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CONSUMER BEHAVIOR/MARKETING/MERCHANDISING

Introduction

Consumers living in different environments exhibit 3 ··1r~ety of

. needs and behaviors. Understanding thes& variations is increasingly important as more and more companies are adopting a global outlo ; where the world has become their marketplace. Companies with significant international markets need ta ba sensitive to cultural differences that exist in international markets and how this mig~t influence consumer behavior. Tuncalp & Yavas (1986) and Brown (1986) looked at marketing in Saudi Arabia and Katz (1986) warned the international advertiser to learn Saudi taboos before developing ad campaigns there. Enright (1986) and Pauli (1985) explained the nuances of selling goods in Japan: Lin (1985), Marinucci (1987), and Schelle (1987) did the same in China: Maita (1988) and Greer (1987) looked at selling Japanese goods in the U.S. market: and Ehrlich (1986) analyzed Hong Kong firms selling products in Japan.

When marketing products internationally, a thorough understanding of cultural practices of workers and consumers is vital. Business practices which are successful in one country may not necessarily work in other countries. Exporting firms must do their marketing homework abroad just as they would when selling their products at home. What is the demand for the product? Who is the competition? What will the consumer accept? There needs to be an awareness of product perceptions and expectations. What image might one product carry around the world? It may be different in Europe and the Middle East due to cultural meanings and the symbolic nature of consumer goods. McCracken (1988) analyzed these meanings and symbols. Yavas & Alpay (1986) examined if an exporting nation enjoyed the same cross-national commerical image. What are consumer perceptions of domestic vs. imported products? Dickerson (1983) found Americans preferred U.S.-made goods over imports. Rabolt & Forney (1989) found that Japanese university women felt Japan-produced goods had higher quality than American-made goods.

Specific cultural markets within a single country also may have unique needs. For example, the elite Black market in the U.S. is analyzed ("Elite' Black," 1988). Thomas (1988), Saegert, et ale (1985), Frisbie (1985), and Deshpande, et ale (1986) all discussed the Hispanic market in the U.S.A. Despite differences in doing business targeted at certain cultures and from one country to another, it may be useful to compare specific companies expanding into foreign markets to determine similarities or general trends. Ganem (1988) looked at Benetton, an Italian apparel manufacturer with worldwide retail outlets. Frey (1986) reviewed Armani's (Italy) opening of 150 stores in the U.S. by 1991. Hughes (1988) and Higurashi (1987) explored the "Hello Kitty" sales phenomenon by Sanrio, a Japanes~ company which is expanding worldwide. Burs~raf (1986) examined the :stralian company Country Road as it set it path for the U.S. market. o.s. companies are going international including K Mart to New Zealand ("K Mart set," 1988), Brooks Brothers to Japan (Collier, 1988), and Williams Sonoma

to Japan (Pender, 1988). Travers (1987) discussed Woolworths or "Woolies" in Great Britain. American, european, and Japanese designers ar& opening boutiques in many world markets. In addition, costmetic companies like Revlon (Schroder, 1986) and Clinique (Sinclair, 1987) are well known in international markets.

Retailers around th~ world might be compared: Magasin du Pord in Copenhagen (Krienke, 1988), Harrods in London (·Superspecialists,~ 1984), Galeries Lafayett~ in Paris (Gilbert, 1984), Marks and Spenser in england (Sieff, 1984),- and Lyuks in Moscow (Taubman, 1988). Other comparisons might be done for retai1ing areas such as the Champs elysees in Paris (Clarke, 1984) and the Bahnhofstrasse in Zurich ("Guide to deluxe,~ 1986). Retailers are becoming more competitive worldwide. Hiroshi (1986) examined the store wars in the Ginza in Tokyo, Japan. Johnson (1987) looked at the West Edmonton Mall in Edmonton, Canada as it has moved from a super-regional to a mega-regional shopping center.

Students may want to analyze consumer behavior and marketing techniques used in countries throughout the world for commonalities and differences. Mueller (1987), Hong, et ale (1987), and Madden, et ale (1986) compared Japanese and American advertising methods. Dowling (1980) compared u.S. and Australian advertising while Tse, et ale (1989) examined print ads in Asian countries.

Innovative marketing techniques might be compared across countries. In Paris, consumers can buy Levi jeans from a vending machine ("Jeans from a machine," 1986). In the Middle east videotape ads are common ("Videotape ads," 1986). In Japan debit cards are popular (Hirabayashi, 1989~ Simons, 1988), mail order is becoming more important (Ainley, 1986: Solo, 1987), and some retailers are experimenting with such things as video flyers and talking posters.

With increased world trade and sourcing, counterfeiting of brand names has become an issue. As more and more brands are being licensed or directly marketed in many countries it becomes harder to control the use of a brandname or trademark (Chavez, 1986). In new consumer societies with little or no government regulation, false advertising can become a problem ("False advertising," 1985: "War on counterfeiters," 1988). Other ethical issues surrounding consumer buying practices and products include concerns for endangered species which are being used to produce consumer goods (Everson, 1989: Yarrow, 1987).

Consumer preferences, buying patterns, and needs differ among world cultures. These concepts might be analyzed and societies compared from a theoretical perspective of a social hierarchy of needs. Chinese and Soviet consumers, for example, are finding themselves in a new consumer society with the means to buy goods developing faster than their economies can produce these goods (Chaochen, 1984: Viviano, 1989). Where do these societies fit into a hierarchy of needs? Students and researchers might compare the United States with societies around the world. For example, Masako (1985) looked at needs theory and consumption in Japan and Nevis (1983) compared China and the U.S.A. on Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

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Some peoples are fighting to maintain their unique cultures while others are urging foreign investment and influences. Billard (1985) discussed how Europe is trying to preserve its uniqueness and is fighting Americanization in relation to the American lifestyle which is portrayed through television programming. Similar concerns may be evident as Resener (1985) examined how Europe has invaded the U.S. market with their products. European and American designers and mass merchants see the Soviet Union and The People's Republic of China as fertil& new markets (nCardin signs," 1986). Although foreign investment is desired by these countries, are we headed for Americanization/Westernization of all world markets? What are the implications for preservation of unique cultures? Students need to critically analyze such concepts and related problems to formulate several possible workable' solutions to meet the variety of consumer needs which are found in world markets.

conceot:

Clothing consumption and expenditure oatterns

Objectives: to identify meanings of consumer products

to analyze consumer consumption patterns

References: Brown, A.M. (1989, April). Two-ring circus. Portfolio, Northwest Airlines Magazine, pp. 16, 18, 55. (Japanese wedding extravaganza)

Cheema, A.A., & Malite, M.H. (1985). Changes in consumption patterns and employment under alternative income distributions in Pakistan. The Pakistan Development Review, 24(1), 1-22.

Deshpande, R., Hoyer, W.O., & Donthu, N. (1986). The intensity of ethnic affiliation: A study of the sociology of Hispanic consumption. Journal of Consumer Research,

13 (2), 214-220.

Disman, M. (1984). Domestic possessions as manifestations of elderly immigrants' identity. Paper presented at the 13th Annual Meeting of the Canadian Association of Gerontology, Vancouver, B.C., Canada.

(1988). Culture and consumption: New

the s mbolic character of consumer oods and

oom1ngton, IN: In 1ana Un1vers1ty Press.

McCracken, G. (1986). Culture and consumption: A theoretical account of the structure and movement of the cultural meaning of consumer goods. Journal of Consumer Research, .!2'(1), 71-84.

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Simons, L.M. (1983, December 12). Japanese saying 'I do' to elaborate weddings. San Jose ~ercury News (CA), Sec A, pp , 1, 18.

Wal1endorf, M., & Reilly, M. (1983). Ethnic migration, assimilation, and consumption. Journal of Consumer Research, 10(3), 292-302.

concept: Consumer attitudes, ~a1ues, and perceptions

Objective: to identify influences on consumer buying

References: Clark, B.F. (1987). Consumer and corporate values: Yet another view on global marketing. International Journal of Advertising, ~(1), 29-42.

Dickerson, K.C. (1983). Consumer perspectives: Import ~s. U.S. made apparel. Family Economics Review, 3, 13-16.

East vs West: What Americans really think about imports. (1988, January). Chain Store Age, pp. 13-15.

Ettenson, R., Wagner, J., & Gaeth, G. (1988). Evaluating the effect of country of origin and the "Made in USA" campaign: A conjoint approach. Journal of Retailing, 64(1), 85-100.

Fields, G. (1986, April). Valentine's day and the female consumer: A catalyst for change. TOKYO Business Today, p. 8.

Hester, S. (1986). Imported ~ersus domestic apparel: Are attitudes and buying behavior related? ACPTC Proceedings (p. 121). Monument, Co: Association of college Professors of· Textiles and Clothing.

Khachaturian, J., & Morganosky, M. (1988). The influence of demographic variables on the quality perception of imported clothing from four countries of origin. ACPTC proceedings (p. 69). Monument, CO: Association of college Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Morganosky, M., & Douglas, s.u. (1989). The rural consumer: Attitudes toward imports. Home Economics Research Journal, 12(4), 330-336.

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Morganosky, M., & Maglaris, I.E. (1989). value images of retail stores: The influence of country-of-origin. ACPTC proceedings (p. Ill). Monument, CO: Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Neuhauser, C.A. & Morganosky, M. (1989). The influence of country-of-origin on likeliness of purchase in a catalog siituation. ACPTC Proceedings (p. 112). Monument, CO:

Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Part, C., Sternquist, B., & Mahoney, M. (1987). Apparel imports: Consumer ethnocentrism attitudes. ACPTC Proceedings (p. 10). Monument, CO: Associat10n of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Salomon, C.D. (1986, May). Consumers worried about the hole in their pockets. Business Mexico, pp. 62-64.

Shim, S., Morris, N., & Morgan, G. (1989). Attitudes toward imported and domestic apparel among college students: The Fishbein model and external variables. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 1(4), 8-18.

Stickl, C.M., & Wall, M. (1980). Consumer attitudes toward Canadian-made apparel products. ACPTC Proceedings (pp. 99-100). Monument, CO: Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Surerus, J.M., & Davis, L. (1989). The effect of Crafted with Pride in the USA cues on evaluations of sweaters made in the USA, a developed country, and a developing country. ACPTC Proceedings (p. 128). Monument, CO: Association of college Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Tse, D., Wong, J.K., & Tan, C. (1988). Towards some standardized cross-cultural consumption values. In M.J. Houston (Ed.), Advances in Consumer Research (pp. 387-395). Provo, UT: Assoc1at10n for Consumer Research.

