducer calibration involves comparison of the linear movement of the micrometer with the output of LVDT and
estimating the errors and deviations. This transducer has the intermediate and terminating devices such as signal
conditioner,amplifier ,A/D converter & digital meter where output data is converted in to digital by AD converter and
finally displayed by seven segmented LED.(Light Emitting Diode.)

12

4.0

PROCEDURE:

1) Switch on the digital instrument by connecting to the single phase AC 230v,50Hz mains and adjust reading to
zero
2) Connect the LVDT output to the digital instrument and allow to warm up and stabilize. After stabilization check
the digital reading and move the micrometer thimble till such position so as to get zero reading on the
instrument. This is the null position of LVDT. When LVDT reading is zero note down the micrometer reading.
3) Move the micrometer thimble such that the micrometer reading is increased by 1 mm and at this position note
down the LVDT reading.
4) Further move the micrometer reading so as to get 2mm above null reading in the micrometer and at this position
note down the LVDT reading.
5) Repeat movement of micrometer in steps of 1 mm up to 10mm above null readings and note down LVDT
readings at every 1 mm step.
6) Move the micrometer in reverse direction untill null position is obtained and note down the micrometer reading
at null position.
7) Further continue in the same direction and reduce the micrometer reading by 1 mm from null position and note
down LVDT Reading,
8) Further continue movement of micrometer such that in steps of 1 mm ,the micrometer reading reduced from
null position & note down corresponding LVDT readings.
9) Calculate error & % errors of LVDT readings with respect to reference of micrometer readings.
10)The null position readings of micrometer taken at center of graph & either side of null position. micrometer
readings Vs LVDT readings are plotted on graph.

Plot the following graphs :

(a) Micrometer reading from both sides of null position Vs errors
(b) Micrometer reading from both sides of null position and percentage errors
Observations may be recorded as follows in tabular column:
L.C. of micrometer =
L.C. of L.V D.T =
S.No
Actual micrometer
LVDT Digital
Error
reading
output reading
(a-b)
a
b

Percentage error
=(a-b)x100
a

5.0 OBSERVATIONS, RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS:

Make your observations about the behavior,calibration,easiness etc. of LVDT

13

14

4.0 CALIBRATION OF LOAD CELL

1.0 AIM OF EXPERIMENT :
To calibrate the Loadcell measuring device using deadweights.
2.0 EQUIPMENTS/ APPARATUS:

Loadcell & deadweights

3.0 THEORY :
Loadcell is a Mechanical devise & a Transducer which transforms mechanical parameter(Force) into
electrical signals.It consists of an elastic member such as metal cylinder which undergoes strain when force is
applied on it & resultant strain is measured by strain gauges mounted on the faces of cylinder.The strains
induced in the strain gauges is measured by a wheatstone bridge circuit & when properly calibrated can
directly indicate the force applied on the cylinder. A Loadcell unit is as shown above & the sketch shows how
strain gauges are mounted.
4 strain gauges are used for compensations of transverse strains & temperature effects.An external power
supply gives the voltage for excitation of the wheatstone bridge.

15
4.0 PROCEDURE :
4.1 The electrical power to loadcell unit is switched on & allowed to warm up.
4.2 With no load kept on the load cell , the digital display reading is adjusted to zero reading if it does not
read zero with no load.
4.3 A 1 Kg deadweight is kept on the loadcell & digital reading is noted & the weights are continuously
increased in steps of 1 Kg & cumulatively upto 10 Kg. For every dead weight kept on loadcell, the load
cell readings are noted in a tabular column as shown below.
4.4 The above experiment is done for descending order of weights kept on the loadcell.
4.5 The difference in reading of loadcell & deadweights are recorded.
4.6 The % error of load cell readings are calculated with respect to (w.r.t.) dead weights as reference

TABULATION OF OBSERVATIONS
s.no. Dead weight W Kg Loadcell digital reading P Kg Error = (W-P) Kg Percentage Error

5.0 OBSERVATIONS, RESULTS & DISCUSSION:

Make your own observations of instruments,procedure,accuracies etc. in the experiment.
Plot a graph of dead weight readings vs error and % error of load cell readings.

16
6.0 DETERMINATION OF MODULUS OF ELASTICITY BY STRAIN GAUGE METHOD
1.0 AIM:
To determine the modulus of elasticity of the given material by measuring bending stress & direct strain
measurement on a beam(cantilever)
2.0
APPARATUS:
Measurement setup consisting of :Cantilever beam with strain gauges bonded,loading arrangement ,
instrument box with wheatstone bridge & strain measurements.
3.0
THEORY :
3.1
The strain gauges are thin foil or wire wound in a particular fashion so that they will be strained or
stretched in one direction predominantly & the strain or stretching & compression in the other direction which
are very small & negligible.Most common materials used for strain gauges are copper,nickel& iron.The wire after
forming as a gauge are enclosed between two thin paper sheets or epoxy material & these are to be bonded by a
bonding material such as Duco cement etc.
These gauges are highly sensitive to strains,stretch & when strained their resistance change appreciably.This
change in resistance is used as a measure of strain.Since the strain gauge is well bonded with the base . As the
base is strained the strain gauge also faithfully strained to the same extent as it is rigidly bonded with the base
material on which it ismounted.

3.2:Measurement of strain:Strain gauges are bonded in a wheatstone bridge circuit with either one,or two or
three or four active strain gauges. Remaining strain gauges are part of the bridge but not active (not mounted on
the beam) that is they are not subject to strain.They are used to compensate for axial strains or temperature
effects/compensation.The details are as shown in the sketches below:

17

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE: When balanced, R1/R2 = Ra/Rb

TYPICAL STRAINGAUGE

18

4.0 EXPERIMENTAL SET UP : It consists of a thin rectangular M.S. flat rigidly fixed at one end & with a
provision for suspending weight at the other end of the flat as shown in the sketch below :On the flat 4
strain gauges are mounted R1,R2,R3,R4 which are in turn connected in a wheatstone bridge & powered
by an exciting voltage E.The output of the bridge is connected to an electronic unit consisting of an
amplifier,A/D converter & a digital display unit.

