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Periodic Table

The periodic table organizes the chemical elements by atomic number in a tabular format. Elements with similar properties are arranged into columns called groups. Each row or period corresponds to the filling of an electron shell. As of 2010, the periodic table contains 118 known elements, with 94 naturally occurring on Earth and the rest being synthetic. Elements are categorized as metals, metalloids, nonmetals, and unknown based on their properties.

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Periodic Table

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Periodic table

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PDF generated at: Thu, 02 Sep 2010 03:57:55 UTC
Contents
Articles
Overview 1
Periodic table 1
History 9
Alternative periodic tables 16
Element 19
Isotope 27
Orbital 36

Groups 45
Group 45
Group I 46
Group II 49
Group III 52
Group IV 55
Group V 60
Group VI 61
Group VII 63
Group VIII 64
Group IX 65
Group X 66
Group XI 67
Group XII 69
Group XIII 71
Group XIV 72
Group XV 74
Group XVI 76
Group XVII 78
Group XVIII 83

Periods 85
Period 85
Pediod 1 90
Extensions 92
Blocks 95
Block 95
s-block 95
p-block 96
d-block 97
f-block 99

Other divisions 100

Actinide 100
Lanthanide 104
Metal 109
Metalloid 116
Noble gas 117
Noble metal 128
Nonmetal 131
Platinum group 132
Post-transition metal 135
Transactinide element 137
Transuranium element 138
Transition metal 142

** Actinoids 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

This common arrangement of the periodic table separates the lanthanoids and actinoids (the f-block) from other
elements. The wide periodic table incorporates the f-block. The extended periodic table adds the 8th and 9th periods,
incorporating the f-block and adding the theoretical g-block.
Periodic table 2

Element categories in the periodic table

Metals Metalloids Nonmetals Unknown

chemical
Alkali Alkaline Inner transition Transition Other Other Halogens Noble
properties
metals earth elements elements metals nonmetals gases
metals
Lanthanides Actinides

Primordial From Synthetic (Undiscovered)

Solids Liquids Gases Unknown decay

Other alternative periodic tables exist.

Some versions of the table show a dark stair-step line along the metalloids. Metals are to the left of the line and
non-metals to the right.[2]
The layout of the periodic table demonstrates recurring ("periodic") chemical properties. Elements are listed in order
of increasing atomic number (i.e., the number of protons in the atomic nucleus). Rows are arranged so that elements
with similar properties fall into the same columns (groups or families). According to quantum mechanical theories of
electron configuration within atoms, each row (period) in the table corresponded to the filling of a quantum shell of
electrons. There are progressively longer periods further down the table, grouping the elements into s-, p-, d- and
f-blocks to reflect their electron configuration.
In printed tables, each element is usually listed with its element symbol and atomic number; many versions of the
table also list the element's atomic mass and other information, such as its abbreviated electron configuration,
electronegativity and most common valence numbers.
As of 2010, the table contains 118 chemical elements whose discoveries have been confirmed. Ninety-four are found
naturally on Earth, and the rest are synthetic elements that have been produced artificially in particle accelerators.
Elements 43 (technetium), 61 (promethium) and all elements greater than 83 (bismuth), beginning with 84
(polonium) have no stable isotopes. The atomic mass of each of these element's isotope having the longest half-life is
typically reported on periodic tables with parentheses.[3] Isotopes of elements 43, 61, 93 (neptunium) and 94
(plutonium), first discovered synthetically, have since been discovered in trace amounts on Earth as products of
natural radioactive decay processes.
The primary determinant of an element's chemical properties is its electron configuration, particularly the valence
shell electrons. For instance, any atoms with four valence electrons occupying p orbitals will exhibit some similarity.
The type of orbital in which the atom's outermost electrons reside determines the "block" to which it belongs. The
number of valence shell electrons determines the family, or group, to which the element belongs.

