A

,/'

NASA Technical Memorandum 81691

Ball Bearing Mechanics

b

( N A:
(NASA)

165

;1

LA.
dC; A ~ u / f i k A d 1

Bernard J. Hamrock
Lewis Research Center
Clmland, Ohio

and
Duncan Dowson
The University of Lccdr
h d s , England

June 1981

31CS
CSCL

131

CHAPTER 3
BALL HEARING MECHANICS

The loads c a r r i e d by b a l l bearings are transmitted through

the b a l l s from one r i n g t o the other.

The magnitude o f the load

c a r r i e d by an i n d i v i d u a l b a l l depends on the i n t e r n a l geometry

of the bearing and the l o c a t i o n a f t h e b a l l a t any i n s t a n t .
Having determfned how a bearing c a r r i e s load, we can determine
how i t i s d i s t r i b u t e d among the b a l l s .

To da t h i s , we must

f i r s t develop load-def l e c t i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r t h e ball-race

contact.

These r e l a t i o n s h i p s are developed i n Section 3.1 f o r

any t y p e of e l l i p t i c a l contact, such as those found i n a b a l l

bearing.

The defornation w i t h i n the c o n t a c t i s , among o t h e r

thlngs, a f u n c t i o n o f the e l l i p t i c i t y parameter and the e l l i p t i c

i n t e g r a l s o f the f i r s t and second kinds.

Simp1i f i e d expressions

t h a t a1 low quick c a l c u l a t i o n s o f the deformation t o be made

simply from a knowledge o f the applSed load, the m a t e r i a l prope r t ies, and t h e geometry o f the contacting elements are present e d i n Section 3.2.
taost b a l l bearing appl i c a t i a n s i n v o l v e steady-slate rotat i o n o f e i t h e r tire inner or o u t e r si\!g, o r both.
r o t a t i o n a l speeds

However, the

are u s u a l l y not so g r e a t as t o cause centrifrr-

gal forces or gyroscopic moments of s i g n i f i c a n t magnitude t o act

on the b a l l .

Consequently these e f f e c t s are ignored i n analy-

z i n g the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f radial, thrust, and combined b a l l loads

i n Section 3.3.
I n high-speed b a l l bearings the cet'itrifugal f o r c e acting on
t h e i n d i v i d u a l b a l l s can be s i g n i f i c a n t compared w i t h the
applied forces a c t i n g on the bearing.

I n high-speed bearings

b a l l gyroscopic moments can also be o f s i g ~ ~ i f i c a nmagnitude,

t
depending on the contact angles, such t h a t the inner-race
contact angles tend t~ increase and the outer-race contact
angles tend t o decrease.

I n bearings i n which dry f r i c t i o n o r

boundary l u b r i c a t i o n occurs i n the conjunction between the b a l l s

and races, t h i s can cause a s h i f t of c o n t r o l between races and,
i n some cases, unstable bearing operation.

This does n o t occur,

however, ift h e conjunct ions experience f u 11 elastohydrodynamic

lubrication.

Procedures f o r evaluating the perfotmance o f

high-speed b a l l bearings are developed i n Section 3 , 4 .

Elasto-

hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n o f ball-race contacts i s n o t considered

i n t h i s chapter but w i l l be treated i n Chapter 8.
No r o l l ing-element bearing can g i v e u n l i m i t e d 1i f e because
o f the probabi li t y of fatigue.

Any s t r u c t u r a l m a t e r i a l subjec-

t e d t o an u n l i m i t e d suecession of repeated o r reversed stresses

w i l l ultimately f a i l .

Therefore a l l b a l l bearings eventually

succumb t o fatigue, which i s manifested by surface d i s t r e s s i n

t h e form o f f l a k i n g o f m e t a l l i c partScles.

I n marry cases f l a k -

ing may begin as a crack below the surface t h a t i s propagated t o

t h e surface, where i t eventual l y fernis a y it o r spal 1.

Fatigue

i s assumed t o have occurred when the f i r s t crack o r spal 1 i s

observed on a load-carrying surface,

A design c r i t e r i o n f o r t h e

f a t i g u e l i f e of b a l l bearings i s developed i n Section 3.5.

B a l l bearings can be l u b r i c a t e d s a t i s f a c t o r i l y w i t h a, small
amount o f l u b r i c a n t supplied t o t h e r i g h t area w i t h i n t h e
bearing,

Sect i o n 3.6 considers t h e s e l e c t i o n o f a s a t i s f a c t o r y

l u b r i c a n t , as we11 as d e s c r i b i n g systems t h a t p r o v i d e a constant

flow o f l u b r i c a n t t o t h e contact.

When an e l a s t i c s o l i d i s subjected t o a load, stresses are

produced t h a t increase as tire load i s increased.

These stresses

a r e associated w i t h deformations, which are d e f i n e d by s t r a i n s ,

Unique r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x i s t between stresses and t h e i r corre-

sponding s t r a i n s .

For e l a s t i c s o l i d s t h e stresses are li n e a r l y

related t o t h e s t r a i n s , w i t h t h e constant o f p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y
being an e l a s t i c constant t h a t adopts d i f f e r e n t values f o r d i f f e r e n t materials,

Thus a s i n ~ p l et e n s i l e l o a d a p p l i e d t o a bar

produces a s t r e s s

u1 and a s t r a i n

rl,

where

Load
= Stress i n a x i a l d i r e c t i o n
Cross-sect i o t i a l area

(3 1)

el = "lange
in length
= Strain i n axial direction

( 3 4

"1 =

Original length

and
E=

- = E l a s t i c constant o r modulus of
C1

elasticity

(3.3)

A1though no s t r e s s a c t s transversely t o t h e a x i a l d i r e c t i o n ,
t h e r e w i 11 nevertheless be dimensional changes i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n
such t h a t as a bar extends a x i a l l y , St c o n t r a c t s transversely.
The transverse s t r a i n s
rl

c2

by P o i s s o n ~ sr a t i o v

are r e l a t e d t o t h e a x i a l s t r a i n s
such t h a t

where the n e g a t i v e s i g n means t h a t t h e transverse s t r a i n w i l l be

of t h e opposite s i g n t o t h e a x i a l s t r a i n ,

The modulus o f elas-

t i c i t y and Poissonls r a t i o a r e two important parameters used t o

describe t h e m a t e r i a l i n t h e analysis o f c o n t a c t i n g s o l i d s .
As t h e stresses increase w i t h i n t h e i n a t e r i a l , e l a s t i c beh a v i o r i s replaced by p l a s t i c flow, i n which t h e m a t e r i a l i s
pemianently deformed.

The s t r e s s s t a t e a t which t h e t r a n s i t i o n

f r o m e l a s t i c t o p l a s t i c behavior occurs, known as t h e y i e l d

stress, has a d e f i n i t e value f o r a given m a t e r i a l a t a g i v e n
temperature.

3.1.1

I n t h i s book e l a s t i c behavior alone i s considered.

Surface Stresses and Deforn~ation

When two e l a s t i c s o l i d s are brought together under a load,

a contact area develops, t h e shape and s i z e o f which depend o n

the applied load, the e l a s t i c properties of the materials, and

the curvatures of the surfaces.

When the two s o l i d s shown i n

Figure 2.18 have a nomlal load applied t o them, the shape o f the
contact area i s e l l i p t i c a l , w i t h
the semiminor axis.

a being the semimajor and b

I t has been c m o n t o r e f e r t o e l l l p t i c 6 1

contacts as p o i n t contacts, but since t h i s book deals mainly

w i t h loaded contacts, the term e l l i p t i c a l contact i s adopted.
For the special case where

r = raY and rb, = rby,

the r e s u l t i n g contact i s a c j r c l e r a t h e r than an e l l i p s e .

and r
are both i n f i n i t e , the i n i t i a l l i n e
aY
by
contact develops i n t o a rectangle when load i s applied.

Where

The contact e l l i p s e s obtained w i t h e i t h e r a r a d i a l o r a

t h r u s t load f o r the b a l l

- inner-race

and b a l l

- outer-race

contacts i n a b a l l bearing are shown i n Figure 3.1.

This book

i s concerned w i t h the conjunctions between s o l i d s

- w i t h contact

areas ranging from c i r c u l a r t o rectangular

analysis of contacts i n a b a l l bearing.

- and w i t h the

Inasmuch as the s i z e

and shape o f these contact areas are h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t t o the

successful operation of b a l l bearings, i t i s important t o
understand t h e i r characteristics.
Hertz (1881) considered the stresses and deformations i n
two p e r f e c t l y smooth, e l l i p s o i d a l , contacting e l a s t i c s o l i d s
much l i k e those shown i n Figure 2.18.

His a p p l i c a t i o n of the

c l a s s i c a l theory of e l a s t i c i t y t o t h i s problem forms t h e basis

o f stress c a l c u l a t i o n f o r machine elements such as b a l l and rol-

l e r bearings, gears, sedls, and cants.

The fo1 lowing assumptions

were made by Hertz (1881) :

(1) The materials are homogeneous and t h e y i e l d stress i s

not exceeded.

(2) No tangential forces are induced between the solids.

( 3 ) Contact i s l i m i t e d t o a small p o r t i o n o f the surface,

such t h a t the dimensions o f the contact region are small c o w
pared w i t h the r a d i i of the e l l i p s o i d s .
(4) The s o l i d s are a t r e s t and i n e q u i l i b r i u m (steady

s t ate)

Making use o f these assumptigns, Hertz (1881) was able t o

o b t a i n t h e f o l l o w i n g expression f o r the pressure w i t h i n t h e e l l i p s o i d a l contact shown i n Figure 3.2:

I f the pressure i s integrated over the contact area, i t i s found

that

Equation (3.5) detennlnes the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f pressure o r compressive s t r e s s on the cornor! izterf 3ce; i t i s c l e a r l y a maximum
a t the center o f the contact and decreases t o zero a t the p e r i phery.

The e l l i p t i c i t y parameter k can be w r i t t e n i n terms of

the remimajor and semiminor axes o f t h e contact e l 1ipse as

Harris (1966) has shown t h a t the e l l i p t j c i t y parameter can be

used t o r e l a t e the curvature difference expressed i n equation
(2.25)

and the e l 1 i p t i c integrals o f the f t r s t J and second

8 kinds as

where

A one-point i t e r a t i o n method that was adopted by Hamrock and

Anderson (1973) can be used t o obtain the e l l i p t i c i t y parameter,

where
=

The i t e r a t i o n process i s normally continued u n t i l

fers from

Itn

(3.11)

J(kn)
kn+l

dif-

by less than 1x10-~. Note t h a t the e l l i p t i c -

i t y parameter i s a function of the r a d i i o f curvature o f the

solids only:
k = f(rax.rbx.'ay.'by)

That i s , as the load increases, the semi~najorand semiminor axes

of the contact e l l i p s e increase proportionately t o each other,
so the e l 1 i p t i c i t y parameter remains constant.
The e l l i p t i c i t y parameter and e l l i p t i c i n t e g r a l s o f the
f i r s t and second k i ~ d sare shown i n Figure 3.3 f o r a range o f
the curvature r a t i o R /R
Y

usually encountered i n concen-

t r a t e d contacts.
Whbn the e l l i p i c i t y parameter
F, Poissonls r a t i o

V,

k, the normal applied load

and the modulus of e l a s t i c i t y E of the

contacting s o l i d s are known, the semimajor and semiminor axes o f

the contact e l 1ipse and the maximum defamation a t the center o f
the contact can be w r i t t e n from the analysis of Hertz (1881) as

where

I n these equations

a and b are proportional t o F~~~

i s proportional t o F213

and

Knowing the deformation a t the center of tne contact and

the natural geometrical separation between the solids, equation

--

,~

--

(2.35), we can w r i t e the defonnrtion a t any p o i n t w i t h i n the dry

Hcrtzian contact as

This equation i s used i n l a t e r chapters t o define the f i l m

thickness w i t h i n the conjunction.