Wall, M., & Heslop, L.A. (1986). Canadian consumer attitudes toward the quality of Canadian, U.S. and foreign-made apparel and footwear. ACPTC Proceedings

(p. 87). Monument, CO: Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Wall, M., Liefeld, J., & Heslop, L. (1989). The impact of country of origin labels on consumers' judgment of shirts. ACPTC Proceedings (p. 127). Monument, CO: Association of college Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

70

Concept:

Consumer clothing problems/Needs

Objectives: to become aware of clothing problems and needs of non-indigenous groups

to idenfify needs of specific consumer groups in society

References: Kohn, H., & Meredith, W. (1982). A home economics interdisciplinary project to help Indochinese refugees. Journal of Rome Economics, 74(3), 26-29.

Rosenblad-Wallin, E., & Karlsson, M. (1986). Clothing for the elderly at home and in nursing homes. Journal of Consumer Studies and Home Economics, 10(4), 343-356.

( Sweden) -

Sletten, R.C.G., & Petrich, B.A. (1983). Clothing problems as perceived by Mexican American migrant women. Home Economics Research Journal, 11(3), 289-294.

Concept: Consumer clothing selection

Objective: to investigate different clothing practices and influences on clothing selection

References: Kwon, Y-H. (1982). Clothing practices of Korean female immigrants in Chicago. Journal of Consumer Studies and Rome Economics, ~(4), 337-349.

Lee, S.J. (1988). The relationship between factors of clothing selection and values of Korean women. In H.C. Brittin (Ed.), XVI World Congress 1988 Research Abstracts (p. 48). Paris, France: International Federation for Home Economics.

Littrell, M.A. (1980). Home economists as cross-cultural researchers: A field study of Ghanian clothing selection. Home Economics Research Journal, ~(5), 307-317.

Concept: Consumer cultures and societies

Objective: to recognize similarities and differences in consumer societies

References: Belk, R. w. (1988). Third world consumer culture. In K.

Erdogan & A. ~. Firat (Eds.), Marketing and development (pp. 103-127), Greenwich, CT: JAI.

71

Chaochen, L. (1984, November 6). Transforming China into consumer society. San Francisco Chronicle, Sec A, p. 2.

Chow, G.C. (1987). Development of a more market-oriented economy in China. Science, 235(4786), 295-299.

Kusaka, K. (1988, May/June). Lifestyle and consumer society. Journal of Japanese Trade & Industry, No.3, pp. 1"'-13. (Japan)

Marketing Division of Dentsu, Inc. (1988, January/February). 1988: Attitudes, lifestyles, work and society. Journal of Japanese Trad~ & Industry, No.1, pp. 49-51. (Japan)

Viviano, F. (1989, May 27). A hunger for consumer goods and China can1t produce them. San Francisco Chronicle, Sec A, pp , 1, 14.

Concept: Consumer credit

Objective: to investigate consumer credit/debit practices

References: Hirabayashi, C. (1989, January/February). Pay now, buy later. Journal of Japanese Trade & Industry, No.1, pp. 44-46.

Simons, L.M. (1988, November 4). Japan enters plastic age: 'prepaid cards' for products, services lighten wallets. San Jose Mercury (CA), Sec A, pp. 1, 4. (debit cards)

concept: Consumer preferences and buying patterns

Objective: to identify relative importance of evaluative criteria in buying decisions

to identify influences on consumer buying patterns

References: Adegoke, M.O., & Damhorst, M.L. (1988). Consumer evaluation of wax print fabrics for Nigerian traditional attire. In H.C. Brittin (Ed.), XVI World Congress 1988 Research Abstracts (p. 47). Paris, France: International Federation for Home Economics.

crazy for European luxury. (1987). International Management, 11(5), 24-28.

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Bergeron, D., & Carver, M. (1988). Student preferences for domestic-made apparel as influenced by shopping habits. Journal of Consumer Studies and Home Economics, ~(l), 87-94.

Cassill, N.L, & Huddleston, P. (1987). The influence of ftCrafted with pride in U.S.A.ft campaign and consumers' demographics on purchasing imported apparel. ACPTC proceedings (p. 4~). Monument, CO: Association o~ College Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Cribb, J. (1989, May 3). NFF [National ~armers ~ederation]: Buy Australian is 'buying trouble'. The Australian, p. 4.

Dickerson, K.G. (1982). Imported versus U.S.-produced apparel: Consumer views and buying patterns. Home Economics Research Journal, 10(3), 241-252.

Dickerson, K.G. (1987). Relative importance of country of origin as an attribute in apparel choices. Journal of Consumer Studies and Home Economics, 11(4), 333-343.

Douglas, S. (1988). A demographic analysis of consumers' ethnocentric tendencies. ACPTC proceedings (p. 2~). Monument, CO: Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

~orney, J.C., & Rabolt, N.J. (1988). Country of origin, evaluative· criteria and clothing purchases.

In H.C. Brittin (Ed.), XVI World Congress 1988 Research Abstracts (p. 46). Paris, ~rance: International ~ederation for Home Economics.

Gipson, K. (1986). Importance of country-of-origin at point of purchase in women's decisions to purchase sweaters. ACPTC proceedings (p. 89). Monument, CO:

Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Horridge, P.E., Harp, S.S., & Khan, S. (1989). U.S. fiber, textile, and apparel industry: International consumer focus. ACPTC Proceedings (p. 1~7). Monument, CO:

Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Lucas, T. (1988, May). will the public buy local cotton prints? African Business, No. 117, p. 67. (Cameroon)

73

McLain, S., & Sternquist, B. (1988). The ethnocentric consumer: Do they "Buy American"? ACPTC Proceedinas (p. 19). ~onument, co: Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

MCClean, F.P., Roper, L.L., & Smothers, R. (1986). Imported versus domestic blouses: Women's preferences and purchase motives. Home Economics Research Journal, 14(3), 306-313.

Ninan, T.N. (1984). India's consumer boom. World Press Review, 31(5), 68.

Rabolt, N.J., & Forney, J.C. (1989). Japanese and California students' fashion purchase behavior and perceptiona of country of origin. ACPTC Proceedings

(p. 109). Monument, CO: Association of College Proiessors of Textiles and Clothing.

Rabolt, N.J., Forney, J.C., & Friend, L.C. (1988). Market sources and purchasing criteria used by fashion-oriented students in the United States and New Zealand: A

comparative study. In R.L. King (Ed.), Retailing: Its

resent and future: Proceedin s of the Academ of MarKetin SC1ence and the American Co e 1ate Retailin Assoc1ation pp. 277-80 • Charleston, SC: Academy of Market1ng Science.

Sternquist, B., & Davis, B. (1986). Store status and country of origin as information cues: Consumers' perceptions of sweater price and quality. Home Economics Research Journal, 15(2), 124-131.

Tuohy, W. (1987, December 31). In Moscow, Helsinki is place to shop. Los Angeles Times, p. 2. (Stockmann's department store)

Wagner, J., & Ettenson, R. (1989). Apparel purchase decisions: A cross cultural comparison of Chinese and American consumers. ACPTC proceedings (p. 121). Monument, CO: Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

74

Conceot: Consume~ p~ices

Objective: to ~ecognize the impact of changing p~ices on consumption patte~ns

Refe~ences: Anand, v. (1985). High quality, low pound bring profits to British apparel ~etailers in u.s. Global Trade executive, l-.!l. (4), 44-45.

Ehrlich, p.e. (1988, April 4). China pr1c1ng cashmere beyond its clients' reach. Women's Wear Daily, p. 16.

Gagakuma, S. (1986, February). More goods chase less money. African Business, pp. 9~, 31, 36.

Hershkovitz, L. (1985). The fruit of ambivalence: China's urban individual economy. Pacific Affairs, 58(3), 427-45~.

Japan's prices high by international standards "Commodity Price Report '88'" - economic planning agency. (1988). Focus Japan, 15(1~), JS-A, JS-B. (inse~t)

Pogoda, D.M. (1987, October 2~). China, demand cited for cashme~e hikes. Women's Wear Daily, p. 24.

Rennie, C. (1987). Costs threaten ~ugby jersey fashion revolution. National Business Review, 18(16), 21.

Yamada, Y., & Ackerman, N. (1984). Price-quality correlations in the Japanese market. Journal of Consume~ Affairs, 18(2), 251-265.

Concept: Direct marketing

Objective: to identify direct marketing techniques

References: Ainley, T. (1986, October). Can Japan go direct? TOKYO Business Today, pp. 26-31.

Besher, A. (1988, November 28), Japanese to enter u.s. catalog business. San Francisco Chronicle, Sec C, p. 7.

Japan's expanding mail order sales. (1988). Focus Japan, 15(3), 3.

Otomo, S. (1987, July/August). Brisk business in catalog sales. Journal of Japanese Trade & Industry, No.4, pp. 24-26.

75

Profits from appreciated Yen stimilate imports by individuals: Buying foreign goods through mail order catalogues proves popular. (1986). Focus Japan, ~(8), 3.

Solo, S. (1987, August 25). Catalogs turn a new page in Japanese retailing. Daily News Record, p. 10. (foreign catalogs in Japanese department store)

Suzuki, S. (1988, July/August). Cecile: Setting the pace with mail-order mastery. Journal of Japanese Trade & Industry, No.4, pp. 52-53.

Concept: Ethics and social responsibility

Objective: to be aware of ethical responsibilities of businesses

References: False advertising angers consumers. (1985, July 29).

Beijing Review, pp. 8-9.

War on counterfeiters heats up. (1988, March 25). Women's Wear Daily/CTFA issue, p. 12.

Concept: Endangered Species

Objective: to recognize the relationship between fashion and exploitation of animal and plant life

References: Everson, L. (1989, March 10). Ivory sale ban: Cost plus to give elephants a break. San Francisco Chronicle, Sec A, p. 3.

Horns cut off to save rhinos from poachers. (1989, May 10). San Francisco Chronicle, Sec A, p. 23.

Kenya's plea to save the elephants. (1989, May 12). San Francisco Chronicle, Sec A, p. 27.

Yarrow, A.L. (1987, February 1). Kangaroos vs. sneakers:

EnvironmentaLists try to stop the killing. Sunday Punch/San Francisco Sunday Examiner and Chronicle, p. 7.

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Concept: Internationalization

Objective: to recognize external influences on consumers and marketing

References: Chrysler, K.M. (1988, Janaury 24). Japanese hiring more Americans to 'internationalize'. San ~rancisco Examiner, Sec D, p. 5. (bringing international ~erspective and contacts into business)

Fields~ G. (1987, June). The sales tax furor and the internationalization of the Japanese consumer market. TOKYO Business Today, ~. 52.

Fields, G. (1987, June). Pressures and reactions: 'Internationalization'-but how far? TOKYO Business Today, ~.. 60.

Morozumi, Y. (1986, August). True meaning of internationalization. TOKYO Business Today, ~. 64.

Tazaki, S. (1985). China's take-off toward internationalization. The Oriental Economist, 53(899), 10-14.

Toru, Y. (1987). A new outlook for internationalization. Japan Quarterly, 34(1), 8-12.