19
5.0 PROCEDURE:
5.1 Switch on the digital indicator instrument box by connecting to main supply.(230V,50Hz)
5.2 Connect the sensor wires to the instrument box as per colour coding.Short the yellow to blue wire
on the sensor/beam connections.
5.3 Full bridge: (i=4)
Turn the selector arm knob switch to 4 on instrument box.Allow the instrument to warm up.
5.4 Turn the selector switch to G.F. & check the display.If it shows 500 it is o.k. if not adjust with GF
knob to 500.
5.5 Turn the selector switch to zero and set it to zero using zero knob.
5.6 Turn the selector switch to CAL. And change the display to 1000 using cal. Knob (if it shows 1000
leave it)
5.7 Turn the selector switch to zero & check the display & if found zero leave it if not adjust it to zero
using zero knob.
5.8 Turn the selector switch to CAL. & check whether it reads 1000, if not adjust it using CAL. Knob to
1000.
5.9 Repeat this 3 to 4 times & ensure zero in zero---------------.Knob position & if any drift
noticed,adjust it each time.
Now place 100 gm. Weight on the pan & notedown the strain gauge readings in micro strains.Place
weights in steps of 100gms. & load upto 1000gms. & for each 100gm. Step take the straingauge
readings & tabulate as shown.Remove all weights.
5.10
HALF BRIDGE:
Change the selector position to 2.Remove the shorted yellow withblue from sensor beam and yellow
wire from instrument box.
5.10.1 The instrument should automatically read zero but if found different from zero adjust
with zero knob to zero and check in CAL. Position it should automatically read 1000 &
if not readjust using CAL. Knob to 1000.Repeat this checking and adjusting if needed 34 times so that zero in zero position and 1000 in CAL. Position.Once stabilized put
selector switch to zero position.
5.10.2 Now place 100gm. Weight on the pan and note the strain reading.Take strain readings
for every 100gm. And upto 1000 gms. Remove all the weights.
5.11 QUARTER BRIDGE:
Remove black pin connection on instrument box.Change the selector switch position to position1
Instrument should automatically read zero in zero position, if not make zero using zero knob and then
in CAL. Position instrument should read 1000.If not using CAL. Knob adjust it to 1000and repeat this
2-3 times to ensure zero in zero position.
Finally put in zero position.Place 100gm.weight and note down strain reading.
Place in steps of 100gm. On the pan and upto 1000gmand note the strain readings and tabulate.
Measure the length between pan bolt centre and the strain gauge position on the beam as distance
L
Measure the width & thickness of the cantilever beam using vernier caliper b & h

5.12 Tabulate the observations as given below:

s.no.

Load
Strain Reading Measured strain
Theoretical stress
E= b/ m
-6
2
2
Kg Newton
ex10 = m
b = 6WL/(bh ) N/mm
i
i=4 for full bridge
i=2 for half bridge
i=1 for quarter bridge

1
2
5.13 Standard value of Elastic modulus E= ----------(2x105 N/mm2 for M.S.)
5.14 Compare the calculated values of E with the standard value of material of the beam(M.S.) &
record the deviations.
6.0 OBSERVATIONS & DISCUSSIONS:
Make your own observations about the experiment & the results & record them in Record book.

20

21

PARTB
METROLOGY

22

6.0 MEASUREMENTS OF SCREW THREAD PARAMETERS BY PROFILE PROJECTOR

1.0 AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT :
To measure & determine screw thread parameters viz (namely) major diameter;minor
diameter;pitch;thread angle & helix angle
2.0 EQUIPMENT,INSTRUMENT :
Profile Projector fitted with 2 micrometers and circular angular scale

3.0 TEST SPECIMENS :

Thread gauges(M-7;M-11) & a commercial bolt.
4.0 THEORY :

A thread may be either right-hand or left-hand. A right-hand thread on an external member advances into an
internal thread when turned clockwise; a left-hand thread advances when turned counterclockwise. If a single
helical groove is cut or formed on a cylinder, it is called a single-thread screw. Should the helix angle be increased
sufficiently for a second thread to be cut between the grooves of the first thread, a double thread will be formed on
the screw. Double, triple, and even quadruple threads are used whenever a rapid advance is desired, as on valves.
Helix angle on a straight thread is the angle made by the helix of the thread at the pitch line with the axis of
thread.The angle is measured in axial plane & Helix Angle = p/d (d=pitch dia.). It changes at each diameter;
lowest at major diameter,;highest at minor diameter & it is hence defined at pitch diameter or effective diameter.

23
Pitch and major diameter designate a thread. Lead is the distance advanced parallel to the axis when the screw is
turned one revolution. For a single thread, lead is equal to the pitch; for a double thread, lead is twice the pitch. For
a straight thread, the pitch diameter is the diameter of an imaginary coaxial cylinder that would cut the thread
forms at a height where the width of the thread and groove would be equal.
Pitch can also be defined as : Distance measured parallel to the thread axis between corresponding points on
adjacent thread forms in the same axial plane & on same side of axis.
Thread forms have been developed to satisfy particular requirements. Where strength is required for the
transmission of power and motion, a thread having faces that are more nearly perpendicular to the axis is preferred.
These threads, with their strong thread sections, transmit power nearly parallel to the axis of the screw. Square
threads used in screwjack is a power thread

.
The standards of Metric threads are : ISO 4032-- 1986 & IS 1364 - 1992
5.0 PROCEDURE :
5.1 Read & calculate & record Least counts of both micrometers of profile projector.
5.2 Read & record Leastcount of angular circular scale of profile projector
5.3 Place the threaded specimen at the centre of the table aligned properly.Switch on power supply
5.4 Reposition job properly aligned so as to get major dia. parallel to movement of micrometer &
magnified image of the screw threads sharply.
5.5 Rotate the circular scale knob & align the horizontal lines of projector with the tips of screw
threads as shown below on both top & bottom :
5.6 First align the projector line with top edges of all threads(1) by micrometer thimble & then note
down the micrometer reading , the intial reading for major diameter(R1)

24
5.7 Next align the projector line by micrometer -1 thimble with bottom edges of threads(2) & note
down reading of micrometer which is intial reading of minor diameter in micrometer-1(R2)
5.8 Next align the projector line with 2nd minor diameter edges(3) of screw threads by micrometer-1
thimble & note down the micrometer-1 reading, this being final reading for minor diameter(R3)
5.9 Next align the bottom most line of screw threads (4) of major diameter by using thimble of
micrometer-1 for the final reading (R4)
5.10
Rotate circular scale to match the vertical line with the centre of V- threads.at top major
diameter as at (5); use micrometer-2 thimble & adjusrt finally to coincide this vertical line with
centre of V threads.Note down the intial reading for pitch p1 on micrometer-2.
5.11
Then move the vertical line of projector to centre line of next thread (6) & note down final
reading of pitch p2.
5.12
Take these pitch readings at two threads on top & two threads bottom,threads.Calculate
average pitch.
5.13
Calculate the Major Dia. = R1-R4; Minor Dia. = R2-R3; Pitch (Av.) = p1-p2;
5.14
Then rotate circular scale & align the projector line with one line (8) of thread & note
down circular scale l reading Q1.
5.15
Rotate circular scale to align with 2nd side of thread(9) & note down the circular scale
reading Q2.
5.16
Calculate thread angle = Q1-Q2 degrees
5.17
Calculate tangent of Helix angle(Av.) = Average Pitch/(d Average ) or
Helix Angle = tan -1 (pmean/(dmean)
5.18
Calculate Depth of threads = (Major Dia.-Minor Dia.)/2
6.0 OBSERVATIONS,RESULTS & CONCLUSIONS :
Record all observations in the table indicated.Make your own observation of the
procedure,instrument,accuracy,easiness etc.
TABULATION OF OBSERVATIONS BY PROFILE PROJECTOR
READINGS OF PARAMETER
MAJOR DIAMETER(INTIAL)R1
MAJOR DIAMETER(FINAL)R2
MINOR DIAMETER(INTIAL)R3
MINOR DIAMETER(FINAL)R4
PITCH MEASUREMENTS(Q1,Q2)
1
2
3
4
5
6
AVERAGE
ANGLE MEASUREMENTS
1
2
3
4
AVERAGE

SPECIMEN -1 SPECMEN 2 SPECIMEN 3

25
7.1 MEASUREMENTS OF ANGLES USING BEVEL PROTRACTOR
1.0 AIM:
To measure the angles of the given specimens using vernier Bevel Protractor.

