Chapter 8: Soil: Foundation for Land Ecosystems

8.1 Soils and Plants

I. In a productive soil, the detritus feeders and decomposers constitute a biotic community
of organisms that not only facilitates the transfer of nutrients, but also creates a soil
environment that is most favorable to the growth of roots. A productive topsoil involves
dynamic interactions among the organisms, detritus, and mineral particles of the soil.
Soil Characteristics
I. Most soils are hundreds of years old and change very slowly.
II. The mineral material of soil, or parent material, has its origin in the geological history of
an area. Parent material could be rock, or sediments deposited by wind, water, or ice.
A. Parent material is broken down by natural weathering.
B. Sand is made up of particles from 2.0 to .02 mm in size. Silt particles range from .
02 down to .002 mm, and clay is anything finer than .002 mm. the sand, silt, and
clay particles constitute the mineral portion of soil.
III. Soil texture refers to the relative proportions of each type of particle in a given soil.
A. A proportion of 40% sand, 40% silt, and 20% clay is called loam.
B. Larger particles have larger spaces separating them than smaller particles have.
Smaller particles have more surface area relative to their volume than larger
particles have.
C. Nutrient ions and water molecules tend to cling to surfaces.
IV. These properties of matter profoundly affect such soil properties as infiltration, nutrient-
and water-holding capacities, and aeration.
A. Soil texture also affects workability—the ease with which soil can be cultivated.
Workability, in turn, has a tremendous impact on agriculture.
V. The processes of soil formation create a vertical gradient of layers that are often distinct.
These horizontal layers are known as horizons, and a slice through the different
horizons is called the soil profile. The profile reveals a great deal about the factors
that interact in the formation of a soil.
A. The topmost layer, the O horizon, consists of dead organic matter deposited by
plants. The O horizon is high in organic content and is the primary source of
energy for the soil community. Toward the bottom of the O horizon, the processes
of decomposition are well advanced. At this point, the material is dark and called
humus.
B. The next layer in the profile is the A horizon, a mixture of mineral soil from
below and humus from above. The A horizon is also called topsoil. Fine roots
from the overlaying vegetation cover permeate this layer. The A horizon is
usually dark because of the humus, and may be shallow or thick, depending on the
ecosystem.
C. In many soils, the next layer is the E horizon, where E stands for eluviation—the
process of leaching of many minerals due to the downward movement of water.
 D. Below is the B horizon, which is characterized by the decomposition of minerals
that have leached from the A and E horizons, so it is often high in iron, aluminum,
calcium, and other minerals. Frequently referred to as the subsoil, the B horizon is
often high in clay and is reddish or yellow in color.
E. Below the B is the C horizon, which is the parent material originally occupying
the site. It is affected little by biological and chemical processes that go on in the
overlying layers.
VI. There are many different kinds of soils.
A. Mollisols are fertile, dark soils found in temperate grassland biomes. They are the
best agricultural soils and are encountered in the Midwestern United States,
temperate areas of Ukraine, Russia, and Mongolia, and in the pampas of
Argentina. They have a deep A horizon and are rich in humus and minerals.
B. Oxisols are the type of soils found in tropical and subtropical rain forests. They
have a layer of iron and aluminum oxides in the B horizon and have little O
horizon, due to the rapid decomposition of plant matter. They are of limited
fertility for agriculture.
C. Alfisols are widespread, moderately weathered forest soils. Although not deep,
they have well-developed O, A, E, and B horizons. They are typical of the moist,
temperate forest biome and are suitable for agriculture if they are supplemented
with organic matter or mineral fertilizers.
D. Aridisols are very widespread soils of drylands and deserts. They are relatively
unstructured vertically. They are thin and light-colored. Irrigation on these soils
usually leads to salinization, as high evaporation rates draw salts to surface
horizons, where they accumulate to toxic levels.