Conce~t:

Market segmentation/Consumer ~rofiles

Objectives: to analyze demographics/psychographies and consumer preferences of a population

to identify appropriate methods to target a specific group

References: Armstrong, L., & Buell, B. (1987, February 16). The rise and fall of the Japanese yuppie. Business Week, ~p. 54+.

Barry, M., Warfield, C.L, & Galbraith, R.L. (1987, June). Dispersion retailing: The new wave. Women's Wear Daily/Retail Driven Technology, p. 28.

Brown, L. (1986). Middle East campaigns must be built around print media. International Advertiser, 1I(7) , 14-16.

Chira, S. (1988, Apri~ 13). Japan's new rich - End of middle-class myth. San Francisco Chronicle, Sec Z-3, pp. I, 4.

77

Elite Black market. (1988, ~ay). Stores, pp. 57-59.

Frisbie, M. (1985). ~arket segmentation: Meeting the merchandis~ng needs of a diverse group. In N. Rabolt & J. Forney (Eds.), proceedings Cultural Diversi~j:

Im lications for the Fam11 in its Environment (pp.

34-36 • San Francisco, CA: San Francisco State Univ~ ity.

Katz, M. (1986). No women, no alcohol: learn Saudi ~oos before placing ads. International Advertiser, 11(7), 11.

Clearing up problems from changing ~(4),

Life enjoyment group in the mainstream - Youth survey by Japan Research Institute for Consumer Economy. (1988). Focus Japan, 15(2), JS-A, SJ-B. (insert)

Lin, w. (1985, December 2). China targets big spenders. Newsweek, p. 70.

Maita, S. (1988, May 2). Mizuno pitches to u.S. market. San Francisco Chronicle, Sec C, pp. 1, 12.

Marinucci, C. (1987, June 22). Survey finds Chinese ripe for some products. San Francisco Examiner, Sec C, p. 6.

Rising desire for the 'good life' present-day lifestyles. (1988). Focus Japan, ~(5), 3.

Saegert, J., Hoover, R.J., & Hilger, M.T. (1985). Characteristics of Mexican American consumers. Journal of Consumer Research, 12(1), 104-109.

Shalapentokh, v. (1987, October 14). Soviet consumers:

They have yet to be heard from. The Christian Science Monitor, pp. 12-13.

Thomas, M. (1988, May). The Hispanic market: How retailers are strategizing distinct ad campaigns to reach Hispanics. Stores, pp. 53-56.

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Concept: Marketing

Objective: to investigate strategies for marketing

References: Bdatty, S.E., Homer, P.M., & Kahle, L.R. (1988). Problems with VAtS in international marketing research: An example from an application of the empirical mirror technique. In Houston~ M. (Ed.) ~ Advances in Consumer Research, Vol 15, (pp.375-380). Provo, TU: Assoc1at10n tor Consumer Research.

Besher, A. (1988~ April 18). Japan's newest mass-marketing schemes. San Francisco Chronicle, Sec B, p. 6. (video flyers, talking posters, bullet-express advertising)

Brummett, D. (1985). Japanese retailing strategy in fashion apparel: Marketing to the young Japanese consumer. ACPTC proceedings (p. 161). Monument, CO: Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Collier, A. (1989, March 9). A British chain's American translator. Women's Wear Daily, WWD/L, p. 4.

Developing special products for local market. (1988). Focus Japan, 15(2), 8. (Angora wool for Japanese)

Enright, J.T. (1986, March 3). Selling consumer goods in Japan. Business America, pp. 20-25.

Holton, R.H. (1985). Marketing and the modernization of China. California Management Review, ~(4), 33-45.

How the Italians do in u.S. stores. (1989, March 6). Women's Wear Daily, pp. 1, 24.

How to do business Italian-style. (1986, April). Management Today, p. 27.

Jeans from a machine: Paris shoppers can buy on the run. (1986, July 26). San Francisco Chronicle, p. 50.

Keating, J.J. (1984). Global marketing. American Import Export Management, 101(1), 52, 54.

More chances for gift giving - Japan's expanding gift market. (1988). Focus Japan, 15(12), 4.

Pauli, G.A. (1985). Some advice on marketing foreign products in Japan. International Management, i!(9) , 121-127.

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Scottish woollens adapt to market demands. (1989, January). Textile Horizons, ~(l), 27-31.

Shigeo, o. (1987). A little revolution in kimonos. Japan Quarterly, li(4), 405-409.

Thorelli, H.B. (1982, December). Chinese consumers look at marketing issues. Paper presented at the Academy of International Business Pacifica meeting, Honolulu, HI.

Tse, O.K., Lee, K-H, Vertinsky, I, & Wehrung, O.A. (1988). Does culture matter? A cross-cultural study of executives' choices, decisiveness, and risk adjustment in international marketing. Journal of Marketing, ~(4), 81-95.

Tuncalp, S., & Yavas, u. (1986). Strategies for u.s. marketers in Saudi Arabia. Business, 36(2), 56-59.

Uchimura, K. (1989, March/April). Reebok: In step with the market. Journal of.Japanese Trade & Industry, No.2, pp. 44-46.

Concept: Mass media

Objective: to analyze the influence of mass media on consumer attitudes and preferences

References: Belk, R.W., & Pollay, R.W. (1985, December). Materialism and status appeals in Japanese and U.S. print advertising:

An historical ~nd cross-cultural content analysis. International Marketing Review, pp. 38-47.

Billard, P. (1985). Europe fights 'Americanization'. World Press Review, ~(10), 34-35.

Douglas, S.U., & Boeckman, C.A. (1986). The influence of advertising on beliefs and attitudes toward "Made-in-the-USA.n ACPTC Proc~edings (p. 115). Monument, CO: Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Dowling, G.R. (1980). Information content in u.s. and Australian advertising. Journal of Marketin2' ±i(4), 34-37.

'Dynasty' stirs up Arab states. (1988, Pebruary 12). San Francisco Chronicle, Sec E, p. 4.

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Gargan, E.A. (1988, January 30)_ Anchorman changes clothes, electrifies Beijing. San Francisco Chonicle, Sec A, p. 10.

Hong, J.W., Muderrisoglu, A., &. Zinkhan, G.M. (1987). Cultural differences and advertising expressions: A comparative analysis of Japanese and u.S. magazine advertising_ Journal of Advertising, 16(1), 55-62, 68.

Japan's TV· commercials appeal to consumer sensitivities. (1988). Focus Japan, .!i(ll), 3.

Johnstone~ a., Kaynak, R., & Sparkman, R.M. (1987). A cross-cultural/cross-national study of the information content of television advertisements. International Journal of Advertising, ~, 223-236.

Kraft, S. (1988, March 20). Africa falls in love with television~ This world/Sunday San Francisco Examiner and Chronicle, p. 17.

Madden, 0.5., Caballero, M.J., & Matsukubo, S. (1986). Analysis of information content in u.S. and Japanese magazine advertising. Journal of Advertising, ~(3), 38-45.

Mueller, B. (1987). Reflections of culture: An analysis of Japanese and American advertising appeals. Journal of Advertising Research, 27(3), 51-59.

Rice, M., & Lu, Z. (1988). A content analysis of Chinese magazine advertisements. Journal of Advertising, 17(4), 43-48.

Rosen, B.N., Boddewyn, J.J., & Louis, E.A. (1988). Participation by u.s. agencies in international brand advertising: An empirical study. Journal of Advertising, 17(4), 14-22.

Takegami, J., & Hasegawa, K. (1989, January/February). On the march. Journal of Japanese Trade & Industrx, No. I, p. 37. (Japanese broadcasting, pUblishing, advertlsing)

Tse, O.K., Belk, R.W., & Zhou, N. (1989). Becoming a consumer society: ~ longitudinal and cross-cultural content analysis of print ads from Hong Kong, the People's Republic of China, and Taiwan. Journal of Consumer Research, .!i(4), 457-472.

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concept: Product image

Objective: to examine perceptions of product characteristics

References: All is not glitter when Madison Avenue meets the Ginza. (1984). International Management, 39(3), 39, 41-42. (Japan)

Made in Hong Kong: How Americans see the label. (1986, Apri~). Stores, p. 23.

Yavas, U., & Alpay, G. (1986). Does an exporting nation enjoy the same cross-national commercial image? International Journal of Advertising, 1(2), 109-119.

concept: Promotion

Objective: to investigate strategies for promoting goods

References: A fashionable business. (1986). International Advertiser, 13 (6), 16.

Adler, F-M. (1983, June). The Japanese influence in ready-to-wear has inspired visual merchandising people to develop mannequins and props with a Japanese mood. Stores, pp. 38-44.

Amine, N. (1987, March). Western advertising and Islamic Fundamentalism. The Middle East, 149, 32.

Ehrlich, P.C. (1986, December 2). Hong Kong rtw firms promoting in Japan. Women's Wear Daily, p. 12.

Furniss, J.D. (1986). Similarity of cultures simplifies advertising to the Pan-Arab world. International Advertiser, 13(7), 6-10.

Gilly, M.C. (1988). Sex roles in advertising: A comparison of television advertisements in Australia, Mexico, and the United States. Journal of Marketing, 52(2), 75-85.

Hill, J.S. (1984). Targeting promotions in lesser-developed countries: A study of multinational corporation strategies. Journal of Advertising, 13(4), 39-48.

Ro, S-C., & Sin, Y-M. (1986). Advertising in China:

Looking back at looking forward. International Journal of Advertising, 1(4), 307-316.

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Horizon/MEAMCO Media Department. (1986, february). Videotape ads are common throughout the Middle East. International Advertiser, p. 31.

Investment advertising in China. (1987, August). TOKYO Business Today, p. 38.

Meffert, H., & Althans, J. (1986). Global advertising:

Multi-national vs. international pros and cons. International Advertiser, 13(7), 34-37.

Reavesr L. (1985, September). China: A new frontier for advertisers. Advertising Age, p. 74.

Schell, o. (1987, June 7). Serving the people with advertising: From propaganda to PR in the new China. This World/San francisco Sunday Examiner and Chronicle, pp. 13-14.

Strugatch, w. (1985, November). Ads: A french flair. Stores, pp. 100-104.

Tripoli, S. (1987, April 12). The ad age comes to China. Sunday Punch/San francisco Sunday Examiner and Chronicle, p. 8.

Videotape ads are common throughout Middle East. (1986). International Advertiser, 13(7), 31.

Zengage, T.R. (1987, August). New media and new directions in advertising. TOKYO Business Today, pp. 36-40.

Concept: Recycling clothing

objective: to investigate differing attitudes regarding used clothing

References: Besher, A. (1985, July 29). An oriental treasure in discarded clothing. San francisco Chronicle, p. 31. (Japan)

DeLacy, J. (1982, January 28). The French go mad for funky American clothes. San Francisco Chronicle, p. 25.

