Ammunition collected during the disarmament process following Burundi’s

civil war. From left to right: a 7.62 mm x 39 mm cartridge, a 7.62 mm x 51 mm

cartridge, a 12-gauge shotgun shell, and a 12.7 mm x 108 mm cartridge.
© Stéphanie Pézard

16 Targeting Ammunition
1
Basic Characteristics of Ammunition:
From Handguns to MANPADS
James Bevan and Stéphanie Pézard

Introduction
In policy-relevant small arms research ammunition receives far less attention
than weapons. Most researchers and policy makers are more familiar with pistols,
rifles, or machine guns than with the different types and calibres of projectiles
fired by each weapon. One reason for this is the sheer diversity of ammunition,
ranging from the basic pistol cartridge to sophisticated explosive projectiles
for man-portable air defence systems (MANPADS). In order to understand the
issues surrounding the use and misuse of small arms and light weapons it is
necessary to understand the roles and characteristics of ammunition as well as
the factors affecting its production and distribution. Without this knowledge
it is difficult to develop effective policies—both domestic and international—to
address the problems associated with the unchecked proliferation and use of
small arms.
Many authors have provided comprehensive studies of the technical charac-
teristics of ammunition (e.g. Courtney-Green, 1991; Allsop et al., 1997; Ness and
Williams, 2005). This chapter presents the broad categories of ammunition for
small arms and light weapons and is intended as an introduction to its diverse
technical characteristics in order to provide a basic understanding of ammuni-
tion in the context of historical, current, and possible future developments. It is
therefore a starting point for those who wish to understand how ammunition
functions, and how it may potentially be targeted by national and interna-
tional initiatives.

Chapter 1 Bevan and Pézard 17

 Section 2 of this chapter is an overview of the history of ammunition. Section 3
presents the different types of ammunition that are in contemporary use. Sec-
tion 4 describes the various damaging effects that each type of ammunition
may have on human beings and infrastructure. Section 5 is a brief overview
of recent developments in ammunition technologies, and Section 6 analyses
how international attitudes and responses to the proliferation of ammunition
may change in the near future. Section 7 presents conclusions. The chapter’s
most salient conclusions can be summarized as follows:

• Ammunition that requires sophisticated technology, such as guided missiles,

is only produced in a small number of countries but traditional cartridge-
based ammunition producers are far more widespread.
• The accuracy and destructive capacity of ammunition, and of light weapons
in particular, are continuously increasing.
• The latest developments in ammunition tend to blur current understandings
of the distinction between small arms and light weapons.
• These developments seem set to bring yet more firepower and accuracy to the
battlefield, thereby increasing the destructive potential of war and necessitat-
ing new approaches to controlling the proliferation and use of ammunition.

A brief history of ammunition

Small arms ammunition
Propellant and primers
Gunpowder (also known as ‘black powder’) is a mixture of charcoal, sulphur,
and potassium nitrate. It was originally produced in ancient China and was
first developed as a propellant for use in cannons in Europe around the 14th
century (Krause, 1995, pp. 36–37; Folly and Mäder, 2004, p. 374).
Gunpowder was originally very easy to ignite, a problem that was mitigated
by the development of corned powder in the 1420s, which made the different
components of the mixture more stable (White, 1964, pp. 100–01). Black powder
remained very susceptible to moisture, however, and its very low rate of com-
bustion made storage hazardous. In addition, it produced a lot of residue on
firing, which tended to foul the barrel of the weapon. The heavy smoke it pro-

18 Targeting Ammunition
duced limited shooting accuracy and revealed the shooter’s position (Folly
and Mäder, 2004, p. 374).
Black powder nevertheless remained in use until the late 19th century, when
it was replaced by nitrocellulose-based smokeless powder (Allsop et al., 1997,
p. 8). In addition to being more powerful, the smokeless powder left the barrel
relatively clean and had better storage and transportation properties. The switch
to smokeless powder facilitated the development of more complex weapons,
notably machine guns, which required a powder that would not foul compli-
cated firing mechanisms (Headrick, 1981, pp. 99–100).
Important improvements were made to the stability and functioning of ammu-
nition in the early 19th century. Primers, which are used to ignite the propellant,
had previously been made from fulminate of mercury—a substance that is
particularly unstable when stored. Chlorate mixtures had been tried in the early
1800s but these resulted in severe corrosion and rusted the weapon’s chamber.
When alternative lead styphnate mixes were developed, they proved more
stable and did not harm the weapon (Drury, 1999).

Projectiles
Early projectiles were made of stone, then iron, and later of the more dense
metals such as lead (Krause, 1995, p. 37). Lead bullets were at first spherical and
loaded through the muzzle of unrifled smoothbore weapons.1 Rifles were devel-
oped early in the history of military small arms but took much longer to load
than smoothbore weapons because the bullet had to be wrapped in a piece of
leather to allow it to grip the rifling of the barrel. One consequence of this loose
fit was that rifles suffered from fouling in the barrel (Headrick, 1981, p. 87).
In 1848, however, the development of the Minié bullet made possible the large-
scale adoption of rifles as a military small arm. This new bullet was conical in
shape with a hollow base, and it was easy to load. Moreover, it expanded on
firing to fit the rifling of the barrel, thereby providing greater accuracy and
reducing fouling (McNeill, 1983, p. 231).
Throughout the 19th century the calibre of guns and ammunition progres-
sively reduced, from the 19 mm ball of the Brown Bess musket of the first quarter
of the century, to the less than 8 mm rounds used in some repeater rifles in the
1890s (Headrick, 1981, p. 99). The last quarter of the 19th century also saw the

Chapter 1 Bevan and Pézard 19

development of steel- or copper-jacketed bullets with a lead core. These were
harder and more resistant to the heat in the barrel (DeClerq, 1999).

