4.

2.
CHEMISTRY

Ra
2010

GROUP 18 ELEMENTS: Noble

Gases (Monoatomic gas)
1. These noble gases in group 18 of the
Periodic Table make up almost 1% of the
air.
2. All noble gases do not:
(a) Dissolve in water,
(b) Conduct electricity
(c) Conduct heat
(d) Monoatomic gases at room

Element
/
Symbol
Helium,
He
Neon,
Ne
Argon,
Ar
Krypton,
Kr
Xenon,
Xe
Radon,
temperature.
Electron
config

2.8

2.8.8

2.8.18.8

2.8.18.18.8

2.8.18.32.8
Increasing
boiling
point,
melting
point,
density
and radius

3. Except for He, all of the noble gas atoms

have 8 electrons in their outer most shells.
This arrangement called the octet
configuration. Thus, the arrangement of He
(with 2 electrons in outer most shells –
extremely stable electron arrangement) is
duplex electron configuration.
4. Boiling point and melting point are low
because they have very low intermolecular
force of attraction (Van der Waals force).
5. Density is low because the molecules are
far apart from each other (big size
molecules will have bigger intermolecular
forces of attraction).
6. Low reactivity of noble gases due to
unusual high large ionization energies and
unusual low electron affinity.
7. Uses:
(a) Helium – super conductors, fill airships
and weather balloons, divers’ tank
(80% He, 20% O2), cool metals down.
(b) Neon – advertising light (glow red in
low pressure tubes), fill television
tubes.
(c) Argon – fill light bulbs (does not react
with tungsten filament), welding
(prevent hot metal from reacting with
O2 from the air).
(d) Krypton – laser surgery, photographic
flash lamps.
(e) Xenon – lighthouse lamps (blue light),
making electron tubes.
(f) Radon – cancer treatment.

4.2
GROUP 1 ELEMENTS: Alkali metals
1. They are all metals which react
with water to form alkaline solution.
All alkali metals are,
(a) Solid
(b) Silvery and shiny surfaces
(c) Soft and melt easily
(d) Conductors of electricity
3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.
Element/

,K
symbol
Lithium,

Na
Li
Sodium,

Potassium
Electron

being higher.
config

2.1

2.8.1

2.8.8.1
Decreasing
boiling point,
melting point,
electro-
positivity and
hardness.

*only density
and radius
increasing.
The melting points, boiling points and
hardness of the atoms decrease down the
group because the size of the atoms
increases down the group causes the
metallic bonding between atoms become
weaker.
The radius of the atoms increases down the
group because the lower members have
more shells of electrons. Thus, mass of
atom increases.
The density increases down the group due
to its increasing mass and will produce
stronger intermolecular attraction. The
atoms are closer, resulting in their densities

Electropositivity is a measure of the ability of

an atom to lose its valence electrons. The
valence electrons of the lower members are
further away from the nucleus, and can be
easily donated. Thus, electropositivity
increases down the group.
Chemical properties:
(a) Reactivity depends on their ability to

(c)

(d)

4.3
give away the valence electron
(increase down the group).
(b) Alkali metals react with oxygen gas to
form metal oxides. Example:
Na(s) +¿ O2(g) → Na2O
Alkali metals react with water to form
alkaline metal hydroxide solution and
hydrogen gas. Example:
2K(s) +¿ 2H2O(l ) → 2KOH(aq) +¿
H2(g)
Alkali metals react with halogen
(fluorine, chlorine and bromine) to form
colourless, crystalline ionic salts called
halides. Example:
2Li(s) +¿ Cl2(g) → 2LiCl(s)
2Na(s) +¿ Br2(l ) → 2NaBr(s)
2K(s) +¿ I2(s) → 2KI(s)
Safety precautions:
(a) Lithium, sodium, and potassium are
highly reactive to water and air, thus
must be kept under non reactive liquid
(paraffin oil).
(b) Reaction of potassium, rubidium,
caesium and francium are explosive.
Thus, a small piece should be used
always during experiment.
(c) Never handle those alkali metals with
your fingers because it can react with
moist which will form a corrosive
hydroxide.

GROUP 17 ELEMENTS: Halogens

(diatomic molecules)

THEME: Matter Around Us

1.

4.

5.
Halogens are not conductors of heat and
electricity.
2. At room temperature, chlorine is a gas,
bromine is a liquid, and iodine is a solid.
Element/
symbol
Fluorine,
F
Chlorine,
Cl
Bromine,
Br
Iodine,
I
Astatine,
At
Electron
config
2.7

2.8.7

2.8.8.7

2.8.18.8.7
2.8.18.18.8.
7
3. Physical properties of halogen:

Chemical properties of halogen:

Increasing
boiling
point,
melting
point,
density and
radius

*reactivity
decreases.