2.0 INSTRUMENTS/EQUIPMENTS USED:

Bevel Protractor,surface table,v-block

VERNIER BEVEL PROTRACTOR WITH MAGNIFYING GLASS

3.0 THEORY:
Bevel protractor is an instrument used for measurement of angles accurately.The mechanical,optical vernier
bevel protractors have vernier scale & magnifying device.It has a detachable blade(available in 150,200,300
mm lengths) which can be fixed to the outer main circular scale & base /stock.The body has main circular
scale divided into 4 quarter segments of 0 to 90 degrees .The centre turret has vernier scale.The centre
turret can be locked at centre & in this locked condition,the blade can be mechanically moved by a knob on
the turret by a gear mechanism.

The least count on the main scale is I degree & 23 divisions of the main scale is divided into 12 equal divisions
on vernier scale.
The value of 1 division on vernier scale = 23/12 degree= 1 &11/12 DEGREE.But the vernier scale has 60
minutes marked on either side of its zero reading.
L.C. of Bevel protractor = 2 MSD-1 VSD = 2x60-23 x60/12 mts.= 5 Minutes.

26
By proper adjustment & manipulation of blade, all angles can be measured conveniently to an accuracy of 5
minutes.
The instrument is periodically checked with sine bar.Bevel protractors are made as per IS 4239.
4.0 PROCEDURE:
Read the bevel protractor angle markings. Read vernier scale markings & also note the readings on
main scale are not 0degree-360degree but 0degree-90 degree in every quarter segment.
Calculate the least count of vernier scale & main scale & finally calculate Least count of Bevel
protractor.
Fix the blade in the grove correctly which can be varied as per the requirement to measure different
angles.
Place the bevel protractor on the surface plate & coincide the edges of specimen for which angle has
to be measured with the base/stock edge & blade edge of bevel protractor without any gap by
holding it very tight.
Lock the central screw on the turret & note down the main scale & vernier scale readings & calculate
the angles.
Angle measured = Main scale reading + vernier readingx5minutes
Tabulate all the angles to be measured.While recording the final angles ,note the measured angle is
acute or obtuse
Place the specimen in proper orientations on the surface table & then match the edges of the angles
to be measured without any gap.
5.0

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

Tabulate all the measured data.Make your own observation of the procedure,instrument regarding
easiness,accuracy etc. & write them in the record.

Least Count of Bevel Protractor :

Calculation:-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Tabulation of Angle measurements by Bevel protractor
S.NO. SPECIMEN SKETCH OF SPECIMEN

1
1
2
3
4
5

Block-1
Block-2
Block-3
Block-4
Block-5

ANGLES
2

MEASURED
4

27
7.2 MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES USING SINE BAR
1.0 AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT : To measure angles of given specimens using sinebar & verify using
bevel protractor & linear measurements.

2.0 APPARATUS / EQUIPMENT/ INSTRUMENTS sinebar ,Bevel protractor, specimens slipgauge set ; Dial test
Indicator with stand; vernier caliper, surface table;

3.0 THEORY :
Sine bar is a mechanical device by which angular measurements can be made very accurately
specially for acute angles & its uncertainity of measurements increases for angles 45o as the error in angular
measurements is proportional to tan (=angle of measurement).
Principle of sinebar measurement is that sine of an angle is the ratio of opposite side & hypoteneuse
in a right angled triangle.Sinebar is as shown in the sketch.It consists of 2 precision machined rollers assembled
with an accurately machined rectangular bar /prism & cutout is made inside rectangular bar and almost an
integral part. A small plate can be fixed to one end face of sinebar(removable piece)
The distance between the centres of rollers is most accurately maintained & the centre distances are of standard
lengths : 100mm;200mm;300mm. It is made as per IS 5359- 1987
When sinebar is kept inclined & inline with the angle / to be measured without gap , the height of
slip gauge set combination if it is h & sinebar length is l then angle is given by :
Sin / = h/l

or

/ = asin(h/l) = Sin-1 (h/l)

28
Knowing h & l the actual angle can be calculated.There are several methods in which the sinebar
can be used for measurement of angles.The methods are :
(a) lifting the work piece & placing it on top of sinebar or
(b) lifting the sinebar & placing it on workpiece

Depending on the height of the job , slip gauges to be arranged either on one side or both sides which are placed
below the roller of sinebar.
4.0 PROCEDURE :
4.1 Measure & record the L.C. of bevel protractor,DialTest Indicator & vernier caliper.
4.2 Using vernier caliper measure all the dimensions of the specimen & record it.
4.3 Measure the angle of the specimen by bevel protractor & record it.
4.4 Place the sine bar on the job & if job can be accommodated between rollers,build up slip gauges on one side
or both sides & record the heights h1 & h2 (h=h1-h2) .If job cannot be accommodated between rollers, then
place sinebar in reverse position on the job (use end plate to avoid sliding of sinebar) & dial top most points of
rollers by DTI fixed on a stand as shown & let the readings of DTI on top of rollers be h1 & h2 & h=h1-h2
4.5 Place the job above the flat surface of sinebar & insert the slipgauge set H below one of the rollers of the
sine bar.(H can be determined approximately, after having measured distances of sides of job calculate the

29
approximate angle & height of slip gauges needed to make the inclined edge as horizontal = say H. Buildup slip
gauge combination for value H & fix end plate on sinebar)
4.6 Using DTI dial the top surface /edge of the specimen to make horizontal & change the slip gauge set
combination (if needed) to get 0 reading on DTI throughout length as DTI is moved from one end of specimen to
the other end.
4.7After achieving horizontality of top edge record the actual slipgauge set reading/s
4.8 Tabulate all observations & calculations as per table :

TABULATION OF READINGS
Length between roller centres = L = (200mm)
Least count of vernier caliper =
Leastcount of bevel protractor =
Leastcount of DialTest Indicator(DTI) =
TABLE-1
s.no. Specimen type Angle by direct measurements
Angle by Bevel
-1
a
b l
= Sin ((h1-h2)/l) Protractor
1
2

Specimen-1
Specimen-2

TABLE-2
s.no.
Specimen
type
1
2

Method of lifting sinebar

h1
h2 = = Sin-1 ((h1-h2)/l)

Method of lifting workpiece

Approx.ht.
Actual
Angle
h=(a-b)/l x200 Slipgauge
=
Height h Sin-1 h/l

Specimen-1
Specmen-2

5.0 RESULTS & DISCUSSION :

Record your own observations regarding the experiment such as easiness,accuracy,repeatability of
measurements etc. by the 3 methods adopted.

