CHAPTER 1:

INTRODUCTI
ON TO
BIOLOGY
Characteristics of living things
Biological organization
Classification

Cell structure and function

THE SCIENCE OF BIOLOGY

Biology the scientific study of life.

Organism All living things that possess
characteristics of life.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING
THINGS
Respiration sugars are broken down
Nutrition obtaining energy
Metabolism chemical processes
Excretion elimination of waste product
Sensitivity - stimulus
Locomotion characteristics in response to
environment
Growth & Development irreversible - increase
Reproduction produce other individual
Homeostasis maintain condition
Adaptation behavior

BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

Biosphere
Ecosystem
Communities
Populations
Organisms
Organ & Organ Systems
Tissues
Cells
Organelles
Molecules
Atoms

SYSTEMATICS
The scientific study of the diversity of living
things.
Binomial system of nomenclature scientific
name of each organism used by international
agreement
Scientific name consist of two words in Latin
The first (noun) word is genus name
The second (an adjacent) word is species name
Generic name is capitalized, species name is not
and should be typed different from normal text
If written, scientific name should be underlined

TAXONOMY DEVELOPING A
CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
Taxonomy
organisms
Why classify?

the

science

of

classifying

Category

No. of species

Ontario mosquitoes

>50

Fish of Lake Malawi,

Africa

>1000

Wasps

>100000

Seed producing plants

>260000

all

EARLY SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION

Taxonomy is the branch of
biology that names and
groups organisms according
to their characteristics and
evolutionary history.
Organisms
were
first
classified more than 2,000
years ago by the Greek
philosopher Aristotle.

EARLY SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION

First

systematic classification Plants and

Animals
Then, organisms were grouped into land
dwellers, water dwellers, and air dwellers.
Plants were placed into three categories based
on the differences in their stems.
As new organisms were discovered, his
system became inadequate.
Categories

were not specific enough.

Common names did not describe a species accurately.
Names were long and hard to remember.

MODERN SYSTEM : HIERARCHY

SEVEN LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
Carolus Linnaeus (mid-1700)s
was a Swedish biologist who
established a simple system for
classifying
and
naming
organisms.
He developed a Hierarchy (a
ranking system) for classifying
organisms that is the Basis for
Modern Taxonomy.
For
this
reason,
he
is
considered to be father of
modern taxonomy.

Early classification systems was based on the

philosophical assumption that each type of
organism held a fixed position or rank on a scale
from lowest to highest.
Human were placed positioned on top, mammals
and birds were above frogs and fish and all animals
were above plants

This

hierarchy referred to as the Great Chain of Being,

or the scala naturae - resulted in very complex plants
positioned below the simplest animals
This philosophy also mentioned that species were fixed,
unchanging over time
Linnaeus doubted the fixed nature and theorized that
new species may arise through hybridization

MODERN SYSTEM A NESTED HIERARCHYSEVEN LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

Modern

System:

kingdom (plant and animal) was divided into

a phylum* (division for plants)
Each phylum into a smaller groups called class.
Each class was divided into an order.
Each order was divided into family (families).
Each family was divided into a genus (pluralgenera)
Each genus was divided into a species.
Each

*Note: Phyla and family were not in Linnaeuss classification system but were
added by modern scientists.

THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

Prokaryotes are organisms without a cell

nucleus,
or
any
other
membrane-bound
organelles. Most are unicellular, but some
prokaryotes are multicellular - bacteria
Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells are
organized into complex structures by internal
membranes and a cytoskeleton. The most
characteristic membrane bound structure is the
nucleus - Animals, plants, fungi, and protists

HOW IS LIFE CLASSIFIED?

Before 1969:Life was classified into two kingdoms: Plant

Kindgom Animal Kingdom

From 1969 1990:Life was classified into 5 Kingdoms: Monera,

Protista, Plantae, Fungi, Animalia, by R.H. Whittaker using
classification according to Linnaeus based onanatomy,
morphology, embryology, and cell structure.