3.1.2

Subsurface Stresses

Fatigue cracks usually s t a r t a t a c e r t a i n depth below the

surface i n planes p a r a l l e l t o ,the d i r e c t i o n of r o l l i n g .

Because

o f this, special a t t e n t i o n must be given t o the shear stress

amp1itude occurring i n t h i s plane.

Furthermore a maximum shear

stress i s reached a t a c e r t a i n depth below the surface.

The

analysis used by Lundberg and Palmgren (1947) w i l l be used t o

define t h i s stress.
The stresses are referred t o a rectangular coordinate system with i t s o r i g i n a t the center o f the contact, i t s z axis
coinciding w i t h the i n t e r i o r normal of the body considered, i t s

x axis i n the d i r e c t i o n o f r o l l i n g , and i t s y axis i n the direct i o n perpendicular t o the r o l l i n g direction.

I n the analysis

t h a t follows i t i s assumed t h a t y = 0.
From Lundberg and Palmgren (1947) the following equations
can be written:
T

"

-.

2
3F cos 9 s i n 9 s i n Y
(a2tan2v + b2cos2#)

r tan y cns $

The maximum shear stress rmplttude i s defined as

The amplitude of the shear stress rj0 i s obtained fmm

For t h e point of maxin~umshear stress

tan24 = La

2y

tan

t,

-1

The p o s i t i o n of the maximum point i s determined by

where

furthermore the magnitude o f the uxirmn shear stress i s gfven by

3.2 Simp1 ifi e d Solution f o r Elliptical-Contact Deformation

The c l a s s i c a l Hertzian solution presented i n the previ 04s

section requires the calculation o f the e l l i p t i c i t y parameter

k and the complete e l l i p t i c integrals o f the f i r s t and secand

kinds 9 and 4. This entaSls f i n d i n g a solution t o a transcendental equation r e l a t i n g , k,

r,and

# t o the geometry o f

the contacting solids, as expressed i n equation (3.8).

This i s

usually accompl ished by some i t e r a t i v e numerical procedure, as

1

described By Hamrsck and Anderson (1973), o r w i t h the a i d o f

charts, as shown by Jones (1946).
Brewe and Hamrock (1977) used a l i n e a r regression by the

method o f least squares t o obtain simplified equations f o r k,

and 8. That i s , f o r given sets o f p a i r s o f data, ([kj,
(R~/R,)J],

J . 1 , 2.

...,

,apowerfit

usinga linear

regression by the method of least squares resulted i n the f o l lowing equation:

.
The asymptotic behavior of 8 and
functional dependence t h a t
s u lt

and

was suggestive o f the

might exhibit.

As a re-

r l o g a r i thmic and an inverse curve f i t were t r i e d f o r

and #, respectively.

The following expressions from Brtwe and

Hamrock (1977) provide an excellent approximation t o the relrtionships between I

.
f and Ry/R,:
0.5968
J = 1.0003 +aTR
Y

Values o f 'ji,

and

(3.29)

are presented i n Table 3.1 and compared

w i t h the Hamrock and Anderson (1973) ~ i r m e r i c a l l ydetermined values of

k, 4, and S. The agreement i s good.

Using these s i m p l i f i e d expressions f o r

r, & and

and

equation (3.15) gives the deformation a t the center o f the contact

where

Note t h a t the load-deflection constant

K i s a f u n c t i o n o f the

bal 1-race geometry and the materi a1 propert ies.

The r e s u l t s of comparing
Table 3.1.

7 with

are also shown i n

The agreement i s again q u i t e good. Therefore the

deformation a t the center o f the contact can be obtained d i -

r e c t l y from equations (3.28)

t o (3.32).

This valuable approxima-

t i o n eliminates the need t o use curve f i t t i n g , charts, o r numri c a l methods.

Figure 3.4 shgws three d i f f e r e n t degrees o f b a l l-contact
a b a l l on a b a l l , a b a l l on a plane, and a b a l l

conformity:

outer r i n g contact.

Table 3.2 uses t h i s f i g u r e t o show how the

degree o f conformity a f f e c t s the contact parameters.

shows t h a t

The t a b l e

i s n o t exactly equal t o u n i t y f o r the ball-on-

b a l l and b a l l-on-plane s i t u a t i o n s because o f the approximat i o n

represented by equation (3.28).

The diameter o f the b a l l s i s

the same throughout, and the material o f the s o l i d s i s steel.

The b a l l

- suter-ring

b a l l bearing.

contact i s representative o f a 209 r a d i a l

A 4.45-N

f o r each situation,

( l - l b f ) normal load has been considered

The maximum pressure decreases s i g n i f 4-

c a n t l y as the curvature o f the mating surface approaches t h a t o f

the b a l l .

Table 3.2 shows t h a t the curvature o f t h e mating

surfaces i s very important i n r e l a t i o n t o the magnitude o f the

maximum pressure o r surface stress produced.

A b a l l and r i n g o f

high c o n f o r n i t y are thus desirable from the standpoint o f

mininiizsing the stress.
fable 3.2 also shows t h a t the area o f the contact

nab

increases w i t h the conformity o f the contacting solids.

Al-

though t h i s e f f e c t minimizes contact stresses, i t can have an

undesirable e f f e c t on the f o r c e o f f r i c t i o n , since f r i c t i o n
f o r c e increases as the contact area and herce t h e area o f t h e

sheared lubricant increase Srr a beartng operat ing under

elastohydrodynamic conditions.

The curvatures of the bearing

races are therefore general ly compromises t h a t take i n t o

consideration the stress, load capacity, and f r i c t i o n
character4 s t i e s o f the bearing.

In equations (3.24) t o (3.27) the location and magnjtude o f

the maximum subsurface s k a r stress are w r i t t e n as functions of
tapan aux il iary paraneter.

Furtllenore i n equation (3.23)

the e l l i p t i c i t y parameter i s wrltten as a function o f

for

t,

i s 0 < Ilk e 1, and the corresponding range

l/k

the range f o r

t,.

- -

is 1< t < 1 4

A l i n e a r regression by

the method o f l e a s t squares was used t o obtain a s i m p l i f i e d

formula for

tl

i n terms of

k, the e l l i p t i c i t y parameter.

That is, f o r given s e t s o f p a i r s o f data ([(I

(Ilk)

J -1, 2,

..., n),

a power f i t using a l i n e a r

regression by the method o f least squares resulted i n the

fa1 lowing equation:

The agreement between t h i s approximate equation and the exact

solution i s w i t h i n *2 percent,

The use of equation ( 3 , 3 3 )

greatly simpltf i e s the determination o f the values for the

locat ion and magnitude o f the maxl'num subsurf ace shear stress
expressed i n equations (3.24) t o ( 3 . 2 7 ) ,

3.3 S t a t i c Load D i s t r i b u t i o n

Now t h a t a simple analytical expression f o r the deformation

i n terns o f the load has been deteniiined, i t i s possible t o consider how the bearing load i s d i s t r i b u t e d among the b a l l s w i t h i n
a b a l l bearing.

Most b a l l bearing applications involve steady-

state r o t a t i o n of e i t h e r t h e inner o r outer ring, o r both.

In

analyzing the load d i s t r i b u t i o n on the balls, i t i s usually sati s f a c t o r y t o ignore these e f f e c t s i n most applications.

I n this

section the radial, thrust, and combined load d i s t r i b u t i o n s of

s t a t i c a l l y loaded b a l l bearings are investigated.
For a given ball-race contact the load d e f l e c t i o n relationship given i n equation (3.31) can be r s w r i t t e n as

The t o t a l normal approach between two races separated by a b a l l

i s the sum of the deformations under load between the bat 1 and
both races.

where

Therefore

S u b s t i t u t i n g equations (3.35) t o (3.37)

solving f o r

gi*

Recall t h a t

i n t o equation (J.34) and

and KO aye def ined by equation (3.32)

Ki

and

t h a t they are a function of ball-race geometry and m a t e r i a l

p r o p e r t i e s alone.
The analysis o f deformation and load d i s t r i b u t i o n presented
i n t h e f o l l o w i n g three sections i s based on the work o f Jones

( 1946).

3.3.1

Radial Load

A r a d i a l l y loaded b a l l bearing w i t h r a d i a l clearance Pd

i s shown i n Figure 3.5.

I n the concentric p o s i t i o n shown i n

Figure 3.5(a)

a uniform r a d i a l clearance between the b a l l s and

the r i n g s o f

Pd/2

i s evident.

l'he a p p l i c a t i o n o f a small

r a d i a l load t o the s h a f t causes the inner r i n g t o move a distance Pd/2 before contact i s made between a b a l l located on
the load l i n e and t h e inner and outer tracks.
there w i l l s t i l l be a small r a d i a l clearance

A t any angle

that, i f

i s small compared w i t h the radius of the tracks, can be expressed w i t h adequate accuracy by

Pd

On the load line, where gr = 0, the clearance i s zero, but when

= 90' the clearance r e t a i n s i t s i n i t i a l value o f

Pd/2.

The application of f u r t h e r load w i l l cause e i a s t i c defomat i o n o f some o f the b a l l s and the elimination o f clearance
around an arc

Ifthe interference o r t o t a l e l a s t i c com-

pression on the load l i n e i s a,m,,

compression ay

the corresponding e l a s t i c

along a radius a t angle

t o the load l i n e

w i l l be given by

6*1=

(%ax cos y

- c) =

(ama,

+)

cos

Now i t i s c l e a r from Figure 3.5(c) t h a t +,,a(,

* - TPd
Pd/2)

represents the t o t a l r a d i a l displacement o f the inner r i n g o r

shaft from the concentric p o s i t i o n a.

Hence

The relationship between load and the e l a s t i c compression along

the radius a t angle

t o the load vector i s given by equation

(3.34) as
Fy = Ka*312

Substituting equation (3.39) i n t o t h i s equation gives

For s t a t i c equilibrium the applied r a d i a l load must equal

the sum of the components o f the b a l l loads p a r a l l e l t o the
d i r e c t i o n o f the applied load.

Fr =

Fq

EOS

Theref ore

The angular extent of the bearing arc

2qk i n which the b a l l s

are loaded i s obtained by s e t t i n g the r o o t expression i n (3.42)

equal t o zero and solving f o r

$.

The summation i n equation (3.42) applies only t o the angul a r extent o f the loaded region,

This equation can be w r i t t e n

i n integral form as

The i n t e g r a l i n t h i s equation can be reduced t o a standard ell i p t i c i n t e g r a l by the hypergeometric series and the beta function.

I f the i n t e g r a l i s numerically evaluated d i r e c t l y , the

following approximate expression i s derived:

(3.45)
This approximate expression f i t s the exact numerical solution t o
w i t h i n *2 percent for s complete rnnge o f

Pd/2&.

The load c a r r i e d by the most heavily loaded b a l l i s ob-

tained by substituting JI = 0. i n equation (3.42) and dropping

the sumnation sign.

