1 and n> 1, then a=2 and n is prime, REMARK: The integers of the form 2° —1, where p is prime, are called Mersenne numbers. We denote them by My in memory of Marin Mersenne (1588-1688), who had stated that Mp is prime for p=2,8,5,7, 13,17,19,31, 67, 127,257 and composite for all the other primes p < 257. This assertion of Mersenne can be found in the preface of his book Cogita Physico-mathematica, pub- lished in Paris in 1644. Since then, we have found a few errors in the com- putations of Mersenne: indeed M, is not prime for p= 67 and p = 257, while My is prime for p = 61, p = 89 and p= 109. One can find in the appendiz C of the book of J.M. De Koninck and A. Mercier {8} the list of Mersenne primes My corresponding to the prime numbers p satisfying 2

2 such that a” +1 is prime, then a is even and n = 2" for a certain positive integer r, REMank: The prime numbers of the form 2° +1, k = 0,1,2,..., are called “Fermat primes". The reason is that Pierre de Fermnat claimed in 1640 (although saying he could not prove it} that all the numbers of the form 2* +1 are prime. One hundred years later, Buler proved that a +1 = 4294967297 = 641 - 6700417. As of today, we still do not know if, besides the cases k = 0,1,2.3,4, primes of the form 2%" +1 exist. Nevertheless, it is known that 2° + 1 is composite for 5 < k < 32; see H.C, Williams (41] and the site ww prothsearch.net/fermat htm, (187) Show that the equation (2*—1)(2¥—1) = 2" +1 is impossible for positive integers x,y and 2. (his implies in particular that a Fermat number, that is a number of the form 2%" + 1, cannot be the product of two Mersenne numbers.) (188) Prove by induction that, for each integer n> 1, FoF Pa-+ Fy where Fi = 2° +1,i=0,1,2, (180) Use the result of problem 188 in order to prove that ifm and m are distinct positive integers, then (Fy, F,) = 1 (190) A positive integer n is said to be pseudoprime in basis a > 2 if it is composite and if a”! = 1 {mod n). Find the smallest number which is pseudoprime in each of the bases 2, 3, 5 and 7. (191) Use Problem 189 to prove that there exist infinitely many primes. (192) Consider the numbers f, = 2°” +1, n = 1,2,..., and show they are all composite and in particuiar that, for each postive integer n, (2) 3°\fni—(b) ifn Plast (198) Show that there exist infini¢ely many prime numbers p such that the numbers p— 2 and p-+2 are both composite, (194) Show that 641 divides F; = 2° +1 without doing the explicit division. (195) Use an induction argument in order to prove that each Fermat amber Fy = 2" +1, where n > 2, ends with the digit 7. (196) Let x be a positive integer and consider the set B= {1,2,..-yn). Let 2" be the largest power of 2 which belongs to E, Show that for all m € B\ {2*}, we have 2* fmm. Using this result, show that S2"_, 1/7 is not an integer if n> 1 (197) Show that, for each positive integer n, one can find a prime number p < 50 such that p|(2* ~ 1). (198) Show that the integers defined by the sequence of munbers Me=pipee-Pe+1 (k= 12...)(199) (200) (201) (202) (203) (204) 1001 PROBLEMS IN CLASSICAL NUMBER THEORY ‘where p, stands for the j-th prime number, are prime numbers for 1 < k <5 and composite numbers for k = 6,7. What about Mg, Mg and Myo? Use the proof of Buclid’s Theazem on the infinitude of primes to show that, if we denote by p, the r-th prime number, then pp <2" for each ren. In Problem 199, we obtained an upper bound for p,, the r-th prime num ber, namely pr < 2"""", Use this inequality to obtain a lower bound for (2), the number of prime numbers < 2. More precisely, show that, for 223, n(z) > logtogs. Show that there exist infinitely many prime mumnbers of the form 4n +3. Show that there exist infinitely many prime nurubers of the form 6n +5. Let f: N—R be the function defined by f(a) =a," $a, 2a" +++ baie + a9, where a, #0 and where each aj, 0 < i 1 since (a!) = 0 as soon as n > log.r/log2. Show that w= 1) (a4),5. PRIME NUMBERS a REMARK: It is posible to show that f(z) isa better approximation of dt x(x) than Li(z) f iE (oe HRs (31). (209) Let n > 2 be an integer. Show that the interval [n,2n] contains at least cone perfect square. (210) If nis a positive integer such that $n? —3n+1 is composite, show that. n® cannot be written as n® = p-+m?, with p prime and m a positive integer. (211) Te is conjectured that there exist infinitely many prime nunbers p of the form p =n? +1. Identify the prieaes p < 10000 of this pacticular form. Why is the last digit of such a prime number p always 1 or 7? Is there any reasonable explanation for the fact that the digit 7 appears essentially twice as often? (212) Show that, for each integer n> 2, (ny! < TI ve (213) Ror each integer N > 1, let Sy = {n?+2:6 1 be an integer with at least 3 digits. Show that (a) 2[n if and only if the last digit of n is divisible by 2; (b) 22)n if and only if the number formed with the last two digits of n is divisible by (©) ®in if and only if the number formed with the last three digits of is divisible by 8. Can one generalize? (216) For each integer n > 2, let Show that lim P(n) = 1. (217) Prove that there exists an interval of the form {n2, (n+ 1)4) containing at Yeast. 1000 prime numbers. (218) Use the Prime Number Theorem (see Theorem 17) in order to prove that the set of numbers of the form p/q (where p and q are primes) is dense in the set of positive real numbers. (219) Show that the sum of the reciprocals of a finite number of distinet prime numbers cannot be an integer. (220) Use the fact that there exists a positive constant ¢ such that if x > 100, ” Tbe towiogs +e Mla) with te) <2 1001 PROBLEMS IN CLASSICAL NUMBER THEORY ‘and moreover that, for x > 2, @) (a): =Er} < oes in order to prove that if P(n) stands for the largest prime factor of m, then 1 9 (8) FAs 2: Pln) > Va} =log2+TUe) with IN) < 55 Use this result to show that more than 3 of the integers have their largest prime factor larger than their square root, or in other words that the density of the set of integers n such that P(n) > is larger than 2. (221) Prove the following formula (due to Adrien-Marie Legencire (1752-1843)): x(va)+ Duly [2] -1, (2) where r = x3). (222) Consider the following two conjectures ‘A. (Goldbach Conjecture) Each even integer > 4 can be written as the ‘sum of two primes. B. Bach integer > 5 can be written as the sum of three prime numbers. Show that these two conjectures are equivalent. (228) Show that +(m), the number of prime numbers not exceeding the positive integer m, satisfies the relation voy [5 i a where [y] stands for the largest integer < y- (224) Given a sequence of natural numbers A, let A(n) = #{m 0, $0 that A= (1,4,5,6,7,16,17,...31, 64,65, .., 127, 256,257, ...}2. PRIME NUMBERS 33 Show that dAgda (226) We say that a sequence of natural numbers A is primitive if no element of A divides another one. Examples of such sequences are: the sequence of rime numbers, the sequence of natural numbers having exactly k prime factors (k xed), and finally the sequence of integers n belonging to the interval Jk, 2k] (& fixed). Show that if A is a primitive sequence, then dach (297) Let A be a primitive sequence (see Problem 226). Show that Yaast™ tea 1184 (228) Let B= {a +by=5| a,b Z}. (a) Show that the sum and the product of elements of Bare in (b) Define the norm of an element = € Eby 2\|= lla-+by=3]| = a? +50? We say that an element p € E is prime if it is impossible to write p= nin, with m,nz € B, Imi > 1, |inall > 1; we say that it is composite if it is not priee. Show that, in B, 3 is a prime number ‘and 29 is a composite number. (c) Show that the factorization of 9 in B is not unique. (229) Let A be w set of natural numbers and let A(z) = #{n 1,1001 PROBLEMS IN CLASSICAL NUMBER THEORY 4. Representations of Numbers (230) A number m= didy~++de, where dh, da,....dy are the digits of n, is called fa palindrome if it remains unchanged when its digits are reversed, that is if m = dyd,1--d;. Hence the numbers 36763 and 437734 are both palindromes. Show that each palindrome having ant even number of digits is divisible by 12. (231) The smallest number n > 2 which is equal to the sum of the factorials of its digits in basis 16 is 1441 (here, 1441 = (6,6, 1s = 6! + 6!+ 1!). How ‘ean one find another such number n > 2 without using « computer? (282) Let r be a positive integer and let n be a number wiich can be written as a sum of r distinct factorial, that is for which there exist positive integers dy < dy <-.. < dy such that Nt dal +o + del Prove that such a representation is unique (233) Let c be a positive odd integer. Show that the equation 2? — y= 8e3 ~1 has no solutions in positive integers x and y, and use this to show that there exist infinitely many posi integers which are not of the form Pop (234) Show that the last four digits of the decimal representation of 5", for n= 4,5,6,... form a periodic sequence, What is this period? (235) Show that there exist infinitely many natural numbers which cannot be written as the sun of one, two or three cubes, (236) Show that every integer can be written as the sum of five cubes. (237) Given a positive integer n, let s(n) be the sum of its digits, so that for example s(12) = 3 and s(924) = 15. Find all pairs of integers m 1 is automorphic if the number n® ends with, the same digits asm, Hence 5, 25 and 625 are automorphic numbers. Show that there exist infinitely many automorphic numbers (244) Show that for each number n = dydy~+-dy > 9, where ds, d2,-...d, stand for the digits of nin basis 10, we have na dy dade 210 (245) Find the largest positive integer which is equal to the sum of the fifth powers ofits digits added to the product of its digits (246) Show how one ean construct the only sequence (ax) of positive integers having the following properties. a is made of k digits; (ii) % divides ax; (iii) a contains only the digits 1 and 2. Generate the first 14 terms of this sequence. (247) For each positive integer n, let s(n) be the sum of its digits. Given an integer k > 2 which is not a multiple of, let p(k ke the smallest prime number p such that s(p) = h, if such a prime number p exists. In the particular ease k = 2, it seems that there are only three prime numbers p such that s(p) =2, namely 2, 11 and 101, and we have in particular that (2) = 2. We also have that p(4) = 13, p(5) = 5, p(T) = 7, (8) = 17, (10) = 19, p(11) = 29, and s0 on; the function p(k) increases quite fast; for instance, (80) = 998999999, For each integex k > 2 which is not a multiple of 3, the candidates p such that s(p) = k appear to be numerens, ‘and in fact there seems to be infinitely many of them. It therefore appears that the function p(k) is well defined. However, itis not at all obvious that given a particular integer k > 2, one can always find at least one prime number p such that s(p) =k. Nevertheless, prove that if p(K) exists, then o(k) > (a+ 1)10"—1, where = [k/9] and a =k ~ 9b. (248) Given a positive integer m, set Pom) = T= LL eims where the infinite product runs over all positive integers n m. Show that nl net 2 an? nt+m Pom) = (-1)"5 (mt? TT (249) Find all positive integers n which ean be written as the sum of the facto- rials of their digits. (250) Find the only positive integer n = didz~+- dag, where di, g,...,day stand for the digits (an even number of them) of m, such that nim dit it att More precisely, proceed in two steps. First, show that there exists only a finite number of positive integers with this property. Afterwards, use a computer to find this number, thereby elaborating a process which allows ‘one to minimize the number of candidates.1001 PROBLEMS IN CLASSICAL NUMBER THEORY (251) Show that there exist exactiy six positive integers n with the property that the sum of their digits added to the sum of the cubes of their digits js equal to the number n itself, that is such that n= dydy---dy = dy + dg +-+-+d, + dh + dh te +, were dsda,-+.sdy stand for the digits of n. (252) Given a positive integer k; let g(k) be the smallest number which has the property that each positive integer can be written as rf+24+--+-28, ‘where the 2's are nonzegative integers. In 1770, Joseph-Louis Lagrange (1736-1813) showed that g(2) = 4. ‘The problem of calculating the value ‘of a(R) is known as the Waring problem. ‘The mere fact that the function 49(&) is well defined is not at all obvious; as a matter of fact, itis only in 1909 that David Hilbert (1862-1943) finally showed that 9(K) exists for cach positive integer k. It is conjectured that. a{k) <2 2+ lO] (20) Around 1772, Johannes Albert Euler (the son of the famous Leonhard Euler) proved that this last quantity is actually a lower bound for g(K). Reconstruct this proof by considering the integer n = q2* ~ 1, where the (gr <2), (253) Find the only positive integer whose square and cube, taken together, use all the digits from 0 to 9 exactly once. (254) Find the only positive integer whose square and cube, taken together, use all the digits from 0 to 9 exactly twice. (255) Show that there are only a finite number of positive integers whose square fand cube, taken together, uses all the digits from 0 to 9 exactly three times, and find these numbers. (256) A positive integer n having 2r digits, r > 1, is called a vampire number if it can be written as the product of two positive integers, each of r digits, the union of theie digits giving al the digits appearing in n. Hence 1260 = 21 x 60 is the smallest vampire number. Use a computer to find the seven vampire numbers made up of four digits, (257) Given a positive integer n = did, ---d,, where dh, dz,...,dy stand for the digits of n, we let gs(n) = df + dj +." +d. Find all positive integers n such that ga(ga(n)) =n. (258) Given a positive integer n = did ---d,, where d;,d2,...,d, stand for the digits of n, let f(n) = di! + dy! +--+ +dy!. For each positive integer k, let fi, stand for the k-th iteration of the function f, that is fi(n) = f(n), Jaln) = f(f(m)), and so on. Using a computer, show that, for every positive integer n, the iteration (9) Ailn), fal), fal), ---s ful), always ends up in an infinite loop. If n = 1, this loop is 1, 1, 1, -.