Cases and cartridges

The first cartridges appeared in the first half of the 17th century but were more
of a ‘shooting kit’ than a real cartridge. Cartridges combined both powder and
bullet in a tube of thick paper. The shooter tore the paper apart, poured the
powder into the muzzle of the weapon, and then inserted the bullet. The paper
was used as a wad to prevent the bullet from falling out of the barrel (Allsop
et al., 1997, pp. 11–12). Paper cartridges allowed quicker loading (Allsop et al.,
1997, p. 11) and, by regulating the amount of powder used in every firing, more
consistent and predictable shooting. They also reduced jamming and explod-
ing barrels.
The next step was the invention of the self-contained cartridge in the mid-19th
century. This consisted of a single case holding a primer, propellant, and bullet.
The cartridge was designed to be inserted whole into the breech of a weapon; a
characteristic which defines breech-loading weapons. Made of brass, the cartridge
allowed a tighter seal within the weapon’s barrel, which better contained the pro-
pellant gases and consequently improved the weapon’s range (DeClerq, 1999).
Smokeless powder, lead styphnate primers, steel- or copper-jacketed bullets,
and brass breech-loading cartridges are all features of contemporary ammuni-
tion and the technology has not changed much in recent decades (Small Arms
Survey, 2005, p. 10). For instance, the 9 mm Parabellum round developed 100
years ago is still a favourite of contemporary armies—although it is worth
noting that powders and primers have improved in quality since that time
(Marchington, 1997, p. 8).

Light weapons ammunition

The evolution of explosive light weapons ammunition has followed a different
path to that of small arms ammunition. Man-portable, direct-fire, rocket-propelled
munitions only appeared in the mid-20th century—after the development of
sufficiently small rocket motors.
The Russian RPG-2 anti-tank grenade launcher (which is technically a recoil-
less rifle) was adopted by the Soviet army in 1949. The PG-2 High Explosive

20 Targeting Ammunition
Anti-Tank (HEAT) grenade used in the RPG-2 contained a charge of propellant
and six stabilizing fins that opened during flight (Modern Firearms and Ammuni-
tion, 1999). The weapon was replaced in 1962 by the much higher performance,
and now ubiquitous, shoulder-fired anti-tank rocket launcher, the RPG-7 (Jones
and Cutshaw, 2004, pp. 432–33; Modern Firearms and Ammunition, 1999).
The development of guided weapons came much later than weapons such as
the RPG-7 and other anti-tank rocket launchers. MANPADS, for instance, were
first mass-produced at the end of the 1960s. The earliest models included the
US FIM-43 Redeye (1967), the British Blowpipe (1968), and the Russian SA-7
(1968) (Small Arms Survey, 2004, p. 82).
There were also major technical developments in indirect-fire munitions, such
as those for mortar rounds, in the 20th century. A significant impetus for these
developments was trench fighting in the First World War, which required a
weapon that could be fired from one trench to another in a high arc trajectory.
The Stokes trench mortar, for instance, combined powerful shells and a long
range. The evolution of mortar rounds was marked by a reduction in calibre,
which made the weapons more mobile. Mortars developed from heavy weapons
used primarily for siege warfare into man-portable weapons (Canfield, 2000).
The First World War also encouraged new developments in grenade technol-
ogy. Grenades had been used for centuries but were more or less abandoned
in the 18th century. Most of the earlier designs consisted of a simple metal con-
tainer filled with gunpowder. They had increasingly been regarded as dangerous
in this form, and as of little use on the battlefield. However, the requirements of
trench warfare, combined with newly developed mechanical ignition systems,
reintroduced grenades as a practical infantry weapon in close-quarter fighting.

Basic categories of ammunition for small arms

and light weapons
The ‘Small arms and light weapons’ listed in the Report of the Panel of Governmen-
tal Experts on Small Arms by the Expert Group of 1997 2 encompasses a variety
of weapon types that, in turn, employ very different types of ammunition.
One possible way of analysing small arms and light weapons ammunition is
to divide it into two categories, based on the distinction between traditional

Chapter 1 Bevan and Pézard 21

cartridge-based and non-cartridge-based ammunition. These categories can be
further subdivided by calibre and according to whether projectiles are guided
or unguided (Figure 1).
The distinction between cartridges and explosive projectiles is important
for a number of reasons. There are distinctions between the level of technol-
ogy required to produce ‘traditional’ cartridge-based ammunition, and more
sophisticated ammunition (Small Arms Survey, 2005, pp. 45–46). It is also a
distinction that broadly follows the division between small arms and light
weapons (Table 1). While all small arms use cartridge-based ammunition, the
majority of currently available light weapons fire explosive ammunition.

Table 1
Small arms and light weapons in United Nations Report of the
Panel of Governmental Experts on Small Arms
Type of weapon* Cartridge- Guided Explosive
based projectile projectile

Small arms:

Revolvers and self-loading pistols Yes No No

Rifles and carbines Yes No No

Assault rifles Yes No No

Sub-machine guns Yes No No

Light machine guns Yes No No

Light weapons:

Heavy machine guns Yes No No**

Hand-held under-barrel and mounted Yes No Yes

grenade launchers

Portable anti-tank and anti-aircraft guns No No Yes

Recoilless rifles No No Yes

Portable launchers of anti-tank and anti- No Yes Yes

aircraft missile systems

Mortars of less than 100 mm calibre No No Yes

* Source: United Nations Report of the Panel of Governmental Experts on Small Arms (UN, 1997, section III, para. 26)
** Explosive ammunition for some large-calibre machine guns is available but remains very rare.