Dividing the maximum b a l l load (equation (3.46)) by the t o t a l

applied r a d i a l load o f the bearlng (equation ( 3 4 4 , rearranging terms, and making use o f equation (3.45) give

where

When the diametral clearance Pd

comes 4.37.

i s zero, the value o f

be-

This i s the value derived by Stribeck (1901) f o r

bearings o f zero diametral clearance.

The approach used by

Stribeck was t o evaluate t h e f i n i t e s u m a t i o n

various numbers o f b a l l s .

cor5/20

for

He then derived t h e celebrated S t r i -

beck equation f o r s t a t i c load-carrying capacity by w r i t i n g the

more conservative value o f 5 f o r the t h e o r e t i c a l value o f 4.37:

I n using equation (3.49) i t should be remembered t h a t

Z is

considered t o be a constant and t h a t the e f f e c t s of clearance

and applied load on load d i s t r i b u t i o n are not taken i n t o account.

These e f f e c t s are, however, considered i n o b t a i n i n g

equation (3.47).

Note a l s o t h a t the a n a l y t i c a l expression f o r

Z i n equation (3.48) enables a s o l u t i o n t o be obtained without

the a i d o f t h e c h a r t s used by Jones (1946) and H a r r i s (1966).

3.3.2

Thrust Load

The s t a t i c thrust-load capacity o f a b a l l bearing may be

defined as the maximum t h r u s t load t h a t the bearing can endure
before t h e contact e l l i p s e approaches a race shoulder, as shown
i n Figure 3.6,

o r the load a t which t h e allowable mean compres-

sive s t r e s s i s reached, whichever i s smaller.

Both t h e l i m i t i n g

shoulder height and the mean compressive stress must be calculated t o f i n d t h e s t a t i c thrust-load capacity.

The contact e l l l p s e i n a bearing race under a thrust l o r d

i s shown i n Figure 3.6,

Each b a l l i s subjected t o an i d e n t i c a l

t h r u s t c ~ n p ~ n e nFt/n,
t
where Ft

i s the t o t a l t h r u s t load.

The i n i t i a l contact angle before the application of a thrust

load i s denoted by

rt. Because o f the applied thrust. the

contact angle becomes

The normal b a l l t h r u s t load Ft

acts a t t h i s contact angle and i s w r i t t e n as

Ft

F
n s i n t~

A cross section through an angular-contact bearing under a thrust

load Ft i s shown i n Figure 3.7.

Both racer are a s s w d t o be

r i g i d l y mounted, t h a t is, incapable o f r a d i a l defamation. From

t h i s f i g u r e the contact angle a f t e r the t h r u s t load has been
applied can be w r i t t e n as

The i n i t i a l contact angle was given i n equation (2.9).

t h a t equation and rearranging terms' i n equation (3.51) give

From equation (3.34) we can w r i t e

where

Using

rnd fi, I; and 9 &re given by equrtlons (3.2U).

(3.30).

(3.2Y), dnd

respectively.

From equations (3.50) and (3.53)

Equation (3.55)
method.

can be solved numerically by the Newton-Raphson

The i t e r a t i v e equation t o be s a t i s f i e d i s

This equation i s s a t i s f i e d when e l

-6

i s e s s e n t i a l l y zero.

When a t h r u s t load i s applied, the shoulder height i s l i m i t e d t o the distance by which the pressure-contact e l l i p s e can
approach the shoulder.

As long as the f o l l o w i n g i n e q u a l i t y i s

s a t i s i f ied, the pressure-contact e l l i p s e w i 11 not exceed the

shoulder height 1i m i t :
e > e

s i n-I

(G)

From Figure 2.17 and equation (2.15) the angle used t o d e f i n e

the shoulder height e can be w r i t t e n as

From Figure 3.7 the a x i a l d e f l e c t i o n

at

corresponding

t o a t h r u s t load can be w r i t t e n as
6t

(0

6)sin

S u b s t i t u t i n g equation (3.52)

- D s i n if

( 3 59)

i n t o equation (3.59) gives

D s i n ( @ cf)

6t I
Having determined
(2.9).

COS

i n equation (3.56) and 6f

we can e a s i l y evaluate the r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r

3.3.3

i n equation

at.

Combined Load

For a combined r a d i a l and a x i a l load on a b a l l bearing we

consider the r e l a t i v e displacements of the inner and outer
rings.

We assume t h a t n e g l i g i b l e misalignment of the bearing

can occur.
displacement

The displacements are therefore l i m i t e d t o an a x i a l

at

and a r a d i a l displacement

.6,

The races

are therefore constrained t o r e l a t i v e movement i n para1 l e l

planes,

The end r e s u l t o f t h i s combined loading i s shown i n

Figure 3.8.
3.7,

Note the d i f f e r e n c e between t h i s f i g u r e and Figure

which represents a x i a l loading alone.

As was found when

dealing w i t h a p u r e l y r a d i a l load, the r a d i a l displacement i s a

f u n c t i o n o f the b a l l positioft r e l a t f v e t o the applied load.
From Figure 3.8

(D + 6)2 = ( D cos ef

a, cos $1 + (D s i n ef + at)

(3.61)

Substituting t h i s equation i n t o equation (3.34) gives

(3.63)

where K

i s defined i n equation (3.54).

s i n fit

Also from Figure 3.8

(3.64)

sin 6 =

rf

r cos $

cos if b
6r cos 0

112

cos 0 =

(3.65)

The normal b a l l load F, which acts a t the contact angle

(along the
components.

0 + a

l i n e i n Figure 3.81, can be resolved i n t o two

One i s the t h r u s t force Ft

p a r a l l e l t o the

bearing axis, and the other is the r a d i a l force

t h r u s t component Ft

Fr.

The

can be w r i t t e n as
Ft = F s i n 0

( 3 .b6)

'ly using equrtions (3.63) and (3.64) t h l s mlatfonshfp becaw)

The r r d f r l component of load F

r

crlr be wrftten as

F cos I cot Sr

(3.68)

From equat ions (3.63) and (3.65) t h i s expression can be wri tten as

For the bearing t o be (n equilibrium a f t e r displacement,

the following conditions must be satisfied:

The extent o f the load zone $1

i s obtained by s e t t i n g the

numerator i n these equations t o zero o r

Under c e r t a i n conditions o f a x i a l preload and r a d i a l displacement the value o f

be less than -1.

cos

Jli as determined

This indicates t h a t the loaded zone extends

completely around t h e p i t c h c i r c l e .
value JIR

by equation (3.72) w i l l

i s taken as

Equations (3.71)

I n such cases t h e l i m i t i n g

W.

and (3.72) can be generalized t o include

any number o f b a l l s by the following:

Note t h a t these integrals are functions o f the three parameters

Bt,

6t/D,

and sr/D.

These integrals are h y p e r e l l i p t i c

integrals that cannot be reduced t o standard form t o pennit sol u t i o n i n terms o f e l l i p t i c functions and must therefore be
evaluated numerically on a d i g i t a l computer.
at/D

and a,/D

Having detennined

from equations (S.73) and (3.74).

we can

obtain the normal b a l l load and operating contact angle a t any

b a l l p o s i t i o n JI from equations (3.63) and (3.64)

._

For b a l l bearings tikit opnrate a t modest speeds, as csnsidered i n t h e precedjng section, the c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e on the
b a l l i s so n e g l i g i b l e t h a t t h e o n l y forces t h a t keep the b a l l i n
equi 1 i b r i u m are the two contact forces r e s u l t i n g from the extern a l l y applied load.

For such conditions t h e contact forces are

equal and opposite, and the inner- and outer-race contact angles
are approximately equal.

The present section deals w i t h

h i gh-speed bearings, where the c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e developed on

t h e b a l l s becomes s i g n i f i c a n t and the inner- and outer-race
contact angles are no longer equal.

An angular-contact bearing

i s analyzed since t h e equations developed can be applied t o

o t h e r types o f b a l l bearings.

A combined r a d i a l and a x i a l load

i s considered, but n~isalignmentof the inner and outer r i n g s i s

excluded.

The nlaterial i n t h i s section was f i r s t developed by

Jones ( 1956).
When a b a l l bearing operates a t h i g h speed, t h e body forces
r e s u l t i n g from the b a l l ' s motion become s i g n i f i c a n t and must be
considered i n any analysis.

Figure 3.9 shows t h e forces and

moments a c t i n g on a b a l l i n a high-speed b a l l bearing.

The op-

e r a t i n g contact angle a t t h e outer contact i s l e s s than t h a t a t

t h e inner contact because o f appreciable c e n t r i f u g a l force and
gyroscopic moment.

I n t h i s figure,

as w i t h the r e s t o f t h e

book, subscript

i refers t o the inner race arid subscript

t o the outer race.

An exaggerated view i n Figure 3.10 shows the b a l l f i x e d i n
the plane o f the paper and r o t a t i n g about i t s own center w i t h an

c t o the bearing

angular v e l o c i t y og directed a t an angle

centerline.

The inner and outer races r o t a t e about the bearing

axls w i t h t

angular v e l o c i t i e s

thq separatot,.

oi

and o0 r e l a t i v e t o

For the l i n e a r v e l o c i t y of the races t o be equal

t o the b a l l v e l o c i t y a t the contact, the following relationships must be s a t i s f i e d :

a*..

-....-.

I f the outer race i s stationary, the b a l l w i l l o r b i t the bearing

axis w i t h an angular v e l o c i t y uc, where

Then the absolute angular v e l o c i t y o f the inner race i s nip

where

Therefore f o r a stationary outer race and a r o t a t i n g inner race

the following can be written:

"

=
,
F
4)
;
;
"

'

-d

COS Oi

COS Bo

S i m i l a r l y f o r a s t a t i o n a r y inner race and a r o t a t i n g outer race

no

- d cos pi

T r d

COS B0

For simultaneous r o t a t i o n o f t h e outer and inner races

For an a r b i t r a r y choice of

c the b a l l w i l l spin r e l a t i v e t o

the race about the normal a t t h e center o f the contact area.

I t i s c l e a r from t h i s analysis t h a t the s p i n o f the b a l l

may be d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i v e t o each race, and t h i s prompted Jones

(1956) t o introduce t h e concept o f race control.

I f Coulomb

f r i c t i o n o r boundary l u b r i c a t i o n prevai 1s i n the conjunctions

between the b a l l and t h e inner and outer races, the conjunction
subjected t o t h e l e a s t torque w i l l be prevented from spinning by

f r i c t i o n while the other conjunction experiences spin.

The con-

t a c t a t which no spin occurs i s c a l l e d the c o n t r o l l i n g race.

I f a l u b r i c a t i n g f i l m e x i s t s between the b a l l and each o f

t h e races, each o f the conjunctions can experience spin, and the

r e l a t i v e n~oti o n between the b a l l and the races i s detennined by
the equilibrium of the torques r e s u l t i n g from viscous t r a c t i o n s
w i t h i n the lubricant.

The problem of predicting viscous trac-

t i o n s i n elastohydrodynamic f i l m s s t i l l requires f u r t h e r work,

b u t the recent development of the understanding o f lubricant
rheology i n EHL conjunctions out1ined I n Chapter 10, together
w i t h the a b i l i t y t o predict f i l m thickness outlined i n t h i s
t e x t , indicates t h a t a complete s o l u t i o n t o the problem may not
be f a r away.
Spin i n the conjunctions between a b a l l and the races o f a
bearing i s important from the point of view o f energy losses and
heat generation.