+5 establish that if n > 2, then the iteration (+) eventually enters one of the following six loops:4, REPRESENTATIONS OF NUMBERS a 2,2,2, 145, 145, 145, . 169, 363601, 1454, 169, 871, 45361, 871, 872, 45362, $72, 40585, 40585, 40585, . (259) Let n,k be arbitrary integers larger than 1. Show that there exists a polynomial ;Az) of degree k with intexer coefficients and a positive integer ‘m such that n= p(7). (260) If the number 111...1, made of k times the digit 1, is prime, show that Ais prime. (261) Prove that itis impossible to find three prime numbers a1 <2 < qs such that @ nines = ab + a3 +a. What if, instead of (4), we have ) aviees = a2 +02 +03? (262) Find all positive integers n such that 1 = 0. (263) Use a computer to find the eight positive composite integers n < 10° such that (+) n= aay bgt tary for a certain positive integer a, where q1 2, p fa and prlja—, then p!*1 ar — OP. (284) If pis a prime mumber, can the equation p* + 1 = 2" have solutions with integers 6 > 2 and v > 2s? (285) Show that the equation 1 +n +n? = m?, where m and n are positive integers, is impossible. (286) Show that the only solution of the equation 1 +p + p2+ p? +p! = 43, where p and q are primes, is {p,q} = {3,11} (287) Let 21,22,25,24 and 25 be integers such that ataltats ede —o Show that necessarily one of tne #18 is a multiple of 7. (288) Show that 2? + 3” is not a power (> 1) of an integer (289) Show that for each positive integer n eo bah yah es" +6" is divisible by 7 if and only if n is not divisible by 6. (290) Is it true that if m is a positive odd integer whose last digit in decimal representation is different from 5, then the last two digits of the decimal representation of n*%° are 0 and 1? Explain. (291) What are the possible values of the last digit of 4" for each m € N? (292) Show that the difference of two consecutive cubes is never divisible by 3 nor by 5. (293) Is it true that 27|(25+1 + 5"*2) for each integer n > 0? Explain, (294) Show that for each positive integer k, the number (132)**? + (982)2*+! is divisible by 37 (205) Find the last two digits of the decimal representation of 191°” (296) Ifa and b are positive integers such that (ab,70) = 1, show that a!?—p}2 0 (anod 280). (297) Show that for each integer n > 2, 2" —n is divisible by 2730. (298) Find the smallest positive integer which divided by 12, by 17, by 45 ex by 70 gives in each case a remainder of 4 (299) If n is an arbitrary positive integer, is the number Bn! 4 An $07 + 3n8 430 p is prime. divisible by 7? (300) Let p be prime number; stow that (2?) s 2 (mos) (301) Show that a Sdigit positive integer whose decimal representation is of the form “ate” (for three digits a, 6 and c) is divisible by 7 if and only if 20+ 3b-+ ¢ is divisible by 7.1001 PROBLEMS IN CLASSICAL NUMBER THEORY (302) Show that a 6digit positive integer whose decimal representation is ofthe form “abeabc™ (for three digits a, 6 and c) is necessarily divisible by 13. (203) Show that 561125" — 2 and that 5619" — 3 (304) Given a positive integer n, show that 1245 35 is an integer: (805) Does there exist @ rational number r such that for each positive integer n relatively prime with 481, 5096 mtr is a positive integer? (206) Let p be an odd prime number, p # 5. Show that p divides infinitely many integers amongst 1,11, 111, 1111, (307) According to Fermat’s Little Theorem, ifn is an odd prime number and if ‘isa positive integer such that (a,n) = 1, then a-? = 1 (mod n). Show that the reverse of this result is false. (808) Let p > 3 be a prime number. Show that at? — ba” =0 (mod fp) for any integers @ and b, (309) If n is a positive integer, is it true that 1424B4--4(n—1) =0 (mod n)? Explain, (310) For which positive integers n do we have P4243? 4.--4(n—1)2=0 (mod n)? (311) Is it true that if n is « positive integer divisible by 4, then PEP HS 4-4 (n—1)9 0 (mod ny? (812) Prove that for each positive integer n, we have 5" =144n (mod 16) and 5" =1+44n+8n(n—1) (mod 64), (813) Show that for each positive integer k > 3, 5" 21 (mod 2*) while 5% * =1 (mod 2") More generally, show that for k > 2 and a given odd integer a, we have a" 21 (mod 2). (314) Show that nn Ta gts th isan integer for ll w€N. More generally, show that ifp and gare rime rumbers the ? is an integer for all n €N. (315) Find the solution of the congruence 2 +72 =2 (mod 13), (816) Because of Wilson’s Theorem, the numbers 2,3,4..., 15 can be arranged in seven pairs {1,y} such that xy = 1 (mod 17). Find these seven pairs. gyn q 2, Ga5, CONGRUENCES a (B17) Let m = mymz---mp, where the m,'s are integers > 1 and pairwise coprime. Show that BOF) 4 GOI) mlm0/ HO) = p= (mod mn). (318) Let p be a prime number and k an integes, 0 < k 5 be a prime number. Find the value of (p!, (p (822) Show that 38 _ 1987 51 (mod 7). (323) Dinisibilty tests. Let N be a positive integer whose decimal representation is N= @ql0” +--+ agl0? + 0110 + ap, where 0 < ay <9 and for k=0,..-.m~1,0.< ay <9. Show that (a) Nis divisible by 8 <> ay +aq—1$o-+a +40 (b) Nis divisible by 4 <> 10a +49 = 0 (mod 4) (6) N is divisible by 6 <3 (an +---+.4a1 + a9) = 3ay (mod 6) (a) N is divisible by 7 <5 (100a2 + 10a; + a9) ~ (100a5 + 10a4 +43) = (nod 3) + (100as + 10a7 +6) —--- = 0 (mod 7) (e) N is divisible by 8 100az + 10a; + a9 = 0 (mod 8) (1) N is divisible by 9 5 ay + aq—1 + +++ + ay =O (mod 9) (@) N is divisible by I > aq — ay. +--+ (=1)May =0 (mod 1). (324) Assume that 168 divides the integer whose decimal representation is “70abiSe". Find the digits a, b and c (825) Let a be an integer > 2 and let m€N. If (a,m) that (a 1,m) = , show Ltata?4-ta%™-1=9 (mod m). (826) Let p be a prime number. Show that for each a € N, we have a? Sa (mod p). (327) Show that ifp is a prime mumber, then IP? +2?! 4.--4(p= 1)?" (mod p). (328) Show that if p is an odd prime number, then 1? +2" +--+ (p~1)P (mod p). (329) Let p be an odd prime number. Show that Su = 1M — Rye mi {mod p),1001 PROBLEMS IN CLASSICAL NUMBER THEORY (330) Letting p be a prime number of the form 4n+1, show that ((2n)!)? = —1 (mod p). More generally, if pis a prime number and if m+n m0, n> 0, show that (-1y"™" (mod p). (A similar result. was obtained in Problem 318.) Use this last formula to prove that {ey = (1)? (mod p) (331) Show that an integer n > 2 is prime if and only if n divides the number 2(n— 3)!-4 1. (332) Show that ifp is a prime number anda an arbitrary integer, th the expression a? + afp— (383) Show that if 7 = 3.141592... stands for Archimede’s constant and (2) stands for the number of prime numbers p < 2, then no-Z leot=P) abnge ‘where (y] stands for the largest integer smaller or equal to y. (834) Let my,mz € N be such that (my,ma) = 1. Ifa, r and s ate positive integers such that a” = 1 (mod my) and a* = 1 (mod ma). Show that alral mint np divides (mod mma). (835) Let m be a positive integer. Show that for each a € N, =-#") (mod m). (336) Let m be a positive odd integer. Show that the sum of the elements of a complete residue system modulo m is congruent to 0 (mod m). (337) Let a,b € Z, m €N. If B is a complete residue system modulo m and if (a,m) = 1, show that E’={ar+b|reB) is also a complete residue system modulo m, (338) Is it possible to construct a reduced residue system modulo 7 made up entirely of multiples of 6? Explain. (839) Let m > 2 be an integer. Show that the sum of the elements of a reduced residue system modulo m is congruent to 8 (aod m). (840) If {r1,725--+,rp-1) is a reduced residue system modulo a prime number p, show that: I (41) Let a,b € Z, m EN. Using @ counter-example, show that if Bis a reduced residue system modulo m and if (a,m) = 1, then the set {ax-+b |x € E} is not necessarily a reduced residue system modulo 7 (942) Find all integers ,y and 2 with 2<2 2 such that Qa, Sati, dla+2, Sla+3, 6la+4 (848) Find the eycle and the period of 1/3, 1/37, 1/3, 1/38, 1/7, 1/72, 1/79. Let 1p be an arbitrary prime number for which the period of 1/p is m. Using these computations, what should one conjecture regarding the periods of Lp, Apso. 1/p"? (317) The decimal expansion of 2/3 = 0.666... consists in a repetition of 6 2-3, The same phenomenon occurs with the decimal expansion of 1/3 = 0.333... Find all positive rational mumbers a/b with (a, 6) = 1, whose decimal expansion is formed by an infinite repetition of the product of its numerator and of its denominator. (848) Show that the period of a fraction m/n with m 1 be a proper divisor of the positive integer n. Prove that 2"—! + 24-1 "1 is a composite number. (852) Prove that if Mersenne number, that is a number of the form 2°—1 where is prime, is not squaretree, then it: must. be divisible by a Wieterich prime, that is a prime number p such that 2°-? = 1 (mod p*). (853) Find the three smallest prime factors of the number n= 5% ~ 7112, (854) Let m > 4 be an even integer and let a > 2 be an integer. Show that TE + F-1is a composice number (855) Show that the sequence 2?" +3, n = 1,2,..., contains infinitely many composite numbers. (856) Use Problem 354 to prove that 2° + 15 is a composite number. (357) Is it true that 2°” + 15 is a prime number for each integer n > 0? If it is true, prove it. I t is false, provide a counter-example (358) By a close examination of the representation of the number n given in Problem 84, obtain that 973)n and therefore that 139 is a prime factor of (359) Knowing that the number n = 999951 has a prime factor p such that 300 < p < 400 and observing that n+ 49 = 108, find this number p. (360) Show that 127 is prime divisor of 22 — 1 (361) Find four prime factors of 2° — 1 (362) Prove that at least one third of the integers of the form nl0" + 1 are composite. (363) Use Probiem 75 to show that 3, 7 and 31 are prime factors of 2” — 1 and that 31 and 127 are prime factors of 285 — 1, (364) Let n = 2 — 1, Show that 11m without computing explicitly the value ofn. (365) Use Problem 75 to show that 2, 5, 7 and 13 are prime factors of 3! — 1 and that 2, 5,7, 13, 4l and 73 are prime factors of 3° ~ 1 (866) Given two integers a and m larger than 1, show that, if m is odd, then +1 is a divisor of a™ +1. Use this result to obtain the factorization of 1001 (367) Generalize the result of Problem 366 to obtain that if a and m are two integers larger than 1 and ifd > 1 is an odd divisor of m, then a”™/4-+1 is, a divisor of a” +1. Use this result to show that 101 isa factor of 1000001 (368) Show that 7, 11 aud 13 are factors of 10! + 1 (369) Show that né+ 4 is a composite number for each integer n > 2. More generally show that if a is a positive integer such that 2a is a perfect square, then n+? is a composite number provided n > V2a, (370) Show that there exist infinitely many composite numbers of the form ko +1, (871) Show that if the number k +2 is prime, then itis a prime divisor of the number 2k +1, (872) Find three factors of 25 + 1 (873) Let M, = 2? ~ 1, where p is an odd prime numt factors of My are of the form 2kp + 1, where & € N. Show that all the:(6, PRIMALITY TESTS AND FACTORIZATION ALGORITHMS % (374) The primality test of Lucas-Lehmer may be read as follows: “Let p be an odd prime number. ‘The Mersenne number Mp = 2?— 1 is prime if and only if Mp|Sp-1, where S: = 4 end Sux = $2 —2 (mod M,), n > 1." Use this test (and s computer) to prove that Mex is prime. (875) Factor the number n = 10 — 1. A computer may prove handy to obtain certain factors of n smaller than 10° (876) In 1960, Waclaw Sierpinski (1882-1960) proved that there exist infin- itely many integers & such that each of the numbers N =k: 2" +1 (n= 1,2,3,...) is composite. Thee years later, Selfridge proved that the number k = 78557 is such a number. Prove this last result of Selfridge by establishing that, in this case, NV is always divisible by 3, 5, 7, 13, 19, 37 or 73. (877) Find three prime factors of 107 + 1 (378) In order to obtain the factorization of the odd integer n> 1, it certainly helps to notice that, ifn is composite, itis always possible to write m as (*) n=2?-y? =(e+y)(e—y) with x,y positive integers, 2 — y > 1, ‘thus revealing the factors x +y and x — y of n (see Problems 81 and 82). ‘To obtain a representation of type (+), we may proceed as follows. We look for an integer « such that ¢?—n isa perfect square, that is such that Panay? As a first value for x, we choose the smallest integer k such that k? > n, ‘and then we try with k+4, and so on, By proceeding in this manner, it is clear that we will eventually find an integer 2 such that 2? ~n is a perfect square, the reason being that n is odd and composite, This factorization method is called FERMAT’S FACTORIZATION METHOD. ‘To show the method, we take n = 2001. Since y/n = 44.7325..., we shall successively try several values of x starting with « = 45; we then obtain the following table: 2 at-n=? Perfect square? 