Mann, J. (1985, December 15). Odd used-clothing bonfires in China. Sunday Punch/San Francisco Sunday Examiner & Chronicle, p. 7.

Trade in second-hand clothes belies U.S.-Japan trade tensions. (1990, ?ebruary). TOKYO Business Today, pp. 48+.

83

Conceot: Retail expansion

Objective: to investigate retail expansion into other countries

References: Au printemps Denver debut may foreshadow a u.s. chain. (1985, March 28). Women's Wear Daily, p. 2.

Bannon, L. (1988, September 13). Stefanel to open shops in Leningrad. Women's Wear Daily, p. 32.

Benetton eyes Moscow after East Berlin launch. (1987, March 5). Women's Wear Daily, p. 10.

Burggraf, B. (1986, July). Country Road sets u.s. path. Stores, pp. 54-60

Canterbury of New Zealand. (1986, July). Stores, pp. 41-44. (American branch)

Collier, A. (1988, May 4). Brooks Bros. plans to unveil 7 stores in the U.S., and Japan. Women's Wear Daily, p. 19.

DiMaria, E. (1985, December 20). Cardin planning big store in Moscow for 1986. Women's Wear Daily, p. 6.

Frey, N. (1986, October 10). Armani eyes 150 Emporio stores for us in next 5 years. Women's Wear Daily, p. 2.

Furukawa, T. (1989, June 7). Japan store, New York investors buy Gumps. Women's Wear Daily, p. 16. (Tobu Department Store buys San Francisco store)

Galante, S.P. (1985, April 23). European retailers try to transfer their unique styles to u.S. Market. Wall Street Journal, p. 33.

Greer, J. (1987, December 3). Japanese firm opening outlet on Union Street. San Francisco Chronicle, Sec C, pp. 1, 26.

Giorgio Armani will open 200 Japan stores by 1992. (1987, October 28). Women's Wear Daily, p. 45.

Heskett, J.L., & Signorelli, S. (1985). Bow Benetton has streamlined and branched out worldwide in casual clothing market. International Management, i!(5), 79-82.

K Mart set for New Zealand. (1988, May 14). San Francisco Chronicle, Sec B, p. 5.

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Moin, D. (1988, ~arch 16). Australian retailer Country Road plans to invade the u.s. Women's Wear Dailv, p. 31.

Pender, K. (1988, ~ay 25). Williams-Sonoma's Japan foray. San ~rancisco Chronicle, Sec C, p. 1.

Travers, N. (1987). Darning the holes in Woolies. Director, ~(ll), 48-51. (Woolworths in Great Britain)

Concept: Retailers

Objective: to analyze types of merchandise, strategies used and restrictions experienced by retailers

References: Ferguso, T. (1986). The dressers. Canadian Business, 59(3), 58-62, 115-116. (Canada/a.S.A.)

Ganem, M. (1988, April). Benetton's $45M warehouse ••• the move that had to be made. Women's Wear Daily/Daily News Record, Retailing Technology & Operations, pp. 22-23.

Gilbert, D. (1984, April). Around the world ••• Galeries Lafayette renowned for its trend-setting innovations, French empire. Stores, pp. 32-38.

Hughes, B. (1988, April 24). Hello Kitty: Hello sales:

Social communications fatten Japanese retail company [Sanrio]. San Francisco Sunday Examiner and Chronicle, Sec D, pp , 1, 5.

Ito, M. (1988, August/September). Family store to retail giant. Journal of Japanese Trade & Industry, No.4, pp. 42-43. (Ito Yokado, Japan)

Krienke, M. (1988, March). At Magasin du Nord. Stores, pp. 62-69. (Copenhagen)

Sieff, L. (1984). The Marks and Spencer approach: Buying British made goods. American ~abrics and Fashions, No. 131, pp. 37-38.

Superspecialists: Harrods. (1984, April). Stores, pp. 50-55. (London)

Taubman, P. (January 6, 1988). Soviet version of Rodeo Drive [Lyuks]. San Francisco Chronicle, Sec B, p. 4.

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Conceot:

Retailers' attitudes

Objective: to analyze the impact of retailers' attitudes on business practices

References: Atkins, T.V., & Jenkins, M.C. (1988). Imported versus U.S.-produced ladies' sportswear: Retail buyers' attitudes and practices. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, ~(3), 65-72.

Semenik, R.J., Zhou, N., & Moore, W.L. (1986). Chinese managers' attitudes toward advertising in China. Journal of Advertising, 15(4), 56-62.

Sternquist, B., & Tolbert, S. (1986). Survey: Retail buyers shun apparel industry's "Buy American" program. Marketing News, 20, 23.

Sternquist, B., Tolbert, S., & Davis, B. (1989). Imported apparel: Retail buyers' reasons for foreign procurement. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 1(40), 35-40.

Tolbert, S., Sternquist, B., & Davis, B. (1988). Retail buyers: perceptions of the apparel industry "Buy American" campaign. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, ~(4), 1-5.

concept: Retailing

Objective: to investigate retailing techniques and sharing of knowledge

References: Alawi, H.M.A. (1986, Spring). Saudi Arabia: Making sense of self-service. International Marketing Review, l' 21-38.

Barry, M.E., & Warfield, C.L. (1988, January). The globalisation of retailing. Textile Outlook International, pp. 62-67.

Brummett, D.J. (1985, May). Japanese retailing strategy in fashion apparel: Marketing to the young Japanese consumer. ACPTC Newsletter, p. 7.

Clarke, J. (1984, March 11). The brashest street in the world [Champs-Elysees]. San Jose Mercury News (CA), Sec T, p. 11.

86

Dawson, J.A. (1989, March/April). Japanese retailing - Movement to the post-traditional stage. Journal of Japanese Trade & Industry, No.2, pp. 54-55.

Forman, E. (1988, January 13). Global retailing seen as pacesetter. Women's Wear Daily, p. 35.

Gilbert, D. (1989, May). In London Docklands. Stores, pp. 79-81.

Guid& to deluxe shopping on Zurich's Bahnhofstrasse. (1986, october). Stores, p. 64.

Hiroshi, N. (1986). Ginza store wars. Japan Quarterly, 33(1), 32-26.

Johnson, D.B. (1987). The West Edmonton Mall - From super-regional to mega-regional shopping centre. International Journal of Retailing, ~(2), 53-69.

Kacker, M. (1988). International flow of retailing know-how: Bridging the technology gap in distribution. Journal of Retailing, ~(l), 41-67.

Krienke, M. (1988, June). Fitch: Design leader - How British firm is changing the face of European stores. Stores, pp. 70-78.

New York retailing: Japanese designers in the black, austere looks capture the New York woman. (1989, June). Women's Wear Daily Sportswear Report: Fall, pp. 20-21.

Resener, T. (1985, August 12). Europe's invasion. Newsweek, p. 55.

Roy, S. (1983, September 5). Japan's 'new wave' breaks on U.S. shores. Advertising Age, Sec M, p. 16.

Stevens, M. (1987, September). Private labels help build store's image. The Merchant, p. 21. (New Zealand)

Tanaka, T. (1988, January/February). Profits in store.
Journal of Jaeanese Trade & Industr1' No. 1, p. 33.
Tanaka, T. (1989, January/February). Telling trends.
Journal of Jaeanese Trade & Industr1' No. I, p. 35. Troy, C. (1984, October 4). A new store unlike a store:

Comme des Garcons shows bold fashions in an understated way. San Francisco Chronicle, p. 27.

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Wilkerson, I. (1988, June ~4). World's biggest mall to have 800-plus shops. San ~~ancisco Chronicle, Sec B, p. 6. (Mall of America megamall, aloomington, Minneapolis)

Concept: Stratification of needs

Objective: to apply needs theory to different cultures

References: Masako, o. (1985). Consumption in the age of stratification. Japan Echo, 12(3), 47-53.

Nevis, e.c. (1983). Using an American perspective in understanding another culture: Toward a hierarchy of needs for the People's Republic of China. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 19(3), 249-264.

Concept: Trademarks/Brands/Licensing/Franchising

Objective: to identify trademark usage and problems

References: Cardin signs USSR licensing deal. (1986, April 10).

Women's Wear Daily, p. 2.

Chavez, G. (1986, September). International licensing more than a name. Bobbin, pp. 108-110.

Disney victory in China. (1987, June 24). San Francisco Examiner, Sec C, p. 1.

Farley, J.U. (1986). Are there truly international products-and prime prospects for them? Journal of Advertising Research, ~(5), 17-20.

Guess? in marketing invasion of Europe. (August 13, 1986). Women's Wear Daily, p. 2.

Guess? what's selling. (1984, October 22). Newsweek, p. 82.

Rigurashi, R. (1987, November/December). Sanrio: Cute products spell success. Journal of Japanese Trade & Industry, Nc~ 6, pp. 30-31.

Rolstius, K., & F itschik. {1983}. Brand names and perceived value. ~uropean Research, 11(4}, 151-156.

88

Honigsbaum, ~. (1988, March 25). Gray market a gray issue. Women's Wear Daily, pp. 6, 8.

Johnson, R. (1988, February 10). What's in a name? - About $0575,000. National Business Review, p. 12. (New Zealand)

Kidd, J.D. (1983, October 3). Japanese shoppers found cool to brands. Women's Wear Daily, Sec I, p. 12.

Leung. J. [1988, February 16). French label on Korean pants spells success. San Francisco Chronicle, Sec C, p. 3.

A link with franchising in Japan. (1988, February 11). Women's Wear Daily, p. 17.

Odrich, B. (1987). Brand names re-think Japan. Textile Horizons, L(l), 10.

Ott, E., & Chipps, E. (1985). Licensing in worldwide apparel markets. Paper presented at the American Apparel Manufacturing Association Annual Meeting, Maui, HI.

Schroder, M. (1986). Revlon strives for one look: Local color comes into play-but the global picture often wins out. International Advertiser, 13(2), 28-29, 39.

Seligman, S.D. (1986). Translating your trademark into Chinese. The China Business Review, 13(6), 14-16.

Shamoon, S. (1985). Marketing global brands. world Press Review, 32(1), 52.

Sherman, B. (1986, June 9). Fizazz adds pizazz to cetail store. Advertising Age, p. 54. (Marjani International Coca-Cola licensed apparel stores)

Sinclair, A. (1987, June). Clinique: Corridors of powder. TOKYO Business Today, pp. 32-34.

Success not guesswork [Guess?]. (1986, August 14). The Daily Telegraph (Napier, New Zealand), p. 12.

89

Conceot: Trend forecasting

Objective: to identify potential trends

References: James, R.S. (1986). Global trends ~n cextile craaing. In ~.F. Story (Ed.), Proceed in s of the Fourteenth Annual Conference: Ex ort Marketin pp. 11-22 • Christchurch, N.Z.: The Texti e Institute (New Zealand Section).