For t h i s reason the race-control theory o r i g i -

nated by Jones w i 11 be outlined here, although i t must be rec a l l e d t h a t i t was developed f o r dry f r i c t i o n o r boundary l u b r i c a t ion conditions before solutions t o the elastohydrodynamic
l u b r i c a t i o n problem became available.

The elastohydrodynamic

l u b r i c a t i o n o f b a l l bearings w i 1.1 be considered i n Chapter 8,

Section 8.9.
From Figure 3.10 the b a l l spin r o t a t i o n a l v e l o c i t i e s a t the
inner and outer races can be w r i t t e n as
o

si

= o

sinfii

- uB sin(gi -

5)

SO

-w

s i n 6,

+ og

sin(eo

- c)

The race-control concept of Jones (1956) assumes that a1 1 the

spin occurs a t one contact and none a t the other.

the contact

a t which no spin occurs i s called the c o n t r o l l i n g race.

Lightly

loaded bearings may depart somewhat from t h i s situation.

If uSi ahd us,

are made zero i n equations (3.87)

and (3.88). respectively. the following w i 11 result:

Inner-race control :
d; s i n

<-tan-l(d;

cos Bi

ei
-d)

Outer-race cont ro 1 :
d' s i n go
cos Bo
The existence of a p a r t i c u l a r type of control depends on the
r e l a t i v e torques required t o prcduce spin a t the two contacts.
The f r i c t i o n a l heat generated a t the ball-race contacts.

vWre s l i p takes place, i s

where MS

i s the tarque required t o produce spin.

Poritsky,

e t a l . (1947) integrated the f r i c t i o n force over the contact

e l l i p s e t o obtain Ms

as

where

v = coefficient o f s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n
F = contact load
a = semimajor a x i s o f contact e l l i p s e obtained from equation

(3.13)

8s

e l l i p t i c i n t e g r a l of second k i n d obtained from equation

(3.29)

Equation (3.92) can be w r i t t e n f o r both t h e outer- and inner-

Outer-race c o n t r o l w i l l e x i s t i f Mso > Msi.

Inner-race c o n t r o l w i l l e x i s t i f MSU < MSi.
In a given b a l l

race contacts.

bearing t h a t operates under a given speed and load, r o l l i n g w i ll

take place a t one race and spinning a t t h e other.
therefore take place where

MS

Rolling w i l l

i s greater because o f t h e

greater g r i p p i n g action.
The p o s i t i o n s o f t h e b a l l center and t h e race curvature
centers a t angular p o s i t i o n

are shown i n Figure 3.11 w i t h

and w i t h o u t an applied combined load.

race curvature i s f i x e d .

I n t h i s f i g u r e t h e outer-

When speeds are high and t h e c e n t r i f u -

g a l f o r c e i s appreciable, t h e inner and outer-race contact angles

become d i s s i m i l a r .
B,

This r e s u l t s i n t h e outer-race contact angle

being l e s s than t h e i n i t i a l contact angle

ef,

as shown

i n Figure 3.11.
I n accordance w i t h t h e r e l a t i v e a x i a l displacement o f t h e
inner and outer r i n g s

at, t h e a x i a l distance between t h e l o c i

of inner- and outer-race curvature centers i s

L1

D sin

(3.93)

$f + d t

Furthermore i n accordance w i t h a r e l a t i v e r a d i a l displacement o f

the r i n g centers

,6,

the r a d i a l displacement between t h e l o c i

of the race curvature center a t each b a l l l o c a t i o n i s

L2 = D cos

5 + dr

cos $

(3.94)

= ls2,me.Sfl

(3.95)

where

Jl=
and n

2r(j

- 1)

i s the number o f balls.

From Figure 3.11 t h e f o l l o w i n g

equations can be w r i t t e n :

s i n B~ =

- -0.5)

L1 L3

(fi

6i

The following relationships can thus be w r i t t e n w i t h reference

t o Figure 3.11:
2
2
L4 + L3

( 0 cos pf

a,

cos

- [ d ( f o - 0.5) * do]*

- L4)2 +

( 0 s i n B~

at

= 0

- L3) 2

(3.100)

The f o r c e s and moments a c t i n g on t h e b a l l are shown i n Figu r e 3.9.

The normal forces shown i n t h i s f i g u r e can be w r i t t e n

from equation (3.34) as

E q u i l i b r i u m o f forces i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n s
requires t h a t
F, s i o f10

- F~

- F 1.

Fo cos 0,

s i n si

cos B~

+
2M

2M
9

[ A cos

[ A s i n f10

so

- ( 1 - r l c o s fli]

(1

- sin fliJ - Fc = O

where

A - 1
A =

f o r outer-race c o n t r o l
f o r inner-race c o n t r o l

The c e n t r i f u g a l force i n equation (3.105) can be w r i t t e n as

1' md'u2
Fc = 7
e c

(3.106)

where
d = d + 2L4
e
e
and m i s t h e mass of the b a l l .

- 2 d ( f o - 0.5)cas

flf

(3.107)

Ajso t h e gyroscopic moment i n

equations (3.104) and (3.105) can be w r i t t e n as

C

Mg =

Ip~suc
sin 5

(3.108)

where 1 i s mass momerrt of inert i a o f Ltle b i I~I.

P

F ~ * ~ Lttese
III

relationships, equations (3.104) and (J.105) can be w r i t t e n as

312

Ko60 L3

d(fo

- 0.g

~ ~ 6 3 " ( 0s i n fif + 6, - L3)

d ( f i - 0.5)
ai
a0
+

(1

- A)(O cos 0f

d(fi

a, cos
0.5) + ai

s i ~ u l t a n e o u s fl o~r

$J

(3.109)

sf
- ( 1 - rd)((f D cos
- 0.5)

+ 2 P1 BuC ~s i n c

Equations (3.100),

(3.101).

Lj,

(3.109),

L4, aO,

l o c a t i o n once the values of

at

+ at
di

and (3.110) can be solved

ai

and
and

a t each b a l l
are assumed.

6..

The

Newton-Raphson method i s generally used t o solve these simultaneous nonl inear equations.
To f i n d how good the i n i t i a l guess o f t h e values o f
and at

a,

is, a c o n d i t i o n o f e q u i l i b r i u m applied t o t h e e n t i r e

bearing i s used

C
n

j=l,...

ij

sintlij-

2(1

-A
d

cos sij]

= 0

(3.111)

2(1

..

I -

A~)M
qJ s i n iijcos +j
d

j=l..

Having computed values f o r

p o s i t i o n and knowing Ft
o b t a i n t h e values o f
3.112)

at

L3, L4, ci,

and Fr
and

a,

and

a t each b a l l

do

as i n p u t conditions, we can
from equations (3.111) and

A f t e r obtaining these values f o r

necessary t o repeat t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r

st

and

L3, L4,

ar

it i s

and

6o a t each b a l l p o s i t i o n u n t i l t h e assumed values o f at and

r agree w i t h these values found from equatlons (3.111) and
(3.112).

3.5 ~ a t i ~ uL ief e

B a l l bearings can f a i l from numerous causes, i n c l u d i n g

f a u l t y handling and f i t t i n g , wear associated w i t h d i r t , damage
t o the races o r separators, and fatigue,

However, i f they sur-

vive a1 1 the o t h e r hazards, b a l l bearings eventual l y f a i l because o f f a t i g u e o f t h e bearing material.

For t h i s reason t h e

subject of f a t i g u e c a l l s f o r special considerat ion.

Fatigue i s

caused by t h e repeated stresses developed i n t h e contact areas

between the b a l l and the, races and manifests i t s e l f as a f a t i g u e
crack s t a r t i n g a t o r below the surface.

The f a t i g u e crack pro-

pagates u n t i l a piece o f the race o r b a l l m a t e r i a l s p a l l s out

and produces the f a i l u r e .

Figure 2.24.

A t y p i c a l fatigue spa11 i s shown i n

On a microscale we can surmise t h a t there w i l l be

a wide dispersion i n material strength, o r resistance t o fatigue, because o f Inhomogeneities i n the material.

Bearing ma-

t e r i a l s are complex a1loys and are thus neither homogeneous nor

equally r e s i s t a n t t o f a i l u r e a t a l l points.

Therefore the fa-

tigue process can be expected t o be one i n which a group o f apparent l y i d e n t i c a l b a l l bearings subjected t o i d e n t i c a l loads,
speeds, lubrication, and environmental conditions e x h i b i t wide
variations i n f a i l u r e times.

For t h i s reason the f a t i g u e pro-

cess must be treated s t a t i s t i c a l l y .

That is, the fatigue l i f e

of a bearing i s normally defined i n terms o f i t s s t a t i s t i c a l

a b i l i t y t o survive f o r a c e r t a i n period of time.

3.5.1

Load Factor

The predominant f a c t o r i n determining the f a t i g u e l i f e o f a

b a l l bearing i s the load factor.

The relationship between l i f e

and load developed here i s based on a well-lubricated system and

a bearing made o f air-melted materials.

To predict how long a

p a r t i c u l a r bearing w i l l run under a specific load, two essential

pieces o f information are required:

(1) An accurate, w a n t it a t ive estimate o f the 1i f e

d i spersion o r scatter

(2) An expression f o r the dynamic load capacity o r

abt 1it y of the bearing t o endure

given load

for a s t iyulated number of stress cycles or

revolutions
A t y p i c a l distribution o f the f a t i g u e l i f e o f i d e n t i c a l
b a l l bearings operating under nominally i d e n t i c a l conditions i s
presented i n Figure 3-12,

This f i g u r e shows t h a t the number o f

revolutions that a bearing can complete w i t h 100 percent probab i l i t y o f survival. Ca

1. i s zero.

A l t e r n a t i v e l y the proba-

ba i l l t y o f any bearing i n the population having i n f i n i t e endurance i s zero.

F a i l u r e i s normally assumed t o have occurred when

the f i r s t s p a l l i s observed on a load-carrying surface.

Bearing manufacturers have chosen t o use one o r two points

an the curve i n Figure 3.12 t o describe bearing endurance:

(1) The f a t i g u e l i f e t h a t 90 percent o f the bearing

papulation w i l l endure (LO
l)
( 2 ) The median l i f e , that is, the l i f e t h a t 50 percent

o f the population w i l l endure (LS0)

Bearing manufacturers almost universally r e f e r t o a N r a t i n g
1 i f e w as a measure of the fatigue endurance o f a given bearing

operating under g i v e n load conditions.

the est {mated L10

This " r a t i n g l i f e " i s

fatigue 1i f e of a large population o f such

bearings operat ing under the specified loadi ng.

Fatigue 1iXe i s general ly stated i n rni ll ions of revo lutions.

As an alternative i t may be and frequently i s given i n

hours of successful operation a t a given speed.

Weibull (1949) has postulated t h a t the f a t i g u e l i v e s o f a
homogeneous group o f b a l l bearings are d i spersed accord ing t o
the f o l l o ~ i n gr e l a t i o n :

where

L
e

l i f e , m i l l i o n s o f revolutions
dispersion exponent (slope of Weibull p l o t ) o r measure of

scatter i n bearing l i v e s

constant, such t h a t e I n A

i s v e r t i c a l intercept on

Weibull p l o t when i = 1
The fatigue l i f e L

i n equation (3.113) i s the L10

life,

b u t i t i s simply referred t o here and throughout the remainder

o f the book as f a t i g u e l i f e L.
The so-called Weibull d i s t r i b u t i o n given i n equation
(3.113) r e s u l t s from a s t a t i s t i c a l theory o f strength based on
the theory o f probability, where the dependence af strength on
volume i s explained by the dispersion i n material strength.
This i s the "weakest l i n k M theory.