45° 45% — 2001 NO. 4 46? — 2001 = 115, No. 47 472 — 2001 = 208 No 48 48% — 2001 = 303, No. 49 49? ~ 2001 = 400 ‘YES Hence, 2001 = 49? — 20? = (49+20)(49~ 20) = 69-29, thus providing a factorization of 2001 Proceed as above in order to factorize 2009, and then use Fermat's factorization method to find two proper divisors of n = 289751. (379) Fermat's factorization method works very well when the odd integer which is to be factored has two divisors of roughly the same size. But if n = pq, where p 2 and an odd integer k > 5, consider the number * yoo" nett peg tr tl Prove that the number n has at least three prime factors and moreover that they are distinct if r > 3 or ifr = 2 and k > 7. (883) Let k be a positive integer. Show that {2* +24" 424-2 4... 49! 1} represents the set of all positive odd numbers < 2**! — 1 (884) The number 11 is prime, while itis easy to check that the numbers 111, 1111 and 11111 are composite . G) Show that if a number of the forma w= (10* — 1)/9is prime, then the number k is necessarily @ prime. (ii) Show that, if p is a prime number, then each prime factor of (10” ~ 1)/9 is of the form 2jp + 1 for a certain positive integer j (iii) Use a computer to find the fve smallest prime numbers p such that the number corresponding to (10? ~ 1)/9 is prime. (iv) Use a computer to obtain the factorization of the numbers (10°—1)/9 for each prime number p< 50. (885) Show that each positive integer n for which there exist positive integers kw and y such that () nage g yet Js composite (886) Let n be a positive odd integer for which there exists a prime number Py < vii such that py-n can be written as the sum of two postive cubes. Show that n must be a composite number (387) Consider the mimber n = 52657 403, Show that Tv can be writton as the sum of two cubes (one of which is rather small!) and conchide that n is composite and divisible by 719, (888) Consider the number n = 237719.938896803. Show that In can be written as the sum of two fifth powers (one of which i rather small!) and conclude that n is composite and divisible by 1213. (80) Let n > 3 be a squarefree odd composite mumber. Show that if for each prime divisor p of n, we have p~ I) ~ 1, then er a Carmichael number6. PRIMALITY TESTS AND FACTORIZATION ALGORITHMS a (390) Let p > 5 be a prime mumber such that 2p ~ 1 and 3p ~ 2 are primes Show that the number n = p(2p ~ 1)(3p—2) is e Carmichael number. (391) Use Korselt's Criterion (mentioned in the remark on the solution of Prob- Jem 389) in order to prove that each Carmichael number must have at Teast three distinct prime factors. (392) In the remark attached to the solution of Problem 389, we observed that aan integer n= qgz---gx, where k > 3 and 2 < gr < qr <... < ge are prime numbers, is # Carmichael number if and only if O) a-\[Ja-1 G=1.2..-,4). Show that condition (+) can be replaced by the condition g-M[Ta-1 G=1,3...4) (393) Observing that (+) 327763 find the factorization of 327 763. (304) Searching for a prime factor of n Ton = 301 592611 = 699? +84 + 679 = 519 + 58%, 48790373, we observe that Use this information to obtain the factorization of n. (395) In 1956, Paul Erdés raised the question of obtaining the value of the smallest integer n > 3 such that 2” —7 is prime. Use a computer to find ‘this number n as well as the five next numbers n with the same property. Show that, in this search, one may ignore even integers n, the integers ‘n= 1 (mod 4), the integers n = 7 (mod 10) as well as the integers n = 13 (mod 12) (396) Let a > 2 be an integer and let p be a prime number such that p does not divide a(a? 1). Show that the number ry "@-1 is pseudoprime in basis a, Use this method to find pseudoprimes in basis 2and 3, (892) Show that there exist infinitely many pseudoprimes in basis 2 (308) Let a and m be two positive integers such that (a, m) = 1. We say that s is the order of a modulo m ifs is the smallest positive Integer such thet ‘a! = 1 (mod m). Show that if a" = 1 (mod m), then sin. (899) (Lucas’ Test) Let n > 3 be an integer such that for each prime factor a of n—1 there exists an integer a > 1 such that a"! = 1 (mod n) and ai™-1/4 £4 (mod n). Show that n is prime, (400) Let m = 10"? +61. First verify that 2-5 - 3847 12667849 is indeed the factorization of n—1, and then use Lucas’ Test, explained in Problem 399 (with an appropriate choice of a), to show that n is prime.1001 PROBLEMS IN CLASSICAL NUMBER THEORY (401) Use the primality test of Lucas, explained in Problem 309, to prove that the numbers n =r! +1, where r takes successively the values 1910, 1916 and 1926, are all primes. (402) Let n = 10"? +63. Verify that » — 1 = 2-3?-7-47- 168861871, and then use Lucas’ Test, explained in Problem 399 (with an appropriate choice of 4), to show that m is prime. (403) (PoLLARD p—1 FACTORIZATION METHOD) Let n be a positive integer. Assume that n has an odd prime factor p such that p~ 1 has all its prime factors < k, where k is a relatively small positive integer (such as k = 100 ‘ot 1000 or 10000), 50 that (p—I)[k!. Let m be the residue modtato n of 2 and let g = (m—1,n). Show that g > {, thus identifying a factor of (404) Use the Pollard p — 1 factorization method to find the smallest prime factor of the Fermat mutnber Fy = 2" +1 (405) Use the Pollard p— I factorization method and a computer to factor the number 252123019542987435003029, (406) Use the Pollard p—1 factorization method and a computer to obtain the three prime factors of the Mersenne number 27¥ — 1 = 2361183241434822606847. (407) Use the Pollard p— 1 factorization method and a computer to factor the number 136258390321. (408) Let n = 302446877. Let m be the quantity 2°" modulo m. Show that 4g = (m— yn) = 17389. Use the Pollard p ~ 1 factorization metiod to conclude that 17389 is a (prime) divisor of 302446 877, (409) Show that each prime factor p of the Fermat number F,, = 22” +1 with. > Zis of the form p=k-2"?+1,keEN (410) Use the result of Problem 409 in order to prove that 641 is a prime factor of Fs = 2" +1 = 4204967297. (411) Use the result of Problem 409 in order to prove that 2741177 is a prime factor of y= 2 + 1 = 18446 744073709551 617 (412) (Papa's Test) Let Fy = 2" +1 be a Fermat number and let k > 2 be ‘an integer. Show that, for n > 2, k Pea ant (4) 1 ek 2-1 (mod FR).1. mwreceR pars ” 7. Integer Parts (413) Let a, € R. Show that (a) [al + [8] + [a +5] < [2a) + [28]; (b) [a] + [8] + 2[a + 8) < [Sa] + [33s () (al + (61+ 3la + Bl < [4a] + (45) (d) 2[a] + 2/8] + 2[a + 5) < [4a] + (43); (©) Slo] + 315} + [a +) < [4a] + [48 (414) Show that oat is an even integer for each n € N. (415) Let myn € N, Show that: 2mm)! (a) —2MCMN 5 an integer; (b) (am)\(an)! malnl(m + n}l ~ msg aint(mem 1,2,--+.7 be integers such that a1 + a2 +--+ ay (86) Let a, > 9, Sow that Ff an integer. (417) How many zeros appear at the end of the decimal representation of 231? (418) Show that the last digit of n! which is different from 0 is always an even number provided n > 5 (419) Find all positive integers n for which the number of zeros appearing at the end of the decimal representation of n! is 57. What happens when the number of zeros is 60 oF 61? (420) Let n be a positive integer. (a) Show that the largest integer a such that 5* divides (5" — 3)! is 58 —4n 4 (b) Let p be a prime number and i a positive integer smaller than p. Show that the largest integer such that p* divides (p™ — is ph —(p~1)n—1 pot (421) Let n be a positive integer. Pind a fortaula which reveals explicitly, for a «given prime number p, the unique value of «such that Tle. (422) Let n be a positive integer. Find a formula which reveals explicitly, for a given prime number p, the unique value of a sueh that ye | He » and use this to show that, “ 2 (Fe ]-@) (423) Find all natural numbers n having the property that [Vii] is a divisor of, oso 1001 PROBLEMS IN CLASSICAL NUMBER THEORY (424) Prove that for each integer n > 1, [vn + veo] = (VinFI] = [VinF3] = [Vin 3). (425) Prove that for each integer n > [va+ Vari + vat] = [VORFR]. (426) Let m and k be positive integers, Show that mk m+1\) , Fetters 0 fzER\Q, 1 ifzeQ, (427) Show that «lim_foos?(m!2)] = { where [y) stands for the largest integer smaller or equal to y, and thus establish that the function f :R~+ {0,1} defined by Ja) = lim {oos?(mtn2)] represents the characteristic function of the rational numbers (428) Show that, for each positive integer n, ES}RE Eel Se (429) Show that for each m € Z, par]- does not depend on m. (431) Given an integer n > 2, show hat, for each positive integer k 2, show that a= [Je where a, = 2=22l0) ren poi? where p(n) stands for the stm of the digits of n in basis p. (439) Evaluate the series ge tv 4 arava > ann whese Ii] stand for the closest integer to 2. (440) ‘The characteristic fimetion of the odd numbers defined, for each integer n> I, by w=} ifn is odd, 0 ifniseven, en in a single expression by using the fametion (x); indeed, riy=a-2[8] 20 ‘Pind a similar simple formula for the function 1 if'mis odd, 10-{ nce (441) Jn Problem 4, we established the two formulas 2 mn + Yin +1) é 5 _ (n+ 1)? Zine PHP ae teen PHD He pe gn2 1001 PROBLEMS IN CLASSICAL NUMBER ‘THEORY Establish similar formulas for the two sums An = [1/7] + 247] + a7] +--+ fn? -1)7] (n= 2,8,4,...), AN] + 2h] 4 (V8 4--4 [m9] (n= 2,3, where, as usual, [) stands for the largest integer < «. (442) Let a be the positive solution of the quadratic equation 2 Show that for each n € N, we have {an} = [alan] +1} (443) Show that for each n € N, the positive solution a of the equation 2 — x - 1 =0 verifies the equation 2[an] = fa®[2an] + 1]. (44) Show that the number NV of positive integer solutions, y of the inequality Ty Sn, where n is a fixed positive integer, is given by va = G+) +-+E)-22 Gl -r (445) Let n € N. For each integer & > 0, find the number of integers i (1 0, there exists a perfect number located Detween 10" + Land 10"*!+1? Is it true that the last digit of the perfect. numbers alternates between 6 and 8? Here, the use of a computer may prove useful (451) Show that if f and g are multiplicative functions, then their product fg is also a multiplicative function. If fis a multiplicative function, can one say that kf, for k € R, is also a multiplicative function? What about Sat (452) Does there exist: multiplicative function f such that (80) = 0, f(205) and f(70)=1? (453) Let ty = Lt = 8:ts = 6,...,th = K(k +1)/2,... be the sequence of triangular numbers. Let f be the arithmetical function defined by f(n) = Ask, where k is the only integer satislying th. 1, by 1 ifn=0 (mod 3), g(n)=$2 ifn=1 (mod 3), 3 ifm=2 (mod 3). Is it true that g is a multiplicative function? Explain. (461) Prove that an arithmetical function f such that f(1) = iff and only if, for each m,n EN, F((m,n)) flo, n)) = Fm) fn). (462) Let 9(n) be the arithmetical function which represents the kernel of nm, that is 9(n) = T],j_ P- Show that: (a) is a multiplicative function; £5) 440) = Can la) \6(d) for each integer n > 1, (463) Show that if the abe conjecture (see page 12) is true, then for all = > 0, there exists a constant M = M(e) such that for each integer n > 2, we have is multiplicative n 1 (465) Let J be an additive function. Assume that, for each positive integer n, lim, £0") ‘exists, Show that the function g defined by g(n) = is totally additive. (467) Let f and 9 be two multiplicative functions. Show that the function J defined by k= YO f@glr) (n= 1) fan, a is also a multiplicative function.5. ARITHMETICAL FUNCTIONS ss (468) Let f and g be two multiplicative functions. Show that the function h defined by Nin) = flaalr) where the sum runs aver all ordered pairs (d,r) such that [d,r] = ‘multiplicative fanetion. (469) Let f be @ multiplicative function such that, for each prime number p, limg-ce f(p*) = 0. Do we necessarily have that lity f(n) = 02 Bx- plain, (470) Let. f be a multiplicative function such that, for each positive integer , limp-sae f(p') = 0. Do we necessarily have that lity f(1t) = 0? Explain, (471) Let f be a totally additive function which is monotonically increasing; prove that there exists @ constant ¢ > 0 such that f(n) = clog for each integer n > 1 (472) Consider the arithmetical function f defined by f(1) = 1 and for n > 1 by n/2 itis even, fm) en ifnis odd. Define the finctions f®, f1, f2,... as follows: fn) =n, f'(n) = f(n), £0) = FF), Pl) =" FF*Un)),--- Fn) = JU Mn)... The Collatz Problem (also caited the Syracuse Problem) consists of attempting to establish that for each positive integer n, there exists k € N such that J8(n) = 1. This result is most likely trae, but no one has ever been able to prove it. However, partial results have bees obtained (a) Let a and j be two positive integers. What is the value of 9(2°)? (b) Let @ €N. For which values of j € Nis it true that f8(2%) = 1? (c) What is the smallest value of n € N such that f*(n) = 11 for a certain positive integer k? (4) Show that, ifn is a positive odd integer, then f2(n) < 3n+1ifn=1 (mod 4) while f%(n) > 4n if n= 3 (tod 4), (e) Find an integer n such that f2**¥(n) is odd for k = 0,1,2,3,4 and such that f?