22 Targeting Ammunition
 Cartridge-based ammunition can be divided into categories by calibre. The
distinction between calibres below 12.7 mm and those of 12.7 mm and above
broadly respects the small arms–light weapons distinction.3 This distinction
matters for several reasons. In practical terms, it reflects the higher proportion
of small arms to light weapons in service across the world. Small-calibre assault
rifles constitute the personal weapon of individual combatants, while light
weapons may be distributed only one or two per squad or section. This fact,
in turn, affects the type and number of rounds of ammunition manufactured
because of the disparity in the number of weapons in service in any armed
force. Also, the 12.7 mm distinction serves as a rough guide to whether the
weapon is used predominantly by civilians or military personnel. With a few
exceptions, such as .50 calibre pistols and rifles, most weapons of 12.7 mm or
greater calibre are designed explicitly for military use—and used as such.
Grenades, explosives, and landmines are also included in the UN definition
of ammunition. Anti-personnel and anti-tank grenades are functionally similar
to small arms and light weapons ammunition, such as cartridge-based ammu-
nition and missiles, because they are also designed to project force (see Box 1).
Explosives (including improvised explosive devices) and landmines have differ-
ent characteristics that distinguish them from small arms and light weapons
ammunition (see Box 1).

Box 1 Explosives and landmines

The UN defines explosives and landmines as weapons ‘manufactured to military specifica-
tions’ (UN, 1997, section III, para. 24). Improvised explosive devices, therefore, are outside
this definition. The inclusion of explosives, which are contained in such devices but also
in all types of small arms and light weapons ammunition, is problematic on a number of
counts: their applications are many and military explosives do not differ greatly from
explosives used for civilian applications—such as for demolition or blasting. Furthermore,
explosives can exist simply as pure condensed explosives—such as Semtex-H or C4—or
they can be integral parts of a larger weapons system—such as the charge in a grenade or
artillery shell. Explosives designed for use in combat usually belong to the second category.
Most are fused to explode either on impact or after a period of time determined by the
operator.
Landmines are self-contained explosive devices just like grenades. There is, however,
one qualitative difference between grenades and landmines with regard to their use.
Grenades are designed to enable an individual to project firepower onto a designated
target, while landmines are essentially passive and do not discriminate between targets.
They form a study area in their own right.

Chapter 1 Bevan and Pézard 23

24
Figure 1
Varieties of ammunition and
examples by type of weapon Small arms and light weapons ammunition

Cartridge based Non-cartridge based

Targeting Ammunition
Other* Under 12.7 mm Guided rocket- Unguided rocket- Non-rocket-
12.7 mm and over** propelled projectiles propelled projectiles propelled projectiles

Examples: Examples: Examples: Examples: Examples: Examples:

Muzzle-loading Shotgun Pistol* MANPADS RPG Mortar
weapons includ- Pistol Anti-materiel rifle ATGW Rocket launcher Rifle grenade
ing antique pistols, Machine pistol Heavy sniper rifle Recoilless rifle
muskets, rifles, and Sub-machine gun Heavy machine gun
replicas Rifle OCSW/OICW
Assault rifle Spin-stabilized
Light sniper rifle grenade
Light machine gun
General purpose
machine gun
(GPMG)

* Very limited production and use

** Generally less than 40 mm
Note: Hand grenades fall under the United Nations definition but differ markedly from the ammunition shown above in that they are self-contained, comprising both ammunition
and weapon. They are not included in the current classification.
Cartridge-based ammunition
The cartridge is a self-contained unit comprising the cartridge case, the primer,
the propellant (powder), and the projectile or ‘bullet’ (Figure 2). All weapons
that fire cartridge-based ammunition have a barrel, which is integral to the
process of delivering energy, momentum, and direction to the bullet.
The operating principles of all weapons firing cartridge-based ammunition
are the same (Figure 2). The cartridge partially seals the firing chamber of the
weapon. On firing, a pin strikes the primer at the base of the cartridge (1) and
ignites it. This ignites the powder, which burns rapidly and generates expand-
ing gases. The gases are forced down the length of the barrel, pushing the
bullet in front of them (2) and eventually out of the barrel (3). Simultaneously,
the cartridge case expands, thereby completing the firing chamber seal. The
momentum imparted by the process propels the bullet but there is no process
within the bullet that sustains movement. As a consequence, the bullet begins
to lose velocity shortly after it leaves the barrel.
Cartridge size differs from weapon to weapon not only in the calibre (i.e.
diameter) of the bullet, but also in the overall length of the case (e.g. 5.56 x 45 mm
denotes a round of calibre 5.56 mm with a case length of 45 mm). Longer cases
contain more powder, which can give more energy and thus higher velocities

Figure 2
Anatomy and operation of cartridge-based ammunition

Bullet
Firing pin Barrel

Case 2

Powder
3

Primer

Chapter 1 Bevan and Pézard 25

to the bullet. A given calibre can be employed in different types of weapons.
Calibre .50 bullets, for instance, can be used in the Browning M2 heavy machine
gun or in a pistol, but the .50 bullets used in heavy machine guns are around
twice the length and weight of the pistol bullets, and they have around twice
the muzzle velocity. In the United States cartridges are usually designated by
a name or acronym. For instance, a .45 ‘Auto Colt Pistol’ (ACP) round is 0.45
inches (11.43 mm) in calibre and has a case length specific to ACP ammunition
of 22.79 mm (Ness and Williams, 2005, pp. 36–37).