30
7.3 MEASUREMENT OF ANGLE USING SINE CENTRE
1.0 AIM: To measure taper angle of solid conical work(Axi symmetrical 3D specimen) using sine centre
2.0 INSTRUMENT/EQUIPMENT:
sine centre, slip gauge set, dial indicator with stand, Bevel protractor, digital vernier caliper, surface table and
specimen to be measured.

3.0 THEORY:
Sine centre is an angle measuring device for solid tapered specimen. It is a modified version of sine bar as shown.
it is a sine bar with built in supports for two dead centres, whose centre distance can be adjustable for
accommodating specimen of different lengths.
The distance between centres of rollers is fixed and accurately known ( e.g.200.000).
To measure the taper angle of a conical work, one end of roller is raised using wrung slip gauge set as shown and
the angle 2 of conical work can be calculated as follows : = Sin-1(h/L)

4.0 PROCEDURE :
Using digital vernier caliper ,measure the diameters d, D and length L and calculate the angle
tan = (D-d)/2L
Using bevel protractor measure the angle .
Take the dial indicator and note down its least count and take a few readings using standard slip gauges of
say 2mm and 1.1mm.
Place the tapered job in between dead centres of the sine-centre as shown.

31
Fix the dial indicator in the stand with magnetic V-block and using this dial indicator arrangement, measure the
height variation of the job h.Using slip gauge below one of the rollers suitably the taper of the job is made
horizontal as checked by the dial indicator moved over the surface of the tapered specimen.
Measure the total of the slip gauges wrung together and let it be h.
If 2 is the angle of the tapered job given, then sin = h = h for the given sine-centre
L 200
5.0 RESULTS & DISCUSSION :
Record the measured data in table as shown & make your observations of the different instruments used,easiness
of use, their accuracy and record them

Measurements by sine centre of two specimens

Specimen 1 : Rough surface
Specimen 2 : specimen with good surface (morse taper 1)

Sl.No Specimen

Sp-1

MT-3

Angle measured by
direct linear
measurements
tan = (D1-d2)
2L

Angle measured by
Bevel protractor

Angle measured by
sine centre
Sin = (h2-h1)
l

32
8.0 MEASUREMENT OF DIMENSIONS BY ROLLER SET
1.0 AIM:
To measure the Internal Diameter(ID of bore) of the gauge using two accurate hardened & ground roller pins
& slip gauges accurately.

2.0 INSTRUMENTS/EQUIPMENT:
Surface plate,Micrometer/digital vernier caliper,slipgauge set,roller pins.

SLIP GAUGE SET WITH BOX

GROUND, POLISHED, ROLLERS

3.0 THEORY:
The inside diameters can be measured by vernier calipers or by inside micrometer or bore
gauge or inside caliper with micrometer etc.The inside caliper does not give accurate dimension.The inside
micrometer can be used for large size bores . Bore gauges are used for very accurate measurements.Vernier
caliper measurements are not so reliable.
For measurements of internal diameters alternately & accurately the roller set with slipgauge
gives an easier,quick method but for smaller diameters.
This method consists of choosing a biggest roller of accurate dimension for the given bore size
& the balance dimension made up of combination of slip gauges chosen suitably & as shown in sketch.The
final accuracy depends on the feeling of the snug fit.A snug fit is an assembly fit not loose & not tight; the
mating parts assemble with ease but fit is not loose also.Roller pins are ground & polished & are made as per
IS 11108-1984

33

If d1 & d2 are the diameters of rollers & t is the total thickness of the slipgauge set wrung
together, then I.D. = d1+d2+t

4.0 PROCEDURE:
Measure/calculate & note down the least count of micrometer & vernier caliper.
Measure the internal diameter of the gauge using vernier caliper
Note down the standard marked diameter of the gauge as per marking on the gauge
Select suitable biggest diameter of a roller such that (sum of dia of 2 rollers) is less than dia. Of gauge
The method as explained above is ID to be measured =d1+d2+t where t is the thickness of slipgauge
set(wrung together).Hence select suitable slipgauge either one or a combination of 2 or more whose
total thickness is = t. such that ID of bore=d1+d2+t.One has to calculate t=ID-(d1+d2) & with
trial & error exact t can be finally selected so as to get a snug fit of rollers+slipgauge set with the
bore to be measured.
Use the slipgauge always after cleaning with acetone & with lint free clean cloth for proper
bonding of slipgauges.
Wringup slipgauge set finally selected & insert along with 2 selected rollers at ends & slip
gauge in between rollers into the bore to get a snug fit by trial & error by varying smallest
slipgauge in the set.The fit must neither be loose nor tight.
After achieving the correct fit measure the diameters of rollers using micrometer.
Add up the slipgauges wrung(t) & the diameters of both rollers(d1&d2) & calculate the ID of
the bore of the gauge.
Repeat the experiment for all specimens/gauges to be measured.
ID of bore = d1+d2+t mm
5.0 RESULTS & DISCUSSION:
Record the data as per the table.Give your comments of the instruments used for
easiness,accuracy,reliability etc.

34
CALCULATION OF LEAST COUNT OF VERNIER CALIPER: 1 MSD =---------; 1VSD = ---------------L.C. = 1 MSD- 1 VSD =
TABULATION OF MEASUREMENTS :
S.NO SPECIMEN STANDARD/ ID AS
ROLLER
REFERENCE PER
SIZE
GAUGE
VERNIER SELECTED
READING
CALIPER
READING
1
GAUGE-1
2
GAUGE-2
3
BUSH

FINAL
FINAL ID AS
SLIPS
PER ROLLER
SELECTED SET METHOD
FOR SNUG FIT
=d1+d2+t

DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN
GAUGE &
ROLLERSET
READINGS

35

9.0 MEASUREMENTS WITH DRILL TOOL DYNAMAMETER AND LATHE TOOL

DYNAMAMETER

1.0 AIM OF EXPERIMENT : To measure cutting tool forces & torque during
(a) drilling operation on drilling machine
(b) turning & facing on a lathe machine

LATHE TOOL DYNAMAMETER

DRILL TOOL DYNAMAMETER

2.0 APPARATUS / EQUIPMENT :

Bench/sensitive drilling machine,drill tool dynamometer unit(sensor & instruments),Centre lathe,lathe tool
dynamometer, drill bits,specimen for drilling,cuttingtool on lathe,specimen for turning
3.0 THEORY :
Dynamameter is a devise which measures the force & torque .The drill tool dynamometer measures vertical
cutting force & torque in a drilling machine.