Soil and Plant Growth
I. For their best growth, plants need a root environment that supplies optimal amounts of
mineral nutrients, water, and air. The pH and salinity of the soil are also critically
important.
A. Soil fertility, the soil’s ability to support plant growth, often refers specifically to
the presence of proper amounts of nutrients. But the soil’s ability to meet all the
other needs of plants is another component of soil fertility.
II. Minerals initially become available to roots through the weathering of rock. Weathering,
however, is much too slow to promote normal plant growth. The nutrients that
support plant growth in natural ecosystems are supplied mostly through the
breakdown and release of nutrients from detritus.
A. Nutrients may be washed from the soil as water moves through it, a process called
leaching. Leaching not only lessens soil fertility, but also contributes to pollution
when materials removed from the soil enter waterways.
B. Consequently, the soil’s capacity to bind and hold nutrient ions until they are
absorbed by roots is just as important as the initial supply of those ions. This
property is referred to as the soil’s nutrient-holding capacity.
 III. In agricultural systems, there is an unavoidable removal of nutrients from the soil with
each crop because nutrients absorbed by plants are contained in the harvested
material. Therefore, agricultural systems require inputs of nutrients to replace those
removed with the harvest.
A. Nutrients are replenished with the application of fertilizer—material that contains
one or more of the necessary nutrients.
B. Organic fertilizer includes plant or animal wastes or both. Inorganic fertilizers are
chemical formulations of required nutrients, without any organic material
included. Inorganic fertilizers are much more prone to leaching than organic
fertilizers.
IV. Water is constantly being absorbed by the roots of plants, passing up through the plant
and exiting as water vapor through transpiration. The pores through which
transpiration occurs, stomata, are essential to permit the entry of carbon dioxide and
the exit of oxygen in photosynthesis; however, the plant’s loss of water via
transpiration through the stomata is dramatic.
A. Inadequate water results in wilting, a condition that conserves water but also shuts
off photosynthesis by closing the stomata and preventing gas from being
exchanged.
B. Water is resupplied to the soil naturally by rainfall or artificially by irrigation.
Three attributes of the soil are significant in this respect. First is the soil’s ability
to allow water to infiltrate, or soak in. If water runs off the ground surface, it
won’t be useful.
C. Second is the soil’s ability to hold water after it infiltrates, a property called
water-holding capacity. Sandy soils have poor water-holding capacity, whereas
the water-holding capacity of clay is high.
D. The third attribute of soil is evaporative water loss from the soil surface. This kind
of evaporation depletes the soil’s water reservoir without serving the needs of
plants. The O horizon functions well to reduce evaporative water loss by covering
the soil.
V. Roots need a constant supply of oxygen for energy. Land plants depend on the soil being
loose and porous enough to allow the diffusion of oxygen into, and carbon dioxide
out of, the soil, a property called soil aeration.
A. Overwatering fills the air spaces in the soil, preventing adequate aeration. So does
compaction, or packing of the soil. Compaction reduces infiltration and increases
runoff.
VI. A buildup of salts in the soil makes it impossible for the roots of a plant to take in water.
If salt levels in the soil get high enough, water can be drawn out of the plant, resulting
in dehydration and death.
The Soil Community
I. In order to have a good crop, the soil must 1) have a good supply of nutrients and a good
nutrient-holding capacity, 2) allow infiltration, have a good water-holding capacity,
 and resist evaporative water loss; 3) have a porous structure that permits good
aeration; 4) have a pH near neutral; and 5) have a low salt content. These attributes
must be sustained.
A. A soil’s mineral attributes—in particular, its texture—are crucial to its ability to
support plant growth.
B. The organic parts of soil ecosystems—the detritus and soil organisms—are
necessary to optimize all attributes.
II. The dead leaves, roots, and other detritus accumulated on and in the soil supports a
complex food web, including bacteria, fungi, protozoans, mites, insects, spiders,
worms, etc. The most important organisms are the smallest—the bacteria.
