13

Fabric Structure, Properties and Testing

After covering the design and manufacturing of woven Weave design also affects fabric strength, especially
fabrics in the previous chapters, it would be proper fabric modulus.
to analyze the fundamentals of woven structure in
this chapter. The most important fabric properties are
13.1 WOVEN FABRIC STRUCTURE
explained. Testing principles, methods and equipment
for fabric testing are summarized. The purpose of this Woven fabric technology is deeply rooted in
chapter is to relate the fabric properties to the geometry. A fabric consists of millions of fibers
manufacturing process and end use performance. assembled together in a particular geometry. The
Fabrics are flexible yet strong. Flexibility is one of properties of a fabric depend on material properties,
the most important characteristics of woven fabrics. fiber and yarn structure and properties and fabric
The fabric flexibility is mostly due to flexible fibers structure and geometry as shown in Table 12.1.
and yarns in the fabric. Due to their polymeric nature Peirce [1] specified eleven structural parameters
and fine diameters, fibers are quite flexible. A staple that represent fabric construction as shown in
yarn is a lot more flexible than a monofilament yarn Figure 13.1:
of the same count. A multifilament or staple yarn may
L : length of yarn between yarn intersections
consist of several hundred or thousand fibers in its
P : projected length of yarn between the
cross section. Although the fibers are twisted together
intersections
in a staple yarn, there is still room for the fibers to
C : yarn crimp
move relative to each other (called fiber migration)
H : distance between the center of yarn and fabric
under different types of loading, including bending,
plane
which results in a flexible structure of yarn. Increasing
α : angle between horizontal direction and the yarn
twist increases the stiffness of the yarn and therefore
axis
of fabric. Restricting fiber movement or slippage in
D : sum of the warp and filling yarn diameters
the yarn, which is the case in sizing of warp yarns,
increases the stiffness of the yarn. Fabric weave The first five parameters are for both warp and
structure also affects flexibility to a certain extent. filling. These eleven interdependent parameters can
The major factors that contribute to fabric be used to impart the major properties to the fabric.
strength are fiber inherent strength and yarn strength. Although fabrics are considered to be two-

361
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362 FABRIC STRUCTURE, PROPERTIES AND TESTING

Fabric Cover Factor and Density

One of the most important functions of fabrics is the
covering function. There are two types of cover
functions of fabrics: optical cover and geometrical
cover.
The reflection and scattering of the incident light
by the fabric surface is called optical cover function.
FIGURE 13.1 Geometry of the unit cell for a plain Optical cover characteristics of fabric depend on the
weave.
fiber material and fabric surface. Dyeing and
finishing can change the optical cover properties.
Geometrical cover is the area of fabric covered by
dimensional for practical purposes, they are indeed fibers and yarns and is characterized by fabric cover
three-dimensional. factor.
Warp count is the number of warp yarns per unit Fabric cover factor (CF) is defined as the ratio of
width of fabric and filling count is the number of projected fabric surface area covered by yarns to the
filling yarns per unit length of the fabric. Today, using total fabric surface area and given by the following
optical/electronic technology, fabric yarns per unit equation (Figure 13.2):
length can be measured rapidly with extreme
accuracy and repeatability. (13.1)

13.2 WOVEN FABRIC PROPERTIES where Cw is the warp cover factor and Cf is the filling
cover factor.
Fabric Weight and Thickness
Fabric weight can be expressed in two ways: direct
and indirect system. In the direct system, the fabric
weight per area is given, e.g., g/m2 or oz/yd2. In the
indirect system, which is used less in practice, usually
the running length per weight is given. However, in where nw : warp count
this case the fabric width should also be specified. nf : filling count
Fabric weight is affected by the following: dw : diameter of warp yarn
df : diameter of filling yarn
• fiber density
• yarn size
• contractions
• fabric construction
• weave pattern
• tensions during weaving
• finishing
Fabric thickness is important since it affects
permeability and insulation characteristics of fabric.
The standard test method for measuring thickness
of textile materials is given in ASTM D1777 [2].
The thickness measurement is done at a specified
pressure of the thickness gauge. The gauge pressure
and area are usually reported along with the
measured thickness. FIGURE 13.2 Cover factor diagram of a plain weave.