Drill tool
Fa = feed force on tool; Fr = force by tool due to depth of cut;

Fp = vertical drill force

Ft = vertical cutting force on cutting tool;

Torque = Fp d/2 Nm

36
The lathe tool dynamometer measures only the forces acting on the single point cutting tool fixed in the toolpost
in x,y & z directions as shown in the sketch.
3.1 PRINCIPLE OF MEASUREMENT: The forces & torque are measured by transducers based on strain
gauge principles..The force measuring transducer is a strain gauge setup with proving ring & 4
strain gauges R1,R2,R3,R4 forming part of a wheatstone bridge with compensation for
temperature,bending etc. Torque measuring transducer is a cylindrical specimen mounted with 4
strain gauges R5,R6,R7,R8 at 45 deg., to the longitudinal or vertical axis so that shear strains
resulting from torque are only pickedup by these strain gauges.
3.2 The lathe tool dynamometer is also similar devise but measures only forces in all 3 directions with
suitable strain gauges in all 3 axes.
4.0 PROCEDURE : 4.1 DRILL TOOL DYNAMAMETER

37

The sensor unit is rigidly bolted to the table of bench drilling machine.
The digital indicator instrument is connected to power supply.
The dynamometer output terminals for thrust is connected to the thrust connector on the
instrument.The dynamometer torque output is connected by cable to the torque
connector input of the instrument.
A M.S. block is fixed in the vice portion of dynamometer & a drill bit is fixed inside drill
chuck of drilling machine.
When instrument is switched on the knob is put in read position & if digital readout of
both torque & thrust does not show zero, using zero knob readings are adjusted to zero.
The knob position of thrust is changed to CAL. & digital reading of thrust is adjusted to 200
using CAL. Knob.
Then knob position of torque is changed to CAL. Position & digital reading is adjusted to
20.0 using CAL. Knob
Then the knob position is changed back to read position both for thrust & torque.
The drill spindle is switched on & lowering feed handle drilling is done in specimen &
readings e taken for bith thrust & torque at different speeds & depths of cut.
Drilling is done on different materials at different speeds & using different drill bit sizes &
the thrust & torque values for each of these settings are recorded.
The variations of thrust & torque for varying speeds with different drillbit sizes & different
materials are all observed & these relationships can be shown on graphs.
4.1 LATHE TOOL DYNAMAMETER (LTD)
THE EXPERIMENTAL SETUP FOR MEASUREMENT OF CUTTING FORCES BY USING LTD
IS AS SHOWN IN FIG

The normal tool post above compound slide is removed including the bush & the spacer
except the central bolt.The centre hole of sensor box of LTD is inserted & the sensor box
with the cutting tool is fixed such that cutting tool tip is at centre position of job.The box
is rigidly fixed with nuts and locknuts.

38
The output ports of x,y,z on sensor box are connected to exactly x,y,z terminals
/connectors on digital instrument by 3 cables.
The instrument is connected to mains power supply.
The selector knob switches are changed to read & digital readouts of all (X,Y,Z) corrected
to zero by zero knob.
The selector knob changed to CAL. Position & all 3 digital readouts are corrected to 500 by
using CAL. Knobs.
Selector switches are changed to read position,checked & ensured it reads zero or else it is
corrected to zero by zero knob.
The lathe machine is switched on & by turning, cuts are given on specimen which apply
forces on the sensor of LTD .As the cutting progresses the x,y,z force readings are
continuously recorded for different depths of cut,speeds & for different materials.
The cutting parameters can be varied as required & cutting forces are recorded as per
tabular columns provided in the enclosure.
TABLE-1 : OBSERVATIONS & MEASUREMENTS IN DRILL TOOL DYNAMAMETER
S.NO. SIZE OF
DRILLBIT

SPEED OF

MATERIAL THRUST FORCE/CUTTING

FORCE

SPINDLE
Kgf

1
2

TORQUE OF
SPINDLE

Dia. 4mm
Dia. 5mm

Kgf METRE

M.S.
M.S.

TABLE-2 : OBSERVATIONS & MEASUREMENTS IN LATHE TOOL DYNAMAMETER(LTD)

S.

OPERATION

MATERIAL SPINDLE

NO.

II

TURNING

FACING

DEPTH FEED CUTTING FORCES OBSERVED BY LTD

SPEED

OF

mm

X direction Ydirection Z direction

RPM

CUT

PER

Parallel to

Vertical

Horizontal

in
mm

REV.

Lathe axis

axis

axis

MS

45

0.1

MS

120

0.5
0.1

MS

45

0.5
0.1

120

0.5
0.1

MS

0.5

39

10.0 MEASUREMENT OF THREAD PARAMETERS USING 2 WIRE AND 3 WIRE METHODS

1.0 AIM/OBJECTIVE:
To measure & calculate the effective diameter of screw threads by 2 & 3 wire methods.
2.0 INSTRUMENT/EQUIPMENT :
Micrometer with flanged anvils.micrometer with stand,small diameter wires.profile projector,bolt specimen

3.0 THEORY:
The screw thread parameters are as shown in the sketch below :

Pitch of a screrw thread is the distance measured parallel to the axis between the two corresponding points
on adjacent thread forms in the same axial plane.The basic pitch is equal to the lead divided by the number of
thread starts. Lead is the axial distance advanced by the thread in one revolution..The lead & pitch in single
start thread are identical but in multi start thread lead is the same multiple pitches as the number of starts.
Angle of Thread( ) : This is the angle between the flanks or slope of the thread measured in an axial plane.
Effective Diameter (E) or Pitch diameter: This is the diameter of the pitch cylinder, imaginary cylinder which
is coaxial with the axis of the screw & intersects the flank of the threads in such a way as to make width of
the threads & width of the spaces in between the threads equal.Along the pitch line of the threads the width
of thread & width of space is equal on a perfect thread.The Effective diameter E can be calculated by
measuring the distance M between 2 or 3 wires of known diameters d1 as per the theoretical equations
shown in sketch-2

40

SKETCH-2
E = Pitch Dia. =Effective Dia. = M-G(1+Cosec A/2)+P/2xCotA/2

The values of pitch p , thread angle or A & the wire dia. Can be directly measured by profile projector &
micrometer & thus E can be calculated.
The method of measurement is same for both 2 wire & 3 wire methods except that one uses 2 wires on
opposite sides of thread in 2 wire method & it may be difficult or result in inaccuracies; whereas by 3 wire
method 2 wires on one side & one wire on the opposite side of thread and it will be more accurate.
4.0 PROCEDURE:
4.1 Read,calculate the leastcounts of micrometers on the profile projector.
4.2 Read & calculate the leastcount of flanged micrometer
4.3 Select suitable diameter diameter wire which will fit into screw thread grove of specimen to be
measured & measure the diameter of the wires by a vernier caliper or micrometer & record the
values.
4.4 With some trial & error insert 2 wires into the groves of 2 adjacent threadgroves on one side.
4.5 Fix the flanged micrometer on the micrometer stand & insert the threaded specimen between flanges
of micrometer.The micrometer along with the stand to be located at a suitable location where good
amount of light is incident on the instrument & preferably on a surface plate.Insert 3 wires insert
thread grooves such that 2 wires are placed on one side of thread & 3rd wire on other side& i9n
between the 2 wires by trial & error.
4.6 Use magnifying glass to ensure correct fitting of the wires & ensure flanges of anvil of micrometer are
parallel to the axis of the threads.
4.7 Note down the reading of micrometer as M.Repeat the same experiment with 2 wires that is one wire
on each side of the thread.
4.8 Place the threaded specimen on the glass plate of profile projector & take the pitch & thread angle
measurements as is done in Profile projector experiment.
4.9 Using the equation E=M-d(1+CosecA/2)+ P/2xCotA/2.Calculate the effective diameter for all specimen
for both 2 wire & 3 wire methods.
4.10 Calculate best wire size using the equation D best = P/2xSec A/2.