(a) Halogens react with heated aluminium

(b)

(c)

(d)

4.4
to produce powdery solid halides.
Example:

to group 12.
3Cl2(g) +¿ 2Al(s) → 2AlCl3(s)
3Br2(l ) +¿ 2Al(s) → 2AlBr3(s)
Halogens react with phosphorus to
form phosphorus halides.
Halogens react with H2 to form halides.
Example:
Cl2(g) +¿ H2(s) → 2HCl(s)
Br2(l ) +¿ H2 (s) → 2HBr(s)
Halogens react among themselves.
Example:
I2(s) +¿ Cl2(g) → 2HCl(s)
Safety precautions:
(a) Vapour of fluorine, chlorine, and
bromine are poisonous.
(b) Iodine affects negatively the respiration
of all living things.
(c) Astatine is radioactive.
(d) All experiments of halogens should be
done inside a fume chamber.
(e) Safety goggles and gloves should be
used.

TRANSITION ELEMENTS: Group 3

1. All elements in this block of the Periodic

Table have similar properties.
2. Physical properties:
(a) Hard, shiny and dense,

1
i
r)sP
B
(g
tC
e
-m
n
N
d
u
co
la
A
 CHEMISTRY 2010

(b) Good conductors of heat and of a reaction. A few industrial 4. Formation of anions (negative ions):
electricity, processes that use these elements or  An atom that accept electrons into their
(c) Are malleable and ductile, their compounds as catalysts are: valence shells to achieve the stable octet
(d) High tensile strength,  Haber process (manufacture electron arrangement similar to noble
(e) Radius of all transition elements is ammonia) – iron. gases is called anions (more electrons
almost constant,  Contact process (manufacture than protons – non-metal atoms).
(f) Decreasing from left to right – boiling sulphuric acid) – Vanadium(V)  Non-metal atoms are electronegative –
point and melting point oxide. group 15, 16 and 17.
(g) Increasing from left to right – proton  Ostwald process (manufacture nitric  Example: N +¿ e- → N3-
number and density, electronegativity acid) – Platinum.
(increase slowly).  Hydrogenation of vegetable oil
3. Below are some of the transition elements: (manufacture margarine) - nickel,
Proton
Elements Symbol
number
Scandium Sc 21 CHAPTER 5: Chemical
Titanium Ti 22 5.1
Vanadium V 23 Bonds
Chromium Cr 24 FORMATION OF Charge of 7 protons =+7 Charge of 7 protons =+7
Charge of 7 electrons =-7 Charge of 10 electrons =-10
Manganese Mn 25 COMPOUNDS
Total charge =0 Total charge = -3
Iron Fe 26 1. Conditions for the formation of chemical
Cobalt Co 27 bonds include the following: 5. Formation of ionic bonds:
Nickel Ni 28 (a) Electrons in completely filled shells do A. Formation of potassium chloride, KCl
Copper Cu 29 not take part in bond formation. (a) Figure below shows the transfer of one
Zinc Zn 30
(b) Only valence electrons are involved in electron from a potassium atom to a
4. Special characteristic:
bond formation. chlorine atom to form the ionic compound
(a) Majority of the transition elements have
(c) The combining atoms will change their potassium chloride.
more than one oxidation number in
electron arrangements to achieve the
their compounds.
stable noble gas electron
Oxidation
Elements Compound Formula arrangements.
number
Chromium Potassium 5.2 2. The octet rule – 2.8.18.32.18.8.
dichromate K2Cr2O7 +6
(IV)
IONIC BONDS (Electrovalent bonds)
Chromium
CrCl3 +3 1. Ionic bond is the chemical bond formed
(II) chloride
Manganese Manganese
MnCl2 +2
from the transfer of electron from metal
(II) chloride atoms to non-metal atoms.
Manganese
(IV) oxide
MnO2 +4 2. Formation of ionic bond are as follows:
Potassium
manganate K2MnO4 +6
(VI)
Potassium
manganate KMnO4 +7
(VII)
Iron Iron(II)
FeCl2 +2
chloride
Iron(III)
FeCl3 +3 (b) The oppositely-charged ions, K+ and Cl-,
chloride
Nickel Nickel(II)
NiSO4 +2
formed are then strongly attracted to each
sulphate other by strong electrostatic forces in the
Nickel(III)
bromide
NiBr3 +3 crystal lattice, called ionic bonds or
Copper Copper(I) electrovalent bonds. Hence, the ionic
CuCl +1
chloride compound potassium chloride with the
Copper(II) 3. Formation of cations (positive ions): formula KCl is formed.
CuO +2
oxide  An atom that loses their valence
(b) Most transition elements form coloured B. Formation of calcium sulphide, CaS
electrons to achieve stable duplet or octet
ions as shown below: (a) Figure below shows the transfer of electrons
electron arrangement similar to noble
Formula of Colour gases is called cation (fewer electrons from a calcium atom to a sulphur atom to
Ions
the ions (aqueous) form the ionic compound calcium sulphide.
than protons – metal atoms).
Chromate(VI) CrO42- Yellowish
Dichromate(VI) Cr2O72- Orange  Metal atoms are more electropositive –
Iron(II) Fe2+ Greenish group 1, 2 and 13.
Iron(III) Fe3+ Brownish  Example: Li → Li+ +¿ e-
Copper(II) Cu2+ Bluish
Cobalt(II) Co2+ Pale reddish
Manganate(VII MnO4- Purple
)
3+
Chromium(III) Cr Greenish
(c) Many of the transition elements are
able to from complex ions.
(d) Many of the transition elements can act
as catalyst. Catalysts are used in Charge of 3 protons =+3 Charge of 7 protons =+3
Charge of 3 electrons =-3 Charge of 10 electrons =-2
chemical reaction to speed up the rate Total charge =0 Total charge = +1