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 13.2 Woven Fabric Properties 363

The maximum cover factor is 1 in which the yarns

touch each other. This situation is called the jamming
state. Theoretically, the cover factor can be larger
than 1 in which the yarns pile up on each other giving
multilayers of yarns. The property of a fabric that is
affected most by the cover factor is the permeability. FIGURE 13.4 Crimped structure of a plain fabric.
Liquid and gas (air) permeability depend on the cover
factor to a great extent. the fabric with water or heat. Changing the ratio of
The density of a fabric is the weight per unit crimp between the warp and filling yarn is called
volume of the fabric. The unit volume is calculated crimp transfer or crimp interchange.
by multiplying the unit area with fabric thickness. Yarn crimp is also affected by the pattern of yarn
Theoretically, the fabric density can be very close to interlacing in a fabric; high frequency of interlacing
fiber density. increases yarn crimp. For example, the plain weave
has the highest frequency of interlacing and
therefore the highest yarn crimp level in both warp
Crimp
and filling yarn. Satin (or sateen) weaves have the
Due to the necessity of interlacing in a woven fabric lowest frequency of interlacing and hence lowest
structure, at least one of the two yarn sets must have degree of yarn crimp. Increasing yarn crimp in a
crimp. In most of the cases, both warp and filling particular direction decreases the fabric modulus
have crimp. However, theoretically it is possible to and increases the elongation in that direction. This
have straight filling and crimped warp and vice versa is because the tensile load is initially used to decrimp
as shown in Figure 13.3. The amount of crimp in the yarn which is relatively easier than extending
each yarn can be largely controlled by controlling the yarn.
the yarn tensions during weaving. Crimp ratio It should be noted that the fibers in a staple yarn
between warp and filling can also be changed to a also have some crimp. Moreover, in addition to the
certain extent for some yarns such as monofilaments crimp due to interlacing, the yarn itself can also be
with heatsetting or finishing processes. Tensioning a wavy which could be considered another type of
yarn causes its crimp to be reduced. This will result crimp. Crimp affects the weight, thickness, cover,
in tension increase in the other yarn set. Another flexibility and hand of fabric.
method to change crimp ratio is to relax and shrink The American Society for Testing Materials
(ASTM) makes two types of definitions related to
crimp: percent crimp and percent take-up as shown
in Figure 13.4 [2].

(13.2)

(13.3)

In practice, another related term, yield, is used quite

often during manufacturing. Yield is defined as the
ratio of woven fabric length to the warp length. Yield
affects the fabric modulus. The yield, along with
fabric design, material type, weave, thickness, warp
diameter and tension, determines how much a fabric
will stretch in a heatsetting operation. This will affect
FIGURE 13.3 Possible yarn crimp variations in fabrics. the fabric modulus and the fabric final sizing to