41
5.0 RESULTS & DISCUSSION :
Make your own observations of ease,difficulty,accuracy,precision of the procedure of experiment & about
the results obtained.

TABULATION OF OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS

Leastcount of micrometers of profile projector: Micrometer 1 =
Micrometer 2 =
Leastcount of circular angular scale of Profile projector =
Leastcount of geartooth micrometer(flanged micrometer) =
s.no. Threaded
specimen

Specimen1
M-11
thread
Plug gauge
Specimen2
M-7 thread
Plug gauge
Specimen3
Bolt

Wire
dia.
Chosen
d

Dia.
Measured
On top of
wires
M mm

Pitch
Of
Threads
P mm

Angle
Of
ThreadA/
deg.

Effective Best wire

Diameter Size Dia.
E mm
mm

42

11.0 MEASUREMENTS BY MECHANICAL COMPARATOR

1.0 AIM:
To calibrate the mechanical comparator (dial indicator) & segregate & group acceptable & not acceptable
parts using the mechanical comparator.A hexagonal nut is the specimen.
2.0 INSTRUMENTS/EQUIPMENTS :
Dial Indicator with stand,slipgaugeset,vernier caliper

3.0 THEORY:
A comparator is a measuring device(not instrument) with high precision & cannot directly give absolute
measurement but gives relativemeasurements.It is hence used for inspection & disposition of parts in large
quantities in fast mode. The parts can be segregated for acceptance,rejection & repair based on lower &
upper limits of dimensions in comparison with a standard instrument.
A dial indicator is a mechanical comparator using gear magnification system together
with rack & pinion. A suitable spring gives constant plunger pressure,whilst hair springs are employed to
eliminate play or backlash.If a dial indicator is to provide faithful magnifications of the plunger movement,the
dimensional & functional features of the gears ,racks & pinions used must possess a high degree of
precision.The range of magnifications in the dial indicator mechanism are about 250 to 1000.The least count
of the instrument is of order of 0.01mm,0.02mm to 0.002mm.It is made as per IS2092-1983
4.0 PROCEDURE:
4.1 The dial test indicator(DTI) is calibrated by using slipgauges.The DTI is mounted on
the comparator stand as shown. By using suitable clamping DTI is made to just touch the machined base of the
comparator stand & the dial is adjusted to zero reading exactly.(Note that DTI is very rigidly clamped)
4.2 : A slip gauge of 1mm is inserted below the plunger of DTI & thr reading of DTI is checked & note4.3 Similar
readings are taken for 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 & 10mm slips. Errors & % errors are calculated.
4.3 The dimensions of hexagonal nuts across flats : A,B,C are measured using vernier calipers & recorded.
4.4 The mean specified dimension say H & Using slipgauge this H dimension is builtup by wringing.
4.5 DTI is raisedup changing the clamping position & the above slipgauge combination is inserted below the DTI
plunger & DTI is loaded to some reading on dialgauge.
4.6 Each of the nuts is introduced below the DTI one by one & deviations noted & recorded..

43
4.7 From the recorded dimensions & deviations the dispositions of the nuts based onacceptance criteria are
recordede for all nuts.

4.8 Data recorded as per the following tables:

CALIBRATION OF Dial Test Indicator(DTI)

SLIP GAUGE THICKNESS 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.5 10.0
DTI READING

ERROR & %ERROR

II MEASUREMENTS OF HEXAGONAL NUTS
CRITERIA FOR DISPOSITION: DIMENSIONS A,B,C TO BE WITHIN SPECIFIED LIMITS
(A,B,C = WITHIN 20.60.2MM TOLERANCE LIMITS)
S.NO. VERNIER CALIPER READING
OF
A
B
C
NUT

1
2
3

DTI READING
A
B
C

DISPOSITION OF NUT
ACCEPT
REJECT

44

12.0 GEAR TOOTH MEASUREMENTS BY GEAR TOOTH VERNIER CALIPER & MICROMETER
1.0 AIM:
To measure some of the gear dimensions using available instrumentation and calculate some of the gear
tooths parameters of the spur gear.
2.0 INSTRUMENTS/ EQUIPMENT:
Gear tooth micrometer/ flanged micrometer, gear tooth vernier caliper, vernier caliper, profile projector and
gear specimen.The images of both Geartooth Micrometer & vernier caliper are shown below:

3.0 THEORY:
3.1 A Gear is a mechanical device which has tooth shaped profiles on its cylindrical body & is used for
transmission of motion or power or both. Involute profile is the mostly used tooth profile due to several
advantages. The basic gear tooth parameters of an involute
profile spur gear is as shown in the sketch below: there are several instruments and equipments to measure the
parameters and several machines to test the performance of gears such as Parkinsons gear tester & special
involute profile testing machine.

3.2 Pitch circle diameter :It is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder which by pure rolling action would produce
the same motion as the toothed gear wheel.
3.3 Base circle diameter :It is the diameter of an imaginary circle from which the involute profile of gear is
generated by an imaginary straight line generator rolling tangentially on the base circle (Db)

