Soil Formation

Soil can be defined as the solid material on the Earths surface that results from the interaction of
weathering and biological activity on the parent material or underlying hard rock.
Soil is formed as a result of the interaction of many factors, the most important of which are:
climate, living organisms, relief, parent material and time.

1. Climate
Climate involves both local (microclimatic) and global (macroclimatic) considerations. The key
components of climate in soil formation are moisture and temperature.
i.

Moisture

Soil moisture depends on several factors:

The form and intensity of precipitation (water, snow, sleet)

A method of defining the soil moisture regime of the soil is using water balance calculations.
Such a calculation is based on the measurement of rainfall distribution, a calculation of the
potential evapotranspiration, and an assessment of surface runoff and infiltration. The primary
topographic attributes slope and aspect have a major impact on soil moisture. The depth of soil
profiles also influences the soil moisture content. Thick soil profiles are able to store large
amounts of water. The shallower a soil profile the less water can be stored. Such soils are prone
to low soil moisture contents. Soil texture influences the soil moisture content, where assumed
the same climatic conditions, sandy soils have the tendency for low soil moisture content, silty
soils for average soil moisture contents, and clayey soils for high soil moisture contents.
When soil moisture is high, as in wet or humid climates, there is a net downward movement of
water in the soil for most of the year, which usually results in greater leaching of soluble
materials, sometimes out of the soil entirely, and the translocation of clay particles from upper to
lower horizons. In arid climates there is net upward movement of water in the soil, due to high
evapotranspiration rates, which results in upward movement of soluble materials (e.g. salts).
These accumulated materials can become cemented (pans), which are impenetrable to roots and
lower infiltration tremendously.
ii.

Temperature

Temperature varies with latitude and altitude, and the extent of absorption and reflection of solar
radiation by the atmosphere. Solar radiation (direct radiation and diffuse radiation) increases with
elevation, differs seasonally, and is influenced by cloud cover or other atmospheric disturbance

(e.g. air pollution). The absorption of the solar radiation at the soil surface is affected by many
variables such as soil color, vegetation cover, and aspect. In general, the darker the soil color, the
more radiation is absorbed and the lower the albedo. The effect of vegetative cover on absorption
varies with density, height, and color of the vegetation. Hence the absorption differs in areas with
deciduous trees (soil surface is shaded by trees most of the year) and arable land (soil surface is
not shaded throughout the year). Light, or whitish-colored, soil surfaces tend to reflect more
radiation. When incoming solar radiation is reflected, there is less net radiation to be absorbed
and heat the soil. Snow is especially effective in reflecting the incoming solar radiation. Soil
moisture controls also the heating up or cooling down of soils. Water has a high specific heat
capacity (1 cal g-1 C), whereas dry soils have a specific heat capacity of about 0.2 cal g-1 C.
This means that sandy soils cools and heats more rapidly than soils high in silt or clay. Once a
wet soil is warmed, it takes longer to cool than a dry soil. Temperature also influences the degree
of thawing and freezing (physical weathering) in cold regions.

2. Organisms
The soil and the organisms living on and in it comprise an ecosystem. The active components of
the soil ecosystem are the vegetation, fauna, including microorganisms, and man.
Organisms influencing soil development range from microscopic bacteria to large
animals including man. Microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi assist in the
decomposition of plant litter. This litter is mixed into the soil by macro organisms
(soil animals) such as worms and beetles. Soil horizons are less distinct when there
is much soil organism activity. Higher plants influence the soil in many ways. The
nature of the soil humus is determined by the vegetation cover and resultant litter
inputs. Roots contribute dead roots to the soil, bind soil particles together and can
redistribute and compress soil.

3. Relief
Relief is not static; it is a dynamic system (its study is called geomorphology). Relief
influences soil formation in several ways:
o

It influences soil profile thickness i.e. as angle of slope increases so

it has an effect on climate which is also a soil forming factor

gradient affects run-off, percolation and mass movement

it influences aspect which creates microclimatic conditions

In this photograph soils are thin on the glacially eroded rock outcrops but are much
deeper on the raised beach deposits in the foreground.

4. Parent Material
This is the material from which the soil has developed and can vary from solid rock
to deposits like alluvium and boulder clay. It has been defined as the initial state of
the soil system.

The parent material can influence the soil in a number of ways:

colour

texture

structure

mineral composition

permeability/drainage

This soil has developed on Old Red Sandstone and so has derived its distinctive
colour from its parent material.

5. Time
Time acts on soil formation in two ways:
The value of a soil forming factor may change with time (e.g. climatic change, new
parent material).
The extent of a pedogenetic reaction depends on the time for which it has operated.
Soils develop very slowly; in Britain it takes about 400 years for 10mm of soil to
develop. Young soils retain many of the characteristics of the parent material. Over
time they acquire other features resulting from the addition of organic matter and
the activity of organisms. The soils of Britain are relatively young because they are
largely post-glacial.
An important feature of soils is that they pass through a number of stages as they
develop, resulting in a deep profile with many well differentiated horizons.