Equation (3.113) i s used f o r

p l o t t i n g f a t i g u e f a i l u r e s t o determine the L10

lives.

t y p i c a l Ueibull p l o t of bearing fatigue f a i l u r e s i s given i n

Figure 3.13.

The e x p e r i i i n t a l r e s u l t s shown as c i r c u l a r points

i n t h i s f l g u r e confirm t h a t bearing l i v e s conform w e l l w i t h the

Weibull d i s t r i b u t i o n and t h a t t h e bearing f a t i g u e data w i l l p l o t
as a s t r a i g h t l i n e .
With a technique f o r t r e a t i n g l i f e dispersion now a v a i l able, an expression f o r the dynamic load capacity t h a t a bearing
can c a r r y f o r a given number o f stress cycles w i t h a given proba b i l i t y o f s u r v i v a l must be derived.

From the weakest-link

theory we get the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the l i f e o f an assembly

( t h e bearing) and i t s components ( t h e inner and outer r i n g s ) :

For b a l l bearings

e = 1019.

The f o l l o w i n g expression can be

w r i t t e n f o r the f a t i g u e l i f e o f e l l i p t i c a l contacts

where
F = s t a t i c load capacity
C = dynamic load capacity

Using t h i s equdtion and changing t h e f a t i g u e l i f e from m i l l i o n s

o f revolutions t o hours of successful operation a t a given
speed, we can w r i t e equation (3.114) as

The s t a t i c loads Fi

and Fo can be obtained from e i t h e r

Section 3.3 or 3.4 for 'the appropriate load and speed condition.

I n equation (3.116) N

i s expressed i n revolutions per

minute, and the fatigue l i f e i s expressed i n hours of successful

operation a t the given speed N.
From Lundberg and Palmgren (1947) the dynamic load capacity
o f t h e inner r i n g can be w r i t t e n as

where

fO

maximum orthogonal subsurface shear stress

ai = r a t i o of depth of maximum shear stress o f inner r i n g t o

semiminor a x i s o f contact e l l ipse, zO/b

-ui

("k.1
x

number o f stress cycles per revolution o f inner r i n g

With proper changing o f subscripts from i t o o, equation

(3.117) can represent the dynamic load capacity of the outer

r i n g Co.
The number o f stress cycles per revolution

denotes the

number of b a l l s that pass a given point (under load) on the race

o f one piny while the other r i n g Itas turned through one complete
revolution.

Therefore the number o f b a l l s passing a point on

the inner r i n g per u n i t of ttme i s

(d'
ie

d cos

I n equation (3,117) the dianleters o f the inner and outer

races are w r i t t e n as
i = d;
do

= d;

-d
+

ei

(3.120)

d cos B0

(3.121)

CQS

Hamrock and Anderson (1973) found t h a t f o r most b a l l beari n g configorhtions the v a r i a t i o n o f

T and

i s such that the

following approximation can be made:

Table 3.3 presents corresponding values f o r

l / k , T, and @, as

we1 1 as values o f ( T ~ I T ) ~ ' ~ ( @ I @ ~ f)o~r * corresPondin9

~
values of

Ilk,

can be written:

From these values the following simple formula

Table 3.3 a1 so shows the good accuracy of t t l i s apyrox imale

formula.
I n equation (3.117)
from equation (2.24),

the curvature sum R can be obtained

and the e l l i p t i c i n t e g r a l o f the second

k i n d 4 and the e l l i p t i c i t y parameter

equations (3.29)
s t a t i c loads Fi

and (3.28).

k can be obtained from

respectively.

By making use o f t h e

and Fo obtained from e i t h e r Section 3.3

or 3.4 and equations (3.117) t o (3.123),

the fatigue l i f e i n

operating hours o f the bearing can be obtained from equation

(3.116).
The dynamic load capacity C j u s t developed can be used t o
detennine t h e r e l a t i v e importance o f c e n t r i f u g a l effects i n b a l l
bearings of d i f f e r e n t sizes.

This was done by Hamrock and

Anderson (1973) by comparing the r a t i o o f

namic load capacity C.
t h a t db

d 3 ~ ? t o t h e dy-

I n the previous chapter i t was noted

i s the bore diameter i n m i l l i m e t e r s and N

r o t a t i o n a l speed i n revolutions per minute.

i s the

The f a c t o r

d3N2

i s proportional t o the c e n t r i f u g a l force, and the dynamic capac i t y i s a measure o f the load capacity o f t h e bearing.

For

e x t r a - l i g h t series angular-contact b a l l b a r f ngs operating a t a

value of d,~

of 3 m i l l i o n , Table 3.4 shows the t s a t i o . o f d 3N2

t o dynamic capacity

f o r four bore diameters

db.

Centri-

f u g a l e f f e c t s are shown t o be r e l a t i v e l y more severe i n small

bearings when d b ~ i s kept constant.

The e f f e c t of race conformity r a t i o

on f a t i g u e l i f e a t

h i g h operating speeds i s shown i n Figure 3.14.

This f i g u r e was

obtained from Winn, e t al. (1974) f o r a 20-mn-bore b a l l bearing

operating a t 120,000 rpm.

Note t h a t an increase i n outer-race

curvature b r i n g s about a s u b s t a n t i a l decrease i n f a t i g u e l i f e .

On the other hand an increase i n inner-race curvature does n o t
affect the 1 i f ' e t o any appreciable degree.

The reason f o r t h i s

i s t h a t a t h i g h speeds t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e acts against t h e

o u t e r race.

I t i s thus important i n optimizing the bearing l i f e

i n high-speed appl i c a t ions t h a t the outer-race conforlnity r a t i o

should remain as low as possible.
curvature r a t i o f

Conformity expressed by a

o f 0.515 t o 0.520 represents the lowest

threshold o f present manuf a c t u r i ng practices.

The contact angle i n b a i l bearings i s extremely import ant
inasmuch as i t c r i t i c a l l y a f f e c t s the bearing s t i f f n e s s and
1i f e .

Typical v a r i a t i o n s o f f a t i g u e 1i f e w i t h i n i t i a l corltact

angle

Bf

f o r a medium-size bearing operating a t a value o f dbN

o f 1.5 m i l l i o n are shown i n Figure 3.15.

The contact-angle range

suggested i n Figure 3.15 i s t y p i c a l of bearings operating a t high

speed s.
I n recent years b e t t e r understanding o f b a l l bearing design, materials, processing, and l u b r i c a t i o n has permitted an
improvement i n bearing performance.

Thi s is r e f l e c t e d i n e i t h e r

higher bearing re1 i a b i li t y o r longer expected 1 ives than those

obtained from equation (3.116) o r b a l l bearing catalogs.

As a

r e s u l t Bamberger, e t al. (1971) a r r i v e d a t an expression f o r tire

adjusted bearing f a t i g u e 1i f e
La

..).---

DEFGL

where
"

+=

materiai f a c t o r

processing f a c t o r

= lubrication factor
I
0

G ,= hardness f a c t o r

The next t h r e e sections deal with these factors.

3.5.2 L u b r i c a t i o n Factor

I f a b a l l bearing i s adequately designed and lubricated,

t h e r o l l i n g surfaces can be separated by a l u b r i c a n t f i l m .

En-

durance t e s t i n g of bearings, as reported by T a l l ian, e t a l .

(1965). has demonstrated t h a t when the l u b r i c a n t f i l m i s t h i c k

enough t o separate t h e two contacting bodies, f a t i g u e l i f e o f

the ' ~ e a r i n gi s g r e a t l y extended.

Conversely, when the f i l m i s

n o t t h i c k enough t o provide f u l l separation between t n e asperit i e s i n the contact zone, the l i f e of the bearing i s adversely
a f f e c t e d by t h e high shear r e s u l t i n g from d i r e c t metal-to-metal
contact.

An expression f o r the f il m thickness i n b a l l bearings

i s developed l a t e r , b u t i t i s convenient t o i l l u s t r a t e i t s
e f f e c t on f a t i g u e l i f e i n t h i s section.

To e s t a b l i s h tihe e f f e c t o f filnl thickness on the lift?

of
any given bearing, we f i r s t c a l c u l a t e the f i l m parameter A.

The r e l a t i o n s h i p between h and the f i l m thickness

h is

where
fr = rms s u r f ace f i n i s h o f race

fb = rms surface f i n i s h o f b a l l

A more d e t a i l e d discussion o f surface topography i s given i n

Section 4.1,

and the rms i s defined by equation (4.2).

With the f i l m parameter A

known, Figure 3.16 can be used

t o determine t h e l u b r i c a t i o n f a c t o r

r.

Note from t h i s f i g u r e

t h a t whei t h e f i l m parameter values f a l l below approximately

1.2,

the bearing f a t i g u e l i f e i s adversely a f f e c t e d since

l e s s than 1.

Conversely, when the v.sllres o f A

is

are between 1.2

and 3, bearing f a t i g u e l i f e is,appreciably extended.

F i l m pa-

rameters higher than 3 do n o t y i e l d any f u r t h e r improvement i n

the lubrication factor

mainly because a t these values o f

t h e l u b r i c a n t f i l m i s t h i c k enough t o separate the extreme peaks

o f the i n t e r a c t i n g surfaces.

3.5.3 M a t e r i a l Factor

Bamberger, e t al. (1971) have shown t h a t bearing m a t e r i a l s

can s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t the u l t i m a t e performance o f a bearing.

As mentioned i n Chapter 2 the most frequent Py used steel f o r

b a l l bearings i s A l S l 52100.

The dynamic load capacity, as cal-

culated from equation (3.117)

o r any bearing manufacturerss cat-

alog, i s based on air-melted 52100 s t e e l t h a t has been hardened

t o 58 Rockwell C (R,).

Because o f improvements i n the q u a l i t y

gf air-melted steels, Bamberger, e t a l . (1971) suggested the

value o f t h e m a t e r i a l factor

shown i n Table 3.5.

Factors

t a k i n g i n t o account vacuum remelting, hardness, and other processing variables are considered separately.

Many o f the mater-

i a l s i n t h i s t a b l e were discussed i n Section 2.4,

and the chemi-

c a l compositions o f many o f these s t e e l s are given i n Tahle 2.1.

3.5.4

Processing Factors

Improvements i n processing techniques have also extended

fatigue l i f e .

The various melting practices have been d i s -

cussed i n Section 2.4.1.

Zaretsky, e t a l . (1969) found t h a t

consumable-electrode vacuum remelting (CVM) gave up t o 13 times

longer l i f e than a i r melting.

Hgwever, Bamberger, e t a l . (1971)

recommended t h a t a processing f a c t o r
CVM bearing steels.

o f 3 be used f o r a l l

This value may be somewhat conservative,

b u t the confidence factor f o r achieving t h i s l e v e i o f improvement i s high.

Another processing f a c t o r t h a t s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t s bearing
f a t i g u e 1i f e i s m a t e r i a l hardness.

The minimum recomnended

hardness f o r b a l l bearlng s t e e l s i s 68 RE.