(n) is even for k= 0, 1,2,3,4,5. (6) Is it true that if f%(n) > n, then #3(n-+2) 1by _ {nf2__ ifniseven, and then define the functions g°, 9}, 92, ...as we did for the function J. Show that the conjecture to the effect that “for each n € N there exists k € N such that g*(n) = 1" is false. (i) Let n > 3. We introduce the funetion Syr(n) which stands for the smallest positive integer a such that f*(n) = 1, For instance,56 1001 PROBLEMS IN CLASSICAL NUMBER THEORY ‘Syr(8) = 8. Show that Syr(n) > logy n, where logo(n) stands for the logarithm of n in basis 2. (j) Let n > 3 and let Syr(n) be the function introduced above. Prov that if n is odd, then Syr(n) > logy n +3. (&) Let a € N and consider the number 2041-1, Show that Pn) = 36-20-11 for each integer k, 1S k Say and therefore that the sequence of iterations Pla), FC) (roo PM) is strictly increasing. () Let a and n be as in (k). Show that P9(n) = 2-391 (mm) Let a € N and consider the sequence of integers mo, 71,2... defined by nj = j2* + (2*—1). Show that F2(nj) = G41)" = 1, for each j. (a) Given an arbitrary large real number C > 0, show that there exist two positive integers m and k such that f*(n) > Cn, (0) Consider the arithmetical funetion f, defined by f.(1 n> Iby fn) = {ye ifn = 2°r, with 6 > 1 andr odd, = and for 3n-+1 if nis odd, ‘and then define the iteration functions f°, f!, f2, ...as we did for the function f, and establish a table of the values fS(n), f2(n),f2(0),---» {#28(n) for n = 1,2,3,...,50. Now, given an arbitrary positive integer 1m, can we conclude that there necessarily exists a positive integer k such that f*(n) = 1? Is there here an analogy with the “standard” Collatz. Problem? (473) Let a,6,¢ be positive integers such that (a,b,c) = 1. Is it true that (abe) = 7(a)r(6)r(0)? (474) Find the smallest positive integer n such that (a) x(n) =9; (b) r(n) = 10; (@) x(n) = 15 (475) Identify all natural numbers having exactly 14 divisors. (476) Find the largest prime number p such that (a) plr(20!);— (b) plo(20)); Ce) p|r(351); (a) p*|o(351) (477) How many positive integers n'are there dividing at least one of the two numbers 10! and 20°°7 (478) Prove that <= 7(n} SL LoL (479) Consider the sequence (b,) defined by by Desa = 1+ biba---be (k= 1,2,...). Stow that (i) for each integer k > 1, bes = bf — be +1,4. ARITHMETICAL FUNCTIONS a Use this to show that the arithmetical function g defined by g(r) ET) has the representation a(n) by where {2} stands for the fractional part of « (480) Let 7(n) be the number of odd divisors of n. Prove that 7; is a multi- plicative function. (481) Given a positive integer n, show that the number of ordered pairs of positive integers a,b such that ab =n and (a,6) = 1 is 2°”. (482) Let m be a positive integer. Show that the number of ordered pairs of positive integers a,b such that a,b] =n is r(n?). (483) Let d and n be positive integers such that din. Show that the number of ordered pairs of positive integers a,b such that (a, }) = d and ab =n is 240-1), Use this to show that a(n) = Sw(n/d? a (484) Let n be a positive integer and let 2° be the largest power of 2 that divides 1n. To which of the following five values is the quotient +(2n)/(n) equal: 2, 2t3 at2 atl a» a+?) atl’ “a! a-i Explain, (485) Show that 7(n) is odd if and only if n is a perfect square. (486) Show that if o(n) is a prime number for a certain positive integer m, then 7(n) must also be a prime number. (487) Shaw that a(n) is odd if and only if n is a square or two times a square. (488) Show that, for each positive integer n, Teen, ‘in What happens if (n) is odd? (489) Prove that for each integer n > 1, we have o2(n) > nr(n), where o9(n) = Lan (490) Find the minimal value of x(n(n + 1)) as m runs through the postive integers greater ot equal to 3. {401) For each integer n > 1, consider the functions fu(n) and fan) which stand respectively for the product of the odd divisors of n and for the product of the even divisors of n. Establish the following formulas: Ain) = mmr? fo) = (204m J arto,1001 PROBLEMS IN CLASSICAL NUMBER THEORY where m and a ate defined implicitly by n = 2%, m odd. (492) Show that [m2 , where {y] stands for the largest integer Su. (493) Given a positive integer n, consider the corresponding sequence ny r(n), r(e(n)), rr(r(n))), Identify those positive integers n for which the above sequence contains no perfect squares, (494) For each real number a, define the function a by a(n) = Dain d*. Tt is clear that +(n) and a(n) are particular cases of o4(n). Prove that (495) Assume that p and q are odd prime numbers, and a and b are positive integers such that g* > q'. Show that, if p* divides o(p*)o(q®), then pt aay’) (496) Let o°(n) be the sum of the odd divisors of n. Show that o* is a multi- plicative function. (497) Show that 3jo(3n — 1) and 4la(4n — 1) for each positive integer n. Is it true that 12|o(12n — 1) for each n> 1? Explain. (498) Let p be a prime number and let a and 6 be nonnegative integers. Show that o(p*)|o(p?) if and only if (a+ 1)|(6+ 1). (499) Show that o(n) = n-®0q(n) for each real number « and each positive integer n. In particular, show that the sum of the reciprocals of the divisors of a positive integer m is equal to o(n)/n. (500) Show that m is an even perfect number if and only if there exists a positive integer k such thet: n = 2*-1(2* — 1), where 2* — 1 is a prime number. (601) In 1958, Perisatri proved thet ifn is an odd perfeet number, then lol * HS xX < Blog 5 Ist true that these inequalities still hold for each even perfect number n? Exp (502) Show that im is an even perfect number, then 8 +1 is a perfect square (503) Let a be a positive integer and p a prime number, Can p" be a perfect number? (504) Show that every even perfect number ends with the digit 6 or 8 (605) Show that every even perfect number larger than 6 can be written as the sum of consecutive odd cubes. (606) Show that each odd perfect number must have at least three distinct prime factors (607) Find all natural numbers n having the property that n and a(¢(n)) are perfect numbers, or otherwise show that no such number n exists. ARITHMETICAL FUNCTIONS o (508) A natural number m is said to be tri-perfect if o(n) = 3n. Show that each odd tri-perfect number must be a perfect square. (509) Show that the only tri-perfect: numbers of the form 2%m with I 2n. Show that if the greatest common divisor of two positive integers a and b is deficient, then there exist (a) infinitely many deficient numbers » such that (b) infinitely many abundant numbers n such that (611) Let m be an even perfect number. Show that a(n) = [logy n] +2, where log, n stands for the logarithm of n in basis 2. (512) In_ 1997, Gordon Spence discovered the 36-th Mersenne prime, namely gurezit'—|_ Establish first’ a general formula allowing one to quickly compute the number of digits of a given large integer, and then use this formula to determine the number of digits contained in the prime mumber discovered by Spence. (513) Let k be an arbitrarily large natural number. Prove that there exists an integer m such that olny (514) Show that an even perfect number isa triangular number, that isa number of the form n(n + 1)/2. (615) Show that a perfect number having k distinct prime factors has at least one prime factor which does not exceed k >k, (516) Let qr,-..,ge be distinct prime numbers. Show that (+ Dt Dat) oy anda ou SS Nee) is a necessary condition for n = [Jf a? to be a perfect number. (617) Show that if n is an even perfect number, then (n) = 2*-1(2—1 — 1) for ‘certain positive integer k (518) Is it true that ¢(n) is a multiple of 10 for infinitely many positive integers (519) Caleulate the number of postive integers < 600 which have a factor > 1 in common with 600 and then count the number of positive integers < 1200 which are relatively prime with 600, (520) Count the number of positive integers < 4200 which are relatively prime with 600 by observing that- 4200 = 7 - 600, (521) If m and k are positive integers, show that the number of positive integers < mk which are relatively prime with m is equal to k@(m), (522) Let m,n €N. Show that a strnn) = GoMod sr where d = (m,n), (523) Show that for n > 2, @(n) is an even number. (524) Show that the number of fractions a/6, (a,b) = 1, such that 0 (nm); (b) d(2n) = 9(n); (©) 4(2n) = o(3n). (680) Let p be an odd prime number such that 2p + 1 is also a prime number. Show that if n = 4p, then (n+ 2) = o(n) +2. (681) Show that for each integer n > 2, the sum of positive integers < n and relatively prime with n is equal to nd(n)/2. (582) Let n> 1 be an integer. Show that 2*'")"(4(n). (533) Show that 6(n) is a power of 2 if and only ifn = 2%F +-» Fr, where a > 0 and F,= 2" +1, i= 1,2,...,7, are Fermat primes. (684) Find the largest prime mamber p such that (a) pig(95!)s(b) 27(6(95!); (c) p®|9(95); (a) p*|(951). (985) Find the largest positive integer n such that ¢(n) < 500. (536) Is it true that (8m -+ 4) = 26(4m +2) for each integer m > 0? (537) Let a,6€ N such that alb. Show that for each integer n > o(a?n+ab) _ d(an+b) (abn +a?) ~ d(bn (538) Show that 6(n) > n/7 for all natural numbers n such that w(n) < 9. (689) Given an odd integer n > 3, show that there exists a prime number p which divides (28) — 1) but not n. (540) Show that an integer n > 2 is prime if and only if ¢(n)|(n — 1) and (n+ lon). (641) Show that if e runs through the even divisors of n and d runs through the ‘odd divisors of n, then Lote) (0. ifnisodd, Lowa |, if nis even, (542) Show that for m > 2, is never an integer. (643) Let f(«) be the product of all the positive divisors of n. Does f(m) = f(n) automatically implies that. m =n? (644) Let (i,n) be the greatest. common divisor of the positive integers i and n. Express Sesion in terms of the prime factors appearing in the factorization of n.4. ARITHMETICAL FUNCTIONS, a (645) Let f be the arithmetical function defined by fn) {: if n is even, 2 ifmis oda. Let S(z) = SD f(r). Find the value of im oo 1 (546) Show that the expression }> — can become arbitrarily large if n is chosen. om appropriately. (647) Show that () XY Mas) = rin)f(n)— (n= 1,2, iff and only if f(n) is totally multiplicative. (548) Prove that for each positive integer n, we have 2) < a(n) < 20409 (649) Let r(n) Zam V/d be the harmonic mean of the divisors of n. Show that n is an even perfect number if and only ifn = 2¥)=1(9H() — 1) (550) Show that r= LOD wr@) ‘am ae ale Hi (651) Let f: N+ Z be a function satisfying f(m + m) = f(a) (mod m) for all integers m,n > 1; any polynomial with integer coefficients is such a function. Let g(n) be the number of values (counting repetitions) amongst FW), S2)s---, 542) which are divisible by n and let h(n) be the number of these values which are relatively prime with m. Show that.g and h are ‘multiplicative functions and that Duoa 5 =] (1-2) ain) am pin P (552) Show that Daw = { 1 t= fr acres 2 1 where ) stands for the Liouville function. (553) Let f be a multiplicative function such that /(2) = 1. Prove that if n is an even integer, ther Cus =0.e 100), PROBLEMS IN CLASSICAL NUMBER THEORY (554) Let f: [0,1] 9 Q—+ R and let, for each integer n > 1, . kK k F(n)= df (— and F"(n) = flo E(t) r0-EE 1) Show that: Fn) =SOF(d) (n= 1,2...) (555) Given an integer m, let dnin) = SR (M1 Imam pe Use this equation to show that, Ly w= Sania) (im pam + -+(3)") >. (kina " (556) Prove that for each positive integer n, DY b= Fem + FD aa) sh an (557) Prove that for each positive integer n, DY #= Fo + Fag +2 TYa-p). BS = in rea) (658) Prove that for each positive integer n, oS ne wes a & B= Ton) + a) +FTIe-»- Onn=t = Pin (a) \ (559) For each positive integer n, set f(n) = z a Establish a formula for (x) in terms of the canonical representation of m. (560) Is it true that n = 7 y(d)a(n/d) for each positive integer n? am (561) Show that, for each positive integer n, 1 _ oa(n) Lene§. ARITHMETICAL FUNCTIONS 6 2 (662) Show that So 7(a) = (X-) for each positive integer n. am ‘an (563) Show that each of the following relations holds for each integer n > 1 Lma=2% Da@r@ =; DY aana = om @ am An) Lagoa = (1° T]p and (doa) = (-1)°™ []@ - 2). an pin am bin (664) Show that, for each positive integer n, (565) Let g be a multiplicati function, For each positive integer n, set F(n) = Dudgln/a) an and show that: F(n) = TT (9@*) - 9") pein (566) Let f be the function defined by friy= YY o@olr) (n= 1,2, \dsten ‘where the sum runs over all ordered pairs (d,r) such that [d,r] =n (see Problem 468). Show that =n =. Sn) = (: 3) (567) Let A be the von Mangoldt function, Show that YAla) = togn (n=1,2,...). (568) Prove that for each positive integer n, A(n) = alaytoetn/a) an (569) Let f be a multiplicative function. Show that Lond) = om Dio, if nis odd, a YA@) - 22) Od), ifn = 2m, (m,2) = 1, 21. am om1001 PROBLEMS IN CLASSICAL NUMBER THEORY (670) Show that if n is an even integer, then Leys = 0. ae What ifn is an odd integer? (571) Let f be an arithmetical function verifying the equation > f(d) =n for a each positive integer n. Show that f(n) = 6(n) for each n > 1 (612) For each function g defined implicitly above, find a formula for a(n) in terms of the canonical representation of n: (a) 2 = Day (ds (b) a(n) = Dan 9(d). (673) Show that the function 2(°)n/¢(n) is multiplicative and find a formula for g(7) in terms of the canonical representation of n, knowing that no = Za, tr ch ineeen 2 (574) For each positive integer n, show that Deve nia 2, Sy (G) = Cone on and that Tyra am (675) Show that, for each positive integer n, Totaya (2) = (1% 240, im (676) Let g be an arithmetical function such that g(n) > 0 for each positive integer n and let fo) = TI ofa) ain 1,2...) Show that ar) =T]sinjagy"® (n= 1,2,...), tn (577) Let k be a real number. Show that, for each