Japanese retail mission shops for u.S. apparel. (1984, October 23)~ Women's Wear Daily, p. 26.

Takegami, J. (1989, January/February). Supply-side shadow. Journal of Japanese Trade & Industry, No.1, p. 24.

Taylor, J.R. (1987). Consumer forecasting. The China Business Review, 14(2), 22-25.

90

HISTORIC COSTUME/TEXTILES

Introduction

Understanding the historic evolution of textiles and clothing provides insight into th~ effect which technological advances, politicaL and social influences, and aesthetic and cultural patterns have had on what people wear today. Many contemporary issues, problems, and trends related to the production, distribution, and utilization of textiles and clothing have historical parallels. In order to promote critical and creative thinking in this area, citations in this section relate to documentation, ethnohistory, museums, historical development of textile and clothing/fashion industries, clothing in social context, technological change, colonialism and missionaries, traditional dress and adornment patterns, and trade development.

One important aspect of historical textiles and clothing is the accurate documentation of traditional techniques used in apparel and textile production. Zimmer (1985) documents the declining straw hat industry in Peru while Richards (1983) looks at early Japanese textiles described in the literature. Documentation of past production methods were investigated for Bispanic weaving by Baizerman (1985). Pannabecker (1986) discussed the method of ethnohistory to study cultural aspects of clothing and textiles. Clothing in social context was explored by Baker (1986) who studied how the Turkish fez may have been a symbol of modernization.

Understanding the historical development of the textile industry was provided by Bronson (1983) who examined 17th century cloth exports from India and the ensuing European protectionist regulations. Thieme (1984) traced the impact of technology on the development of textiles in the Industrial Revolution and the computer revolution.

Changes in dress patterns often correspond to changing technology. This is illustrated by Levitt (1986) who traced the history of rubberized garments and related how improvements in technology led to the development of machintoshes for protection from inclement weather. Uchida (1988) looked at how technological progress and changes in textile products led to fashion change in Japanese popular clothing in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Political influence was investigated by Khandy (1986) ~ho studied the impact of Sikh rule on the development of the shawl industry in Kashmir. Boahen (1984) and Uzoigwe (1984) explored the influence of colonialism on cultures: von Ehrenfels (1979) examined the problems associated with changes in indigenous dress patterns by colonialist movements: Forney (1987) related this colonial movement specifically to Christian missionary influence on 19th and 20th century native dress patterns. Young (1984), Hussein (1984), Mbwiliza (1984), Sobrinho (1984), and Tang & Colombe (1984) traced the historic development of trade routes across the Arabian Peninsula, East Africa, and Asia. Lunde & Lawton (1988) described the silk road from Istanbul to China. The historic development of textile marketing is explored by Chapman (1988) and by Sugiyama (1988) while Jenkins (1988) looked

9L

92

looked at the ~esponse of European wool textile manufacturers to the opening up of trade with Japan in the 19th century.

Investigating traditional dress patterns promotes creativity as one laarns how different cultures adapted their clothing to climate, geography, available resources, livelihoods, and lifestyl~5. A variety of articles provide insight into the traditional dress patterns of Russia (Blum, 1977), Japan (Chang, 1979), Mexico (Cuellar, 1979), Inuit (Ewing, 1986: Gurel, 1977), India (Levine, 1986), Greece (Marinescu, 1986: von Bolzano, 1984), Miao (Rossi, "1988), and Africa (Kay, 1984: Wass & Eicher, 1980: Vowels, 1975: Patton, 1984: Klumpp, 1981). Traditional adornment patterns such as the tika in India and beads and hairstyles in Korea were investigated by Francis (1983: 1985). The historical use of the lei as adornment in Hawaii was investigated by Liu (1985) and by Kennedy (1983). Untracht (1980) described the extensive use of jewelry by women in India. Keali'inohomoko (1979) related cultural values to dress patterns by presenting the historical development of traditional dance patterns as they were influenced by traditional dress styles , i.e. Japanese and Hawaiian.

80th students and scholars need to be encouraged to look for historical parallels of contemporary problems and issues which they are currently studying. A cross-cultural and historical perspective would enhance the understanding of how technology, political and social influences, and aesthetic and cultural patterns contribute to contemporary problems and issues. Students might ask how was this issue addressed before? What was the outcome of a particular influence on dress and adornment patterns? How did people change their way of thinking because of certain events or situations related to textilea and clothing? Critical analyses of historical aspects of textiles and clothing can aid in developing an understanding of the past and promoting creative thinking about the present.

Concept: Adornment

Objective: to understand the significance of adornment to personal appearance

References: Creyaufmuller, w. (1984). Agades cross pendants:

Structural components & their modifications part II (S. du Mesnil, Trans.). Ornament, 2(3), 37-39.

Darmody, L. (1987). Beads in Sarawak. Ornament, 11(2), 28-29, 70. (Iban)

Delaroziere, M-F. (1985). Mauritanian beads (J. Fahey, Trans.). Ornament, !(3), 24-27.

Driscoll, B. (1984). Sapaugat: Inuit beadwork in the Canadian arctic. Expedition, 26(2), 40-47.

Francis, P. (1983). Bangles and beads, part II - Other marriage marks: The tilaka and mangalsutra. Ornament, 2(1), 29, 51. (India)

Francis, P. (1985). The Asian bead study tour part I:

Beads as survivors in Korea. Ornament, ~(l), 42-47.

Francis, P. (1988). Bead report: Early Russian bead trade in Alaska. Ornament, 12(1), 26-27, 82-85.

Kennedy, S.S~ (1983). Ephemeral body adornment. Ornament, 1(1), 27-28. (Hawaii)

Liu, R.K. (1985). Lei nih~ palaoa: A classic Hawaiian ornament. ornament, ~(l), 21-25, 66.

Kessler, E., & Kessler, S. (1988). Beads of ancient Panama. Ornament, 11(4), 20-24. (Cuna Indians)

Schienerl, P.W. (1984). Sudanese silver pendants inspired by French coins. Ornament, 2(3), 8-9.

Sibley, L.R., Jakes, K.A., Song, C.S., & Swinker, M. (1989). Cultural inference and Etowah textile remains from Burial 57. ACPTC Proceedings (p. 98). Monument, CO:

Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Turnbull, S.G. (1989). Canadian civilian clothing during World War II. ACPTC proceedings (p. 103). Monument, CO:

Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Untracht, o. (1980, August/September). The body encrusted - Traditional jewelry from India. American Craft, pp. 42-49.

Wimberly, U.S. (1989). A reconsideration on the twist and ethnicity relationship. ACPTC proceedings (p. 101). Monument, CO: Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Wylie, H. (1988). Netsuke: Personal adornment for the Japanese man. Ornament, 12(1), 68-70, 9.

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Conceot: Clothing in social context

Objective: to understand how clothing is interpreted and influenced by social context

References: Baker, P.L. (1986). The fez in Turkey: A symbol of modernization? Costume, No. 20, pp. 72-85.

Femenias, B. (1984). Peruvian costume and European perceptions in the eighteenth century. Dress, 10, 52-63.

Kelly, M.B. (1987, June/July). Embroidery for the goddess:

Ritual fabrics wove power and beauty into women's folklife of Eastern Europe. Threads, pp. 26-29.

Maynard, M. (1987). A form of humiliation: Early transportation uniforms in Australia. Costume, No. 21, pp. 57-66.

Concept: Colonialism/Missionaries

Objective: to understand the political and social influences of colonialism on indigenous people

References: Boahen, A.A. (1984, June). The colonial heritage. The Unesco Courier, pp. 33-38. (Africa)

Forney, J.C. (1987). Missionaries and colonialism: How ideologies change native dress. ACPTC Proceedings (p. 129). Monument, CO: Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Forsythe, M.G. (1987). From a missionary's closet. The Arts of Asia, 17(1), 76-86. (China)

Uzoigwe, G.N. (1984, May). The scramble for territory. The Unesco Courier, pp. 17-18. (Africa)

von Ehrenfe1s, U.R. (1979). Clothing and power abuse. In J.M. Corwe11 & R.A. Schwartz (Eds.), The fabrics of culture (pp. 399-403). NY: Mouton Publishers.

94

concept: Decorative arts

Objective: to investigate traditional patterns of decorative arts

References: Akana, E.A. (1982, May/June). Hawaiian quilting: Tradition through change. FiberArts, p. 63.

Alonso, H. (1979, November/December). Hawaiian quilts:

Treasures of an island folk art. FiberArts, p. 71.

Daradarajan, ~. (n.d.). Of silks and embroidery:

Indo-Portuguese textiles. Marg, 35(3), 89-96.

Franquemont, C., & Franquemont, E. (1981). ~earning to weave in Chinchero. The Textile Museum Bulletin, 26, 55-78.

Furer, G. (1981). Kappa and palaka. Dress, 1, 1~9-115. (Hawaii)

Hammond, J. (198~, July/August). Tifaifai of Eastern Polynesia. Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin, pp. 4-9. (quilt making in the Hawaiian Islands, Society Islands, Audtral Islands, and Cook Islands)

Hilden, J.M. (1988, May/June). In search of Bedouin weavers. ARAMCO World, pp. 38-41. (Saudi Arabia)

Johnstone, P. (1985). Some unusual Turkish embroiders of the early eighteenth century. The Textile Museum Journal, 24, 75-81.

Joseph, R.M. (1985). Batik making and the royal Javanese cemetery at Imogiri. The Textile Museum Journal, 24, 83-90.

Pfeiffer, A. (1981, October). Rugs of the Orient threads of time. Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin, pp. 4-7. (Middle East)

Quataert, D. (1986). The carpet-makers of Western Anatolia, 1150-1914. The Textile Museum Journal, 25, 25-32. (Turkey)

Smart, E.S. (1986). A preliminary report on a group of important Mughal textiles. The Textile Museum Journal, 25, 5-24. (Turkey)

Stone, C. (1987, November/December). Stitches through time: Embroidery from North Africa. ARAMCO World, pp. 12-19.