A drop i n hardness

from t h a t value because o f e i t h e r poor heat treatnwnt o r high

operating temperatures w i ll appreciably shorten the bearing fat i g u e 1 i f e , as pointed o u t by Bamberger, e t a l e (1971).

To

enable an estimate t o be made o f t h e e f f e c t s o f hardness change

on bearing l i f e , a hardness f a c t o r

where Rc
ial,

"

i s defined as

i s the operational hardness o f t h e bearing mater-

Note t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p presented by equation (3.126)

indicates t h a t bearing l i f e i s h i g h l y s e n s i t i v e t o changes i n

hardness.
56 R,

Thus, f o r example, a two-point drop i n hardness t o

w i l l cause a 32 percent drop i n bearing f a t i g u e l i f e .

Once t h e various f a c t o r s i n equation (3.124)

fined, t h e adjusted f a t i g u e l i f e
t h a t equation.

have been de-

La can be calculated from

This equation enables the designer t o a r r i v e a t

a more r e a l i s t i c estimate of bearing fatigue 1i f e .

3.6 Beari ng L u b r i c a t i o n

Without adequate l u b r i c a t i o n o f t h e ball-race conjunction,

various degrees o f damage w i l l r e s u l t t o t h e r o l l i n g elerrents or
the races, o r both.

These include t h e development o f scuffing,

p l a s t i c flow, and p i t t i n g .

The f a t i g u e l i f e o f tne ball-race

contact therefore depends on t h i s conjunction having an adequate

l u b r i c a n t f i l m , as pointed o u t i n t h e previous section,
For many years the opinion prevai l e d t h a t the maximum cont a c t pressure i n t h e ball-race contact precluded the possibf l i t y
o f a l u b r i c a n t f i l m e x i s t i n g i n the conjunction,

However, i t i s

now generally accepted n o t o n l y t h a t a l u b r i c a n t f i l m i s present, b u t a l s o t h a t the nature of t h e l u b r i c a n t f i l m has an important influence on the f a t i g u e l i f e o f t h e bearing.

Besides

providing a f i l m , t h e l u b r i c a n t i n a b a l l bearing must provide

corrosion p r o t e c t i o n and a c t as a coolant.
Not o n l y the ball-race contact b u t a l s o a l l the interfaces
between moving elements must be properly lubricated.

The b a l l -

separator arid race-separator contacts experience mostly impact

loading and therefore have greater p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f metal-tometal contact, even when the bearing has an adequate supply o f
lubricant.

For t h i s reason t h e separator s u r f aces are general l y

coated w i t h a l o w - f r i c t i o n material.
The ball-race contacts i n b a l l bearings can generally be
s a t i s f a c t o r i l y l u b r i c a t e d w i t h a small amount of appropriate
l u b r i c a n t supplied t o the r i g h t area w i t h i n t h e bearing.

The

major considerations i n proper b a l l bearing l u b r i c a t i o n are

(1) Selection o f a s u i t a b l e l u b r i c a n t
( 2 ) Selection o f a system t h a t w i l l provide an adequate

and constant f l o w o f t h i s l u b r i c a n t t o t h e contact

These two t o p i c s are considered i n t h e f o l l o w i n g sections.

3.6.1 Lubricants

Both o i l s and greases are extensively used as l u b r i c a n t s

f o r a l l types of b a l l bearings over a wide range of speeds and
operating temperatures.

The choice i s f r e q u e n t l y determined by

considerations o t h e r than l u b r i c a t i o n requirements alone.

Because of i t s f l u i d i t y o i l has a number o f advantages over
grease:

I t can e n t e r tilt?loaded conjunctiori most r e a d i l y t o

f l u s h away contaminants, such as water and d i r t , and p a r t i c u l a r l y t o t r a n s f e r heat from h e a v i l y loaded bearings.
f r e q u e n t l y ddvantageous t o l u b r i c a t e bearings from

ti

I t i s also

central o i1

system used f o r o t h e r machine parts.

Grease, however, is extensively used because i t permits
simp1 ifi e d designs of housings and bearing enclosures, which
require l e s s maintenance, and because i t i s more e f f e c t i v e i n
sealing against d i r t and contaminants.

I t a l s o reauces possible

damage t o the process o r product from o i l leakage.

O i 1 Lubrication

Except f o r a few special requirements petroleum o i l s sati s f y most operating conditions.

High-quality products, f r e e

from adulterants t h a t can have an abrasive o r lapping action,

are recomnended.

Animal a r vegetable o i l s o r petroleuni o i l s o f

poor q u a l i t y tend t o oxidize, t o develop acids, and t o form

sludge o r r e s i n l i k e deposits on the bearing surfaces.

They thus

pena 1 ize bearing performance o r endurance.

A composite o f reconmended l u b r i c a n t v i s c o s i t i e s a t 38' C

I n many b a l l bearSng applicat i o n s an o i l equivalent t o an SAE-10 motor o i l (40x10-6 m2 /s, o r
(100' F) i s shown as Figure 3.17.

40 cS, a t 38' C (300' F ) ) o r a l i g h t t u r b i n e o i l i s the most

frequent choice.
For a number of m i l i t a r y applications where t h e operat i o n a l require~nentsspan t h e temperature range -54'

(-65'

t o 400' F), synthetic o i l s are used.

t o 204' C

Ester l u b r i c a n t s are

most frequently employed i n t h i s temperature range.

I n applica-

t i o n s where temperatures exceed 260' C (500' F), most synthetics

w i l l q u i c k l y break down, and e i t h e r a s o l i d l u b r i c a n t (e.g.,

nos2) o r a polyphenyl ether i s recanmnded.

A more d e t a i l e d

discussion of s y n t h e t i c l u b r i c a n t s can be found i n Bisson and

Anderson ( 1964).

Grease L u b r i c a t i o n

The simplest method o f l u b r i c a t i n g a bearing i s t o apply

grease, because o f i t s r e l a t i v e l y n o n f l u i d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
Danger o f leakage i s reduced, and t h e housing and enclosure design can be simpler and l e s s c o s t l y than those used w i t h o i 1.
Grease can be packed i n t o bearings and r e t a i n e d w i t h inexpensive

closures, b u t packing should not be excessive and the manufact u r e r ' s rocommendations should be c l o s e l y adhered to.
The major l i m i t a t i o n o f grease l u b r i c a t i o n i s t h a t i t i s
n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l i n high-speed applications.

I n general

i t i s n o t employed f o r speed f a c t o r s ( d b ~ , bore i n m i 1l i m t e r s

times speed i n revolutions per minute) over 200,000 although
selected greases have been used successfully f o r higher speed
f a c t o r s w i t h s p e c i a l l y designed b a l l bearings.
Greases vary widely i n properties, depending on t h e type
and grade o r consi stency
mendations can be made.

For t h i s reason f @w specif i c recom-

Greases used f o r most bearing operating

conditions cnnsi s t of petroleum, d i e s t e r , polyester, o r s i l i c o n e

o i l s thickened w i t h sodium o r l i t h i u m soaps o r w i t h more recentl y developed nonsoap thickeners,

General c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of

greases are as follows:

(1) Petroleum o i 1 greases are best f o r general-purpose ope r a t i o n from -34" t o 149' C (-,30' t o 300' F).
( 2 ) Diester o i l greases are designed f o r low--temperature

service down t o -54" C (-65'

F).

(3) Ester-based greases are s i m i l a r t o d i e s t e r o i l greases

but have b e t t e r h i gh-temperature characteri s t ics, covering a

range from -73'

t o 177' C (-100' t o 350' F ) .

( 4 ) S i l i c o n e o i 1 greases are used f o r both high- and low-

temperature operation, over the widest temperature range o f a1 1

greases (-73'

t o 232' C; -100* t o 450' F), b u t have t h e disad-

vantige o f 1ow 1aad-carry i n g capacity.

(5) Fluorosi 1icone 04 1 greases have a1 1 the desirable features o f s i 1 icone 05 1 greases p l u s good load-carrying capacity
and resistance t o fuels, solvents, and corrosive substances.
They have a very low v o l a t i l i t y i n vacuums down t o log7 t o r r ,
which mzkises them u s e f u l i n aerospace y p l i c a t ions.

(6) Perf 1uorinated o i 1 greases have a h i g h degree of chemic a l inertness and are completf!ly nonflamnable.

They have good

load-carrying capacity and can operate a t temperatures as h i g h

as 288' C (550' F ) f o r long periods, ~ h i c hr~akesthem useful i n
the chemical process and aerospace industries, where h i g h r e l i a b i l i t y j u s t i f i e s the a d d i t i o n a l cost.
Grease consistency i s important since grease w i 11 slump
badly and churn excessively when t o o s o f t and f a i l t o l u b r i c a t e
when t o o hard.

E i t h e r c o n d i t i o n causes improper lubrication,

excessive temperature rise, and poor performance and can shorten

bearing 1 i f e .

A valuable guide t o t h e estimation o f t h e useful l i f e o f

grease i n rolling-element bearings has been published by the
Engineering Sciences Data U n i t (1978).
I t has been demonstrated r e c e n t l y by Aihara and Dowson

(1979) and by Wilson (1979) t h a t the f i l m thickness i n grease-

l u b r i c a t e d components can be calculated w i t h adequate accuracy

by using the v i s c o s i t y o f t h e base o i l i n t h e elastohydrodynamic

equations (see Chapter 8).

Aihara and Dowson compared f ilm

thickness measurements made by capacitance techniques on a

grease-lubricated,

two-di sc machine w i t h the p r e d i c t i o n s of

e l astohydrodynamic theory.

W i 1 son reported an extensive and

impressive range o f experSments on a grease-lubricated r o l l e r

bearing.

This work enables t h e elastohydrodynamic theory de-

veloped i n t h i s t e x t t o be applied w i t h confidence t o greasel u b r i c a t e d b a l l bearings,

3.6.2

L u b r i c a t i o n Systems

The q u a n t i t y o f l u b r i c a n t required t o maintain adequate

l u b r i c a t i o n o f b a l l bearings i s small.

Data presented by

W i icock and Booser ( 1957) show t h a t f o r medium-si ze, deep-groove

b a l l bearings operating a t moderate loads and speeds ( 2 . 1 6 ~ 1 0 ~
d b ~ ) , t h e q u a n t i t y o f o i l required i s about 0.5 rnglhr.

The

o i 1 requirement i s determined by the s e v e r i t y o f t h e operating

conditions.
Some o f the techniques most f r e q u e n t l y used t o l u b r i c a t e a
b a l l bearing are aescri bed i n tne f o l l o w i ng paragraphs.

Forced L u b r i c a t i o n

Although t h e q u a n t i t y o f o i 1 r e q u i r e d t o provide adequate

l u b r f c a t i o n i s small, i t i s frequently desirable i n heavily

loaded, high-speed bearings t o use the o i l t o t r a n s f e r heat away

from thc bearing,

I n such cases a eirculatDng l u b r i c a t i o n sys-

tem i s employed i n which a pump de1 i v e r s the l u b r i c a n t o i l t o

j e t s d i r e c t e d i n t o t h e b e a r i ~ gand s u i t a b l e drains r e t u r n i t t o
tire reservoir.

G r a v i t y discharge can be used i n systems where

t h e pressure drop across t h e o i l r e t u r n 1ines i s small.