positive integer n, Jl atrconinsay = nt. ain (678) Let be a totally multiplicative fuetion and let F be defined by Fm=TK) (m=12.9 = Do we necessarily have that F is also totally multiplicative?8. ARITHMETICAL FUNCTIONS 6 (579) Prove that for each integer n > 1, _ July) itn =n, aela= {s otherwise, (580) Let f be an arithmetical function. Show that for each integer n > 1, [Leora Ean to ain ‘Use this to show that a [fare nm (n= 1,2,..0) ‘tin (581) Letting as usual f + g stand for the Dirichlet product of the arithmetical functions f and g, show that if A stands for the set of arithmetical func- tions J: NR such that /(1) £0, then A is a commutative group with respect to the operation +; thus, prove successively that: (a) the Dirichlet product is commutative; that is if f and g are arith: metical functions, then f +9 = 9+ fs (b) the Dirichlet product is associative; that is if f.g and h are arith- ‘metical functions, then (fg) +h =f * (gh); (@) the arithmetical function E defined by E(1) = 1 and E(n) = 0 for n> Lissuch that fr E = 6s f = f for each arithmetical function fi (@) for each arithmetical function f such that f(1) # 0, there exists a function f-? called the inverse function of f (with respect to the Dirichlet product +) such that f°! + f = f+ f-? = E and that f-! is given by the recurrence formula a=, pm jo LI GQre for n>1. den fay” (582) Let f and g be two arithmetical functions, Show that if 9 and f+ are multiplicative, then is also multiplicative (583) Show that if f is « multiplicative function such that f(1) #0, then its inverse {—*, with respect to the Dirichlet product +, is also multiplicative. (684) Let r be a real number and let tbe the arithmetical function defined by 1(n) =n" for each positive integer m. Show that (a) jo+io = B, where is the Moebius function (0) 7 = ty oy where o¢(n) = Sod” am (ce) ¢=« «4, where is Euler’s function. (@) peo (©) o+¢, () yn = a7, where 7 = on. (6) f= to ta 0, where F(n) = Day 71d) (585) Show that 15! = j and more generally that i-1 = pty for each real number 7. | where o = oyow 1001 PROBLEMS IN CLASSICAL NUMBER THEORY (586) For each of the arithmetical fanctions f given below, determine its inverse J? (with respect to the Dirichlet product +): @ Fa) =m); ii) Flr) = Elm); (tit) (2) = [n(n (687) Let f and g be two arithmetical functions such that f(1) 4 0 and g(1) #0. Show that (Fag t= stag (588) Let g~! be the inverse (with respect to the Dirichlet product *) of the Euler fanction ¢. Show that om) =T]a-7) (=1,2,...). rin (580) Let f be a multiplicative fanction. Show that f is totally multiplicative if and only if f-(n) = n(n) (n) for each integer n> 1 (590) Show that the inverse, with respect to the Ditichiet product +, of the Liouville function 2 is 3%) = ronan) = { (591) Show that the inverse, with respect to the Dirichlet product +, of a4 is given by aan) = So a*wd)u(n/d) (n= 1,2,...) 1 if nis squarefree, 0 otherwise (692) Let m and 1 be positive integers. Show that, a(n)o(m) = S> da(mn/d) bmn) (598) Let f be a multiplicative function, Show that the following three state- ments are equivalent: (a) There exists a multiplicative function F such that for all positive m and n, a) S(mn) = YY flonfa)f(n/a) F(a) almn) (b) ‘There exists a totally multiplicative function g such that for all ince- gers m and m, @) Lon)f(n)= YY F(mn/a?) g(a), aon (c) For each prime number p and each integer a> 1, @ Foo") = SO)S0") + 0") (1) - 0). (594) Show that, for ench postive integer n, rd)8. AKITHMETICAL FUNCTIONS or (595) Show that, for each positive integer n, Doe (4) =o (596) Show that, for each SS integer n, Cole (F) = nr). (597) Show that, for each — integer n, y Feta) = Leo (608) Show that, foreach pasitive integer n, Leo = xy (yo) (609) Let & and r be real numbers. Show that Leao-E (5)" ota (0) Stow ta for ch pn iter Twiae() -Eertar() (601) Let r be a real number. Show that Lene. ($) = Darriayr (9)- am om (602) Show that, for each positive integer n, Lel@r(nja) a (603) Show that A= j+1og, where A is the von Mangoldt function. (604) Show that J u2(d)A(d) = log (n) for each positive integer m, where a(n) = [lpn P and 7(1) = 1 and A stands for the von Mangoldt func tion. (605) Let f be a totally arithmetical function which only takes the values +1 and —1, Let I= [N,N +M)], where M 2 3VN. Assume that there exists fan integer ng < VN such that fo) = —1. Prove that this function f cannot be constant on the interval I (606) Show that the Liouville funetion A does necessarily take the two values +1 and —1 on any interval of the form [N,N + 3VN], N > 2. (607) Given an arbitrary real number 4 > 1, show that YD wa Fos 1001 PROBLEMS IN CLASSICAL NUMBER THEORY (608) Given an arbitrary real number » > 2, show that z eo) <1 (609) Let d{n) be the largest odd divisor of the positive integer 7. Show that for each integer m > 1, es i(n) 2m yO -l< Ina 1 (610) tis clear that any positive integer n can be written uniquely in the forma n = mr? where m is squarefree. In light of this, justify the chain of equations (no) = p2(mer?) = E(r) = > wld) = 7 w(a). a in (611) Let f be a strongly multiplicative function such that 9 < f(p) <1 for each prime number p and such that (2) = f(3) = 0. Show that, for each ositive integer NY, nt Zim z+ (612) Is it possible to construct a multiplicative function f such that f(2) = 0 and such that, as NV — 90, Dam~ Xr sm (613) Establish that the number A(IV) of squarefree integers < N satisfies the relation N aon= O wa [FE asVN Cs (614) Let @(n) be Euler's function and let r(n) be the function which counts the number of positive divisors ofr. Show thet wt 24 and timsyp 2% = Hate) 9 87d AP a(n) = 2 (615) Consider the sequence tu, = 2", n > 1. For each positive integer n, choose the smallest prime number gy satisfying uy < gn < Uns; according to Bertrand’s Postulate, such a prime number exists. What can be said about the convergence or the divergence of the series x2 2 > Beplain (616) Prove that for each positive integer n, 7(2" +1) > so where n(n) stands for the number of odd divisors of n, (617) Let n > 1 be a composite number. Show that o(n) > n-+ Yi. Use this to prove that lim (o(Pn +1) — (pn) = +90.8. ARITHMETICAL FUNCTIONS « (618) Show that, for each positive integer n, we have a(n) - {Q)"_iftnis oad, nm” \2(3)° itis even, (619) Show that o(n) < nr(n) for each integer n > 2. (620) Find infinitely many integers n such that o(n) < o(n 1). (621) Show that for each integer n > 1, n < a(n) 1. Show that a(n) > ar(m)v2n, where a and m are defined implicitly by n= 2m, m odd. (623) Prove thet for each integer n > 2, o(n) > ¢(n) + r(n), with equality if and only if mis prime. (624) Let f and g be two multiplicative functions taking only positive values. Show that for each integer n > 2, YL i@ain/a) = fn) +9 am with equality if and only if n is prime. (825) Show that for each integer n > 2, we have o(n) + ¢(n) < nr(n), with equality if and only if n is prime. (626) Let f, 9 and h be three multiplicative functions. If for each integer n> 1, f(n) +9(n) > 0 and h(n) > 0, show that, LA@A(n/d) + Vg @Aln/a) > 2h(n) o ae with equality if and only ifn = 1 orelse for each dn, d > 1, f(d)+9(d) = 0. =1,2..), (627) Show that for each integer n > L, a(n) + (re) > 2n, with equality if and only if n = 1 oF m is prime. (628) Prove that for each integer n > 2, we have o(n) > n+ (u(n) ~ vm (629) Show that for each integer n > 2, we have O(n?) + @((n + 1)) < 2n?. ‘More generally, show that for all integers n > 2 and k > 2, (nk) + o((n +I) < n%(n + 1). (630) Show that inf o(n+1) timsup 28+ Y <0 and ti ne ot) and Tet ota (681) Can one find arbitratly large integers NV such that ¢(n) > (NN) for each integer n > N, while 6(n) < 6(N) foreach integer n < N? (632) Show that: #(n)7?(n) 2, 4(n) < n—n'~=*5, with equality if and only if mis prime.70 1001 PROBLEMS IN CLASSICAL NUMBER THEORY (634) If n is a composite integer, show that (n) ea (636) For each n € N, let o(n) = Dyjq d and o2(n)) = Cay. Show that FO) < ayn) <4 Tay $2200) S 6 ) (637) Show that the mean value ofthe divisors ofthe positive integer n is anger or equal to [] a". an (638) Show that a(n) - Fla) = vn (n=1,2, (639) Show that JTujnd =n? if and only if n = p or n = pg, with p and g distinct prime numbers. (640) For each integer n > 1, show that r(n) < 2ym- {641) Prove that for each integer x > 3, we have a(n) < nf. (642) Prove that for each integer n > 2, yeast, mma) _, logd ~ logn (643) Prove that for each integer n > 2, (644) Prove that for each integer n > 2, S Ul (: - 1) <1-2Oo1 pin P. with equality if and ony i mis prime. (645) Prove that for each integer n > 2 vis 22 2 Ey gin? (646) Let h’be the arithmetical function defined by A(t) = 0 and hp") = 0 p rime and a 2 positive integer, and otherwise, that is ifm = gf" ---q?", with r >, q prime, by ) ain) = For each positive integer n such that w(n) > 2, show that (wo(n) ~ 1)? PO) = Pens" Go h(n) =8. ARITHMETICAL FUNCTIONS. n where p(n) and P(n) stand respectively for the smallest and largest prime factors of n. (647) Let H be the arithmetical function defined by H(1) = 0, and for n > 1 by ro) HO)= Yazan" where 1 = dy < dy <-.. < dyin) =m represent the divisors of n. Show that, for each positive integer m, (648) Show that 1(2" ~ 1) > 1(n) for each integer n > 1 (649) Let m and n be positive integers; show that (mn) < mg(n). On the other hand, if each prime number dividing m also divides n, then show that #(mn) = m9(n) (650) For each integer n > 1, show that o[3a2)) where {y] stands for the largest integer < y. (651) Show that 4(n}r(n) > n for each positive integer n. (652) Find all the solutions of the equation g(n}r(n) =n, where n € N. (653) Let m and n be integers larger than 2: show that (mn) +o((m +1)(n + 1)) <2mn. (654) Consider the arithmeticat function W(n) defined by vo) =a] (1 +t) (n=12 It is clear that the fumetion W is multiplicative. (a) Show that W(n) < o(n), where o(n) represents the sum of the divisors of n (b) Show that: ¥(n) = o(n) if and only if m is squarefree. (¢) We say that a natural number n is W-perfect if W(n) = 2n. Prove that: a mumber n is W-perfect if and only if itis of the form 2" - 3, where a and 6 are positive integers. (655) Let f be a polynomial with integer coefficients and let O(n) = Hk 1 Sk Sn, (fan) = 1) Observe that in the case f(n) =n, we find that g*(n) = (nm), that is Euler's function, (a) Show that ¢* is a multiplicative function, (b) Show that, for each positive integer n, where by = p~ o*(p) = #{k | 1 Sk Sp, PIF (h)}1001 PROBLEMS IN CLASSICAL NUMBER THEORY (656) Let n be a posit iteger. Find the number of terms of the sequence 1-2,2-3,3-4....m(n+1) which are relatively prime with n. (657) Let n be a positive integer. Find a formula which gives the number of positive integers k 2, o< e) c (665) Define the derivative f” of an arithmetical function f by f(n)=f(nJlogn (n= 1,2...) Show that, given any arithmetical functions f and g, we have (a) (f+ a) =f" +9, () (Fe9)' = Seat fea, (©) FY =f" #(F +f) provided that f(1) 4 0.f. ARITHMUETICAL FUNCTIONS 1 (666) Given an arithmetical function f, define « 7 aN (2=32..), * where r(n) stands for the number of divisors of n. Show that if f is multiplicative, then J is also multiplicative. (667) Let. be the function introduced in Problem 666. Show that if f is additive, then F is also additive. (868) Let 1(n) = I for each positive integer n and let y be the Moebius function. ‘What represents the functions T and jz, where f is defined by the relation (+) of Problem 666? (669) Let w(n) = Dyin 1- Determine the values of the function &, where is defined by the relation (+) of Problem 666. (670) Let f(n) = 20”), where wo(n) = S41. Prove that x(n?) r(n) where 7 is defined by the relation (+) of Problem 666. (671) Let f(n) = 2%), where 9(n) = Cyan Show that Fn) = (=1,2,..), get = wana... pein where F is defined by the relation (+) of Problem 666, (672) Let A be the Liouville function. Show that X(n)r(n) = x(n), where x(n) is the characteristic function of the set of perfect squares, that is w= itm=m, 0 otherwise, Fen) ‘and where F is defined by the relation () of Problem 666. (673) Given a multiplicative function g, show that there exists a multiplicative function f such that 9 = , where 7 is defined by the relation (+) of Problem 666. _ (674) Let g(a) = 2°), Find the function f such that g = 7, where F is defined by the relation (#) of Problem 666. (675) Given an arithmetical funtion f, define () Fo) = sy CPO (= 12... we where w(n) = Zyjq 1 and p stands for the Moebius fonction. Show that if f is multiplicative, then 7 is multiplicative (676) Let 1(n) = 1 for each positive integer n and 2 stand for the Liouville function. Determine the functions T and X, where f is defined by the relation (+) of Problem 675, (677) We know that r(n) represents the number of ways of writing a positive integer n as a product of two positive integers, taking into account the1001 PROBLEMS IN CLASSICAL NUMBER THEORY order ofthe factors. In other words, m= 1 ‘More generally, given an integer k > 2, let 7,(n) be the number of ways of writing a positive integer n as a product of k positive integers, taking into account the order of the factors. In other terms, n= YL dein Show that. (678) Show that if F(R) = SOf(@) for F = 4204 then SOF) = a fe © [F] £00 tor each positive integer. (679) Show that Lw-Lz] =n (n (680) Show that 5 ‘#(d) GF = Jf ch pte ine (681) Show that Ss Mk) fl = logn! for each positive integer