© 2001 By Sulzer Textil Limited Switzerland

364 FABRIC STRUCTURE, PROPERTIES AND TESTING

achieve the proper length. This, in turn, determines • ASTM D 1775 Standard Test Method for
fabric stability. Tension and Elongation of Wide Elastic
The uniformity of the yield is important because Fabrics (Constant Rate-of-Load Type
of the interaction among fabric properties. Tensile Testing Machine)
Changes in yield can cause differences in fabric • ASTM D 4964 Tension/Elongation of
thickness, air permeability, filling count, fabric Wide/Narrow Elastic Fabrics by Constant
width and appearance, as well as in fabric Rate of Elongation Type Tensile Testing
modulus. Machine
Yield can be measured with a simple method:
make a mark on the warp yarns and on the fabric at When fabric is extended in one direction (uniaxial
the same time; after, say, 10 cm of warp has come load), first, crimp in that direction decreases. Fabric
off the warp beam then make a mark again on the is relatively easy to extend during crimp decrease.
fabric. Measure the amount of fabric which was After that, the yarn material starts bearing the load
made in 10 cm of warp and divide this by 10 which which would reduce the extension rate of the fabric.
gives the yield in the fabric. While crimp is decreasing in one direction (load
direction), it increases in the opposite direction.
Crimp interchange continues until a force
Tensile Strength
equilibrium is attained. In biaxial loading, force is
Tensile strength is the most important property of a applied in two directions. In this case, the crimp
fabric. In almost every fabric development and interchange depends on the magnitude of the forces.
manufacturing, tensile properties are reported. Warp and filling yarns exert forces onto each other
Modulus, breaking strength and elongation at break at the crossover points. Since yarns are compressible,
are widely used for quality control. these forces cause the yarns to deform and take an
There are different types of fabric tensile tests elliptic shape in the fabric structure rather than a
that are used depending on the fabric and purpose: near round shape. The height and width of the yarn’s
strip tensile test, grab tensile test and wide width elliptic shape depend on the twist level. The ratio of
tensile test. In the strip tensile test, a narrow strip height/ width is called the aspect ratio. Fabric cover
of fabric sample is used (ASTM D5035 Breaking factor is affected by the width and the crimp is
Force and Elongation of Textile Fabrics). The jaws affected by the height.
of the tensile testing machine, which are wider than
the fabric sample, clamp the sample on both ends
Tear Resistance
and a tensile load is applied until fabric breaks. In
the grab tensile test, the jaws are narrower than In a relatively dense fabric, individual yarns oppose
the fabric width to reduce the effect of Poisson’s to the tearing load one by one, that is why
ratio (ASTM D5034 Breaking Force and Elongation propagation of tear is relatively easy. If the number
of Textile Fabrics). Grab tensile test is more widely of yarns per unit length is low, then the yarns are
used for heavy industrial fabrics such as geotextiles. allowed to displace themselves and form groups to
Wide width tensile tests are also used mostly for resist the tear in groups rather than individually. This
industrial textiles (e.g. ASTM D4595 for increases tear resistance of the fabric, that is why
geotextiles). Narrow fabrics such as webbings, loosely woven fabrics have better tear resistance than
ribbons, etc., are usually tested at full width. Fabric dense or coated fabrics. For example, a gauze fabric
modulus is measured using ASTM Test Method D is difficult to tear because of low number of yarns.
885 [2]. Specifications of textile machines for tensile Fabric weave also has an effect on tear resistance. A
testing are described in ASTM D 76. The 2×2 basket weave has higher tear resistance than a
terminology of tensile properties of textiles is given plain weave since two yarns act together against tear.
in ASTM D4848. Other ASTM test methods related The tests that are used to measure tear resistance
to tensile testing include: of fabrics are tongue (ASTM D 2261), and

© 2001 By Sulzer Textil Limited Switzerland

 13.2 Woven Fabric Properties 365

Elmendorf test (ASTM D 1424). The first method

uses a tensile testing machine to measure the tearing
force. Elmendorf uses a pendulum and measures the
tear energy. The trapezoid tear test, which uses
another method, is not used anymore.

Fabric Bow and Skew (Figure 13.5)

The condition in which the filling yarns lie in the
fabric in the shape of an arc is called fabric bow.
Bow is expressed as:

(13.4)

Fabric bow can be symmetrical or non-symmetrical.

The condition in which the filling yarns in a fabric
FIGURE 13.6 Terry cloth bow and skew control machine
do not lie perpendicular to the warp yarns is called
(courtesy of Mount Hope).
skew. Skew is expressed as:

(13.5) where straightening of bow and skew distortions

occurs automatically [3].
A bow and skew optical sensing system consists
Fabrics with bow or skew are not acceptable in today’s
of a sensing unit through which the fabric is threaded.
quality conscious business environment. If not
The sensing unit consists of light sources that project
corrected, bowed or skewed materials become seconds
light beams through the fabric and optical receivers
or reruns. Bow and skew detection and correction
that read the filling angle at each sensing point. The
machines are used for this purpose. Figure 13.6 shows
light sources and receivers are mounted at a fixed
a single width terry towel bow and skew control
angle to the fabric to optimize the signals through
machine. This particular machine detects and corrects
dense plain and twill fabrics such as denims. Light
bow and skew error by monitoring the cut bands
intensity can be automatically adjusted based on the
oriented in the filling direction of the single width
density of the fabric for proper signal generation.
web. Using an optical detection system, the exposed
The receiver heads on the opposite side of the fabric
portion of the cut band’s filling yarn is electronically
have lenses to focus the image of the fabric on a
monitored. Correction signals are sent to the machine
semiconductor silicon chip. The chip has an array
of radially oriented photosensitive lines that generate
electrical signals proportional to the light received
through the fabric. These signals are amplified and
sent to the angle computer card for calculation of
the filling angle. Figure 13.7 shows a high intensity
optical sensing system for denim and other dense
fabrics.