A. As all these organisms feed, the bulk of the detritus is consumed through their cell
respiration, and carbon dioxide, water, and mineral nutrients are released as by-
products. However, each organism leaves a certain portion undigested. This
residue of partly decomposed organic matter is humus.
B. Composting is the process of fostering the decay of organic wastes, and the
resulting compost is essentially humus.
III. As animals feed on detritus, they often ingest mineral soil particles as well.
A. Earthworm excrements—or castings—are relatively stable clumps of inorganic
particles plus humus. The burrowing activity of organisms keeps the clumps
loose. This loose, clumpy characteristic is referred to as soil structure.
B. Soil structure refers to the arrangement of soil particles. A loose soil structure is
ideal for infiltration, aeration, and workability.
IV. There are some important interactions between plants and soil biota. A highly significant
one is the symbiotic relationship between the roots of some plants and certain fungi
called mycorrhizae.
A. Mycorrhizae penetrate the detritus, absorb nutrients, and transfer them directly to
the plant. Thus, there is no loss of nutrients to leaching.
B. Another important relationship is had by certain bacteria that add nitrogen to the
soil.
V. The bulk of the detritus, which supports the soil organisms, is from green-plant
producers, so green plants support the soil organisms. By feeding on detritus,
however, the soil organisms create the chemical and physical soil environment that is
most beneficial to plant growth and producers.
A. Green plants protect the soil and themselves in two ways: the cover of living
plants and detritus 1) protects the soil from erosion and 2) reduces evaporative
water loss.
VI. The maintenance of topsoil depends on additions of detritus in sufficient quantity to
balance losses. Without continual addition of detritus, soil organisms will starve, and
their benefit in keeping the soil loose will be lost.
A. As the soil’s humus content declines, the clumpy aggregate structure created by
soil particles glued together with the humus breaks down. Water- and nutrient-
 holding capacities, infiltration, and aeration decline correspondingly. This loss of
humus and the consequent collapse of topsoil is referred to as the mineralization
of the soil because what is left is just gritty mineral content.
B. Topsoil must be seen as a result of the dynamic balance between detritus
additions and humus-forming processes, on the one hand, and the breakdown and
loss of detritus and humus on the other.

8.2 Soil Degradation

I. In natural ecosystems, there is always a turnover of plant material, so new detritus is
continually supplied. When key soil attributes required for plant growth or for other
ecosystem services deteriorate over time, the soil is considered degraded.
Erosion
I. The most damaging force for soil is erosion, the process of soil and humus particles being
picked up and carried away by water or wind. Erosion follows anytime soil is bared
and exposed to the elements.
A. In natural terrestrial ecosystems other than deserts, a vegetative cover protects
against erosion. With good infiltration, runoff is minimal.
II. Water erosion starts with splash erosion as the impact of falling raindrops breaks up the
clumpy structure of the topsoil. The dislodged particles wash into spaces between
other aggregates, clogging the pores and thereby decreasing infiltration and aeration.
A. The decreased infiltration results in more water running off and carrying away
fine particles from the surface, a phenomenon called sheet erosion.
B. As further runoff occurs, the water converges into rivulets and streams, which
have greater volume, velocity and energy and hence greater capacity to pick up
and remove soil. The result is the erosion into gullies, or gully erosion.
C. Eroded land is less able to support the growth of vegetation and is exposed to
further erosion.
III. Another devastating feature of wind and water erosion is that both always involve the
differential removal of soil particles. The lighter particles of humus and clay are the
first to be carried away.
A. Consequently, as erosion removes the finer materials, the remaining soil becomes
progressively coarser.
B. In some deserts, the removal of fine material by wind has left a thin surface layer
of stones and gravel called a desert pavement, which protects the underlying soil
against further erosion.
Drylands and Desertification
I. As clay and humus are removed, nutrients are removed as well, because they are bound
to those particles. As the water-holding capacity of soil is diminished by the erosion
of topsoil, such areas become deserts.