Subshell S G F D P

Period

1 1s

2 2s 2p

3 3s 3p

4 4s 3d 4p

5 5s 4d 5p

6 6s 4f 5d 6p

7 7s 5f 6d 7p
Periodic table 3

8 8s 5g 6f 7d 8p

The total number of electron shells an atom has determines the period to which it belongs. Each shell is divided into
different subshells, which as atomic number increases are filled in roughly this order (the Aufbau principle) (see
table). Hence the structure of the table. Since the outermost electrons determine chemical properties, those with the
same number of valence electrons are grouped together.
Progressing through a group from lightest element to heaviest element, the outer-shell electrons (those most readily
accessible for participation in chemical reactions) are all in the same type of orbital, with a similar shape, but with
increasingly higher energy and average distance from the nucleus. For instance, the outer-shell (or "valence")
electrons of the first group, headed by hydrogen, all have one electron in an s orbital. In hydrogen, that s orbital is in
the lowest possible energy state of any atom, the first-shell orbital (and represented by hydrogen's position in the first
period of the table). In francium, the heaviest element of the group, the outer-shell electron is in the seventh-shell
orbital, significantly further out on average from the nucleus than those electrons filling all the shells below it in
energy. As another example, both carbon and lead have four electrons in their outer shell orbitals.
Note that as atomic number (i.e., charge on the atomic nucleus) increases, this leads to greater spin-orbit coupling
between the nucleus and the electrons, reducing the validity of the quantum mechanical orbital approximation model,
which considers each atomic orbital as a separate entity.
The elements ununtrium, ununquadium, ununpentium, etc. are elements that have been discovered, but so far have
not received a trivial name yet. There is a system for naming them temporarily.

Classification

Groups
A group or family is a vertical column in the periodic table. Groups are considered the most important method of
classifying the elements. In some groups, the elements have very similar properties and exhibit a clear trend in
properties down the group. These groups tend to be given trivial (unsystematic) names, e.g., the alkali metals,
alkaline earth metals, halogens, pnictogens, chalcogens, and noble gases. Some other groups in the periodic table
display fewer similarities and/or vertical trends (for example Group 14), and these have no trivial names and are
referred to simply by their group numbers.
Periodic table 4

Periods
A period is a horizontal row in the periodic table. Although groups are the most common way of classifying
elements, there are some regions of the periodic table where the horizontal trends and similarities in properties are
more significant than vertical group trends. This can be true in the d-block (or "transition metals"), and especially for
the f-block, where the lanthanides and actinides form two substantial horizontal series of elements.

Blocks
Because of the importance of the
outermost shell, the different regions
of the periodic table are sometimes
referred to as periodic table blocks,
named according to the subshell in
which the "last" electron resides. The
s-block comprises the first two groups
(alkali metals and alkaline earth
metals) as well as hydrogen and
helium. The p-block comprises the last
six groups (groups 13 through 18) and
contains, among others, all of the
semimetals. The d-block comprises
This diagram shows the periodic table blocks.
groups 3 through 12 and contains all of
the transition metals. The f-block,
usually offset below the rest of the periodic table, comprises the rare earth metals.

Other
The chemical elements are also grouped together in other ways. Some of these groupings are often illustrated on the
periodic table, such as transition metals, poor metals, and metalloids. Other informal groupings exist, such as the
platinum group and the noble metals.

Periodicity of chemical properties

The main value of the periodic table is the ability to predict the chemical properties of an element based on its
location on the table. It should be noted that the properties vary differently when moving vertically along the
columns of the table than when moving horizontally along the rows.

Trends of groups
Modern quantum mechanical theories of atomic structure explain group trends by proposing that elements within the
same group have the same electron configurations in their valence shell, which is the most important factor in
accounting for their similar properties. Elements in the same group also show patterns in their atomic radius,
ionization energy, and electronegativity. From top to bottom in a group, the atomic radii of the elements increase.
Since there are more filled energy levels, valence electrons are found farther from the nucleus. From the top, each
successive element has a lower ionization energy because it is easier to remove an electron since the atoms are less
tightly bound. Similarly, a group will also see a top to bottom decrease in electronegativity due to an increasing
distance between valence electrons and the nucleus.
Periodic table 5

Trends of periods
Elements in the same period show
trends in atomic radius, ionization
energy, electron affinity, and
electronegativity. Moving left to right
across a period, atomic radius usually
decreases. This occurs because each
successive element has an added
proton and electron which causes the
electron to be drawn closer to the
nucleus. This decrease in atomic radius
also causes the ionization energy to Periodic trend for ionization energy. Each period begins at a minimum for the alkali
increase when moving from left to metals, and ends at a maximum for the noble gases.
right across a period. The more tightly
bound an element is, the more energy is required to remove an electron. Similarly, electronegativity will increase in
the same manner as ionization energy because of the amount of pull that is exerted on the electrons by the nucleus.
Electron affinity also shows a slight trend across a period. Metals (left side of a period) generally have a lower
electron affinity than nonmetals (right side of a period) with the exception of the noble gases.