THEME: Matter Around Us 2

 CHEMISTRY 2010

(b) A neon atom has eight valence

electrons. Its Lewis structure is as xx xx
Cl + xCl xx Cl x Cl
x
x or Cl Cl
follows: xx xx

Ne B. Formation of water molecule, H2O

Types of covalent bonds
1. During the formation of a covalent bond
between two atom, each atom contributes 1,
2 and 3 electrons for sharing.
2. In so doing, the two atoms share 1, 2 or 3
pairs of electrons so as to achieve stable
noble gas electron arrangements.
3. When two atoms share one pair of
electrons, a single covalent bond is formed.

X + xY X xY or X Y
(b) The oppositely-charged ions, Ca2+ and S2-,
formed are then strongly attracted to each 4. When two atoms share two pairs of
other by ionic bond. Hence, the ionic electrons, a double covalent bond is formed. Lewis structure:
compound calcium sulphide with the formula
x x
CaS is formed. X + xY X xY or X Y xx xx
H + xO x + H Hx O x H or H O H
xx xx
C. Formation of magnesium fluoride, MgF2
5. When two atoms share three pairs of
(a) Figure below shows the transfer of two
electrons, a triple covalent bond is formed. Formation of double covalent bonds
electrons from a magnesium atom to two
Formation of oxygen molecule, O2
fluorine atoms to form the ionic compound x x
magnesium fluoride. X + xY
x X xY
x or X Y

6. Hence, there are three types of covalent

bonds:
(a) Single covalent bond
(b) Double covalent bond
(c) Triple covalent bond
7. Remember that during the formation of
covalent bonds:
(a) An atom of a Group 17 element
contributes one electron for sharing.
(b) An atom of a Group 16 element
contributes two electrons for sharing.
(c) A hydrogen atom contributes one Lewis structure:
electron for sharing.
xx xx
(d) A silicon or carbon atom from Group
(b) The oppositely-charged ions, Mg2+ and F-, O + xxO O xxO or O O
formed are then strongly attracted to each 14 contributes four electrons for xx xx

ionic bond. Hence, the ionic compound sharing with two or more atoms of
other elements. Formation of triple covalent bonds
magnesium fluoride with the formula MgF2 is
Formation of nitrogen molecule, N2
formed.
Formation of single covalent bonds
5.3 Covalent Bonds A. Formation of chlorine molecule, Cl2

1. Covalent bonds are formed when atoms of

non-metals combine with each other to form
a molecule – share electron to achieve
stable noble gas electron arrangements.
2. Non-metal elements are from Group 15, 16,
17, carbon and silicon from Group 14 in
Periodic Table.
Lewis Structure
1. The Lewis structure of a molecule shows
how the valence electrons of the atoms are Lewis structure:
arranged in the molecule.
x x
2. Example: N + xxN xx N xxN xx or N N
(a) A helium atom has two valence
electrons. Therefore, its Lewis
Lewis structure: Method to deduce the formulae of covalent
structure is as follows:
compounds
He 1. Covalent compounds are usually formed
from non-metal elements.