A. Desertification refers to the formation and expansion of degraded areas of soil and
vegetation cover in arid, semiarid, and seasonably dry areas called drylands.
 II. Dryland ecosystems cover 41% of the Earth’s land area. They are defined by
precipitation, not temperature. Much of the land receives only 10 to 30 inches of
rainfall a year.
A. Between 10 and 20% of drylands are degraded. Recognizing the severity of this
problem, the UN established the Convention to Combat Desertification.
B. In 2005, a UNCCD meeting launched a new alliance to fight land degradation in
Africa, TerrAfrica.
Causing and Correcting Erosion
I. The three major practices that expose soil to erosion and lead to soil degradation are
overcultivation, overgrazing, and deforestation, all of which are a consequence of
unsustainable management processes.
II. Traditionally, the first step in growing crops has been plowing to control weeds. The
drawback is that the soil is then exposed to wind and water erosion. Further, it may
remain bare for a considerable time before the newly planted crop forms a complete
cover.
A. Plowing is frequently deemed necessary to loosen the soil to improve aeration and
infiltration through it, yet often the effect is the reverse. Splash erosion destroys
the soil’s aggregate structure and seals the surface, so that aeration and infiltration
are decreased. Plowing accelerates the oxidation of humus and evaporative water
loss.
B. Systems of crop rotations have proven sustainable. However, as food or economic
demands cause farmers to abandon rotations, degradation and erosion exceed
regenerative processes, and the result is a gradual decline in the quality of the soil.
III. A technique that permits continuous cropping, yet minimizes soil erosion, is no-till
agriculture. According to this technique, the field is first sprayed with herbicide to kill
weeds, and then a planting apparatus is pulled behind a tractor to accomplish several
operations at once.
A. At harvest time, the process is repeated, and the waste from the previous crop
becomes the detritus and mulch cover for the next. Thus, the soil is never
exposed, erosion and evaporative water loss are reduced, and there is enough
detritus to maintain the topsoil.
B. A variation on this theme is low-till farming.
IV. Another aspect of overcultivation involves the use of inorganic versus organic fertilizer.
The failing of inorganic fertilizer is its lack of organic matter to support soil
organisms and build soil structure.
A. Under intensive cultivation, nutrient content may be kept high with inorganic
fertilizer, but mineralization, and thus soil degradation, proceeds in any case.
Then, with the soil’s loss of nutrient-holding capacity, applied inorganic fertilizer
is prone to simply leach into waterways, causing pollution.
 V. Regardless of cropping procedures and the use of fertilizer, a number of other techniques
are widely employed to reduce erosion. Among the most conspicuous are contour
strip cropping and shelterbelts.
VI. Grasslands that receive too little rainfall to support cultivated crops have traditionally
been used for grazing livestock. Forested slopes that are too steep for cropping are
commonly cleared and put into grass for grazing. Unfortunately, such lands are too
often over-grazed.
A. As grass production fails to keep up with consumption, the land becomes barren.
Wind and water erosion follows, and soils become degraded.
VII. Water that is unable to infiltrate flows over the surface immediately into streams and
rivers, overfilling them and causing flooding. Eroding soil, called sediments, is
carried into streams and rivers, clogging them and intensifying flooding, filling
reservoirs, and killing fish.
Irrigation and Salinization
I. Irrigation—supplying water to croplands by artificial means—has dramatically increased
crop production in regions that typically receive low rainfall.
A. Traditionally, water has been diverted from rivers through canals and flooded
through furrows in fields, a technique known as flood irrigation. In recent years,
center-pivot irrigation, in which water is pumped from a central well through a
gigantic sprinkler that slowly pivots itself around the well, has become more
popular.
II. Salinization is the accumulation of salts in and on the soil to the point where plant growth
is suppressed. Salinization occurs because even the freshest irrigation water contains
at least 200 – 500 ppm of dissolved salts.