Air Permeability
Air flow through a fabric is very complex due to the
complicated structure of the fabric. The air flow
FIGURE 13.5 Fabric bow and skew. through a fabric at a pressure difference between

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366 FABRIC STRUCTURE, PROPERTIES AND TESTING

FIGURE 13.7 High intensity optical bow and skew sensing system for denims and other dense fabrics (courtesy of
Mount Hope).

the two surfaces is directly proportional to the open Void Volume

area of the fabric and square root of the differential
Void volume is the amount of space in a volume of
pressure. High differential pressure further
fabric that is not occupied by solid material (Figure
complicates the air flow since the viscoelastic fibers
13.8). Both fabric thickness and internal structure
may deform under pressure.
affect absolute void volume.
Fabric air permeability is a measure of air flow
Void volume can be calculated as follows:
through the fabric at the standard pressure drop. The
air permeability is measured as the air flow in cubic
feet of air per square foot of fabric per minute in the
standard system and in cubic meter of air per square
meter of fabric per minute in the metric system.
Air permeability is of considerable value in
predicting insulation characteristics of a fabric.
Increasing twist in the yarn increases the air
permeability of the fabric. Air permeability test of
textile fabrics is described in ASTM D737. (13.5)

FIGURE 13.8 Void volume.

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 13.2 Woven Fabric Properties 367

Abrasion Resistance test (ASTM D3786 Mullen burst test) and the ball
burst test (ASTM D3787).
Both the fiber material and fabric geometry affect
Some fabrics are designed to withstand impact
the abrasion resistance of a fabric. Some polymers
loading. Ballistic protective fabrics, airbags and seat
are intrinsically better abrasion resistant than others.
belts are examples of these types of fabrics. The key
The twist level, yarn crimp and weave design affect
to high impact resistance of a fabric is good energy
the abrasion resistance of the fabric. The amount of
absorption in a short time. The energy absorbing
fiber and yarn surface that is in contact with the
capability of a fabric is indicated by the area under
abradant is important. Increasing surface contact
the load-elongation curve. There are different test
increases the abrasion resistance of the fabric. Low
methods to measure impact resistance of fabrics
twist yarns may present greater surface to the
including free falling weights, dropping pendulums
abradant; however, too little twist may leave loose
and shooting devices [4].
fibers protruding from the yarn body which may be
snagged or broken during abrasion. High twist
reduces the abrasion resistance of the yarn. With Flexibility and Stiffness
today’s technology, it is possible to arrange abrasion
Strength and flexibility are the two properties that
resistant fibers on the sheath while having fibers with
make textiles unique. Fabric flexibility is affected
high tensile strength in the core.
by the flexibility properties of the constituent fibers
Abrasion resistance of fabrics is measured in terms
and by the yarn and fabric structure.
of visual appearance, number of cycles to open a
To measure the stiffness of fabrics, two methods
hole in the fabric and residual strength of the fabric.
are used: either the fabric is bent under its own weight
There are several tests for abrasion resistance:
or an external load is applied to the fabric. In the
• Inflated Diaphragm Test (ASTM D3886) cantilever test (ASTM D1388), a strip of fabric is
• Flexing and Abrasion Method (ASTM bent under its own weight. Bending length is one-
D3885) half of the resulting overhanging length. The stiffness
• Oscillatory Cylinder Method (ASTM (flexural rigidity) is obtained by multiplying the cube
D4157) of the bending length by the fabric weight per unit
• Rotary Platform Double Head Method area. The Heart Loop Test method is described in
(ASTM D3884) ASTM D1388 which requires no commercial tester.
• Uniform Abrasion Method (ASTM D4158) Another fabric stiffness test, the Circular Bend test,
• The Accelerotor (AATCC 93) is done according to ASTM D 4032.
• Martindale Abrasion Tester (ASTM D4966)
• Special Webbing Abrader
Drape and Hand
Drape and hand are extremely important for apparel
Burst and Impact Resistance
fabrics. Drape can be defined as the ability of a fabric
Some applications require resistance of fabrics to bend under its own weight to form folds. Hand
against pressure forces which are perpendicular to or handle is a subjective property that can be related
the fabric plane. Filter fabrics, geotextiles, to the comfort perception of the fabric.
parachutes, transportation bags, air and tension An analysis of fabric hand has been described by
structure fabrics must often withstand considerable the ASTM as being composed of eight components:
bursting pressure. Bursting loading is similar to compressibility, flexibility, extensibility, density,
biaxial tensile loading in which fiber and yarn moduli resilience, surface contour, surface friction and
play an important role. For better burst resistance, thermal properties. The measurement of these
fabrics are designed to have equal properties in warp properties does not give one an evaluation of hand.
and filling directions. There are two types of tests to Sueo Kawabata of Japan approached the task of
measure burst resistance of fabrics: the diaphragm providing a single value for hand by starting with