n. (63) Stow ena > [" = [Vii] for each positive integer m. (683) Given an integer n > 2 and p a prime divisor of n, let p*” be the largest power of p not exceeding n, meaning that a, is the only positive integer satisfying p" n. (684) Let n be a positive integer. Show that Sw-dG)- (685) Let n be a positive integer. Show that Yow 5 Ss k i] (686) Let n be a positive integer. Show that 1 Lew - 3D ao (G+).8, ARITHMETICAL FUNCTIONS % (687) Let n be a positive integer. Show that, il (va +1) (abv) +2 Sera = val) eval+) . o Oe (688) For each positive integer n, let S(n) be the set of all positive integers ik such that the fractional part of n/k is > 1/2. Let f be an arbitrary arithmetical fonction and le, am) = 050) [FE] = 1,3.) Show that XY fs) =a2n) 292) (n d. 1e5% Use this result to show that for each integer > 1, XD oh = DY ath resin see = = log (7). ee = (Wir - 2Iva), where 4, 14, A and 2 are respectively the Euler function, the Moebius function, the von Mangold function and the Liouville fanction, (689) Let x be a zeal number such that [2| < 1. Show that Fw aay 1=a ~ =a? where ¢ is the Euler function. (690) Let f and g be two arithmetical functions tied by the relation f(n) = Euqa-9(d), n> 1, and z a zeal number such that [2] <1. Show that (691) Let m be a positive integer. Consider the square matrix Mnen = (by nxn where the element ;; = (i,3), that is the GCD of i and j. Use the fact that Da, H(d)3 = o(n) in order to prove that det M = 9(1}6(2)---(n), where stands for Euler’s fanetion (692) Let m be a positive integer and let M = (aij)nxn be the matrix whose ais element is defined by aj, = r((i,)), where Tn) represents the number of divisors of m. Show that det MI = 1. (693) Let n be a positive integer and let M = (a,;)nxn be the matrix whose a; element is defined by ay = o((i,)), where o(m) represents the sum of the divisors of m. Show that det iM =n!1001 PROBLEMS IN CLASSICAL NUMBER THEORY (694) Let n be a positive integer and let M = (ais)nxn be the matrix whose ‘ay; clement is defined by aj; = (i, )), where jt stands for the Moebius function. Show that det M 0 for 1 8. (695) Let-n be a positive integer and let M = (aij)nen be the matrix whose ai; element is defined by a,j = [i,j], that is the LCM of i and j. Show that aeeat = TT" 6@)r08), where w(k) = Spy, 1, 1(k) = Ty? and ¢ stands for Buler’s function, (696) Let & be a positive integer and let f be an arithmetical function. Show that if az)= fen), on) ‘then Se) = LD sln)ale/n) (met (697) Let f be an arithmetical function. Show that, Y 1Y)=L Y worma). now a men yd ou DY a(n). Show that. (698) Let M(x) Y Men) =1. (699) Let p(n) be the smallest prime factor of n, p(1) = 1. Show that ¥Y plain +1)) = 22 (700) Recently, when Canada celebrated its 125¢ anniversary, mathematicians at the University of Manitoba introduced the notion of “Canada perfect number". A compesite integer n is called a Canada perfect number ifthe sum of the square of its digits is equal to the sum ofits proper divisors > 1. In other words, nis “Canada perfect” if and only if (*) 4-4 co where €,,02,--+sfoin) are the digits appearing in the decimal representa tion of n and where e(n) is the number of digits of n. One easily checks that 125 is “Canada perfect”, since 42? 45? =30=5425.8, ARITHMETICAL FUNCTIONS 7 ‘Show that the only Canada perfect numbers are 125, 581, 8549 and 16999: (@) by using a computer to identify all Canada perfect mumbers < 108, (b) by proving that 1 Canada perfect number larger that 10° exists.1001 PROBLEMS IN CLASSICAL NUMBER THEORY 9. Solving Equations Involving Arithmetical Functions (701) Using a computer, (a) find all values of n < 20000 for which 4r(n +2) = on). (b) write a program that gives the positive integers 1 2, by 6() = [pj P- In particular, ifn is sauarefree, we have 6(n) =n. Use ‘8 computer to obtain the three smallest nonsquarefree solutions n of ) 8(n-+1) = 6{n) =1, and then prove that the equation (+) has infinitely many nonsquarefree solutions, (708) Equation +(0(n)) = m has only two solutions. What are they? (709) Let k be a positive integer which is not a multiple of 8. Show that the only possible values of the smallest positive integer n which divides ax(n) are 6, 10 and 34. (710) Show that all the solutions of the equation 8") = 2 are of the form n= 8, k= 1,2, (711) Prove that a positive integer n isa solution of the equation fo) 4 P78 with a= 1,2,..., B= 12-0. (712) Let 8(n) = 7 r(d). Determine all values of n such that n = S(n) i (713) Find all postive integers such that (a) a(n) = 24 (6) ofn) = 57. (714) What is the smallest positive integer n such that o(z) = n has exactly cone solution? (715) What is the smallest positive integer n such that o(2) ‘two solutions? (716) What is the smallest positive integer n such that o(2) = n has exactly: three solutions? (717) Let n be a fixed positive integer. Is the number of solutions of the equation a(x) =n finite or infinite? What about the equation 7(2) =n? (718) Is it true that m is prime if and only if o(n) =n +1? nm has exactly9. SOLVING EQuar INS INVOL ING ARITHMETICAL FUNCTIONS 0 (719) Let a be a rational number > % and let n be an odd solution of the equation o(n) =an. Show that, has at least four distinct prime factors. (720) Let a be a rational number > ' and let m be an arbitrary solution of the equation o(n) = an. Show that 1 has at least four distinct prime factors (721) Find two integers n for which ete nd (722) Show that there exist infinitely many positive integers m such that equa- tion a(n) =m has at least three solutions (723) Let (n) be the total number of subgroups af the dihedral group Dy of the symmetries of the regular polygon with n sides. {tis possible to show that @(n) = 7(n) + o(n) (see 8.Cavior [5]). A number ris said to be dikedral perfect if @(n) = 2n. Characterize all such numbers which are also of the form n = 2p, where pis prime and k is a positive integer. Use computer to find the five smallest dihedral perfect numbers ofthis form. (724) Find all the solutions 2 of the equation (2) = 24 (725) Show that if @(2) = 2°N, where (2,.N) =1, then x has at most r ‘odd prime factors, (726) Find all positive integers m such that 4/4(n). (727) Show that if m = 2-3" with k > 1, then fn) =m n= 3? orn = Use this to show that there exist infinitely many positive integers m such that #{n : 6(n) =m} =2. (728) Show that there does not exist any positive integer n such that ¢(n) = 2-7", where m > 1 (729) Let n > 2. Show that (n) = n— 1 if and only if n is prime. (730) Let p be a prime number such that 2p+1 is composite. Show that g(x) = 2p has no solutions. (731) Show that. ¢(n) = n/2 if and only if n = 2, for a certain integer k > 1 (732) Show that ¢(n) = 2n/5 if and only if n = 2°5%, r,8 EN. (733) Show that there exist infinitely many positive integers n such that 6(n) = nfs. (734) Are there any positive integers n such that 6(n) = n/4? (735) Let n,a € N and let p be a prime number. Show that d(p") = 2(6n + 1) if and only if p > 6, p = 11 (mod 12) and a is even. (736) Let n EN. (a) Show that. } J < #{n) 1. (740) Show that the equation (+) (n)%" = n has infinitely many solutions. (741) Consider the equation (+) 52,jq 7(d) =n, where 9(1) = 1 and, for n > 2, ‘4(n) = [lin P Show that the only solution n> 1 of (+) isn = 56. (742) Show that the equation a/n) ~ 9(n) = (—1)"r(n) has only one solution. (743) Find all pairs of positive integers m and n such that mn) = d(rm) + 9(n) (744) Show that the only solutions of $n) = 7(n) are (745) Show that the only solutions of #(n) = 7(n)? are and 41154, (746) Consider the equation (+) o(n) = >(n)?. Show that each solution n > 1 of (+) must satisfy the following properties: (a) mis an even number. (b) n eannot be squarefree. ‘Thea, use a computer to find the only solution n > 1 of (#) which is smaller than 10°, (747) Let k be an arbitrary positive integer. Prove that there exists infinitely many positive integers n such that 7(n)¥ divides a(n), (48) Show that the equation (n) + 7(n) = o(n) has only one solution. (749) Show that: sae Ao(9) 5, (750) Find all positive integers m such that 28") < 2n, +4 18. 1, 8, 108, 250, 6174 an integer for infinitely many positive integers10. SPECIAL NUMBERS a 10. Special Numbers (751) Squaring 12 gives 144. By reversing the digits of 144, we notice that 441 is also a perfect square. Using computer software, write a program to find all those integers n, 1 1, Find the Cullen prime numbers smaller than 1000. (755) Write a program which allows one to find the positive integers < N which ‘can be written as the sum of two squares. Use this program to determine all the positive integers < 300 with this property. (756) Carmichael’s conjecture states that for each positive integer n, there exists an integer m # n such that $(mn) = O(n), whese ¢ stands for Euler's function (see Schlafly and Wagon [86]). Write a program which verifies this conjecture for a given integer n. (757) A positive integer NV is called a Silverbach number if it can be written as ‘the sum of two prime numbers in three different ways. Using computer software, write program which allows one to write any integer n as the sum of two prime numbers in one way, in two distinct ways, in three distinct ways, and so on (758) A prime number p is called a Wilson prime if (p — 1)! = —1 (mad p?). Using a computer, find the three smallest Wilson primes. (759) Let k > 1 be an integer. A positive integer n is said to be k-hyperperfect if nairk Ya A Lhyperperfect number is simply a perfect: number. (a) Show that a positive integer n is k-hyperperfect if and only if ka(n) = (e+ lyn th— (b) Show that a positive integer n is k-hyperperfect if and only if o(n) = n+1+ 2h (c) Show that if n is k-hyperperfect, then n= 1 (moa k), (a) Show that if n is k-hyperperfect, then the smallest prime factor of x is larger than k. (€) Prove that no prime power can be a k-hyperperfect number, for any integer k > 1. (f) Use a computes to find all 2-hyperperfect numbers smaller than 10°” 2001 PROBLEMS IN CLASSICAL NUMBER THEORY (g) Construct an algorithm which allows one to identify all 2-hyperperfect. numbers < 16% of the form 3° p, where a is a positive integer and where p > 3 is a prime number. (760) Show that if we add the digits of an even perfect number larger than 6 and we then add the digits of the number thus obtained, and so on until wwe obtain a one-digit number, then this digit’ must be i (761) Show that if {te} stands for the increasing sequence of triangular numbers, then, for each positive integer n, Ee n(n Unt? (2n)! (762) Show that the Catalan number 57" nz0 (763) Show that the following method, invented by Thabit ben Korral (826~ 901), an Arabic mathematician of the ninth century, for finding amicable nambers does work: if p = 3-211, q= 3-2 Land r= 9-221 —1 are primes for a certain positive integer &, then the muabers M=2%pq and N=2r form an amicable pair. (764) Show that the quotient of two triangular numbers ean never be 4. (765) A positive integer n is said to be abundant if o(n) > 2n. Use a computer to find the smallest odd abundant number, and then prove that there exist infinitely many abundant numbers (18) tat nb pete nee. Show eat 2 > 20 fo each dv dl rn. Use ¢his result to show that a positive integer n which is a multiple of 6 Bsa nondeficient: number, that is such that o(n) > 2n (767) Show that there exist infinitely many positive integers n such that nl(2" +1). (768) Show that ifn is an integer larger than 1 such that n|(2" +1), then m is a multiple of 3. (769) Prove that a Fermat number Fy, = 22” +1 eannot be equal to pt, where >is prime and k is an integer > 2. (770) Does there exist a prime number p which is a factor of two Mersenne ‘mumbers (that is numbers of the form 2*— 1, where q is a prime number) (771) Use a computer to find the two smallest nondeficient consecutive numbers; that is find the smallest number such that o(n — 1)/(n~ 1) > 2 and ‘o(n)/n > 2 Proceed in the same manner to find the three smallest nonlficient consecutive numbers. Finally, show that given an arbitrary integer k > 2, there exist k nondeficient consecutive numbers (772) Show that there exists @ positive integer n sach that a(n) > 3n and a(n+ 1) >3(n+1) (773) Show that each odd tri-perfect number must have at least eight distinct prime factors. (774) Show that if a and b are two positive integers such that ab+1 is a perfect square, then the set A= {a,b,a ++ 2Vab+1,4(a+ Vab ¥1)(b-+ Vab+ DVab+ 1} is an integer for each integer40. SPECIAL NUMBERS es is such that if 7,y € A, x #y, then zy + 1s xlsa.a perfect square. Then, find two sets A with this property. (775) Show that. for each positive integer n equal to twice a triangular nurdber, ‘he corresponding expression represents an integer. (776) Prove Cassiny’s identity Fafa ~ Fe = (-1" (nm where F, stands for the n-th Fibonacei number. (777) Show that the set A= {Fra Finga, Fans4,4Fons1FineaFin¢a}s Where Frm stands for the m-th Fibonacci number, is such that ifz,y € A, 2 4 y, then 2y + 1 is @ perfect square. (778) Show that, for each integer n > 1, the number n(n In +2)(n rn is a triangular number (779) Show that there exis infinitely many prime numbers whose last four digits are 7777. Find five such primes. (780) Use a computer to find the three smallest integers n > 1 whicl have the property of being divisible by the sum of the squares of their digits as weit as by the product of the squares of their digits. Deduct the