Small calibre cartridge-based ammunition

Small calibre cartridge-based ammunition ranges from the smallest cartridges
to those of just under 12.7 mm calibre. This cut-off point is a simple interpreta-
tion of the United Nations definition quoted above that places heavy machine
guns (which fire ammunition of 12.7 mm calibre or above) in the category of light
weapons. There is, moreover, a clear discontinuity in military calibres between
12.7 mm and the next smallest cartridge. Figure 3 shows the ammunition used
in the 66 most commonly stocked assault rifles, light machine guns, and heavy

Figure 3
The most common calibres of cartridge-based ammunition

14 calibre (mm)
12.7 x 99

12.7 x 107

12.7 x 114

12

10

8
7.62 x 31

7.62 x 39

7.62 x 51

7.62 x 54
7.5 x 54

6
5.56 x 45
5.45 x 39

Collated data from Jones and Cutshaw (2004).

26 Targeting Ammunition
Table 2
Ammunition standards
Types of weapons NATO standards Warsaw Pact standards

Assault rifles, light support 5.56 x 45 mm 7.62 x 39 mm

weapons

Assault rifles, self-loading 7.62 x 51 mm 7.62x 54 mm

rifles, sniper rifles, light
machine guns

Pistols 9 x19 mm Parabellum 7.62 x 25 mm, 9 x 17 mm

Heavy machine guns, sniper 12.7 x 99 mm 12.7 x 107 mm,

rifles, anti-materiel rifles 12.7 x 114 mm
Collated data from Jones and Cutshaw (2004).

machine guns in the world. It demonstrates the discontinuity between assault

rifle and light machine gun calibres up to 7.62 mm, and heavy machine gun cali-
bres of 12.7 mm and over. There are very few military long-arms that fire calibres
between 7.62 mm and 12.7 mm.
The data in Figure 3 also suggests that, in military ammunition at least, there
is a very small range of calibres in frequent use throughout the world. This is
linked to the legacy of the polarization of armament sources during the cold
war between NATO and Warsaw Pact standards (Table 2). This is particularly
true of assault rifles and machine guns—the primary infantry weapons for which
standardization into as few calibres as possible is essential from a logistical
perspective. However, across the globe, military pistol ammunition is far more
diverse in its range of calibres than other ammunition. Many soldiers carry
pistols as backup weapons and can choose from a wide range of products and
calibres available on the civilian market.
Non-military ammunition is generally more varied in calibre. This is because
it fulfils a wider range of functions including: small cartridges for concealed-carry
pistols; specialist large-calibre pistol ammunition for hunting; match-grade rifle
ammunition for target shooting; ammunition for marksmen in security forces;
soft-nosed, low-velocity ammunition for law enforcement; armour-piercing and
other larger calibres for big game hunting; and even rubber or plastic rounds
for riot and crowd control (Box 2).

Chapter 1 Bevan and Pézard 27

 Box 2 Non-lethal ammunition
Non-lethal (or, more accurately, ‘less than lethal’) anti-personal weapons use a wide range
of technologies that include kinetic energy, electricity, acoustics, directed energy, chemicals,
or a combination of the above (Lewer and Davison, 2005, pp. 38–39). Weapons using
kinetic energy replace the usual metal bullet with other impact projectiles such as rubber
bullets, plastic baton rounds, or beanbags. Rubber bullets are made of plain rubber or are
coated with steel; plastic baton rounds are made of tube shaped PVC (BBC, 2001); beanbags
are nylon pockets containing pellets. Although these blunt projectiles are not meant to
penetrate the skin, all of them have the capacity to cause serious injury and even death.
Police or military forces using these rounds must maintain a long firing distance (20 metres
for plastic baton rounds). They must also aim for lower limbs: a medical study on injuries
attributable to plastic baton rounds in Northern Ireland showed that they had been the
result of head or chest traumas (Hughes et al., 2005, p. 112). However, the low ballistic
coefficient of these projectiles results in low levels of accuracy, especially at long range,
and this means that they can cause unintended injuries even when properly used (Mahajna
et al., 2002, p. 1799).

These rubber bullets and live ammunition were used by the Bolivian authorities in a confrontation with coca
growers on a road between Chipiriri and Eterazama. © Lucian Read/WPN

28 Targeting Ammunition
Large calibre cartridge-based ammunition
Calibre .50 (12.7 mm) cartridges were formerly used only in medium and heavy
machine guns, including those designed for anti-aircraft use. However, in the
latter half of the 20th century a number of sniper rifles and anti-materiel rifles
appeared on the market that use ammunition of 12.7 mm to 20 mm in calibre
(the majority of these weapons use the military .50 BMG cartridge). Brands that
use the .50 BMG cartridge, such as Barrett and Truvelo, have also appeared on
the civilian market in the United States and South Africa, respectively.4
For the most part these large calibres differ very little from smaller calibre
cartridge-based ammunition. However, weapons are increasingly being designed
to fire explosive rounds using the cartridge system. These include spin-stabilized
grenades (Figure 4) and recently developed smaller explosive munitions. Calibres
for explosive munitions have tended to be far larger than other types of cartridge-
based ammunition. Spin-stabilized grenades, for instance, are usually of 30 mm
or 40 mm calibre, although recent developments suggest that calibres may de-
crease to around 25 mm (Jones and Cutshaw, 2004, pp. 394–95).