Care

must be taken t o ensure t h a t no o i l accumulates d i r e c t l y w i t h i n

t h e bearing area since submergence of t h e bearing i n o i l w i l l
cause excessive churning and r e s u l t i n high temperatures w i t h i n
t h e l u b r i c a t i n g system.

To avoid o i l accumulation w i t h i n t h e

bearing c a v i t i e s , scavenge pumps are frequently used.

The scav-

enge pump provides t h e pressure d i f f e r e n t i a l necessary t o evacua t e the o i l from the bearing cavity.

M i s t Lubrication

A t extremely h i g h speeds, where any appreciable q u a n t i t y of

o i 1 present i n the bearings iiould cause an i n t o l e r a b l e power

l o s s due t o o i l churning, o i l - m i s t l u b r i c a t i o n i s necessary.
Small-bore bearings t h a t operate a t speeds o f 50,000 t o about
100,000 rpm arc u s u a l l y l u b r i c a t e d by means of an o i l mist.

In

o i l - m i s t systems the stream o f atonlired o i l i s generally direct e d against t h e inner race of the bearing, which i s the most
d i f f i c u l t t o l u b r i c a t e because of t h e e f f e c t o f c e n t r i f u g a l
f o r c e on t h e o i l .

A i r pressures o f 100 t o 200 ~ / m ' and nozzle

diameters of 0 . 8 x l 0 - ~ t o 1.3x10-~

in

are used.

Because the

compressed a i r must be f r e e frm moisture, i t i s customary t o

i n s t a l l a d r i e r i n the a i r l i n e .
O i l - m i s t systems are noncirculating:

The o i l i s passed

through the bearing once and then discarded.

Extremely low o i 1

flow r a t e s are required f o r l u b r i c a t i o n , exclusjve o f cooling.

Since t h e required r a t e s are so low, a nominal-capacity sump i s
adequate f o r supply ing a m u l t iple-beari ng system f o r an extended
time.

Splash LubricatJon

Splash-feed l u b r i c a t i o n systems are employed i n low-speed

machitier-y such as some gearboxes.

11; these systems o i l i s per-

m i t t e d t o accumulate w i t h i n the bearing c a v i t i e s and i s d e l i v ered d i r e c t l y t o the bearing e i t h e r by t h e imnersion o f the

bearing separator and b a l l s i n t h e o i l o r through t t ~ cuse o f an
o i 1 rStig.

Qi
1 r i n g s are mainly used i n h o r i z o n t a l l y mounted

machines.

The loose-f it t i n g r i n g , whose diameter i s consider-

ably l a r g e r than t h a t o f t h e shaft, d i p s i n t o the l u b r i c a n t rese r v o i r beneath the bearing and c a r r i e s o i l t o the top o f t h e
shaft by a viscous l i f t i n g process.

Wick L u b r i c a t i o n

Wick-feed systems are used e i t h e r i n low-speed machinery o r

i n gyro and momentum wheel applications.

I n both cases the

bearing c a v i t y i s packed w i t h e i t h e r f e l t o r a porous p l a s t i c

capable o f providing a l u b r i c a n t reservoir.

Both the f e l t and

t h e porous p l a s t i c h o l d o i l by c a p i l l a r y forces.

A wick bridg-

i n g the o i l r e s e r v o i r supplies the required q u a n t i t y o f l u b r i cant t o t h e bearing.

I n some designs the r e s e r v o i r i s located above the bearing
t o make use o f g r a v i t y f l o w i n the wick.

Care must be taken t o

adjust t h e wick so t h a t a very l i g h t contact i s made w i t h t h e

slinger, o r the wick may be charred.

Separator L u b r i c a t i o n

Separator l u b r i c a t i o n systems are used mainly i n instrument

bearings, where the bearings are n o t r e a d i l y accessible f o r rel u b r i c a t i o n and t h e system i s s e n s i t i v e t o torque perturba-*.
tions.

Cotton-base phenolic separators have been most fre-.

quently used (as pointed o u t i n Section 2.5).

The separators

are impregnated w i t h e i t h e r mineral o r synthetic o i 1s.

During

operation t h e l u b r i c a n t i s t r a n s f e r r e d from t h e separator onto

t h e b a l l and hence reaches the ball-race contact.

Separator l u b r i c a t i o n systems o f f e r the advantages o f compactness and r e l a t i v e l y low torque varS ation.

Their disadvan-

tages include d i f f i c u l t i e s encountered i n l u b r i c a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n

and r e t e n t i o n t h a t r e s u l t i n premature f a i l u r e .

Because sepa-

rator-impregnated b e a r i ngs a l s o have iow heat-removal capabi l-

ity, they severely 1i m i t t h e maximum permissible operat ing

speeds.

Dry L u b r i c a t i o n

Dry l u b r i c a t i o n i s mainly employed f o r high-temperature o r

cryogenic operations where known l i q u i d l u b r i c a n t s lose t h e i r
1i q u i d i t y analor are subject t o chemical changes such as excess i v e oxidation.

The most common d r y l u b r i c a n t s have a base o f

molybdenum d i s u l f i d e (MoSZ), p o l y t e t r a f luoroethylene (PTFE)

o r carbon powder.
are also available.

Materials combining a l l three d r y l u b r i c a n t s

The l u b r i c a n t i s applied t o m e t a l l i c sepa-

r a t o r s as a coating o r i s incorporated i n t o the cage material.

Lubricant i s t r a n s f e r r e d from t h e cage onto t h e ball-race cont a c t s as i n the case o f separator-impregnated l u b r i c a t i o n , by
t h e b a l l s l i d i n g against the cage pocket w a l l and t r a n s f e r r i n g
t h e l u b r i c a n t i n t o t h e b a l l - r w e contact area (e.g.,
e t al.,

Brewe,

1969).

Dry-lubricated bearings o f t e n have r e l a t i v e l y h i g h wear

rates, which l i m i t t h e i r u s e f u l l i f e .

Because o f t h i s l i m i t a -

t i o n such bearings are generally employed o n l y i n applications

where conventional l u b r i c a n t s become incapable of meeting t h e
harsh operating requirements.

3.7 Closure

I n t h i s chapter load-deflection r e l a t i o n s h i p s have been

developed f o r any type o f e l l i p t i c a l contact.

The deformation

w i t h i n t h e contact i s a function, among c t h e r things, o f t h e

e l l i p t i c i t y parameter and t h e e l l i p t i c i n t e g r a l s of the f i r s t
and second kinds.

Simp1 i f i e d expressions have been w r i t t e n i n

Section 3.2 t h a t allow deformation t o be c a l c u l a t e d quickly, and

generally w i t h adequate accuracy.
The nethods developed i n Section 3.3 t o c a l c u l a t e t h e d i s -

tri bution o f load among t h e b a l l s i n a complete bearing can be

used i n most applications because r o t a t i o n a l speeds are usual l y
slow t o moderate.

Under these conditions t h e e f f e c t s o f b a l l

c e n t r i f u g a l forces and gyroscopic motnents are n e g l i g i b l e .

At

high r o t a t i o n a l speeds these body forces become s i g n i f i c a n t and

tend t o a l t e r contact angles and clearances.

They can thus

g r e a t l y a f f e c t the s t a t i c load d i s t r i b u t i o n .

The e f f e c t o f

these parameters on high-speed-beari ng load d i s t r i b u t i o n has

been discussed i n Section 3.4.
B a l l bearings can f a i l from a number o f causes; b u t i f a l l
o t h e r hazards are avoided, they w i l l eventually f a i l because of

m a t e r i a l fatigue.

The f a t i g u e l i f e o f a bearing i s normally

defined i n terms o f i t s s t a t i s t i c a l a b i l i t y t o survive f o r a

c e r t a i n time.

The predominant f a c t o r i n determining the fatigue

l i f e o f a b a l l bearing i s the dyndmic load factor,

I n Section

3.5 t h i s f a c t c r has been discussed and combined w i t h expressions

f o r the s t a t i c load capacity from previous sections t o enable
the f a t i g u e l i f e o f a b a l l bearing t o be evaluated.

I n that

section material, processing, and l u b r i c a t i o n f a c t o r s were also

introduced i n an adjusted fatigue l i f e expression t h a t g r e a t l y
improves p r e d i c t i o n o f b a l l bearing performance.

Ball bearings can be s a t i s f a c t o r i l y l u b r i c a t e d w i t h a small

amount of an appropriate l u b r i c a n t supplied t o the r i g h t area
w i t h i n the bearing.

The s e l e c t i o n of an appropriate lubricant

and t h e l u b r i c a t i o n systems t h a t provide a constant f l o w o f l u b r i c a n t t o the contact have been discussed i n Section 3-6.

SYHBOLS
constant used I n equation (3.113)

A*, B*, C*,

D*, L*, M*

r e l a x a t i o n coeffjcients
drag area o f .ball, n2
semimajor axis of contact e l l i p s e , m
a/2iii
t o t a l conformity o f bearing
semiminor axis of contact e l l i p s e , m
b/ ;2;
dynamic load capacity,

drag c o e f f i c i e n t
constants
19,609 ~lcrn' (24.440 l b f / in2)
number o f equal d i v i s i o n s o f semimajor axis
distance between race curvature centers, m
material factor
defined by equation (5.63)
Deborah number
b a l l diameter, m
number o f d i v i s i o n s i n semiminor a x i s
o v e r a l l diameter o f bearing (Figure 2.13).

bore dia%eter, m
p i t c h diameter, m
p i t c h djameter after dynamic e f f e c t s have acted on b a l l , m
inner-race diameter, m
outer-race diameter, m

modulus o f e l a s t i c i t y , ~

/ m ~

/(':;

e f f e c t i v e e l a s t i c modulus, 2

;,.'),

./m2

i n t e r n a l energy, m2 1s2
processi ng f a c t o r
[(qmin

- Hmin)/HminI

x 100

e l l i p t f c i n t e g r a l o f second k i n d w i t h modulus (1

- l / k 2 ) 1/2

approximate e l 1 i p t i c i n t e g r a l o f second k i n d
dispersion exponent
n o m a l applled load, N
normal applied load per u n i t length, N l m
lubrication factor
integrated normal applied load, N
c e n t r i f u g a l force, N
maximum normal appl i e d load ( a t $ = 0). N
applied r a d i a l load, N
applied t h r u s t load, N
nornal applied load a t angle $, N
e l l i p t i c i n t e g r a l o f f i r s t k i n d w i t h modulus ( 1
approximate e l l i p t i c i n t e g r a l o f f i r s t k i n d
race conformity r a t i o
rms surface f i n i s h o f b a l l , m
rms s u r f ace f i n i s h o f race, m
dimensionless m a t e r i a l s parameter, aE
f l u i d shear modulus, N / I ~ ~
hardness f a c t o r
g r a v i t a t i o n a l constant, m/s2

63

- 1/k2) 112

dimensionless e l a s t i c i t y parameter, W 813,"2

dimensjonless v i s c o s i t y parmeter, GW3 /U 2
dimensionless f il m thickness, h/Rx

2 3
dimensionless f i l m thickness, H ( U I U ) ~ = F2h/u2noRx
dimensionless central f i l m thickness, hc/R,
dimensionless central f i l m thickness f o r starved
l u b r i c a t i o n condition
f r i c t i o n a l heat, N m/s
dimensionless minimum f il m thickness obtained from EHL
e l 1iptical-contact theory
dimensionless minimum f i l m thickness f o r a rectangular
contact
dimensionless minimum f il m ttiickness f o r starved
l u b r i c a t i o n condition
dimensionless c e n t r a l f i l m thickness obtained from
least-squares f i t o f data
dimensionless minimum f i l m thickness obtajned from
least-squares f i t o f data
dimensionless central-f ilm-thickness