existence of a fourth one. (781) We know that o(p) = pip is prime. In 1982, Derrick Henry Lehmer (1905-1991) conjectured that there does not exist any composite number n such that 6(n) is a proper divisor of n— 1. Show that if sueh a mumber exists, it must be a Carmichael number. (782) Let us write the integer n > 9 in the form m = didz--d,, where did, dy ace the r digits of n. Show that there exist only a finite number of integers n such that, Bey distr and use a computer to find the eight smallest such mamubers n> 9. (783) Let us write the integer n > 9 in the form n = dyd3---d,, where yy... 4, are the r digits of n. Show that there exists no number » such that ah t de tdyt ytd. (784) Show that there exist infinitely many numbers n such that o(n) = 2n— 1. (785) Given a positive integer n = 2 (mod 3), skaw that each odd prime divisor of n? +n +1 is congruent to 1 modulo 3.we 1001 PROBLEMS IN CLASSICAL NUMBER THEORY 11. Diophantine Equations (785) For which positive integer(s) a is it true that (*) a+ (2+) + (2 t2)8 = (e439)? (787) Show that the Diophantine equation a 45=117y° has no solutions. (788) One day, as the English mathematician Godfrey Harold Hardy (1877- 1947) was visiting Srinivasa Ramanujan (1885-1920) at the hospital, the patient commiented to his visitor that the number on the license plate of the taxi that had brought him, namely 1729, was a very special number: it is the smallest positive integer which can be written as the sum of two cubes in two different ways, namely 1729 = 15 + 12 = 9 + 10°. Using the identity (+) (Ba? + Sab — 564)? + (da? — dab + 68°)° = (—5a? + 5ab + 362)° + (6a? — dab + 407)° due to Ramanujan, show that there exist infinitely many positive integers which can be written as @ sum of two cubes in two different ways. Does this identity allow one to find the “double” representation of 1729? (789) Let a,b,c € Z. Show that az-+ by = b+ c is solvable in integers x and y if and only if ax + dy = c is also solvable. (790) Let a,b,c € Z. Show that ax + by = c is solvable in integers x and y if and only if (a,b) = (a,b,¢). (791) Let a and 6 be positive integers such that (a,6) = 1. Show that ar-+by =n hhas positive integer solutions if n > ab, while it has no positive integer solution if n = ab. (792) Find the positive integer solution(s) of the system of equations ety+z=100, Qe + by += + 5y+ = = 100. (793) The triangle whose sides have lengths 5, 12 and 13 respectively has the property that its perimeter is equal to its area. There exist exactly five such triangles with integer sides. Which are they? (794) Identify all the integer solutions, if any, to the equation a4 3y =. (795) Show that if the positive integers x,y, are the respective lengths of the sides of a rectangular triangle, then at least one of these three numbers is a multiple of 5.11, DIOPHANTINE EQUATIONS ro (796) Let a,b and ¢ be three real nonnegative numbers. Show that the system of equations aztbytery = atb+e, byteztaye = atb+e, crtartber = atbte has one and only one solution in nonnegati this solution? Why is it so? (797) Let a and 6 be positive integers such that (a,6) = 1. Show that az-+by = ab — a ~b has no solutions in integers z > 0 and y > 0. (798) Let a and b be positive integers such that (a,b) = 1. Show that the number of nonnegative solutions of ax + by =n is equal to fa] « [ (799) At the fruit counter in a store, apples are sold 5 cents each and oranges are sold 7 cents each. Say Peter purchases four apples and twelve oranges. Peter notices that Paul also bought apples and oranges and that he pays the same total amount as you did, but with a different number of apples and oranges. Knowing that Paul purchased at least three oranges, does Peter have enough information to determine the exact number of apples and oranges purchased by Paul? (800) Determine the set of solutions of the Diophantine equation 3x + 7y = 11 located in the third quadrant of the cartesian plane (801) Determine the set of solutions of the Diophantine equation 5 + 7y = 11 located above the line y = x. (802) Assume that the set B of solutions of the Diophantine equation ©) ax + by = 11 is given by B= ((2y):2=5—4t and y= 1~3t, where t€ Z} Determine the values of a and 6. (803) Find the primitive solutions of ? +3y? = 22, that is those solutions 2, y, = which have no common factor other than 1. (804) Show that the only nonzero integer solutions (1,y,2) to the system of equations integers x, y, 2. What is rtyteatytea3 are (1,1,1), (—5,4,4), (4,54) and (4,4, -8). (805) Show that the equation Poyss has infinitely many solutions in positive integers 2, y = (806) Find the four different. ways of writing 136 as a sum of two positive inte- gers, one of which is divisible by 5 and the other by 7 (807) Any solution in positive integers «,y,2 of a? + y? = 2? is called a Pytha- ‘gorean triple, since in such a ease there exists a rectangular triangle whose sides have x,y, 2 for their respective lengths. Find all Pythagorean triples ‘whose terms form an arithmetic progression.1001 PROBLEMS IN CLASSICAL NUMBER THEORY (808) Find the dimensions of the Pythagorean triangle whose hypotenuse is of length 281 (809) Show that 60 divides the product of the lengths of the sides of a Pythagorean triangle (810) Find every Pythagorean triangle whose area is equal to three times its perimeter. (SLI) Find every Pythagorean triangle whose perimeter is equal to twice its (812) Show that {2 y,2} = {3,4,5} is the only solution of 2? + y consecutive integers 2, y, = (813) Show that n? + (n+ 1)? = 2m? is impossible for n,m € N. (814) Show that the equation 2? + y? = 4z +7 has no integer solution (815) Find all integer solutions of x? + y? = 24 such that (2, y,2) = 1 (816) Find all integer points on the line x + y = 1 which are located inside the circle centered at the origin and of radins 3. (817) Find all primitive solutions of the Diophantine equation 2 with a? +3136 = 27, (818) Find all integer solutions of the equation at ty =ay. (819) Find the solutions of the Diophantine equation « P42 = 42 (820) Find a triangle such that each of its sides is of integer length and for which an interior angle is equal to twice another interior angle. (821) Find all positive integer solutions to the equation 2? + y? = 10. Do the same for 2? + y? = 47. (822) Find all positive rational solutions of 2? + y? = 1. (823) Find all primitive Pythagorean triangles such that the length of one of their sides is equal to 24 (824) Show that the radius of any circle inscribed in a Pythagorean triangle is an integer. (825) Show that the equation 2? + y? + 2? integers 2. y= (826) Show that 1239 has no solutions in positive Patty ee has no nontrivial integer solution with f even and with 2, y, 2 having no common factor. (827) Find all primitive solutions of the Diophantine equation 2? + 2y? (828) Find all positive integer solutions to the system of equations { (820) Find all integer solutions of y? ty = 2! +28 42? 4a. (880) Find the smallest prime number which can be written in each of the following forms: 2° + y?,2? + 2y?,...,2? + 19y?, (831) Determine the set of quadruples (2, y,,w) verifying 2?-+y°+2* = w* and such that 2,y,2 and w are positive integers in arithmetical progression.11, DIOPHANTINE EQUATIONS ® (832) Consider the sequence 8,26,56,98, 152,..., that is the sequence {4} de- fined by 2 = 8 and 2qyi = 2» + 6(2n +1), > 1, and show that for n> 1, 24 cannot be the cube of an integer. (833) Show that 2” +1 = y"*1 has no solutions in positive integers 2, y,n (n> 2) with (en +1) =1. (834) Show that neither of the equations S41a5h4 7 and St +1 a3 47° has a solution in integers a,b,c other than a =b =e (835) Find all integer triples (2,y,2) such that 4 +47 + 4° (836) Show that there exist solutions in positive integers a,b, of equations 0. a perfect square. z,ytothesystem atbto=rsy, (OVR oT Say. Show, in particular, that there exist infinitely many solutions such that a,b, are in arithmetic progression. (887) Solve each of the following Diophantine equations: (here m is a nonnega- tive integer) : (a ty) ay", 2m(e? + y3) (888) Can the following equations be verified for an appropriate choice of inte- gers 2,0,b,¢,4? w+lP +a? (e@+3P +e = (r+4)P? +a. (839) Does the equation 4p tetany have integer solutions? (840) Find all pairs of real numbers (2, y) which satisfy the two equations: ) 2a? a2 ty? (oa) apy +a? (841) Find all positive integer solutions 2, y of 2¥ = y*~¥ (842) Find all integers solutions z,y,2 to the system of equations { 2e(1 + y ty?) = 30 +y4), 2y(1 +2422) =3(1 +24), 221 +2 +24) = 3 +25), (843) Prove that there exist infinitely many integers a,b, cd such that a > 6 > ¢>d> land ald! =e (844) Show that the equation 23 + y° + 24 = 4 has no solutions in integers What about the equation 29 +y3 +29 = 5? (845) Does the Diophantine equation 24 = 4y? + 4y ~ 80 have any solutions? If so, what are they? If no, explain why. (846) Does the Diophantine equation x + y* + 2* = 363932239 have any solu- tions? If so, what are they? If no, explain why. (847) Let a be an arbitrary integer. Does the Diophantine equation 3082 + 57y =a? +1 have any solution?1001 PROBLEMS IN CLASSICAL NUMBER THEORY (848) Does the Diophantine equation at dy? + dy —15 have any solution? (849) Do integers x, y,2 exist such that a4 (Qytt=2? (850) Determine the set of positive solutions of the Diophantine equation Bay'ts, (851) Let p be an odd prime number. Assume that q = p-+8 is also a prime number. Analyze the set of solutions of the Diophantine equation Pay tpg and give one such solution explicitly (852) Does the Diophantine equation Pe yt tet dy t4z+2=0 have any solution? (853) Does the Diophantine equation att yt tet tal = aeyeu have any nonzero solution? (854) Does the Diophantine equation 2+ 2y? = 43° have any nonzero solution? (855) Find all integer solutions of 2? + y? = 8: +7. (856) Show that 24 + y = 72? has no solutions in N. What about the equation hy! 527? (857) Does the equation x* +2? = y* +5 have any solution in integers «and y? (858) Let 0.< x 2, 2" + y" = 2" is impossible, (859) Prove that the equation 43y? has no nontrivial integer solution. (860) Let p be a prime number. Does the Diophantine equation at py! + pst = phot oe have any trivial solution? (861) Show that Poysda hhas no nontrivial integer solution. (862) Determine all rational solutions of the equation rye 1 hhas at least one solution for each integer n > 1.1, DIOPHANTINE EQUATIONS %0 (864) Show that the Diophantine equation Payetaay has no nontrivial solution, (865) Show that the equation ata7 apa bat te +2? p20 +1 = 1284567891314 has no integer solution. (866) Prove that the Diophantine equation (ety? + (e+e)? =(y +2)? has no solutions in odd integers 2, y, 2. (867) Let p be a fixed prime number. Find all positive integer solutions of P+ py = 2, (868) Show that there exist infinitely many solutions to the Diophantine equa- tion 2? + 4y? = 24 (869) Find all solutions, for z, y integers and n positive integers, to the Dio- phantine equation 2” + y" = ary (870) Show that the equation n* +n¥ = n* has positive integer solutions only ifn=2 (871) Show that the equation n* + n¥ 4-n™ = n* has positive integer solutions only ifn = 2 or 3. (872) Show that the abc conjecture implies the following result: The equation 27h yf =" has no saltons in postive integers udehtays = with © > 0 aed raya Lytton ® Pog, so that in particular the Fermat equation 2” + y"" = 2” has no nontrivial solution for n > 4 and > sufficiently large. (873) Show that if the abe conjecture is true, then there can exist only a finite number of triples of consecutive powerful numbers. (874) Show that if the abe conjecture is true, then there exist only a finite number of positive integers n such that n° +1 is a powerful number. Moreover, find two numbers n with this property. (875) Erdés conjectured that the equation «+ y = z has only a finite number of sohttions in 4-powerful integers 2, y, = pairwise coprime. Show that the ‘abe conjecvure implies this conjecture. (876) Show that if the abe conjecture is true, then there exist only a finite ‘number of 4-powerft! numbers which can be written as the sum of two S-powerful numbers pairwise coprime. (877) Given an integer n > 2, let P(n) stand for the largest prime factor of n. Prove that it follows from the abc conjecture that, for each real number y > 0,the set Ay := {p prime : P(p*~1) < y} is a finite set and therefore has a largest element p = p(y). (878) In 1877, Edouard Lucas (1842-1891) observed that although 2701 is a composite number, we have that 27° = 1 (mod 2701), thus providing a counter-example to the reverse of Fermat's Little Theorem. More gener- ally, show that one can construct a large family of such counter-examples1001 PROBLEMS IN CLASSICAL NUMBER THEORY by considering the numbers n = pq, where p and g are prime numbers such that p = 1 (mod 4) and q = 2p ~ 1. (879) Show that if the abe conjecture is true, then for any ¢ > 0, there exists a positive constant M = M(e) such that forall triples (21, 2,23) of positive Integers, pairwise coprime and verifying 1 +2 = 25, we have that () min(21,22,03) < M((a))"** (= 1,2,3). (880) In 1979, Enrico Bombieri naively claimed that: “the equation ()-0)-@) 2a had no solutions in positive integers 2, y, 2.” Was Bombieri right? If so, prove it; if no, provide a counter-example. (881) Let p be ap ord prime number and let a1, 2,-..,4r be positive integers not exceeding p— 1, Show that the Diophantine equation ap tap tet at has solutions in positive integers m1, 2225. -+4r (882) Even though, according to Fermat's Last Theorem, for each prime number p> 3, the equation 2?