Figure 4
Anatomy of a spin-stabilized grenade

Explosive charge
Projectile

Cartridge case Impact fuse

Primer assembly

Chapter 1 Bevan and Pézard 29

 The latest versions of spin-stabilized grenades are being developed for the
Objective Crew Served Weapon (OCSW) and the smaller Objective Individual
Combat Weapon (OICW). The ammunition is conventional, in that it is fired
from a cartridge in a barrelled weapon, but the round, which is 25 mm in diam-
eter, is far larger than most cartridges yet smaller than previous spin-stabilized
grenades. It is, moreover, fused to explode in the air over targets, an effect that
is called ‘airbursting’ (see Figure 10). It is predicted that the OCSW will replace
both heavy machine guns and automatic grenade launchers in the US armed
forces (Jones and Cutshaw, 2004, pp. 394–95).

Non-cartridge-based ammunition
In contrast to cartridge-based ammunition, many varieties of non-cartridge based
ammunition contain their means of propulsion within the projectile. These weap-
ons are commonly referred to as rocket or missile systems. They also include
categories of ammunition such as rocket-propelled grenades. Small arms do not
operate in this way, but the majority of light weapons in the United Nations
definition operate according to some variation of this principle. The basic con-
figuration of this ammunition differs from system to system but, in all cases,
the projectile consists of an explosive warhead and a rocket motor. Propulsion

Figure 5
The two main types of rocket-propelled ammunition

Single combustion
1 2

Complete combustion of rocket motor

Two-stage combustion
1 2

Combustion of propelling charge Combustion of main rocket motor in flight

30 Targeting Ammunition
Figure 6
Anatomy and operation of a mortar

Fuse

High explosive charge

Secondary or augmenting
propellant charge

Ignition and primary

propellant cartridges

1 2 3

can be of two types, depending on whether the combustion of gases occurs while
the projectile is in the tube or whether it is launched from the tube by a small
propelling charge prior to combusion of the main rocket motor (Figure 5).
Mortars are different in that they operate in a similar way to firearms by
using an integral charge (single combustion) but are not strictly cartridge based.
As Figure 6 illustrates, the mortar bomb is dropped into the tube (1). It strikes
a firing pin at the base of the tube (2), which ignites the ignition cartridge and
the primary propellant cartridge. This, in turn, ignites the augmenting or sec-
ondary propellant charge (if used), which is arranged in bands around the
base of the mortar bomb (shown in grey). The expansion of gases in the tube
forces the bomb out of the tube (3).

Chapter 1 Bevan and Pézard 31

Unguided ammunition
Unguided ammunition simply follows the trajectory assigned by the firer. Their
trajectory cannot be adjusted once they have left the barrel, or launch tube, of
the weapon. Unguided weapons are a common feature in most conflicts and
include mortars, rocket launchers, RPGs, recoilless rifles, and rifle grenades.
Unguided rocket-propelled light weapon ammunition can be divided into
two groups—weapons that are designed to fire along the firer’s line of sight,
and those that are intended to fire indirectly. The former comprise weapons
commonly referred to as ‘rocket launchers’ or ‘missile systems’, while the latter
are mortars. Mortars fire ammunition in high arc trajectories designed to hit
targets beyond the sight of the firer or behind obstacles (Figure 7).
The basic design of a direct-fire projectile includes a warhead section and a
propellant section (Figure 8). This type of direct-fire weapon was developed
to meet the need for a weapon to defeat armoured vehicles. The weapons and
ammunition are now designed for many different roles, including targeting
armoured and light vehicles, destroying hard targets such as bunkers or houses,
and anti-personnel roles. Because such rocket-propelled ammunition is launched
from an unrifled tube, rather than a rifled barrel, no spin is imparted to the
projectile on launch. For this reason, stability is achieved through stabilizing
fins, which produce a slow rate of roll in flight (Figure 8).

32 Targeting
Indian army personnel
Ammunition
display seized rocket-propelled grenades (RPGs) in Srinagar, 2005. © Danish Ismail/Reuters
Figure 7
The high arc trajectory of a mortar bomb

Figure 8
Two examples of unguided rocket-propelled ammunition

Explosive
Warhead
section

Fuse

Propellant
charge Propellant
section
Stabilizing fins
(folding)

66 mm M72A5 HEAT ammunition PG-7 HEAT ammunition

for an M72 light anti-armour for an RPG-7 (shoulder-fired
weapon (LAW) anti-tank rocket launcher)

Guided ammunition
In contrast to unguided ammunition, guided ammunition is designed expressly
to hit mobile targets, including tanks, lighter vehicles, and aircraft. Guided
weapons can be directed towards the target while in flight, which allows the
firer to make adjustments to compensate for the target’s movement.
Types of guidance system differ greatly. In the early guided weapons, the
trajectory of projectiles was adjusted in flight by wire guidance. This relied on

Chapter 1 Bevan and Pézard 33

Figure 9
Diagram of an infrared seeking anti-tank missile

Propulsion Explosive Seeker

section charge assembly

Note: A rough representation of a Javelin missile. Adapted from Raytheon and Lockheed Martin (2005).

the operator being in visual contact with the target and making adjustments
while the missile flew towards it. Wire guidance is still common in some anti-
tank systems, such as the Russian 9M14 Malyutka and the French Matra Eryx.
More recent types of guidance system include radar, infrared seeking, beam
riding, image matching, and sensors that analyse a broad spectrum of energy
sources. These do not rely on directions given by the operator after firing. They
use sophisticated sensors and electronics to recognize the target, calculate its
trajectory and that of the missile, and make adjustments to ensure that the two
meet. The most modern systems incorporate a number of such methods, most
notably, MANPADS such as the British Starstreak and the Japanese Type 91.
Figure 9 illustrates that ammunition which contains a seeker has propulsion
and warhead sections that are common to unguided weapons but the warhead
is set back behind the seeker, which is positioned at the front of the projectile.
Systems that employ guided rocket-propelled projectiles include anti-tank
guided weapons (ATGW) and MANPADS. These are the most sophisticated
light weapons in production and their manufacture is confined to a relatively
small number of countries with well developed defence industries (Small Arms
Survey, 2004, pp. 81–82; 2005, pp. 58–62). Because they are designed to destroy
modern, rapidly moving targets, guided weapons present technological, finan-
cial, and political barriers to their acquisition, which control their proliferation
to a greater extent than unguided weapons.