95

Terrell, J., & Leonard, A. (1980, March). Patterns of paradise. Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin, pp. 4-11. (pacific Islands)

Topham, J. (1987, September/October). Skilled hands:

Designing hearts. ARAMCO World, pp. 30-37. (Saudi Arabia)

Weaver, M.E. (1984). The Ardabil puzzle. The Textile Museum Journal, 23, 43-51. (Ardabil carpets 1n Iran1an shrines)

Willis, E.B. (1987). Th~ textile arts of India's North-East borderlands. The Arts of Asia, 17(1), 93-115.

concept: Documentation

Objective: to understand the process of documenting historic artifacts

References: Baizerman, S. (1985). Prom Rio Grande blanket to Chimayo curio: The traditional period in northern New Mexican Hispanic weaving, 1880-1920. ACPTC Proceedings (pp. 71-72). Monument, CO: Association of college Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Cunningham, P. (1988). The material culture perspective in historic studies in clothing and textiles: An introduction. ACPTC proceedings (p. 11). Monument, CO:

Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Cyr, R.S. (1979). Dress of the Chippewa (Ojibwa) Indians:

An analysis of change from 1640-1940. ACPTC Proceedings (p. 100). Monument, CO: Association of college Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Purer, G. (1983). Designs of Hawaiian wear: An evolution in history. ACPTC Proceedings (pp. 13-20). Monument, CO:

Association of College professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Gordon, B. (1988). Material culture analysis: Two case studies. ACPTC proceedings (p. 13). Monument, CO:

Association of College professors of Textiles and Clothing.

96

Harger, B. (1983). Dress adornment of pre-European Hawaiians. ACPTC proceedings (pp. 7-13). Monument, CO:

Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Kinoshita, M. (1986). A braiding technique documented in an early nineteenth-century Japanese treastise, "Shoshun Biko_~ The Textil& Museum Journal, ~, 47-65.

MacDonald, A. (1989). Historic costume of the island: An analysis of family photographs. Canadian Home Economics Journal, 39(1), 22-25.

McWilliams, M.A. (1987). Prisoner imagery in Safavid textiles. The Textile Museum Journal, 26, 5-23.

Richards, L. (1983). Japanese textiles as described in the literature of Japan. Home Economics Research Journal, 11(3), 295-303.

Rikert, S., Harp, S., & Horridge, P. (1988). Swedish patchwork quilt design 1830-1929: A cross-cultural examination. ACPTC proceedings (p. 16). Monument, CO:

Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Steele, v. (1988). Three French writers look at fashion. The FIT Review, i(2). 34-38.

Zimmer, R. (1985, May/June). The Peruvian straw hat:

Documenting a declining industry. FiberArts, pp. 39-41.

Concept: Development of trade and trade routes

Objective: to investigate the historical development of trade

References: Bier, C. (1989, May/June). Carpets and history. ARAMCO World, pp. 8-15. (Western trade with Persia)

Chapman, S.D. (1988). British agency houses in the Far East in the nineteenth century. Textile History, 19(2), 239-254.

Hussein, R.T.A. (1984). The early Arabian trade and marketing. Islami~ Culture, ~(4), 365-376.

97

Jenkins, D.T. (1988). The response of the European wool textile manufacturers to the opening of the Japanese market. Textile Historv, 19(2), 255-277.

Lawton, J. (1988, July/August). The royal road. ARAMCO World, pp. 9-11. (silk road from Istanbul to China)

Lunde, P. (1988, July/August). The silk roads: A history. ARAMCO world, pp. 11-17. (Western Barbarians, the Persians, and th& Greeks)

Lunde, P., & Lawton, J. (1988, July/August). The golden road. ARAMCO World, pp. 27-35. (silk road in central Asia, the Romans, the Byzantines, and the Sassanians)

Lunde, P., & Lawton, J. (1988, July/August). The imperial highway. ARAMCO World, pp. 49-54. (silk road in China)

Lunde, P., & Lawton, J. (1988, July/August). The road north. ARAMCO World, pp. 37-47. (silk road on Soviet union border and Western China)

Lunde, P., & Lawton, J. (1988, July/August). The steppe route. ARAMCO world, pp. 19-25. (silk road in Turkey)

Mbwiliza, J.F. (1984, June). Retracing the caravan routes of East Africa. The Unesco Courier, pp. 26-29.

Shockley, W.R. (1984). Textile trade: A contemporary history. American Fabrics and Fashion, No. 131, p. 3. (U.S.A.)

Sobrinho, A.J.B.L. (1984, June). The adventure of world trade. The Unesco Courier, pp. 4-6.

Sugiyama, S. (1988). Textile marketing in East Asia, 1860-1914. Textile History, ~(2), 279-298.

Tang, R., & Colombe, P. (1984, June). Sea, silk and sutras. The Unesco Courier, p. 25.

Trade links from Europe to Cathay. (1984, June). The Unesco Courier, p. 11.

Voll, J.O. (1988, July/August). Main street of Eurasia. ARAMCO World, pp. 6-7. (silk roads from Turkey to China)

Young, M. (1984, June). A silken highway from East to West. The Unesco Courier, pp. 22-24.

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Concept: Ethnohistory

Objective: to analyze cultural aspects of historic clothing and textiles

References: pannabecker, R.K. (1986). Ethnohistory: A method for studying the cultural aspects of textiles and clothing. ACPTC proceedings (p. 91). Monument, CO: Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Sibley, t.R., Jakes, K.A., Song,· C.S., & Suinker, M. (1989). Cultural influences and Etowah textile remains from burial 57. ACPTC Proceedings (p.98). Monument, CO:

Association of COllege Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Turnbull,. S.G. (1989). Canadian civilian clothing during World War II. ACPTC Proceedings (p. 103). Monument, CO:

Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Wimberly, u.S. (1989). A reconsideration on the twist and ethnicity relationship. ACPTC proceedings (p. 101). Monument, CO: Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Concept: Historical development of the clothing/fashion industry

Objective: to understand che social, economic, and political influences on the development of clothing and fashion industries

References: Hamilton, J.A. (1990). wThe silk worms of the East must be pillaged": The cultural foundations of mass fashion. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, ~(4), 40-48.

Lemire, B. (1984). Developing consumerism and the ready-made clothing trade in Britain, 1750-1800. Textile History, 15, 21-44.

Thomas, M. (1987, January/February). La mode et 1es trois vagues. Textile Art Industries, No. 2-3, pp. 20-29. (translation in Englisfir development of fashion industry from Medieval Europe to today.)

Zeitlin, J. (1988). The clothing industry in transition:

International trends and British response. Textile History, ~(2), 211-237.

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concept: Historical development of the textile industry

Objective: to understand the social, economic, and political influences on the development of the textile industry

References: Abe, r., & Saito, o. (1988). From putting-out to the factory: A cotton-weaving district in 1ate-Meiji Jaf Textile History, 19(2}, 143-158.

Art into production: Soviet textiles 1917-1935. (19£ Textile Horizons, 1(4), 25-26.

Berdan, F.F. (1987). Cotton in Aztec Mexico: Product10n, distribution and uses. Mexican Studies, 1(2}, 235-262.

Bronson, B. (1983, January). An industrial miracle in a golden age: The 17th-century cloth exports of India. Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin, pp. 12-24. (India/Europe)

de Llosa, M. (1984). Threatened legacy. American Fabrics and Fashions, No. 131, pp. 7-12. (U.S.A.

Farnie, D., & Yonekawa, S. (1988). The emergence of the large firm in the cotton spinning industries of the world, 1883-1938. Textile History, 19(2), 171-210.

Hardy, V.A. (1987). Some documentary sources for the import and distribution of foreign textiles in later medieval England. Textile History, 18(2}, 205-218.

Jenkins, D.T. (1984). Mazamet and the skin wool trade 1850-1913. Textile History, 15(2}, 171-188. (France)

Khandy, R. (1986). Shawl industry of Kashmir under the Sikh rule (A.D. 18l9-1846). Islamic Culture, ~(3), 105-119.

Lunde, P. (1988, July/August). The queen and the silkworm. ARAMCO World, pp. 2-5. (development of silk cultivation in China)

Nakaoka, T., Aikawa, K., Miyajima, H., Yoshi, T., & Nishizawa, T. (1988). The textile history of Nishijin (Kyoto): East meets West. Textile History, 19(2}, llr 142.

Schwabe, G. (1988). Fifty years of nylon in Europe. Textile Horizons, ~(8), 38-39.

Conceot: Museums

Objective: to investigate collections and acquisitions of museums

References: Chaoman, K. (1984). The collections and collecting ~olicies of major British costume museums. Textile History, 15(2), 147-161.

Harris, L. (1985). Museum of chic. Connoisseur, 215(881), 90-9~_ (new musee des arts de la mode ln ParlS)

Hartland-Rowe, M. (1985). The textile prints of the Phuthadikobo museum. African Arts, 18(3), 84-86.

Museum of Fashion Art opening in Paris. (1986, January 27). Women's Wear Daily, p. 8.

Concept: Technological change

Objective: to understand technology's effect on clothing patterns

References: Levitt, S. (1986). Manchester machintoshes: A history of the rubberized garment trade in Manchester. Textile History, 17(1), 51-67. (England)

Thieme, O.C. (1984, January/February). Technological change and the textile industry: The impact of the Industrial Revolution and the computer revolution. FiberArts, pp. 54-56.

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Uchida, H. (1988). Narrow cotton stripes and their substitutes: Fashion change, technological progress, and manufacturing organizations in Ja~anese popular clothing 1850-1920. Textile History, 19(2), 159-170.

concept: Traditional dress patterns

Objective: to investigate traditional dress patterns

References: Anawalt, P.R. (1984, Spring). Prehistoric survivals of Guatamalan dress. El Palacio (Magazine of the Museum of New Mexico), pp. 12-19.

Batts, M.M. (1986). Clothing style of Russian Doukhobors in British Columbia. Costume, No. 20, pp. 86-90.

Blum, S. (1977, November/December). Russian costume. Museum News, pp. 24-31.

Chang, S. (1979). Kimono, From its 12th century origins is recognized as a lasting sartorial tri~mph. In L.M. Gurel & M.S. Beeson (Eds.), Dimensions of dress and adornment A book of readings (3rd ed.) (pp. 17-20). Dubuque, IA:

Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.

Colyer-Ross~ R. (1987, September/October). The fabrics of tradition. ARAMCO world, pp. 21-29. (Arabian costume)

Cueller, E~S. (1979). Mexico's many costumes. In L.M. Gurel & M.S. Beeson (Eds.), Dimensions of dress and adornment: A book of readin s (3rd ed.) (pp.33-37). Dubuque, IA: Kenda Hunt Publishing Company.

Duby-Blocu, G., Sperlich, N., & Sperlich, B.K. (1984, S~ring). Highland Maya people, places, possessions. El Palacio (Magazine of the Museum cf New Mexico), pp. 20-27.

Dunin, E.L. (1983). Festival dress at a gypsy svadba. Ornament, I(2}, 22-23, 45.

Dupree, N.H. (1978, July/August). Behind the veil in Afghanistan. Asia, pp. 10-15.

Ewing, J.A. (1986). The Inuit woman's parka: The amauti. Canadian Home Economics Journal, 36(1}, 18-19, 22. (Eskimo, Canada)

Fisher, N. (1984, Spring). Beyond boundaries: Highland Maya dress. El Palacio (Magazine of the Museum of New Mexico), pp. 4-11.

Gjergji, A. (1986). Aprons in Albanian popular costume. Costume, No. 20, pp. 44-62.