History
In 1789, Antoine Lavoisier published a list of 33 chemical elements. Although Lavoisier grouped the elements into
gases, metals, non-metals, and earths, chemists spent the following century searching for a more precise
classification scheme. In 1829, Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner observed that many of the elements could be grouped
into triads (groups of three) based on their chemical properties. Lithium, sodium, and potassium, for example, were
grouped together as being soft, reactive metals. Döbereiner also observed that, when arranged by atomic weight, the
second member of each triad was roughly the average of the first and the third.[4] This became known as the Law of
triads. German chemist Leopold Gmelin worked with this system, and by 1843 he had identified ten triads, three
groups of four, and one group of five. Jean Baptiste Dumas published work in 1857 describing relationships between
various groups of metals. Although various chemists were able to identify relationships between small groups of
elements, they had yet to build one scheme that encompassed them all.[4]
German chemist August Kekulé had observed in 1858 that carbon has a tendency to bond with other elements in a
ratio of one to four. Methane, for example, has one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms. This concept eventually
became known as valency. In 1864, fellow German chemist Julius Lothar Meyer published a table of the 49 known
elements arranged by valency. The table revealed that elements with similar properties often shared the same
valency.[5]
English chemist John Newlands published a series of papers in 1864 and 1865 that described his attempt at
classifying the elements: When listed in order of increasing atomic weight, similar physical and chemical properties
recurred at intervals of eight, which he likened to the octaves of music.[6] [7] This law of octaves, however, was
ridiculed by his contemporaries.[8]
Periodic table 6

Russian chemistry professor Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev and

Julius Lothar Meyer independently published their periodic tables
in 1869 and 1870, respectively. They both constructed their tables
in a similar manner: by listing the elements in a row or column in
order of atomic weight and starting a new row or column when the
characteristics of the elements began to repeat.[9] The success of
Mendeleev's table came from two decisions he made: The first was
to leave gaps in the table when it seemed that the corresponding
element had not yet been discovered.[10] Mendeleev was not the
first chemist to do so, but he went a step further by using the
trends in his periodic table to predict the properties of those
missing elements, such as gallium and germanium.[11] The second
decision was to occasionally ignore the order suggested by the
atomic weights and switch adjacent elements, such as cobalt and
nickel, to better classify them into chemical families. With the
development of theories of atomic structure, it became apparent Portrait of Dmitri Mendeleev

that Mendeleev had inadvertently listed the elements in order of

increasing atomic number.[12]

With the development of modern quantum mechanical theories of electron configurations within atoms, it became
apparent that each row (or period) in the table corresponded to the filling of a quantum shell of electrons. In
Mendeleev's original table, each period was the same length. However, because larger atoms have more electron
sub-shells, modern tables have progressively longer periods further down the table.[13]
In the years that followed after Mendeleev published his periodic table, the gaps he left were filled as chemists
discovered more chemical elements. The last naturally occurring element to be discovered was francium (referred to
by Mendeleev as eka-caesium) in 1939.[14] The periodic table has also grown with the addition of synthetic and
transuranic elements. The first transuranic element to be discovered was neptunium, which was formed by
bombarding uranium with neutrons in a cyclotron in 1939.[15]
Periodic table 7

Gallery

See also
• Alternative periodic tables
• Abundance of the chemical elements
• Atomic electron configuration table
• Discoveries of the chemical elements
• Extended periodic table
• History of the periodic table
• IUPAC's systematic element names
• Periodic group
• Chemical elements in East Asian languages
• Table of chemical elements
• Table of nuclides
• Periodic Matrix Sets
• Photovoltaic effect
Periodic table 8

References
• Atkins, P. W. (1995). The Periodic Kingdom. HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.. ISBN 0-465-07265-8.
• Ball, Philip (2002). The Ingredients: A Guided Tour of the Elements. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-284100-9.
• Brown, Theodore L.; LeMay, H. Eugene; Bursten, Bruce E. (2005). Chemistry: The Central Science (10th ed.).
Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-109686-9.
• Pullman, Bernard (1998). The Atom in the History of Human Thought. Translated by Axel Reisinger. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-515040-6.

Further reading
• Bouma, J. (1989). "An Application-Oriented Periodic Table of the Elements". J. Chem. Ed. 66: 741.
doi:10.1021/ed066p741.
• Eric Scerri (2007). The periodic table: its story and its significance. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-530573-6.
• Mazurs, E.G (1974). Graphical Representations of the Periodic System During One Hundred Years. Alabama:
University of Alabama Press.