34 Targeting Ammunition
Hitting the target: a review of effects
The types of small arms and light weapons ammunition vary greatly and so
too do their effects. Differences in effect result from variations in the range and
trajectory of the weapons, and the type of impact they are designed to have on
their target.

Flight ballistics
The term ballistics refers to the behaviour of a projectile in flight. Most cartridge-
based small arms and light weapons are designed to fire a projectile, with a
relatively flat trajectory, at a target that is within the firer’s line of sight. How-
ever, there are a number of small arms and light weapons that are expressly
designed to engage targets beyond the sight of the firer. These are termed ‘indirect
fire’ weapons and are designed so that the projectile either follows a high arc
trajectory before striking the target (Figure 7), or follows a flatter trajectory before
exploding over the target.
In either case, the rationale behind developing such munitions is that the firer
can engage the enemy without entering the enemy’s line of sight—and ulti-
mately the enemy’s line of fire. However, the fact that indirect-fire weapons
enable the firer to engage targets he or she cannot see has a number of poten-
tially grave consequences in modern conflict. Primarily, this is because the firer
is unable to determine what effect they have. Moreover, from a purely psycho-
logical perspective, the firer is disconnected from the target (Grossman, 1995,
pp. 107–08). The 2003 siege of Monrovia, Liberia, demonstrated the effect of
using mortars in built-up areas. Fighters from both sides of the conflict were
unable, or unwilling, to hit purely military targets to the detriment of the local
civilian population (Small Arms Survey, 2005, pp. 182–83).

Figure 10
Airburst munitions

Chapter 1 Bevan and Pézard 35

 The latest developments in airburst munitions (Figure 10) are worrying for
exactly this reason. Unlike mortars, which are only sporadically used, some of
these weapons are intended to replace standard assault rifles. This means that
this ammunition could be among those most commonly used in any future
infantry encounter. One fear is that combatants may use airburst munitions not
only when they are certain of targets, but also when they are in doubt as to what
is happening out of sight.

Wound ballistics
The different categories of ammunition (non-explosive or explosive) have impor-
tant implications for the type and severity of wounds that they cause.5

Non-explosive projectiles
Wound ballistics is the study of the motion and effect of bullets and fragments
on tissue (Di Maio, 1999, p. 53). The penetration of a bullet first creates a tem-
porary cavity that corresponds to a very fast implosion of tissue. It leaves a
permanent canal (see Figure 11). Most of the tissue is destroyed by the effect of
the distension of the temporary cavity, rather than by the contact between the
bullet and the tissue. It is worth noting, however, that the size of the temporary
cavity does not determine the extent of the damage to the tissue because a large
part of it is only distended rather than destroyed. The amount of kinetic energy

Figure 11
Permanent and temporary cavities
Temporary cavity

Permanent cavity or canal

36 Targeting Ammunition
An anthropologist examines a skull shattered by a high-velocity bullet at the Guatemalan Forensic Anthropology
Foundation (FAFG) in Guatemala City. FAFG devotes most of its time to exhuming bodies killed by the Guatemalan
military during the country’s 36-year civil war. © Victor James Blue/WPN

that is transferred to the body when hit determines the size of the permanent
and temporary cavities (Di Maio, 1999, p. 55). Kinetic energy (KE) is a function
of the mass and velocity of the projectile (KE=1/2.m.v²).
Other factors affect the extent of the damage done by a bullet. Of these factors,
the most notable is the characteristic (type, elasticity, density) of the organ hit.
Organs that have a certain amount of elasticity, such as lungs or muscles, are
better able to sustain a gunshot wound than solid organs such as the liver (Fackler,
1987; Di Maio, 1999, p. 55).
Fragmentation of the bullet can also increase the gravity of the wound. The
breaking behaviour of a bullet depends on the distance it is fired from—there
is more chance of fragmentation for a projectile shot from close range—and on
other factors such as the type of metal of which it is made.
Another important factor in wound ballistics is the type of projectile used.
Semi-jacketed bullets, such as soft-point and hollow-point bullets, have part
of their core exposed at the top. These usually expand when they hit the target
to assume a ‘mushroom’ shape (Di Maio, 1999, pp. 292–96).6 Semi-jacketed
bullets are usually used for hunting because they increase the chances of a kill,

Chapter 1 Bevan and Pézard 37

and in law enforcement because they tend to ricochet less, presenting less of
a hazard to innocent bystanders in urban surroundings. Only fully jacketed
bullets, however, are permitted for military use under international law (Small
Arms Survey, 2005, pp. 22–23).