- speed parameter,

dimensionless minimum-f ilm-thickness

- speed parameter,

new estimate of constant i n f i l m thickness equation

f i l m thickness, rn

c e n t r a l f i l m thickness, m
i n l e t f i l m thickness, m

f il m thickness a t p o i n t o f maximum pressure, where

dpldx

0, m

minimum f i l m thickness, m
constant, m
diametral interference, m
b a l l mass moment o f i n e r t i a , m N s2
i n t e g r a l defined by equation (3.76)
i n t e g r a l defined by equation (3.75)
function of

k defined by equation (3.8)

mechanical equivalent o f heat

p o l a r moment o f i n e r t i a , m N s2
load-def l e c t i o n constant
e l 1 i p t i c i t y parameter, a/b
approximate e l 1i p t i c i t y parameter
thermal conductivity, N l s 'C
l u b r i c a n t thermal conduct i v i ty, N/s ' C
fatigue l i f e
adjusted f a t i g u e l i f e
reduced hydrodynamic 1 ift, from equation (6.21)
lengths defined i n Figure 3.11, m
fatigue 1i f e where 90 percent o f bearing population w i l l
endure
f a t i g u e l i f e where 50 percent o f bearing population w i l l
endure
bearing length, m
constant used t o determine w i d t h o f side-leakage region
moment, Nm

65

gyroscopic moment,

Nn

dimensionless load-speed parameter, UlJ' 0.75

torque required t o produce spin, N M
mass o f ball, N sZ/m
dimensionless i n l e t distance a t boundary between f u l l y
f 1ooded and starved conditions

dimensionless i n l e t distance (Figures 7.1 and 9.1)

number o f divisions o f semimajor o r semiminor axis
dimensionless i n l e t distance boundary as obtained from
Wedeven, e t al, (1971)
r o t a t i o n a l speed, rpm
number o f b a l l s
ref pact ive i n d e ~
constant used t o determine length of o u t l e t region
dimensionless pressure
dimensionless pressure differertce
diametral clearance, m
f r e e endpl ay, m
dimensionless Hertzian pressure, N l m2
pressure, N/m2
maximum pressure w i t h i n contact, 3F(2nab, N/m2
isoviscous asymptotic pressure, N/m2
s o l u t i o n t o homogeneous Reynolds equation
thermal loading parameter
dimensionless mass flow r a t e per u n i t width. q n 0 / P d 8 ~ 2
reduced pressure parameter
volume flow r a t e per u n i t width i n x
66

direction, m2 I s

volume f l o w r a t e per u n i t w i d t h i n y direction, "121s

curvature sum, m
a r i t h m e t i c a l mean d e v i a t i o n defined i n equation (4.1). m
operational hardness of hearing m a t e r i a l
e f f e c t i v e radeIus i n x d i r e c t i o n , m
e f f e c t i v e radius f n y d i r e c t i o n , m
race curvature radius, m
r a d i i o f curvature, m
c y l i n d r i c a l p o l a r coordinates
spherical p o l a r coordinates
defined i n Figure 5.4
geometric separation, m
geometric separation f o r l i n e contact, m
empirical constant
shoulder height, m
01pmax
tangential ( t r a c t i o n ) force, N
temperature, 'C
b a l l s u r f ace temperature, 'C
average l u b r i c a n t temperature, 'C
b a l l surface temperature r i s e , 'C
('01pmax 1t=l
viscous drag force, N
time, s
a u x i l i a r y parameter
v e l o c i t y of b a l 1-race contact, mls

velocity o f b a l l center, m/s

d i m s ionless speed parameter, nou/EtRx
surface velocity i n d i r e c t i o n of notion, (u, + ub)/2. m/s
number of stress cycles per revolution
s l i d i n g velocity, ua

- ub,

mls

surface velocity i n transverse dqrection, mls

dlmensicnless load parameter, F/E@R*
surface velocity i n direction of f i l m , m/s
dimensionless coordinate, x/Rx
dimension less coordinate, y/Rx
dimensionless grouping from equation (6.14)
external forces,

constant defined by equation (3.48)

viscosity pressure index, a dimensionless constant

coord inate system

pressure-vi scosity coefficient o f lubrication, $IN'

radius ratio, Ry/Rx
contact angle, rad
free or i n i t i a l contact angle, rad
iterated value of contact angle, rad
curvature difference
viscous dissipation, ~ l i ns ~
t o t a l s t r a i n rate, s-l
e l a s t i c s t r a i n rate, s-l
Y ~ S C O U Ss t r a i n

rate, so'
68

flow angle, deg

t o t a l e l a s t i c deformation, m
l u b r i c a n t v i s c o s i t y temperature c o e f f i c i e n t , oc- 1
e l a s t i c deformat i o n due t o pressure difference, m
r a d i a l displacement, m
a x i a l displacement, m
displacement a t some l o c a t i o n x, m
approximate e l a s t i c deformat ion, m
e l a s t i c deformation o f r e c t a n g u l a r area, m
c o e f f i c i e n t o f determination
strain i n axial direction
s t r a i n i n transverse d i r e c t i o n
angle between b a l l r o t a t i o n a l a x i s and bearing
c e n t e r l i n e (Figure 3.10)
yrobabi 1i t y o f s u r v i v a l
absolute v i s c o s i t y a t gauge pressure, N slm2
dimensionless v i s c o s i t y , n I n

v i s c o s i t y a t atmospheric pressure, N s/m2

6.31x10-~ N sl18(0.0631

cPj

angle used t o d e f i n e shoulder h e i g h t

f il m parameter ( r a t i o o f f il m thickness t o composite

s u r f ace roughness)
equals 1 f o r outer-race c o n t r o l ana 0 f o r inner-race
control
second c o e f f i c i e n t o f v i s c o s i t y
Archard-Cowking side-leakage f a c t o r , ( 1
relaxation factor
69

213

t~~1-l

coefficient o f sliding f r i c t i o n

Poisson's r a t i o
divergence of v e l o c i t y vector, ( t u l a x ) + (avlay) + ( a ) , sol
l u b r i c a n t density, N s2 /m 4
dimens ionless density,

o/p

0
densSty a t atmospheric pressure, N s2 /m4
normal stress, Nlm2

stress i n a x i a l direction, N/m2

shear stress, N/&
maximum subsurface shear stress, N/m2
shear stress, N/m 2
equivalent stress, Nlm2
l i m i t i n g shear stress, N/m 2
r a t i o o f depth o f maximum shear stress t o semiminor a x i s o f
contact e l l ipse

a u x i l i a r y angle
thermal reduction f a c t o r
angular l o c a t i o n
1i m i t i n g value o f $
absolute angular v e l o c i t y o f inner race, r a d l s
absolute angular v e l o c i t y o f outer race, r a d l s
angular velocity, rad/s
"'B
"'b

angular v e l o c i t y of ball-race contact, r a d l s

angular v e l o c i t y o f b a l l about i t s own center, rad/s

10
0

angular v e l o c i t y o f Q a l l around s h a f t center, r a d / s

b a l l spin r o t a t i o n a l velocity, rad/s

Subscripts:
solid

solid b
central
b a l l center

isovi scous-el ast i c regime

i s o v i s c o u s - r i g i d regime

inner r a c e
Kapitza
minimum
iteration
outer race
P VE

p i e z o v i scous-elast i c regime

PVR

p i e z o v i scous-rigid regime
f o r rectangul ar area
f o r starved c o n d i t i o n s

X,Y .Z

coordinate system

Superscript :

(-1

approximate

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J. Lubr. Techno l., 100(3), 404-417.

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Table 3 , l Conparlrm of Apprwlmrb and Exrot Formulu

nrdlur
Ratlo,

%IR,

Elllpticlty
k

-k

Par*
oant
Ecmr

Elliptic Inttayralr

Wond
kind
Peraent
Error

Daformation at Center of Contaet

Fir#t
kind
J

Parcent
Error

Numerlcrl,
From
PerCurve
Fit
C@nt
6,
om
Equatlon, Error

Table 3,2 Effect of kwee of Conformity on Contact Parameters

[FQ~all three essee, El = 2.28~10" s/mZ (steel an steel),
F = 4 , 4 5 N , and r n r r r r =6,35mm, Fortilaball-.
aY
outer ring aontact, da 65 mm. p 0'. fo = 0.02
(aasurno 209 radial ball bearing).]

Contnct

h l l on Ball

Ball on Plane

- Outer

Ring Contact

Parameters
'bx

Ball

6.35 mm

-38.9 m m

Table 3,3 &ear Strerr Parmeterr nu a ?hnotion

of Inverre Elllptlalty PIrambter

Ponaent error

-0.63

-0.55

Table 3.4 Ratio of $ N ~ to Dlnamlc

Capacity for Four Baaring Bore Diameters
Bore
Diameter,

db*
mrn

EN^

~ n m i c
Capaclt~,
C

-0.68

-0.75

-0.36

0.60

Tablo 3.5 Matorlrl Faotor

for Throughhardened
Bearlng Materlrls
krom Bunberger, et al.
(1971). Air-melted
materials assumed,]
Material

@N~/c
52100

M- 1

M- 2

M-10
M-50

T-1
Halmo
M-42

WB-49

Matarlal
Factor,
D

Figure 2 1 Conbct arms in a ball baring.

Figure 3.2 Pt~crfurcdistribution in an eilipsoid8l wnbd

Cuwrturr ntio, R4Rw

Figun 11 Elliplicity p l f m b r and rlliplic integrals d first and second kinds as r

functbn d curvature ratio.

(b) Ball on pbne,

- outer-ring conbd

(c) MI(

Figure 3.4 Three drgms of conformity.

(c) hterkrmce.

Figure 3.5 Radb!Cf lonlsd ball brrflng.

Figure 1 6 Conbd ellipse In bmring race.

Figure 3.7 Angukrsontilct bll b r i n g under thrust bad.

Figure X 8 hCnrl1It raulting from w M n d

Wing of btl Wring,

Figure 3.9 Ball forces and mornants at high-sped

conditbs.

Figure 3 10 Ball mtkn vecbrs,

Final wltlon d innerram curvature cantar:

l------

FO

Fixad-outer-ram
curvrtun onbr

L2

----------------r .:

Figure 3.12 Ball Wring lrtlgua tile distribution,

95
90
a0
70

60

Ti:

k,

9 20

'g '0
ul

Sprcirnan lifa, milllons d strrss cyela

Figure I13 -1yplal WeiWlI plot d b r i n g ktlgu8 bilura,

g
4

.P

f
?

hnrr-rre curvature ratb, ti

Figure 1 1 4 Baring fatigue life as r function

of race curvature. From Winn, etai. (1914).
Ball diameter, d , 4 76 mm IQ1815 in, 1:
number of b l i s , n, 10; pitch dhmhr, ,d,
28.5 mrn (1,122 in. inltkl oonbd angle, h,
20; radial load, F, 9 thrust b d , Ft, 445 N
(100 Ib).

15

25
30
35
Initial contact angle, 4, dog

20

Flgure 3.15 Typiul variation of fatigue life 8s a

function of initial contadangle.

Film pnrameter, A

Figure 3.16 Lubriution kctor at t fundion of film prametu.