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368 FABRIC STRUCTURE, PROPERTIES AND TESTING

the development of instruments that would be expensive than using inherently flame resistant
capable of evaluating the desired fabric properties fibers.
under low load conditions. He believed that this There are numerous standard test methods that
would more closely relate to the human concept of deal with fire and flammability. A compilation of
hand. His instruments were designed to measure the over 100 ASTM standards is given in the book Fire
hand related properties: tensile and shear behavior, Test Standards published by the ASTM.
bending behavior, compressive behavior, and surface One of the beauties of textile technology is that it
roughness and friction. These properties are similar allows mixing of materials in almost every stage of
to those listed by the ASTM with the exception of fabric production. In staple yarn manufacturing,
thermal characteristics. Kawabata developed an different fibers can be intimately blended together to
equation that gives a weighing to each of the improve certain properties of yarns. For example a
measured properties and called the resultant cotton, nylon and carbon fiber blend yarn can have
summation Total Hand Value. The weighing factors comfort properties due to cotton, good abrasion
were developed through extensive human subjective resistance due to nylon and flame resistance due to
evaluations of a range of fabric types and the ranking carbon fiber. Another example is Nomex® III by
of characteristics. The weighing factors are believed DuPont, which is made of 95% Nomex® aramid for
to be appropriate for the population within which flame resistance and 5% Kevlar® aramid for strength.
the data were taken but there is some question as to Morever, during yarn manufacturing, different single
the application of the same weighing factors in a yarns can be plied together to alter properties. In fabric
different culture. The instruments of the Kawabata manufacturing, different warp and filling yarns can
Evaluation System (KES) can be used for determining be chosen. Moreover, filling mixing of several filling
the listed fabric properties and are useful in providing yarns is possible with today’s technology.
relative data for fabric comparisons.
Compared to other types of fabrics such as knit,
13.3 WOVEN FABRIC IDENTIFICATION
braided and nonwoven, woven fabrics wrinkle and
retain crease more. This is a good property when Table 13.1 lists the more commonly produced fabric
crease is wanted, e.g., ironing. However, for the most types by name. Woven fabric structures can be
of the time besides ironing, wrinkle resistant fabrics identified with the naked eye or with microscope.
are desired. Fabrics with high extensible fibers that The following guidelines are generally applicable in
have good elastic recovery usually have good wrinkle identification of various characteristics of woven
resistance. Fibers with high secondary creep have fabrics.
low wrinkle resistance. Fabric wrinkle resistance is
also affected by temperature and relative humidity.
Determination of Warp Direction
Densely woven fabrics have less wrinkle resistance
due to low freedom for fiber movement. If one set of yarns have ply in the fabric, it is usually
the warp yarns. Warp yarn needs to be stronger than
the filling yarn due to heavy forces acting upon them.
Flame Resistance
In general, the warp density (ends/unit length) is more
Flame resistance can be obtained in two ways: than the filling density (fillings/unit length). In the
fabric, warp yarns are usually straighter than filling
a) by using inherently flame resistant fibers such
yarns since filling yarns may have more tendency for
as Nomex® aramid
bow and skewness. The selvage of the fabric runs
b) by treating (coating) the fiber or fabric with
parallel to the warp direction. In greige fabrics, the
flame resistant chemicals
warps may still have the size material on them which
The disadvantage of using fiber/fabric coating is makes the yarns stiffer. Prominent stripes or marks
the decrease in flame resistance with repeated are usually in the warp direction. Reed marks also
washings. However, this method may be less run in the warp direction. If the crimp levels are