Explosive munitions
Explosive munitions launched by light weapons affect the human body in a
different way to cartridge-based ammunition. Many light weapons use explo-
sive munitions. They have three distinct effects: a ballistic effect, produced by
fragments and sometimes referred to as the fragmentation effect; a blast effect;
and a thermal effect.
It is important to note that a number of light weapons, such as portable anti-
tank and anti-aircraft launchers, are intended to be used against materiel (vehicles,
small buildings, and aircraft) rather than humans. In practice, however, humans
can be—and often are—hit by such munitions, and are part of the collateral
damage caused by the use of light weapons against materiel (Covey, 2004).
Explosive munitions produce metallic fragments that cause ballistic injuries.
The resulting injuries depend on the characteristics of the fragment (velocity,
mass, and shape) and those of the tissues hit (elasticity, density, and type). In
contrast to bullets, fragments are often smaller and irregularly shaped, and can
cause multiple wounds (VNH, 2004, p. 1.4). The impact of both thermal and
blast effects depends on the distance between the body and the epicentre of
the explosion (see Figure 12).
A thermal effect occurs when an individual is closest to the epicentre of the
explosion, in which case he may be severely burned by the heat generated. These
burns usually seriously complicate the treatment of other (ballistic) wounds
(VNH, 2004, p. 1.4). The blast effect, which comes from the blast overpressure
waves (also called sonic shock waves) created by the explosion, usually affects
ears, lungs, and the digestive tract. These injuries increase in severity with the
level of pressure and the length of exposure to them. Thermobaric weapons
augment this blast effect by increasing the duration of the explosion, which is
enhanced when it occurs in an enclosed space (such as a bunker). It should also
be noted that the blast effect can cause further injuries by forcing individuals
into nearby solid and sharp objects (VNH, 2004, p. 1.4).

38 Targeting Ammunition
Figure 12
Probability of injuries sustained from the detonation of explosive
munitions

Distance from epicentre Thermal +

blast +
ballistic effects
Probability of injury
Blast +
1.0 ballistic effects

Ballistic effects

0
Effects
Figure adapted from Virtual Naval Hospital (2004), p. 1.3.

Recent developments in ammunition technology

There have been recent technological developments in ammunition in several
fields. Of particular note are changes to the mass of rounds and to their destruc-
tive capacity.

Making ammunition lighter?

Caseless cartridges are 50 per cent lighter than traditional rounds of the same
calibre. Their main advantage is to allow soldiers or law enforcement officers to
carry larger amounts of ammunition, maintaining the same terminal ballistic
effect. Caseless cartridges consist of a block of propellant with a bullet embedded
inside. They have thus far been manufactured in 4.7 x 33 mm calibre and are
currently used only in the Heckler & Koch G11 rifle, which is mainly used by the
German Army special forces (Hogg and Weeks, 2000, p. 13; Hogg, 2002, p. 309).
Concerns about the weight of ammunition are not confined to small-calibre
rounds. The United States is attempting to reduce the weight of mortar rounds
and is testing composite materials (Cutshaw and Ness, 2004, p. 15). The trend
towards ever lighter ammunition should, however, not be overstated. It is worth
noting that recent combat experience in Iraq and Afghanistan has convinced
many that the mass of the current 5.56 mm NATO round is insufficient on the

Chapter 1 Bevan and Pézard 39

battlefield, prompting the development of heavier and more powerful rounds.
The American firm Remington has developed a 6.8 x 43 mm Special Purpose
Cartridge, which fits the current M-16 and M-4 rifles if the weapons are
equipped with a special calibre adapting device (Richardson, Richardson, and
Biass, 2005, p. 12). Because of the cost of re-equipping an entire army, however,
this change has so far been limited to Special Forces and some front-line combat
units (Richardson, Richardson, and Biass, 2005, p. 12; Alpo, 2005, p. 64).

The destructive capacity of ammunition

Increased magazine capacity is a logical consequence of the process by which
high-powered rifles have been progressively replaced by automatic rifles in
military forces. Automatic rifles are designed to fire at a high cyclical rate, and
to engage targets at relatively close ranges. Because of this, they fire smaller
and lighter cartridges, which also enable a higher magazine capacity (Hogg and
Weeks, 2000, p. 221). Magazine capacity for handguns is now frequently 13–14
rounds (Marchington, 1997, p. 8).
A single magazine can have up to 100 rounds for a light machine gun, and
some weapons have double or triple side-by-side magazines, to enable them
to be changed more quickly (DeClerq, 1999).
The destructive capability of light weapons ammunition has also increased.
RPG rockets can now be equipped with ‘tandem’ warheads to produce double
detonations (Small Arms Survey, 2004, p. 36). These warheads are designed to
penetrate the explosive reactive armour (ERA) that normally provides addi-
tional protection to tanks against ATGWs.
Another important technological development, which has been employed
in different types of projectiles, is the use of fuel-air explosives. In this case,
the exploding device liberates particles of a volatile substance which reacts
with the oxygen in the air to produce a second explosion of long duration (VNH,
2004, p. 1.4; Cutshaw and Ness, 2004, p. 15). Thermobaric weapons work in a
similar fashion. They are mostly used in enclosed spaces, such as caves, where
the overpressure waves they create prove particularly lethal. These weapons
are being developed for infantry use in grenade form. A 40 mm grenade with
a thermobaric warhead was tested in Afghanistan by US soldiers in 2003 (Burger
Capozzi, 2003).