Virusesare not in ANY of these kingdom - scientists do not

classify them as 'alive')

Different researchers have proposed anywhere from 6 kingdoms

to dozens of kingdoms debate continues kingdoms are
grouped into 3 even higher levels called domains

DOMAINS OF LIFE

3 Domains of Life
1.
2.
3.

Domain Bacteria
prokaryotes
Domain Archaea
Domain Eukarya eukaryotes

EUBACTERIA DOMAIN

Eubacteria, true bacteria are small, prokaryotic,

single-celled organisms
Most Eubacteria are saprophytes, decomposing dead
organic matter for energy
Some live in anaerobic environments (anoxic mud, guts
of herbivores), while others are aerobic.

ARCHAEA DOMAIN

The Archaea are the extremophiles, many living in some

of the least hospitable habitats on Earth.
They have been discovered living in hot springs as hot as
140-176oF in hot springs at Yellowstone National Park
Others live as symbionts or free-living cells at deep seas
hydrothermal vents at over 212oF.
Some Archaea are decomposers in very anaerobic
environments, such as marshes (btw water & land)
Some live in the digestive systems of animals and other
species live in very salty environments like Great Salt
Lake.

EUCARYA DOMAIN

Eukaryotes are much larger than prokaryotes, that

allow them to have specialized membranous
organelles. There are several different divisions
(kingdoms) in the Domain Eucarya.
Kingdom Protista
Kingdom Fungi
Kingdom Plantae
Kingdom Animalia

KINGDOM PROTISTA

Traditionally, most single-celled eukaryotes were

lumped together in a group called the Protista.
The Protista also contains a few multicellular
colonial members.
There are three major lines of evolution within
Protista.
Plant-like autotrophs (Algae)
Animal-like heterotrophs (Protozoa)
Fungus-like heterotrophs (Slime molds)

KINGDOM FUNGI

More commonly known as fungus and are multicellular

and non-motile.
They form networks of multicellular filaments which
penetrate their environment.
Most species are decomposers
They secrete hydrolytic enzymes which digest dead
organic matters into smaller molecules which the
fungus absorbs.
A few fungi are parasites, especially of plants,
sometimes animals.

KINGDOM PLANTAE

About 500 million years ago, a group of green

algae developed adaptations that enabled them to
invade the land. These are known as plants.
Plants
are
nonmotile,
terrestrial,
and
multicellular
organisms.
They
contain
chlorophyll and produce their own organic
compounds. All plant cells have a cellulose cell
wall.

KINGDOM ANIMALIA

In this kingdom, all animals

heterotrophic, and multicellular.

are

motile,

THE NUCLEUS

An organelle that contains all the DNA in a

eukaryotic cell
Small

amounts of DNA are present in 2 other

organelles chloroplasts and mitochondria

Protects the DNA/genetic material

Nuclear Envelope
Nucleolus

Forms incomplete ribosomes

NUCLEAR ENVELOPE

Nucleus surrounded by double membrane called

nuclear envelope
2 lipid bilayer folded together
Outer bilayer continuous with
endoplasmic reticulum, ER

the

membrane

of

Membrane protein work with the lipid bilayer to

transport various molecules across the nuclear
membrane
Allows water and gases to cross freely
Other substances can only enter and exit with help of
a system of transporters and pumps

Measure of safety for the DNA and cell to regulate

production of RNA and proteins

NUCLEOLUS

Enclosed by the nuclear envelope nucleus

contains nucleoplasm viscous fluid also
contain at least 1 nucleolus a dense irregularly
shaped region where subunits of ribosome's
assembled from proteins and RNA

THE ENDO-MEMBRANE SYSTEM

Group of interacting organelles between the nucleus
and the plasma membrane
Function :

to

make lipid, enzymes and other proteins for secretion or

insertion into cell membranes
Destroying toxins and recycling wastes

Components
Nucleus

Endoplasmic

Rough ER
Smooth ER

Vesicles
Golgi

body

reticulum

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Extension of the nuclear envelope forms a
continuous compartment that folds repeatedly into
flattened sacs and tubes
Rough ER