Gurel, L.M. (1977). Eskimos: Clothing and culture. In L.M. Gurel & M.S. Beeson (Eds.), Dimensions of dress and adornment: A book of readin s (2nd ed.) (pp. 12-17).

Dubuque, IA: Hunt Publishing.

Kay, S. (1984, April). Traditional costumes of Morocco. Ahlan Wasahlan, pp. 22-27.

Klumpp, D.R. (1981). An historical overview of Maasai dress. Dress, I, 95-102. (Africa)

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Levine, B. (1986, October/November). Costumes of Royal India: The last hundred years of extraordinary textile tradition. Threads, pp. 65-70.

Lyman, M. (1984). Distant mountains: The influence of Funzo-e on the tradition of Buddhist clerical robes in Japan. The Textile Museum Journal, 23, 25-41.

Marinescu~ M. (1986). Color in Greek traditional costume. Ornament, 9(3), 63, 65-66.

Micklewright, N. (1987). Tracing the transformation in women's dress in nineteenth-century Istanbul. Dress, 13, 33-43.

Myers, O.K. (1987). Costume and ceremonial textiles of Bhutan. The Textile Museum Journal, 26, 25-53.

Oakes, J. (1990). Historical changes in caribou Inuit men's skin clothing. Canadian Home Economics Journal, i!(2), 60-64.

Oakes, J. (1988). The history of beadwork in Eskimo point, Northwest Territories. Canadian Home Economics Journal, l!(2), 77-80.

Patton, S.F. (1984). The Asante umbrella. African Arts, !I(4), 64-73, 93.

Rajab, J.S. (1987). The road to Medina: Arab folk costume from Palestine, Syria and Jordon. The Arts of Asia, 17(1),

52-64. --

Rossi, G. (1988). Enduring dress of the Miao. Ornament, 11(3), 26-31. (Guizhou Province, People's Republic ot China)

Scarce, J. (1988). Ottoman Turkish costume. Costume, No. 22, pp. 13-31.

van Stone, J.W. (1985, June). Ornamented coats of the Koryak. The Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin, pp. 8-15. (Siberia)

von Bolzano, Y. (1984). Traditions, costumes, and jewelry from the Greek island of Karpathos. Ornament, 2(4), 37-39, 5~.

Vowels, V.E. (1975). Women's dress in eastern and southern Africa. Costume, No.9, pp. 40-42.

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Wass, 8., & Eicher, J. (1980). Analysis of historic contemporary dress: An African example. Home Economics Research Journal, 8(5), 318-326.

Wilson, V. (1985). Chinese children's dress. V £ A Album, 4, 292-296.

Concept:

Values

Objective: to understand traditional influences on clothing values ~

References: Bergman, J. (19~. The re-use of old linen and woolen clothing in Swedish peasant society. Ethnographica, !-1, 25-26.

Keali'inohomoku, J.W. (1979). You dance what you wear, and you wear your cultural values. In J.M. Cordwell & R.A. Schwartz (Eds.), The fabrics of culture (pp. 77-83). NY:

Mouton Publishers.

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SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF CLOTHING/FASHION PROCESS

Introduction

Cultural influences, values, attitudes, and perceptions affect clothing choices. These concepts vary within groups and also vary across cultures. For example, Moslem women cover their faces in public for protection of their family honor and morals. Their outer body-enveloping clothing~ i.e. the burka, abbaya, churka, and chador, is symbolic of their religious beliefs and cultural traditions. This type of clothing may appear very unusual to Westerners who do not understand the basis for this dress behavior. At the same time, women in sleevless or short garments, or who draw attention to themselves through what they wear are not considered appropriately dressed in most Moslem countries. Knowledge of other cultures can enhance understanding and promote tolerance of people around the world.

Roles are shaped by a variety of factors which are influenced both by personal choice and by societal expectations. One example of the relationship between social roles and dress is the influence of purdah, a state of isolation of Moslem women from public view and interaction. Alireza (1987), Dupree (1978), Jacobson (1977), and Pastner (1972) all examined the role of women in Islamic societies in relationship to purdah. Analyzing social roles which have culture-specific dress requirements can enhance the understanding of role development and associated statuses.

Values and attitudes provide additional influences on what people choose to wear. However, values may be altered as individuals and societies redefine what has importance in life. Reactions to these value systens are evidenced through attitudes and the related feelings and emotions which people express. Value systems affect fashion acceptance. Matthews (1979) investigated the relationship between traditionalism of dress and social values of Ghanian women. Values related to Middle Eastern dress were studied by Forney & Rabolt (in press) and by Fertile-Bishop & Gilliam (1981) and for Filipino women in Canada by Senga, Brown, & Gonzales (1987). Attitudes are often expressed concerning clothing: people have emotional reactions to what they wear or to what others wear. Chowdhary & Dickey (1984) looked at the changing attitudes of college women and fashion leadership in India.

Evaluating political and social changes as they affect dress patterns and fashion acceptance can further add to cross-cultural understanding. Political change in Iran after the coming to power of the Ayatolla Kohmenia directly affected women's roles as they dressed more traditionally and representative of Moslem practices. The return to the chador and veil was symbolic of Iran's change in political power and its return to religious fundamentalism. Since the revolution, more and more Iranian women have started to replace their black scarves with brightly colored scarves and are not observing hejab, the Islamic code for covering women from public view. Is this reflective of another shift in the status of women in Iran? It may be that the death of the Ayatolla in June, 1989 will lead to a reversal

1~5

of this new trend. This dramatic change in political control and its impact on social change is being evidenced in other parts of the world. What will be the changes in Eastern Europe as nations move towards more open-door policies and consumers have a glimpse at the products and lifestyles enjoyed by many people in Western societies? world events which create significant change in the course of human life are of considerable interest to social scientists. This change is often visibly manifested through modifications or actual transformations in dress and adornment patterns.

Retention of traditional dress versus change or acceptance of Western dress in non-Western cultures may be indicative of the status of change versus stability of the society. Anspach (1968) analyzed the acceptance of Western fashion in Thailand as a reflection of societal change. Matthews (1979) identified how clothing traditionalism is displayed through Ghanian women's dress. When the People's Republic of China (PRC) opened its doors to the West in the 1980's, increased permissiveness was evident in both dress and personal appearance. Since China's crackdown on the student democracy movement in June, 1989, there may be a return to less freedom of expression in dress in China.

Clothing symbolism provides visual evidence of self identification and affiliation. Through the study of symbolic clothing we can determine if changes are taking place within a culture and what might be influencing these changes. Examples of symbolism in dress are provided for Taoist robes (Des Jarlais, 1980), Korean silks (Kwon, 1981), Turkish dress (Marinescu, 1984), Mexican dress (Ryesky, 1981), and the Karen tribe in Thailand (Hamilton & Hamilton, 1989).

Personal and cultural identities are often associated with clothing. Through the study of dress and adornment patterns it is possible to gain an understanding of important social, cultural, and political links which define who a person is. Students may want to analyze dress in terms of cultural and ethnic identity. Marinescu (1984) investigated Turkish dress as a symbol of cultural identity in Romania while Forney & Rabolt (1986) investigated the relationship of ethnic and contemporary dress to ethnic identity in the United States.

With the growing interdependence of world fashion markets, it is increasingly important to understand the fashion process as it applies across societies. Fashion leadership theories might be tested in different countries throughout the world. Are we assuming that theories apply across cultures, or are some theories appropriate only to United States fashion development? Kim & Schrank (1982) looked at fashion leadership in Korea while Schrank, Sugawara, & Kim (1982) compared Korean and American fashion leaders. Chowdhary (1987) investigated fashion leadership and attitude toward change in India while Chowdhary & Dickey (1988) looked at fashion opinion leadership in India.

A major global concern is the loss of cultural identity by many developing countries. As these countries gain greater access to communication systems and technology, they are experiencing more and more influence from industrialized countries. This influence is often exhibited first through changing dress patterns. Fashion adoption and

106

change need to be studied cross-culturally to identify sources of influence. Are Iranian, Soviet, and Japanese youth so different from American youth? Eastern and Western popular culture are often major bases for fashion or fad adoption. Wataru (1987) looked at the use of makeup by Japanese men, Anspach & Yoon (1976) examined the adoption of Western dress styles by Korean women. popular cultural influences, such as Wham! in the PRe (Anderson & Pringle, 1985), are strong worldwide influences on youth and their clothing practices.

There is a great need to critically analyze and document the world trends whicn ar. changing fasnion processes. Cross-cultural study can enhance understanding of how diverse values, attitudes, and perceptions related to clothing are being globally influenced. This evaluative process can carryover into determining appropriateness of products for specific markets.

Concept: Concepts of beauty

Objective: to analyze definitions of beauty

References: Beijing beauty contest fizzels under ideological pressure. (1988, May 30). San Jose Mercury News (CA), Sec C, p. 3.

China gives modest approval to wearing of bikini swimsuits. (1986, November 26). San Jose Mercury News (CA), Sec A, p. 9.

Rongguang, 0.5. (1987, November 30). Opening the door to beauty. Beijing Review, pp. 34-35. (China)

There she is, Miss Moscow in a swimsuit. (1988, June 13). San Francisco Chronicle, Sec A, pp. 1, 18.

Concept: Fashion adoption and acceptance

Objective; to understand the adoption and diffusion process of fashion and influences on that process

References: An African chief in Calvin Klein duds. (1988, July 3).

Sunda punch/San Francisco Sunda EXaminer and Chronicle, p. 8. Botswana

Anspach, K.A. (1968). Fashion consciousness of Thai women. Journal of Home Economics, 60(4), 268-271.

Anspach, K.A., & Yoon, H.K. (1976). Western dress styles adopted by Korean women. Home Economics Research Journal, !(4), 235-242.

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Arnould, E.J., & Wilk, R. (1982). Why do the natives wear Adidas? Anthropological approaches to consumer research. In T.C. Kinnear (Ed.), Advances in Consumer Research (pp. 748-752). provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research.

Brooke, J. (1988, March 27). Congo's dandies strut their stuff: For the 'sapeurs,' $1,000 Parisian suits are de rigueur. San Francisco Chronicle, p. 5.

Buruma, I. (1984, October 11). The importance of not breaking the atmosphere. Far Eastern Economic Review, pp. 59-60. (Japanese fashion adoption)

Desmond, E. (1986, December 15). China's fear of the bikini. Time, p. 48.

Flahavin, P. (1987, July 20). Chinese fashion bloosom. Christian Science Monitor, pp. 23-25.

Hann, M. (1987). Fashion adoption: Competing perspectives. Textile Horizons, 2(5), 26-28.

-New fashions beat baggy blue look. (1986, July 28).

Beijing Review, pp. 7-9.

Popularity of Levi Strauss jeans in Europe discussed. (1984, March 1). Christian Science Monitor, H, F, p. 29.