A. Adding water to dryland soils dissolves the high concentration of soluble minerals
that are often present in these soils. As the applied water leaves by evaporation or
transpiration, the salts remain behind and gradually accumulate as a precipitate.
B. Salinization is considered a form of desertification.
C. Salinization can be avoided, and even reversed, if sufficient water is applied to
leach the salts down through the soil. Unless there is suitable drainage, however,
the soil will become a waterlogged quagmire in addition to being salinized.

VI.3 Conserving the Soil

I. Soil conservation must be practical at two levels. The most important is the level of the
individual landholder. Those working on the land are the best situated to put into practice
the conservation strategies that not only enhance their soils, but also bring better harvest
and improve their way of life.
A. A great deal of traditional knowledge exists with landholders, who routinely practice
soil conservation techniques.
B. The second level is the level of public policy. Farm policies play a crucial role in
determining how soils are conserved.
 C. Policies governing the grazing of public lands and forestry practices also lead to
either or poor stewardship of the soils that underlie the resources being exploited.
Public Policy and Soils
I. Soil degradation in the form of erosion, desertification, and salinization continues to
occur because of human activities.
II. Farm policy in the United States was originally focused solely on increasing production.
This goal has been achieved. In more recent years, farm policy has emphasized
maintaining farm income and support of farm commodities—in other words,
subsidies.
A. Because of government subsidies, US taxpayers support agriculture and low food
prices are artificially maintained. Subsidies encourage excessive use of pesticides
and fertilizers, they reduce crop rotation by locking farmers into annual crop-
support subsidies, and they promote the continued draw-down of groundwater
aquifers through irrigation.
III. In comparison, the goals of sustainable agriculture are 1) to maintain a productive topsoil,
2) to keep food safe and wholesome, 3) to reduce the use of chemical fertilizers and
pesticides, and 4) to keep farms economically viable.
A. Many new ideas mimic practices of the past, such as contouring, crop rotation,
terracing, the use of smaller equipment, and the application of a reduced amount
of chemicals.
B. In 1988 the US Department of Agriculture started the Sustainable Agriculture
Research and Education program, which provides funding for investigating ways
to accomplish all of the goals of sustainable agriculture.
C. In 1985, Congress passed the Conservation Reserve Program, under whose
authority highly erodible cropland could be established as a “conservation
reserve” of forest and grass. Farmers are paid about $50 per acre of land put in
reserve. Under an associated bill, the Food Security Act of 1985, farmers are
required to develop and implement soil-conservation programs in order to remain
eligible for price supports and other benefits provided by the government.
IV. The federal government supports US agriculture through a number of programs; the farm
lobby is a powerful one that has successfully maintained its support through the years.
A. The Federal Agricultural Improvement and Reform Act of 1996 attempted to
bring needed reforms. Subsidies and controls over many farms commodities were
reduced or eliminated, giving farmers greater flexibility in deciding what to plant
but also forcing them to rely more heavily on the market to guide their decisions.
B. The Wetlands Reserve Program pays farmers to set aside and restore wetlands on
their property.
V. The 2002 Farm Security and Rural Investment Act succeeded the FAIR Act, many of
whose provisions expired in 2002. The bill continues to subsidize a host of farm
products, maintaining price supports and farm income for American farmers.
 A. The new increased conservation funding for a number of programs, including the
Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program and the Environmental Quality Incentives
Program, both of which encourage conservation-minded landowners to put aside
portions of their land or address pollution problems.
Helping Individual Landholders
I. In the developing and developed world, it is the individual landowners, farmers, and
herders who hold the key to sustainable soil stewardship. They must be convinced
that what they do will work, that it is affordable, and that, in the long run, their own
well-being will improve.
A. Frequently, this requires taking a number of small, realistic steps. It may also
require help in the way of microlending, sound advice, or simply encouragement
to experiment.
B. Positive initiatives include the UN Convention to Combat Desertification, the new
TerrAfrica Alliance and the Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development
Initiative