40 Targeting Ammunition
 It should also be noted that ammunition has improved in terms of range
and accuracy. To some extent these developments have been made necessary
by the increasingly destructive power of ammunition because without the
higher levels of accuracy these weapons could hurt friendly troops and cause
undesirable collateral damage. The improvements may also be related to the
growing cost of advanced ammunition, which makes every failed shot more
expensive.
The Swiss company RUAG, for instance, is currently developing modular
explosive penetrator (MEP) warheads that are adaptable to most RPG rockets
and are used to defeat defensive features such as walls or piled sandbags. Their
kinetic energy allows them to penetrate defences and explode in the space behind
them, ensuring both ‘wall-breaking’ and limiting collateral damage (Jane’s
Information Group, 2005; Richardson, Richardson, and Biass, 2005, p. 18). Gre-
nades are equipped with precision time-fuses and programming that allow them
to explode exactly when needed (Cutshaw and Ness, 2004, p. 15).

Future developments in small arms and

light weapons ammunition
A number of recent developments in small arms and light weapons ammunition
suggest that its use and effects will change quite markedly in the coming decades.
These new developments will also affect the way ammunition is categorized
and studied.
Three new developments are of particular note. The first development is the
introduction of airburst munitions that, as noted above, differ considerably
from standard cartridge-based ammunition because they are fused to explode
over targets. The most recent application of the technology is the OICW, which
is still being tested in the United States (Small Arms Survey, 2006, p. 24). This
weapon is small and light enough to fit into the small arms category, but has
the explosive potential of some current light weapons. If it becomes widely
available as a personal infantry weapon, it would blur the distinction between
the existing categories.
A second development is the rapidly decreasing size of guided mortar bombs.
At present, most guided mortar ammunition is larger in calibre than 120 mm.

Chapter 1 Bevan and Pézard 41

For this reason it falls outside the United Nations definition of small arms
and light weapons. Nonetheless, the fact that guided munitions have decreased
in calibre over the past two decades—in some cases, such as the British Royal
Ordnance Merlin, to 82 mm—suggests that this trend may well continue. If this
occurs, another type of ‘smart’ (i.e. guided) munition will become common-
place in the small arms and light weapons category alongside such weapons
as ATGWs and MANPADS.
The third development departs entirely from conventional principles of small
arms and light weapons operation. Metal Storm is an Australian- and US-based
initiative to replace the usual mechanical firing mechanism of small arms and
light weapons with electronic impulses in order to achieve unprecedented rates
of fire (Hiscock, 2003; Jane’s Information Group, 2004). Inside the barrel, the
conventional cartridge case is replaced by a series of bullets separated by a
propellant load. While the technology is still at the developmental stage, its
envisaged applications include a range of small arms and light weapons from
handguns to grenade launchers. A 36-barrel gun of this type would be able to
fire one million rounds per minute (Hiscock, 2003; BBC, 2004). The implications
of this new technology are an increased lethality and, once again, a blurring
of the division between small arms and light weapons.

Conclusions: the research and policy implications of

ammunition characteristics
The physical attributes of ammunition have fundamental research and policy
relevance. The United Nations definition of small arms and light weapons
covers a range of weapons and ammunition that differs markedly in technol-
ogy and in the effects they are capable of producing. These differences affect
both the global distribution of weapons and the measures that can be taken to
alleviate their unchecked proliferation.
While the technology involved in producing some small arms and light
weapons ammunition is closely guarded, other types of ammunition have pro-
liferated so widely and for so long that there are few technical barriers to their
production and trade (see Chapter 2). This is the case, for instance, for cartridge-
based ammunition and unguided missiles for light weapons. Countries that host

42 Targeting Ammunition
production of guided systems, however, usually control the proliferation of
knowledge as well as the proliferation of the weapons themselves. The small
Stinger Missile Project Group (SPG), which attempted to limit the export of
MANPADS to selected NATO countries, is a good example of this behaviour
(Small Arms Survey, 2004, p. 92).
Some forms of ammunition for small arms and light weapons, including
MANPADS and mortars over 75 mm, feature in international reporting mech-
anisms such as the United Nations Register of Conventional Arms. Others
are not deemed a sufficient threat to international stability to warrant such
scrutiny.
The revolution in military affairs has not significantly altered small arms
and light weapons ammunition to date. The vast majority of ammunition cur-
rently used in conflicts around the world has changed little in several decades.
Recent developments, particularly of light weapons, suggest, however, that
the issues surrounding ammunition should not be expected to remain static
in the future.

List of abbreviations
ACP Auto Colt pistol
ATGW Anti-tank guided weapon
BMG Browning machine gun
GPMG General purpose machine gun
ERA Explosive reactive armour
HEAT High explosive anti-tank
KE Kinetic energy
LAW Light anti-armour weapon
MANPADS Man-portable air defence system
MEP Modular explosive penetrator
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
OCSW Objective crew-served weapon
OICW Objective individual combat weapon
RPG Shoulder-fired anti-tank rocket launcher
SPG Stinger Project Group

Chapter 1 Bevan and Pézard 43

Endnotes
1 The shift from muzzle-loaded to breech-loaded weapons did not occur until the 1860s
(Headrick, p. 85).
2 Another international definition of ‘small arms and light weapons’ can be found in UNGA,
2005, Section II, para. 4.
3 It should be noted, however, that there is disagreement about the definition of small-calibre
ammunition; Ness and Williams define it as ‘up to 14.5 mm calibre’ (Ness and Williams, 2005,
p. 3), and Courtney-Green as ‘ammunition for weapons such as pistols, rifles and machine
guns below 20 mm in calibre’ (Courtney-Green, 1991, p. 24).
4 Research conducted at the 2004 Eurosatory Arms Exhibition, Villepinte, France, 14 June.
5 This section relies on Sellier and Kneubuehl (1994) for most of its information.
6 Semi-jacketed bullets may also not expand; it depends on their construction (the type of
metal they are made of) and their velocity at the time of impact.

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Chapter 1 Bevan and Pézard 45