Puga, A. (1988, March 3). Japanese savor American of '50s. San Francisco Chronicle, Sec B, p. 4.

Tigert, D.J., King, C. W., s Ring, L. (1980). Fashion involvement: A cross-cultural comparative analysis. In J.C. Olsen (Ed.), Advances in Consumer Research (pp. 17-21). Association for Consumer Research. (French Canadians, Americans, Dutch)

The new look (China). (1984, April 14). Economist, p. 50.

Wataru, K. (1987). When men make up their faces. Japan Quarterly, 34(3), 319-323.

Working fashion brightens life. (1984, February 27). Beijing Review, p. 9. (China)

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Conceot: Fashion change: Pooular culture

Objective: to identify the influence of popular culture on fashion change

References: Anderson, H., & Pringle, J. (1985, April 22). China: Wham!Bam. Newsweek, p. 44.

Dameyer, C. (1985, July 5). Iranians dig Michael Jackson. San Francisco Chronicle, Sec A~ p. 8.

Ganz, M. (1988, November 2~). Lucky charms a hit with Japanese girls. San Francisco Examiner, Sec A, pp. 25,27.

Lee, G. (1988, June 15). Counterculture in shades of red:

Movements put some color into drab Soviet life. San Francisco Chronicle, Sec Z, p. 2.

The 'Pop' invasion. (1986). World Press Review, ~(l), 56.

Puritanical teen gangs beating up trendy people in Moscow. (1987, February 3). San Francisco Chronicle, p. 13.

SA's Red Guard. (1989, June). Women's Wear Daily Sportswear Report: Fall, pp. 12-14.

Turkey - much ado about headscarves. (1987, February). The Middle East, No. 148, p. 38.

Concept: Fashion change: Religion

Objective: to identify the influence of religion on clothing/fashion

References: Teheran accommodates. (1984). World Press Review, 21(11), 55-56.

Concept: Fashion change: Youth culture

Objective: to investigate the influence of youth on fashion change

References: Changes in young people's clothing. (1984, August 13).

Beijing Review, p. 27.

Chinese youths adopt new styles. (1985, February 18). Beijing Review, pp. 7-8.

1~9

Collier, R. (1988, July 14). Foreigners have better pants:

Cuba's youths get restless. San ~rancisco Chronicle, Sec A, pp. 19, 22.

Keller, B. (1987, August 16). Russia's rebels without a cause: The new openness gets a wary welcome from Soviet youth. Sunday Punch/San Francisco sunday Examiner and Chonicle, p. 3.

Oginskas, K. (1988, September). Is it easy to be young? young people are torn between the desire for contact and the need for individuality. Soviet Life, pp. 49-51.

Tetsuya, C. (1986). young people as a new human race. Japan Quarterly, 33(3), 291-294.

Concept: Fashion leadership

Objective: to investigate fashion leadership within a society

References: Chowdhary, o. (1987). Fashion leadership and attitude toward change among college women in India. Indian Journal of Rome Science, 17(2), 63-72.

Chowdhary, 0., & Dickey, L.E. (1988). Fashion opinion leadership and media exposure among college women in India. Home Economics Research Journal, 16(3), 183-194.

Kim, M., & Schrank, H.L. (1982). Part 1: Fashion leadership among Korean college women. Home Economics Research Journal, 10(3), 227-234.

Schrank, R.L., Sugawara, A.I., & Kim, M. (1982). Part 2:

Comparison of Korean and American fashion leaders. Home Economics Research Journal, 10(3), 235-240.

Concept: Fashion process

Objective: to understand the fashion process

References: Chowdhary, O. (1984). Fashion process as related to media exposure, social participation and attitude toward change among college women in India. Onpublished doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State Oniversity.

110

concept: perceptions

Objective: to understand how individuals' perceptions differ

References: Chatterjee, J. (1986). Social pressures and the spirit of individualism: The children of Japan learn early to conform with group norms. Accountancy, 97(1111), 85.

Ganz, ~. (1988, June 19). Conformity jolts kids returning to Japan. San Francisco Sunday Examiner and Chronicle, Sec A, pp. 1, 12.

Fugiwara, Y., Fujita, K., & Ymamamota, M. (in press). Relationship between perceptions of clothing norms and need for uniqueness for female college students and middle-aged women. Journal of Home Economics of Japan. (in Japanese, abstract in English)

Fugiwara, Y., & Kawabata, S. (in press). Classification of female clothing traitwords (Part I): Classification based on meaning-similarities. Journal of Home Economics of Japan. (in Japanese, abstract in English)

Pfeffer, K., & Olowu, A.A. (1986). Perceptions of dress style in some Nigerian children's drawings. The Journal of Social Psychology, 126(3), 287-290.

Concept: Self-expression/Self-concept

Objective: to understand clothing as a form of self-expression

to understand how the demise of culture affects self-expression

References: Cho, A. (1987). Clothing behavior and self concept of Korean adolescents in a transition period. ACPTC Proceedings (p. 89). Monument, CO: Associat10n of college Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Fugiwara, Y. (1986). Clothing interest in relation to self-concept and self-esteem of university women. Study of Home Economics Magazine,37(6), 493-499. (in Japanese,

abstract in English) --

Fugiwara, Y. (1987). Congruence relationship between favorite clothing image and self-concept for female university students. Journal of Home Economics of Ja an, ~(7), 593-598. (in Japanese, abstract 1n Eng 1sh

III

Littrel, M.A. (1985). Wax print textiles of Ghana. Canadian Home Economics Journal, 5(3), 169-173.

Yumiko, H. (1986). Self-expression thrcugh!ress. Japan Quarterly, 33(2), 202-206.

Waldman, P. (1987, October 18). Skirts relieve busine~_ blues: Strict Japanese culture prompts some to cross-dress. San Francisco Examiner, Sec 0, p. 1.

concept: Social roles

Objective: to analyze women's roles in society in relation to dress.

References: A1ireza, M. (1987, October). Women of Saudi Arabia.

National Geograohic, pp. 423-453.

Dupree, N.H. (1978, July-August). Behind the veil in Afghanistan. Asia, pp. 10-15.

Gonzales, C.A. (1983). Japanese obi - fascinating bondage. Canadian Home Economics Journal, 33(1), 27-28.

India behind the veil. (1989, April 25). Women's Wear Daily, p. 10.

Ispahani, M. (1988, January). A question of honor:

Pakistan is home both to women's right advocates and those who embrace tradition. Savvy, pp. 58-60.

Jacobson, D.W. (1977, August). Life behind the veil. National Geograpnic, pp. 270-286.

Miller, J., & Colvin, M. (1988, January). Behind the veil. Savvy, pp. 54-56, 88.

papanek, H. (1971, August). Purdah in Pakistan: Seclusion and modern occupations for women. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 517-530.

Pastner, C.M. (1972). A social structural and historical analysis of honor, shame, and purdah. Anthropological Quarterly, 45(4), 248-261. (Pakistan)

Richards, E. (1986, October 12). In Japan it' 'man' world: Despite law, tradition binds women ~o suoservienc roles. San Jose Mercury News (CA), pp. 1, 4. (wearing uniforms)

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Tyler, P. (1989, February 26). The chador of many colors. Sunday Punch/San Francisco Sunday Examiner and Chronicle, p , 3.

Concept: Symbolism/Identity

Objective: to understand use of clothing symbolism in identification of self and affiliations

References: Bar-Haim, G. (1987). The meaning of Western commercial artifacts for Eastern European youth. Contemporary Ethnography, 16(2), 205-226.

Des Jarlais, M.E. (1980). The Taoist robe and its symbols. ACPTC proceedings (p. 82). Monument, CO: Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Filipino killed for wearing a yellow shirt. (1986, July 28). San Francisco Chronicle, p. 12.

Forney, J.C., & Rabolt, N.J. (1986). Ethnic identity: Its relationship to ethnic and contemporary dress. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, i(2), 1-8. (U.S.A.)

Hamilton, J.A., & Hamilton, J.W. (1989). Dress as a reflection and sustainer of social reality: A cross-cultural perspective. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 1(2), 16-22. (Thailand, Karen tribe)

Kwon, Y.H. (1981). Modes of symbolism in nineteen-century Korean silk. ACPTC proceedings (p. 116). Monument, CO:

Association of College professors of Textiles and Clothing.

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Marinescu, M. (1984). Dress as a symbol of cultural identity: Turkish dress in a Romanian village. Ornament, ~(2), 11-12.

Military can ban religious garments, Supreme Court rules. (1986, March 26). San Francisco Chronicle, p. 11.

Ryesky, D. (1981). Clothing symbolism in southern Mexico. ACPTC proceedings (p. 222). Monument, CO: Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Sharma, U.M. (1978, June). Women and their affines: The veil as a symbol of separation. The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, No.2, pp. 218-233.

wallendorf, M., & Arnould, E. (1989). "My favorite things": A cross-cultural inquiry into object attachment, possessiveness, and social linkage. ~~urnal of ~~nsum'

Research, 14(4), 531-547. .

concept: Traditional dress change

Objective: to analyze the factors which effect changes in dress

References: Singh, J.A. (1966). Modern draped sari replaces traditional costume of educated Indian women and the relation of this change to the development of education and communication in India. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Pennsylvania State University.

concept: Values and attitudes

Objective: to understand how value systems affect fashion acceptance

References: Chowdhary, U., & Dickey, L.E. (1984). Changing attitudes of college women and fashion leadership in India. ACPTC Proceedings (p. 29). Monument, CO: Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Donovan, J. (1984, October 2). The veil may be coming back. San Francisco Chronicle, p. 21.

Fertile-Bishop, S., & Gilliam, M. (198l). In view of the veil: Psychology of clothing in Saudi Arabia. Journal of Home Economics, 73(4}, 24-26.

Forney, J.C., & Rabolt, N.J. (in press). Clothing values of women in two Middle Eastern cultures. Canadian Home Economics Journal.

Fugiwara, Y., & Fugita, K. (1986). Socio-psychological characteristics related to fashion or aesthetic-oriented behaviors in dress for a group of high school girls and college women. Textile Machinery Journal, 39(9}, 1-7. (in

Japanese, abstract in English) --

Gurel, L.M., Kahng, H., & Toerien, E.S. (1989). Clothing interest: A cross cultural analysis. ACPTC 2roce~dings (p. 65). Monument, CO: Association of College Professors of Textiles.and Clothing.

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Matthews, L.B. (1979). Relationship between traditionalism of dress and social values of Ghanian women. Home Economics Research Journal, 7(6), 389-398.

Miller, M.F. (1977). Clothing interests and general values of u.s. and Asian students. ACPTC proceedings (p. 125). Monumentr co: Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing.

Satoskir K. (1985). Wedding extravaganzas. Japan Quarterly, 32(2), 168-173.

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