-+y = 2” has no solutions in positive integers 2, y, 2, show that the equation 2?-! + yP-? = 2? always has solutions (besides the trivial one x = y = 2 = 2)12. quabRATic RECIPROCITY a 12. Quadratic Reciprocity (883) Characterize all prime numbers p > 11 for which, 2? =11 (mod p) has a solution, (884) Which of the following congruences have solutions? (a) 2? =1 (mod 3); (b) 2? = -1 (mod 3); (c) 22+ 42-+8=0 (mod 3) (a) 2? +82 +16 =~—1 (mod 17). (885) Find the sotutions of the congruence 2x? + 3n-+1=0 (mod 7). (886) Show that (1!)? + (21)? +--+ + (n!)? is never a perfect square, whatever the integer n> 1 (887) Let n EN. Show that the odd prime divisors of n® +1 are of the form 12k +1 or of the form 12k +5. (888) Let p > 3 be a prime number. Show that p divides the sum pot (888) Assuming that m is @ positive integer such that p= 4m4+3 and q = 2p-+1 are two prime numbers, show that g|M, = 2” —1. Use this result to show that the Mersenne number Mj 122650 i8 composite. (890) Show that $239 divides 24! — 1. (891) Show that 5 is a nonquadratic residue of all the prime numbers of the form 6" +1 (892) Does there exist a perfect square of the form 197k ~ 1? (893) Show that there exist infinitely many prime numbers of the form 3k + 1 (894) Does there exist a perfect square of the form I! +2!-+---+4! with k > 3? (895) Show that for each integer n > 1, (2"—1)/(3" — 1). (896) Let p and q be two odd prime numbers, and a an integer. If p= q+4a, ween) ( (897) If pis a prime number of the form 24k +1, is it true that (3) =1? (898) Does the congruence 2* = 52 (mod 159) have any solutions? (899) If pis.a prime number of the form 8k-+3 and if q = 25" isa prime number, ccan one conchide that q is a quadratic residue modhlo p? (900) Show that 3 is a nonquadratie residue of all Mersenne primes larger than 3 (G01) If p is a prime number of the form p= 8k +7, show that pie" = 1. (902) Does the congruence 2 they? If not, explain why. (903) Does there exist a positive integer m and a prime number p of the form p= 100k +3 such that pn? +1? Explain 2 (mod 231) have any solution? If so, what axe1001 PROBLEMS IN CLASSICAL NUMBER THEORY (904) Is it true that there exist infinitely many positive integers m such that 23)n? + 14n +47? Explain. (905) Does there exist an integer « such that the prime number 541 divides 2? 32-1? Explain, (906) If p is a prime number, p = 1 (mod 24), does the congruence 2? (mod p) have any solution? Explain. (907) Let n be a positive integer such that p= 4" +1 is a prime number. Does ‘the congruence 2? = 3 (mod p) have any solution? Explain (908) Let A be the set of integers a, 1 < a < 43, for which there exists a prime number p =a (mod 44) such that the corresponding congruence 22=11 (mod p) has solutions, Determine A (009) Find all prime numbers p for which @) ae (010) Let p and q be odd prime numbers such that p = q-+ 4a, a € N. Show that @) (911) Of which prime numbers is the number —2 a quadratic residue? (912) Let p be an odd prime number. Show that x? = 2 (mod p) has solutions if and only if p = 1 or 7 (mod 8). Using this result, prove that 24"? = 1 (mod 8n +7) for each integer n > 0. In particular, find a proper divisor of the Mersenne number 219! — 1. (913) Observing that 2717 = 11 - 13-19, determine if the quadratic congruence 2? = 1287 (mod 2717) has solutions. (914) Let a be an integer such that (a,p) = 1. Determine all prime numbers p such that (3) - (&) ») =p (915) Does the congruence 2? = 131313 (mod 1987) have any solutions? (916) Show that the equation 2? ~ y* = 7 has no integer solution. (917) Determine all prime numbers p for which 15 is a quadratic residue modulo P. (918) Show that the statement of the law of quadratic reciprocity can be written (as Gauss did) as (819) Does the congruence 2? = 34561 (mod 1234577) have any solution? (920) Show that if r is a quadratic residue modulo m > 2, then 60/2 = 1 (mod m). (921) Let @ be an integer > 1 and let n be a positive integer. Show that njo(a" — 1), (922) Show that if p is an odd prime number, then %(5)-°12, QUADRATIC RECIPROCITY 93 (923) Let p be an odd prime number. Show that (924) Let p > 5 be a prime number. Using the Problem 923, show that one ean always find two consecutive integers which are quadratic residues modulo , as well as two consecutive integess which are quadratic nonresidues modulo p. (025) Find all prime numbers p such that the corresponding mumbers 5p+i axe perfect squares. Is it possible to find prime numbers p for which 5p +2 are perfect squares? (926) Let f: Z — Z be a polynomial function and let a, 6 be integers, Set () if plm. If (a, p) = 1, show that sak +9) _ (50) EC)-E A) Use this to prove that if (a,p) = 1, then SS (ak+8 =) (027) Let a,b {1,1}, p be an odd prime number and Nios) =#{kl1 1 whose representation as a simple in- finite continued fraction is [ay,02,...|- Express 1/ar as a simple infinite continued fraction. (987) Find a rational number which provides a good approximation of Y; that is, find a rational number a/6 such that |v5 — a/b) < 10-4 (938) Let {p_} and {gn} be the sequences defined in Definition 24. Show that Pa Gm [any@n—1y+--,@1], n> 1, +a2],n 22 Poo Ge (939) Show that if ax? — ba — Oand ¥? + dac is not a perfect 0 where abe # saree th contin ion [ 2) a elo fhe undzat equation, (940) Find an approximation for the real roots of 22? — 5x — 4 = Q which is Accurate up to the first decimal. (941) For each n € N, show that yn? +1 = [n,2n] (042) Given an integer n > 1, show that the continued fraction which represents, vnt—1is [n— 1,133). (943) For each n € N, show that vx? 2 = [n, 7, 2h], (944) Given an integer n > 1, show that the continued fraction that represents nt 2 is [n= 1,102, 1,20 —2] (945) Find the continued fraction of V38, that of VF and that of VT. (946) If nis a positive integer, show that the continued fraction which represents nt is [n, 2,2 (047) Given an integer n > 1, show that the continued fraction which represents nF =n isn — 1,230 = 3] (048) Given an integer = > 1, show that the continued fraction which represents YOnE+S is [3n, Bes (949) Find the real number r whose expansion in a continued fraction is q = [1, 1,2] by multiplying the quantities g+1 and q — 1 (950) Find the best rational approximation a/b of x when b < 1000, Do the same for e and then for v5. (951) Find an approximation of the irrational number (1, rect up to the sixth decimal (952) Knowing that = 21,21,14,1,1,6,1,1,8,1,...} find a rational number which is a correct approximation of the number ¢ up to the fourth decimal, 4,5,6.7,...] cor1001 PROBLEMS IN CLASSICAL NUMBER THEORY (958) Knowing that = (8,7, 15,1, 292,1,1,1,2,1,8,1,14,2,.-.J, find a rational number which is a correct approximation of the number up to the sixth decimal. (954) Find an approximation correct up to 10~¢ of the number (4,203,028), (955) Let & > 1 and let Ck = pe/ge be the k-th convergent of the irrational number a. Assume that a and b are integers, with b positive. Show that if Ja — a/b] < a — pe/ge|, then b > ge42/2. (956) Assume that | v3 — a/b] < {v3 — 26/15|, where b > 0. Show that b > 21 (957) Let k > 1 and let Ci = px/ge be the k-th convergent of the irrational number a. Ifa and b are integers with a > 1, b> 1 and, show that > gey1- (958) Let a and b be positive integers such that V3 < a/b < 26/15. Show that b> a. (959) Let a/b be a rational number such that a/b # 333/106. If 0 < b < show that |r — 833/106] < |x — a/b), and thus that 333/106 is a better approximation of x then any other rational number whose denominator is smaller or equal to 56. (960) Let [a1,a2,...] be a simple continued fraction. Show that dm 22-2, for n > 3. (061) Show that for n > 4, Prn-3 ~ dnP (@ndn=1 + 1)(Pn—t@n—s ~ 4n—4Pn—s) -1)"(anan—1 +1). (962) Given an integer n > 2, let a1,aa,... and by, by... be integers such that the a,’s and 6,’s are positive for each 2fbisba,.-] if nis even. (963) Let a1, 42+.) bys bar--» and c3,¢2,-+- be integers such that aj, by and cy are positive for each j 2 2. Ife; 1, then show that [b1,€2, ba, ¢4,65,---] $ [a1,a2,a3,...] < fer, b2y¢3,b4,c5)---]- (964) Let a; be integers taking the value 1 or 2. Show that if a = [a,a2,...), then: 18 1 and Ci = px/ay be the k-th convergent of the irrational number las,a2,43,...]. Show that a -t 0 an) 1 a -1 Cn) 0 1 as 0 0 ye = det -1 0 0 0 ay FFind a similar expression for (967) A simple infinite continued fraction is said to be periodic if itis of the form [a,02,..-4@n,y,ba)--+,Bm)- If it is of the form [by,b2,-..,bm], we say that it is purely periodic. The smallest positive integer m satisfying the above relation is ealled the period ofthe simple infinite continued fraction. Show that any simple continued fraction which is purely periodic must be fa quadratic irrational number (that is an irrational number which is a root of a quadratic equation whose coefficients are integers) (968) Show that every periodic simple vontinued fraction is @ quadratic irrational number. (969) Let ar be an irrational root of f(2) innegers. 1 = ar? +-br += 0, where @, 8, ¢ are 1) Qn = {On 41,@n¢2-+.] for each n > 1, show that Gq (n > 1) is @ root of the polynomial Ana + But +Cn = 0, where An= ahs (2) =8-+ boat + ot Br = 20PnPa—1 + PPngn—1 + OPn—19n + Zegnn—Ls ) = +t Heth and where By ~ 4A,Cn = b? — dac, Use this to prove that AnC, <0. (970) Let a be a quadratic irrational number and write = [ary aaysydnyQtn) (N= 1,2,.25 where an = fants Ona] foreach m > 198 1001 PROBLEMS IN CLASSICAL NUMBER THEORY Show that there exists a finite aumber of quadratic polynomials with integer coefficients, say Aya? + Bi + Cy, Ant? + Bat + C2, Aya? + By +Cy, of which ay is a root. (971) Show that each quadratic irrational number has a periodic expansion as 4 simple continued fraction. (972) Given any integer D > 1 which is not a perfect square, the following result is known: Let a = a+VD anda = a-bVD, where a is a quadratic irrational number. If > 1 and —1 <@ <0, then the continua fraction which represents ais a simple continued fraction wich is purely periodic. Show that this is the case for the quadratic ireational numbers (3+ 23)/7, 24 v7 and (5+ V37)/3. (973) It Dis a positive integer which is not_a perfect square, show that the continued fraction which represents VD is a periodic continued fraction whose period begins after the first term. In particular, show that VD = (ay, 3,03, 4m, 2)1M. CLASSIFICATION OF REAL NUMBERS % 14. Classification of Real Numbers (974) Show that the sequence [V3], [2V3}, [32], [4V2}-.. contains infinitely many powers of 2 (975) Assume that 0 < r € Q is given as an approximation of V2. Show that the number £22 represents an even better approximation. (976) Consider each of the following numbers and indicate if it is rational or inrational: (a) Vee (b) VIB +V2. (977) Let a = 12, b = 245, c = 363, d = 375. Consider each of the following numbers and indicate if itis rational or irrational: (a) vad; (b) Vacs (e) (6nd); (A) toga. (978) Let J :R—+ {0,1} be the Dirichlet function defined by 1 if i rational, Ho {0 trim Show that this function bas the representation Sa) = lim (cos(minz)” (979) Show that the positive root of the equation 2° + x = 10 is irrational. (980) Let r and s be two positive integers. If the equation 2? + rx +s=0 has a root z9 € Q, show that to € Z. (G81) Let p ana q be two prime numibers. For which integers m and n is the number m+ ny an integer? (982) Show that ‘the number a = 0.0110101000101...., where the j-th decimal after the dot is 1 if jis prime and 0 otherwise, is an irrational number. (983) Let p and q be two prime munnibers. Show that. b+ J i necessarily an irrational number. (984) Consider the three numbers Find the only number ¢ satisfying the equation a+a+i=2 (085) Is the number 2° + 34/9 an rational number? (986) Is the number logo? itrational? (87) Let. 0 < € < Lhe a rational number. Prove that there exists only a finite numberof solutions 2/9 to the inequality 1 0. Prow that m+ > isan integer if and only if m = 1. (990) Find the polynomial of minimal degree of which the real number y2+V7 is a root (991) Determine the roots of the polynomial p(t) = 23 +22 —1 and indicate those which are rational numbers as well as those which are irrational numbers. (992) Let e stand for the Euler number. Is it possible to find integers a and 6 such that, 4 veers If so, find them, If not, explain why. (093) Is it true thatthe interval (2, 3} contains atleast ono transcendental num- ber? Explain (994) Using the fact that “ (a7) -2 show that there exist irrational numbers a and f such that a is rational. (995) Show that (a) if y is a real nonnegative number such that o is rational, then y is inrational, (b) ris an irrational number. (096) Show that log2 (the neperian logarithm of 2) is an irrational number. (097) Show that +7" is an algebraic number of degree three by finding its ‘minimal polynomial. (098) Show that 1+ v2 + V3 fs an algebraic number of degree four by finding its minimal polynomial (999) Is the number 2'/? + 33/3 irrational, algebraic, transcendental? Explain. (1000) Without using a computer, find all rational roots of the polynomial 2° + Sn + 832° + 82522 — 3480 — 1924. (1001) Does there exist @ rational number z such that at Qate? + 3n82° + dn?at + Sra 46=07 Explain.