THEME: Matter Around Us 3

 CHEMISTRY 2010

2. Valency of a non-metal is the number of temperature. 5. Electrical conductivity of covalent

electrons needed by an atom of the non- Conduct electricity in the Do not conduct electricity compounds
molten state or aqueous in the solid and liquid
metal to achieve a stable noble gas electron solution but do not states. (a) Covalent compounds are composed of
arrangement. It shows the combining power conduct electricity in the simple covalent molecules in the solid,
of the element. solid state. liquid and gaseous states.
Usually soluble in water Usually insoluble in water
Element
Number of
Valency
(b) There are no free mobile ions in these
but insoluble in organic but soluble in organic
valence electrons three states.
solvents such as ether, solvent such as ether
Group 17 7 1
Group 16 6 2
alcohol, benzene, alcohol, benzene, (c) Hence, covalent compounds cannot
tetrachloromethane and tetrachloromethane, and conduct electricity in all states.
Group 15 5 3 propanone. propanone.
Carbon and silicon
4 4 2. Melting and boiling points of ionic 6. Solubility of ionic compounds
in Group 14 (a) Ionic compounds are composed of
Hydrogen 1 1 compounds
(a) Ionic compounds are composed of ions.
3. The formula of a molecule formed between
oppositely-charged ions arranged in a (b) The ions are easily hydrated by water
two non-metals R and T can be determined
three-dimensional giant crystal lattice. molecules librates heat energy.
as follows. Let say R has a valency of x (b) The oppositely-charged ions are held (c) As a result, ionic compounds usually
and Q has a valency of y. together by strong electrostatic forces can dissolve in water.
Element R Q known as ionic compound. (d) Organic solvents such as ether,
alcohol, benzene and tetra
Valency x y (c) A lot of heat energy is needed to break
chloromethane are organic compounds
the strong ionic bonds during melting
Number of atoms combined y x or boiling. which cannot hydrate ions.
Simplest whole number ratio of the number (e) As a result, ionic compounds cannot
(d) Hence, ionic compounds have high
of atoms of R : Q = x : y =m:n melting and boiling points with low dissolve in organic solvents.
7. Solubility of covalent compounds
(where m and n are the simplest whole volatility.
3. Melting and boiling points of covalent (a) Covalent compounds are composed of
numbers) covalent molecules.
compounds
∴ Molecular formula = R mQn
(a) Covalent compounds are composed of (b) Water cannot hydrate covalent
4. The molecular formulae of covalent molecules. molecules.
molecules formed from non-metals from (b) The bonding in these covalent (c) Thus, covalent compounds usually
Group 14, 15, 16, and 17 are deduced as compound consists of cannot dissolve in water.
shown below: (d) Covalent molecules in the covalent
 Strong covalent bonds between the
Non-metal compounds and organic molecules in
Molecular formula atoms in the molecule.
P Q the organic solvents are both held
Group 14 Group 17 PQ4  Weak forces of attraction between
together by weak intermolecular forces
Group 14 Group 16 PQ2 the molecules.
Group 15 Group 17 PQ3 of attraction.
(c) Figure below shows the two types of
Group 16 Group 17 PQ2 (e) Hence, the covalent molecules in the
bonding in liquid tetra chloromethane,
Comparison between the formation of ionic and covalent compounds are easily
CCl4.
covalent bonds miscible with the organic molecules in
Cl Cl the organic solvents because they
Ionic bond Covalent bond strong covalent
bond in the
It is formed when metal It is formed when non- Cl Cl Cl Cl molecule have the same type of weak
atoms combine with non- metal atoms combine with Cl Cl intermolecular forces of attraction.
metal atoms. non-metal atoms.
(f) Hence, covalent compounds usually
It involves transfer of It involves sharing of weak intermolecular
electrons from metal electrons between atoms forces between can dissolve in organic solvents.
the molecules
atoms to non-metal and non-metals. Cl Cl
atoms.
Types of covalent molecules
Cl Cl Cl Cl 1. There are two types of covalent molecules.
Metal atoms lose Each non-metal atom
electrons to form positive contributes an equal Cl Cl (a) Simple covalent molecules such as
ions, whereas non-metal number of electrons for water, carbon dioxide, ammonia and
atoms gain electrons to sharing. (d) In a covalent compound, the covalent
form negative ions. tetrachloromethane.
molecules are held together by weak
Formation of positive and Two atoms share 1, 2 and (b) Macromolecules or giant molecules
negative ions enables the 3 pairs of electrons to
forces of attraction.
such as silicon dioxide and diamond.
ions to achieve stable enable each atom to (e) A small amount of heat energy is
noble gas electron achieve a stable noble 2. In a macromolecule, all the atoms are
required to overcome the weak
arrangements. gas electron arrangement. bonded to each other by covalent bonds in a
intermolecular forces of attraction
Oppositely-charged ions Atoms in a molecule are giant lattice structure.
are attracted together by bonded together by during melting or boiling.
3. These macromolecules
strong electrostatic forces, covalent bonds, whereas (f) Hence, the covalent compound has a
known as ionic bonds. molecules are held (a) Have high melting and boiling points
low melting and boiling points with high
together by weak forces of because a lot of heat energy is needed
attraction. volatility.
to break the strong covalent bonds in
4. Electrical conductivity of ionic compounds
the giant lattice structure.
Properties of Ionic and Covalent (a) Ionic compounds are composed of
5.4 (b) Cannot conduct electricity because
Compounds oppositely-charged ions.
they do not have free mobile ions.
(b) In the solid state, the positive and
1. Table below shows the properties of ionic (c) Are insoluble in water.
negative ions are locked in fixed
and covalent compounds. Use of covalent compound as solvents
positions and cannot move freely.
Covalent compounds 1. Many covalent compounds have low melting
(c) In the molten and aqueous states, the
Ionic compounds (composed of simple and boiling points. Hence, they exists as
molecules)
positive and negative ions are mobile,
liquids at room temperature and are volatile.
Have high melting and Have low melting and or can move freely. Hence, ionic
2. Covalent compounds in the form of liquids
boiling points. boiling points. compounds can conduct electricity in
Exist as solids at room Usually exist as volatile are mostly used as solvents in our daily life.
the molten or aqueous state.
temperature, non-volatile. liquids or gases at room Most of these liquids are organic
THEME: Matter Around Us 4
 CHEMISTRY 2010