45
3.4 Circular Pitch :It is the arc distance measured around the pitch circle from the flank of one tooth to a similar
flank on the next tooth. Pc=Dp/n=m.
3.5 Blank Diameter:It is the same as addendum diameter or the material blank diameter from which gear is
made.(D0) & D0 = pcd+2m = m(N+2)
3.6 Tooth thickness :It is the arc distance measured along the pitch circle from its intercept with one flank to its
intercept with the other flank of the same tooth.
3.7 Base pitch :it is the arc distance between the starting point of involute of one gear tooth on the base circle and
the corresponding starting point of involute on the flank of next tooth.
Pb= Db /N.= m Cos ( = pressure angle)
3.8 GEAR TOOTH MICROMETERIt is the flanged micrometer & is shown in sketch-1 . It is used for
measurement of gear tooth distances between one, two, three or four gear teeth using which the base circle
pitch can be calculated per sketch indicated
Pb x3.5=M ; 2.5 Pb =a; 1.5 Pb =b
Pb =M-a = a-b
The gear tooth micrometer is used for the measurement of distance between 2gear teeths, 3 gear teeth, 4gear
teeth and also the blank diameter.
3.9 GEAR TOOTH VERNIER CALIPER: Gear tooth vernier caliper is as shown in sketch and consists of two
vernier calipers viz one horizontal and one vertical vernier caliper combined in to one.The instrument is
exclusively used for the measurement of gear tooth thickness at the pitch circle height h given by the
equation h=mN(1+2/N-cos 90/N )/ 2.
This calculated value of h is set on vertical vernier scale and gear tooth thickness is measured at the pitch
circle.
4.0 PROCEDURE :
1. The least counts of vernier caliper, gear tooth micrometer and gear tooth vernier calipers are measured and
recorded including zero errors if any.
2. Usingboth vernier caliper and gear tooth micrometer the blank dia is measured(D0)
3. Using tooth vernier caliper and gear tooth micrometer, the distance between 2 teeth, 3teeth and 4 teeth are
measured and recorded.
4. Using vernier calipers the dedendum circle dia is measured.
5. For smaller gear the dedendum circle dia can also be measured using profile projector also.
6. Using gear tooth vernier caliper the gear tooth thickness at pitch circle is measured by setting heights h as
per sketch-1 & calculation.
7. The following parameters are calculated ba using standard relationships as per equations &
sketch-1given below.
Gear tooth height for thickness measurement, h= mN/2 [ 1+2/N Cos90/N]
Module m = D0/[N+2]
Pitch circle diameter =Dp=mN
Circular pitch = m
Base circle pitch=Pb=(M-a)=a-b
M=distance between 4 teeth; a = distance between 3 teeth;b = distance between 2 teeth;
Gear tooth depth = (D0-Dd)/2 = (Addendum dia.-Dedendum dia.)/2
Base circle dia. = Db = Pb x N/
Pressure angle = = Cos-1(Db/ Dp)

46
8.

Record the observations as follows in the table below :

PARAMETER

GEAR SPECIMEN-1
Distance using Distance using
Vernier caliper geartooth micrometer

Blank dia. Or
Addendum dia.
Dedendum dia.
Distance between
4 teeth
Distance between
3 teeth
Distance between
2 teeth
9.

GEAR SPECIMEN-2
Distance using Distance using
Vernier caliper
geartooth micrometer
Not possible

Not possible

Not possible

Final results may be tabulated as follows:

specimen Geartooth
module
Height thickness

Pitch Circular
circle pitch
dia .

Base
Circle
Dia.

Gear
tooth
depth

Base Pressure
Circle angle
Dia.

5.0 OBSERVATIONS,RESULTS & CONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION

Make your own observations of instruments used,orocedure,ease,accuracy etc.of the experiment.

47

48

13.0 CALIBRATION OF MICROMETER USING SLIPGAUGES

1.0 AIM :

To calibrate the given micrometer & determine the periodical & progressive errors.
2.0 INSTRUMENTS/ EQUIPMENTS : Micrometer with stand & slipgauge set

3.0 THEORY : Micrometer is an accurate linear measuring instrument . It is as shown in sketch below:
The thimble of micrometer rotates on precision threads inside barrel & thimble.The spindle advances
axially as thimble rotates in a perpendicular plane.The faces of anvil & spindle are parallel & both axes
are coaxial,collinear.
The barrel scale is in millimeters , 0.5 mm being the least count of barrel (main scale).Thimble has 50
divisions around it's circumference(circular scale).When the thimble revolves one full revolution the
spindle advances by 0.5mm that is the Leastcount ofbarrel scale.One division of thimble corresponds
to 0.5/50 = 0.01mm.This is the least count of the Micrometer.It is made as per IS2967-1983
The errors on the screw threads of micrometer would result in errors on the readings
of micrometer.There are two types of errors of the micrometer:
3.1 Periodical errors: These errors occur during every revolution of the thimble due to
errors on thread form of thimble namely errors on thread angle,pitch,profile etc. and so
these errors are likely to occur during every revolution of the thimble periodically.
These periodical errors can be determined by taking few readings of micrometer with
revolution of the thimble.These measurements can preferably be done at both ends of
the range of the micrometer.
3.2 Progressive errors : These errors occur during full range of the instrument that is
from zero to full range of the micrometer.These errors occur due to basic errors in the inner screw
threads such as major dia.,minor dia.,effective dia. And small taper of axis of screw threads w.r.t. The axisof
anvil.These errors can be determined by taking about 6 to 10 readings from zero to the full range of the
instrument.
3.3 Slip gauge : These are the most accurate and standard made of material of high wear
resistant,thermally and metallurgically stable and low coefficient of thermal expansion such as high
carbon high chromium steel, Tungsten carbide etc. Their accuracies achieved due to high
flatness,parallelism,surface finish and dimensional accuracy upto
fraction of micron by applying
lapping process of manufacture.Different grades of slip gauge sets with different dimensional
combinations are available.It is made as per IS 2984- 1981

49

For checking the correctness or errors of micrometer readings different slipgauges are taken and
micrometer readings are checked & difference in micrometer & slipgauge values give the errors of
micrometer.
4.0 PROCEDURE:
4.1 check & record leastcount of micrometer.
4.2 place the micrometer on its base stand and measure micrometer readings for the
following slipgauges: For (a) Periodical error :
1.01, 1.11, 1.21 1.31,1.41,and 1.49
21.001, 21.101, 21.201, 21.301, 21.401, 21.501(10+9+1.1+1.001 = 21.101)
(b) For progressive errors:
1.005, 3.01, 5.005,8.01, 10.005, 13.01, 15.005, 17.01, 20.005, 23.01, 24.005
4.3 Tabulate the above readings
4.4 Calculate the errors, % errors and plot graphs of
(a) slipgauge readings Vs errors
(b) slipgauge readings Vs % errors.
5.0 RESULTS & DISCUSSION :
Tabulate the observations in the table given below. Make your own observations of the
results & discuss about the instrument,accuracy,procedure etc.

50
TABULATION OF THE OBSERVATIONS

s.no.

Nominal size of slip gauge

In mm

1.005; 3.01; 5.005; 8.01;

10.005;

13.01; 15.005;
17.01;20.005;23.01

Actual size as
measured By
micrometer

Progressive error
Microns

24.005;
3
4

s.no.

Nominal size of the slip gauge

In mm

1.01; 1.11; 1.21;

1.31;1.41; 1.49

21.001;
21.101;21.201;21.301;21.
401; 21.501

3
4

Actual size as measured Periodical

error
By micrometer
Microns

51
14.0 MEASUREMENTS USING OPTICAL FLAT
1.0 AIM:
Study & qualitative assessment of nature of surface of specimen using optical flat & principle of
Interferometry.