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 13.3 Woven Fabric Identification 369

TABLE 13.1 Common fabric type names.

different, it is a high probability that there is more main body of the fabric for this purpose. Starting at
crimp in warp yarns. a randomly selected point on the lower left side of
the fabric, the interlacing pattern of the warp and
filling yarns is determined until a repeat is found in
Determination of Face and Back of
both directions. Warp yarns are numbered from left
Woven Fabrics
to right and filling yarns are counted from bottom
In general, the fabric design is more visible on the to top. The selvage design is determined in a similar
face. For example, in a twill fabric, twill lines are way. However, it is usually drastically different than
more prominent on the face. Ribs are more visible the rest of the fabric.
on the face in a ribbed fabric. Satins are smoother
on the face than the back. Slub yarn fabrics are more
distinct on the face. The face of the napped fabrics Determination of the Presence of Size
is fuzzier and softer. The face is usually finer and and Finish
more lustrous on double fabrics. The face would have Sometimes observation by the naked eye is enough
less reed marks than the back. In finished fabrics, to detect the size or finish on the fabric. The next
the face has better finish quality. In printed fabrics, step would be to determine the hand properties of
the prints on the face are more clear and the colors fabrics such as stiffness, smoothness, etc. If
predominate. necessary, the sample can be observed under a
microscope.
Determination of the Order of Interlacing
(Weave) Standard Test Methods
Order of interlacing can be determined with the
naked eye for coarse fabrics or using a magnifying Tables 13.2 and 13.3 list the ASTM and AATCC
glass or a microscope for fine fabrics. It is important (American Association for Textile Chemists and
that an undistorted sample that is larger than the Colorists) standard fabric test methods. Company
repeat unit (by estimation) is examined from the test methods are not included in these tables.

© 2001 By Sulzer Textil Limited Switzerland

 TABLE 13.2 Standard test methods used for fabric testing (copyright ASTM).

370
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 TABLE 13.3 Standard AATCC test methods used for fabric testing [5] (copyright AATCC).

371
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 TABLE 13.3 (continued).

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 Review Questions 373

TABLE 13.3 (continued).

REFERENCES REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Peirce, F.T., “The Geometry of Cloth Structure”, JTI, 1. Derive Equation (13.1).
Vol. 28, T45, 1937. 2. What fabric properties are affected by the crimp?
2. American Society for Testing Materials, Annual Book Explain.
of ASTM Standards (Volumes 7.01 and 7.02), 3. Which fabric design would have the highest modulus?
published yearly by the ASTM, Philadelphia, PA. Why? Assume that all the other fabric properties are
3. “Application of Weftrol™ for Single Width Terry the same.
Towel Bow and Skew Control”, Mount Hope, 4. How can you increase the tensile strength of a fabric?
1996. 5. What is rip stop fabric? Explain.
4. Adanur, S., Wellington Sears Handbook of 6. What equipment is used to correct fabric bow and
Industrial Textiles, Technomic Publishing Co., Inc., skew?
1995. 7. How is air permeability of fabrics measured? What
5. American Association of Textile Chemists and is the significance of air permeability?
Colorists, Technical Manual of the American 8. What are the factors affecting abrasion resistance?
Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists, 9. For what kind of application of fabrics are burst and
published yearly by the AATCC, Research Triangle impact resistance important? Why?
Park, NC. 10. How can you measure the hand of a fabric?

SUGGESTED READING
• Ganssauge, D. et al, “How Do Fabric Attributes
Influence the Handle Characteristics of a Fabric?”,
Melliand International (2), 1998.

© 2001 By Sulzer Textil Limited Switzerland