Many

thousands of ribosome's are attached to the outer

surface synthesize polypeptide chains released to
interior of ER protein fold and take on their structure
Cells that make, store and secrete a lot of proteins have lot
of rough ER pancreas make and secrete enzymes that
help to digest food in small intestine

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

Smooth ER
No

ribosomes does not make proteins

Some of polypeptide that are made in the rough ER
end up in smooth ER as enzymes

Produce most of the cells membrane lipid

Also breakdown carbohydrates, fatty acids and some drugs
and poisons.

VESICLES
Membrane enclosed, saclike organelles
Some transport proteins from one organelle to
another/to and from plasma membrane
Peroxisome contains enzymes that digest fatty
acids and amino acids

Form

and divide on their own

Inactivating hydrogen peroxide a toxic by product of
fatty acid breakdown
Enzymes catalase in peroxisome covert H2O2
H20 + 0 / use H2O2 in reactions that breakdown alcohol
and other toxins

VESICLES

Plant and animal cells contain vesicles - Vacuoles

Like

trash can isolate and dispose of wastes, debris, and

toxic materials

Plant cell large central

Amino

acids, sugars, ions, wastes and toxins accumulate

Fluid pressure keeps plant cell (stems and leaves) firm

Lysosomes vesicles that contain digestive enzyme

Fuse

with vacuoles to digest contents

OTHER ORGANELLES

Mitochondrion specialize in making ATP

Occurs

inside and require oxygen (with each breath you

take in oxygen to be used by mitochondria)
Cell that have high demand of energy have many
mitochondria
Has 2 membranes one highly folded inside the other

Two compartments : mitochondrial matrix ( the interior) and

intermembrane space (space between 2 mitochondrial
membranes)

OTHER ORGANELLES

Plastids membrane enclosed organelles that are used

for photosynthesis/storage in plants and algal cells

Chloroplasts, as well as any other pigment containing

cytoplasmic organelles that enables the harvesting and
conversion of light and carbon dioxide into food and energy,
are plastids

Chloroplasts

Photosynthetic cells of plants and many protists

Specialize for photosynthesis
2 outer membrane enclose a semifluid interior called stroma

Contain enzymes and chloroplasts DNA

Inside stroma third highly folded membrane forms a single
compartment

OTHER ORGANELLES

Chromoplasts
Make

and store pigments other than chlorophyll

Have orange and red carotenoids pigments that
colour many flowers, leaves, fruits and roots

Autumn chlorophyll broken down

Fruits tomato ripens green chloroplast converted to red
chromoplasts colour changes

Amyloplasts

Unpigmented

In

plastids store starch grains

Abundant in cells of stems, tubers (underground stems) and

seeds

some plants function as gravity sensing organelles

CYTOSKELETON
Between nucleus and plasma membrane of
eukaryotic cell
An interconnected system of many protein filaments
Provides cell structure, helps with cell division, and
enables the cell and inner organelles to move around

CYTOSKELETON

Microtubule

Microfilament

Long, hollow cylinder that consists of subunits of

protein tubulin
Form a dynamic scaffolding for many cellular processes
assembling and disassembling when required
Fiber that consist primarily of protein actin
Strengthen or change the shape of eukaryotic cells
In muscle cell myosin and actin interact contraction

Intermediate filaments

Fibrous proteins strengthen and maintain cell and

tissue structure

CYTOSKELETON

Flagella

Whip-like

structure that propels cells such as sperm

through fluid

Cilia

Coordinated

beating propels motile cell through fluid

and stirs fluid around stationary cells

Pseudopods
Lobes

move cell and engulf target

CELL STRUCTURE
Cell wall in plant cell outer barrier
surround plasma membrane - gives structure to
plant
Extracellular matrix (ECM) a molecular system
that supports and protects a cell
Cell junction interact with other cells and with
its surrounding