MONOCHROMATIC LIGHT SOURCE

OPTICAL FLATS

2.0 APPARATUS:
Optical flat(OF); monochromatic light source;optical specimen;slipgauge specimen
3.0 THEORY:
Interference of light waves occur when two sources of monochromatic light have equal or almost equal
amplitude & the two waves are out of phase . The two sources should be narrow & the surfaces must be
reflective. When Interference occurs , alternate dark & bright fringe bands appear & such phenomena is
called Interference of light.
An optical flat (OF) is a disc of glass or quartz highly polished & flat.It may be highly polished on
one side or both sides.When both faces are polished the faces are perfectly parallel to each other to a lvel of
25 to 100 microns.The material of optical flat ifs of very low coefficient of thermal expansion. OF is used for
measurement of flatness of surfaces accurately & for testing of surfaces of measuring instruments.OF is

made as per IS:5444 / IS 919-1963

52
By the principle of Interference of monochromatic light falling on a flat surface such as an optical flat &
because of phase difference & consequential Interference, fringe pattern of light is created by an optical
flat.Depending on the type of surface which is inclined with respect to an optical flat , the pattern of fringes
vary.Some of the typical fringe patterns observed are as given in sketches below:
Optical flats are used as part of Interferometers for precise estimation s of
flatness or linear distances , checking of curvature etc.If Interference fringes are straight & parallel,the
specimen is perfectly flat & if fringe pattern is curved the specimen is not flat.The error in flatness can be
estimated by measuring the distance between fringes & the wavelength of monochromatic light.
4.0 PROCEDURE:
Switch on the monochromatic source & allow it to warm up for about ~5 minutes.
Take a bigger slipgauge,clean & polish the bright surface & place it below the OF & place both below
the monochromatic light source & observe from an angle for the interference fringes and by changing
gap and inclination between OF and slip gauge,the fringes can be observed.Note down the type of
fringes with the perfectly flat slip gauge surface both with & without hand pressure.
Similarway place the specimen-A & specimen-B below the OF & observe the type of fringe pattewrns
& based on the type of fringes observed ,assess the nature & quality of surfaces of specimen-A &
specimen-B.Sketch them & record it both the specimens with hand pressure & without hand
pressure.
5.0 RESULTS & DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION
Record the results & observations with varying gap & angle between OF & test specimen may be analysed.
TABULATION OF OBSERVATIONS:
S.NO. SPECIMEN TYPE

SLIP GAUGE
(a)with pressure
(b)without pressure
SPECIMEN-A
(a)with pressure
(b)without pressure
SPECIMEN-B
(a)with pressure
(b)without pressure

SKETCH OF
INTERFERENCE
FRINGES

DESCRIPTION
OF TYPE OF
FRINGES

TYPE OF SPECIMEN
SURFACE(ESTIMATED)

53

54
MMM LAB VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS
1. Define accuracy & precision of an instrument & differences between them.
2. An instrument measures a dimension 100.00 ten times & the dimensions measured vary from 101.01
to 101.05.Is the instrument Accurate? Or Precise? Or both?
3. A vernier has 24 div. on main scale=25 div. on vernier scale with 0.5mm as smallest readable dimension
on main scale.What is the L.C. of the instrument?
4. Which of the following is the most important of all important characteristics of an
instrument:accuracy;precision;repeatability;sensitivity;readability.
5. What is the purpose of a ratchet on a micrometer?
6. How is a sine bar designated?
7. Which type by a of gear can be measured & which dimension is measured by a geartooth vernier
caliper?
8. Howa pitch diameter of screw thread can be measured?
9. What is the purpose of a protector slip?
10. What do you understand by wringing a slip gauge?
11. One micron is equal to what?
12. What is helix?what is helix angle?how is it measured?
13. What is module of a gear?What is the speciality of numerical no. of module?
14. What is the best size wire w.r.t. screw threads?
15. Optical flats are made in which material?
16. What are the geometrical properties of a slip gauge?
17. Which dimension of a thread is measured by a thread micrometer?
18. External taper of a 3D body can be measured by which instrument?
19. What is the accuracy of a bevel protractor?
20. What are the sizes of slipgauge pieces of M-87 available in the MMM lab.?
21. By which equipment all screw thread parameters can be measured?
22. What type of fringe patterns are observed with(a)sphere(b)cylinder(c)v-grove(d)perfect flat
23. What is the limitation of a sine bar ?what is its principle of measurement?
24. Which is more accurate? A bourdon pressure gauge or a pressure transducer?
25. What is LVDT? What is the principle of LVDT measurements?
26. What is a strain gauge?Where & how are they used in measurement of E of M.S.?
27. What is the principle of load cell?
28. What is LTD? & LTD?What is the principle of DTD & LTD?
29. What is a thermocouple?How does it measure temperature?
30. What is a comparator?which comparator did you handle?what is its principle?
31. Which the most preferred material for resistance thermometers?
32. How the flatness of a gauge is measured?
33. Which are the important geometrical parameters in an optical flat?
34. What type of light source is needed for interference of light?Which is the light source in lab.?
35. What are absolute & gage pressure?Does pressure gauge give absolute or gage pressure?
36. What is a transducer?which are the transducers in MMM laboratory?

Gauge factor ( GF)

LAWS OF THERMOCOUPLE

The gauge factor is defined as: GF = R/R G

1. FirstLaw ofThermocouples laws of thermoelectric circuits that

explains thermocouple consisting of 2 dissimilar metals

generates an e.m.f. across the junction kept at different Temp.

where
is the change in resistance caused by strain,
is the resistance of the undeformed gauge, and
is strain.

junctions when junctions are kept at different temperatures.

2. The Law of Intermediate Metals which explains that a circuits
EMFs are algebraically additive unless the circuit is at a uniform
temperature

(J)Iron vs Constantan (Most Common)

May be used in vacuum, oxidizing, reducing,
and inert atmospheres. Heavier gauge wire is
recommended for long
term life above 1000F since the iron element

3. The Law of Intermediate Metals: which indicates an EMF

cannot be created unless another type of metal exists . If two
dissimilar homogeneous metals produce a thermal EMF of X;
it will remain at that number if a third material is introduced into
the circuit, if both ends of that third material are at the same
temperature

oxidizes rapidly at these temperatures.

(T)Copper vs Constantan (Most Common Cold)

May be used in vacuum, oxidizing, reducing, and inert atmospheres.
It is resistant to corrosion in most atmospheres.
High stability at sub-zero temperatures and its limits of error are
guaranteed at cryogenic temperatures.

(K)Chromel vs Alumel (Most Common Real Hot)

Recommended for continuous use in oxidizing or inert atmospheres
up to 2300F (1260C), especially above
1000F. Cycling above and below 1800F (1000C), is not recommended
due to EMF alteration from hysteresis
effects. Should not be used in sulfurous or alternating reducing and oxidizing
atmospheres unless protected withprotection tubes. Fairly reliable and accurate at high temperatures.

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