compounds. They are known as organic (d) Sugar

solvents. (e) tetrachloromethane
3. Examples of some common organic solvent 6.2 Electrolytes of molten compounds
are alcohols such as ethanol, propanone,
chloroform (trichloromethane), turpentine 6.2.1 Electrolysis process
and petrol.
4. Organic solvents are used
(a) As solvents to prepare solution.
(b) To remove and clean dirt on surface
which cannot be removed by water.
5. Some examples of the uses of organic
solvents are:
 Turpentine – dissolve paint
 Petrol/kerosene – remove greasy/oily dirt
 Alcohol/propanone/turpentine – prepare
varnish/shellac/lacquer
 Alcohol – preparation of iodine solution 1. Electrolysis is the break-down of a
(medicine) substance by electricity.
 Ethers – extraction of chemicals from 2. Electrodes are any terminal by which an
aqueous solution electric current goes in or come out of
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) – clean conducting substance.
computer circuit boards. (a) They are made of materials, which do
CHAPTER 6: Electrochemistry not react with the electrolyte,
(b) Electrodes are usually made of
6.1 Electrolytes and non-electrolytes
graphite and platinum.
6.1.1 Electrolytes 3. Electrolytic cell is an electric circuit with the
1. A liquid is an electrolyte if following features.
(a) Is contains charge particles, (a)
(b) Its charge particles are free to move
through it
2. Most electrolytes are generally produced
from ionic solids.
3. When ionic solid is melted, the ions are free
to move and they can carry an electric
current. The melted ionic solid is an
electrolyte.
4. When an ionic solid is dissolved in water,
the aqueous-ions are free to move. These
ions can carry the electric current too.
5. Some molecular substances can also
dissolve in water and they are electrolytes
because they can carry electric current too.
6. Generally, the following are electrolytes:
(a) Molten salts such as molten lead(II)
bromide.
(b) Solutions of salts in water such as
sodium chloride solution.
(c) Solutions of acids in water such
aqueous hydrochloric acid.
(d) Solution of alkalis in water such as
aqueous sodium hydroxide.
7. In brief, we can say:
(a) Electrolytes are compounds, which do
not conduct electricity when solid, but
do conduct when molten or dissolved
in water.
(b) Electrolytes are made up of ions.
When molten or dissolved in water, the
ions are free to move.
6.1.2 Non-electrolytes
1. Non-electrolytes is substances that cannot
conduct electricity in either molten state or
aqueous state because they do not have
ions. For example:
(a) Sulphur
(b) Wood
(c) Naphthalene
THEME: Matter Around Us 5