External links
• Interactive periodic table [16]
• WebElements [17]
• IUPAC periodic table [18]
• A video for each one of the elements. [19] Made by Brady Haran, featuring Martyn Poliakoff and others, at the
University of Nottingham.
pni:‫لبیٹ کڈایریپ‬

References
[1] IUPAC article on periodic table (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ didac/ Didac Eng/ Didac01/ Content/ S01. htm)
[2] Science Standards of Learning Curriculum Framework (http:/ / www. doe. virginia. gov/ VDOE/ Instruction/ Science/ ScienceCF-PS. doc)
[3] Dynamic periodic table (http:/ / www. ptable. com/ )
[4] Ball, p. 100
[5] Ball, p. 101
[6] Newlands, John A. R. (1864-08-20). "On Relations Among the Equivalents" (http:/ / web. lemoyne. edu/ ~giunta/ EA/ NEWLANDSann.
HTML#newlands3). Chemical News 10: 94–95. .
[7] Newlands, John A. R. (1865-08-18). "On the Law of Octaves" (http:/ / web. lemoyne. edu/ ~giunta/ EA/ NEWLANDSann.
HTML#newlands4). Chemical News 12: 83. .
[8] Bryson, Bill (2004). A Short History of Nearly Everything. London: Black Swan. pp. 141–142. ISBN 9780552151740.
[9] Ball, pp. 100–102
[10] Pullman, p. 227
[11] Ball, p. 105
[12] Atkins, p. 87
[13] Ball, p. 111
[14] Adloff, Jean-Pierre; Kaufman, George B. (2005-09-25). Francium (Atomic Number 87), the Last Discovered Natural Element (http:/ /
chemeducator. org/ sbibs/ s0010005/ spapers/ 1050387gk. htm). The Chemical Educator 10 (5). Retrieved on 2007-03-26.
[15] Ball, p. 123
[16] http:/ / www. ptable. com/
[17] http:/ / www. webelements. com/
[18] http:/ / www. iupac. org/ reports/ periodic_table/ index. html
[19] http:/ / www. periodicvideos. com
History 9

History
The history of the periodic table reflects over a century of growth in the understanding of chemical properties, and
culminates with the publication of the first actual periodic table by Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869.[1] While Mendeleev
built upon earlier discoveries by such scientists as Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier, the Russian scientist is generally
given sole credit for development of the actual periodic table itself.
The table itself is a visual representation of the periodic law which states that certain properties of elements repeat
periodically when arranged by atomic number. The table arranges elements into vertical columns (Groups) and
horizontal rows (Periods) to display these commonalities.

Elemental ideas from

ancient times
People have known about some
chemical elements such as gold, silver
and copper from antiquity, as these can
all be discovered in nature in native
form and are relatively simple to mine
with primitive tools.[2] However, the
notion that there were a limited
number of elements from which
everything was composed originated
with the Greek philosopher Aristotle.
About 330 B.C Aristotle proposed that
everything is made up of a mixture of
one or more of four "roots" (originally A modern periodic table with (colored) discovery periods.

put forth by the Sicilian philosopher

Empedocles), but later renamed elements by Plato. The four elements were earth, water, air and fire. While the
concept of an element was thus introduced, Aristotle's and Plato's ideas did nothing to advance the understanding of
the nature of matter.

Age of Enlightenment
Hennig Brand was the first person recorded to have discovered a new element. Brand was a bankrupt German
merchant who was trying to discover the Philosopher's Stone — a mythical object that was supposed to turn
inexpensive base metals into gold. He experimented with distilling human urine until in 1649[3] he finally obtained a
glowing white substance which he named phosphorus. He kept his discovery secret, until 1680 when Robert Boyle
rediscovered it and it became public. This and related discoveries raised the question of what it means for a
substance to be an "element".
In 1661 Boyle defined an element as a substance that cannot be broken down into a simpler substance by a chemical
reaction. This simple definition actually served for nearly 300 years (until the development of the notion of
subatomic particles), and even today is taught in introductory chemistry classes.
History 10

Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier
Lavoisier's Traité Élémentaire de Chimie (Elementary Treatise of
Chemistry, 1789, translated into English by Robert Kerr) is considered
to be the first modern chemical textbook. It contained a list of
elements, or substances that could not be broken down further, which
included oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, phosphorus, mercury, zinc, and
sulfur. It also forms the basis for the modern list of elements. His list,
however, also included light and caloric, which he believed to be
material substances. While many leading chemists of the time refused
to believe Lavoisier's new revelations, the Elementary Treatise was
written well enough to convince the younger generation. However, as
Lavoisier's descriptions only classified elements as metals or
non-metals, it fell short of a complete analysis.

Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier

Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner
In 1817, Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner began to formulate one of the earliest attempts to classify the elements. He
found that some elements formed groups of three with related properties. He termed these groups "triads". Some
triads classified by Döbereiner are:
1. chlorine, bromine, and iodine
2. calcium, strontium, and barium
3. sulfur, selenium, and tellurium
4. lithium, sodium, and potassium
In all of the triads, the atomic weight of the second element was almost exactly the average of the atomic weights of
the first and third element.[4]

Classifying Elements
By 1869[3] , a total of 63[3] elements had been discovered. As the number of known elements grew, scientists began
to recognize patterns in the way chemicals reacted and began to devise ways to classify the elements.

Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de Chancourtois

Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de Chancourtois, a French geologist, was the first person to notice the periodicity of the
elements — similar elements seem to occur at regular intervals when they are ordered by their atomic weights. He
devised an early form of periodic table, which he called the telluric helix. With the elements arranged in a spiral on
a cylinder by order of increasing atomic weight, de Chancourtois saw that elements with similar properties lined up
vertically. His chart included some ions and compounds in addition to elements. His paper was published in 1862,
but used geological rather than chemical terms and did not include a diagram; as a result, it received little attention
until the work of Dmitri Mendeleev.[5]
History 11

John Newlands
John Newlands was an English chemist who in 1865 classified[6] the 56 elements that had been discovered at the
time into 11 groups which were based on similar physical properties.
Newlands noted that many pairs of
similar elements existed which differed
by some multiple of eight in atomic
weight. However, his law of octaves,
likening this periodicity of eights to the
musical scale, was ridiculed by his
contemporaries. It was not until the
following century, with Gilbert N. J. A. R. Newlands' law of octaves
Lewis' valence bond theory (1916) and
Irving Langmuir's octet theory of chemical bonding[7] [8] (1919) that the importance of the periodicity of eight would
be accepted.

Dmitri Mendeleev
Dmitri Mendeleev, a Siberian-born
Russian chemist, was the first scientist
to make a periodic table much like the
one we use today. Mendeleev arranged
the elements in a table ordered by
atomic weight, corresponding to
relative molar mass as defined today. It
is sometimes said that he played
"chemical solitaire" on long train rides
using cards with various facts of
known elements.[9] On March 6, 1869, Mendeleev's 1869 periodic table
a formal presentation was made to the
Russian Chemical Society, entitled The
Dependence Between the Properties of
the Atomic Weights of the Elements.
His table was published in an obscure
Russian journal but quickly
republished in a German journal,
Zeitschrift für Chemie (Eng.,
"Chemistry Magazine"), in 1869. It
stated:

1. The elements, if arranged according Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev

to their atomic weights, exhibit an
apparent periodicity of properties.
2. Elements which are similar as regards to their chemical properties have atomic weights which are either of nearly
the same value (e.g., Pt, Ir, Os) or which increase regularly (e.g., K, Rb, Cs).
3. The arrangement of the elements, or of groups of elements in the order of their atomic weights, corresponds to
their so-called valencies, as well as, to some extent, to their distinctive chemical properties; as is apparent among
other series in that of Li, Be, Ba, C, N, O, and Sn.
History 12

4. The elements which are the most widely diffused have small atomic weights.
5. The magnitude of the atomic weight determines the character of the element, just as the magnitude of the
molecule determines the character of a compound body.
6. We must expect the discovery of many yet unknown elements–for example, elements analogous to aluminium
and silicon–whose atomic weight would be between 65 and 75.
7. The atomic weight of an element may sometimes be amended by a knowledge of those of its contiguous
elements. Thus the atomic weight of tellurium must lie between 123 and 126, and cannot be 128. (This was based
on the position of tellurium between antimony and iodine whose atomic weight is 127. However Moseley later
explained the position of these elements without revising the atomic weight values — see below.)
8. Certain characteristic properties of elements can be foretold from their atomic weights.
Scientific benefits of Mendeleev's table
• Mendeleev predicted the discovery of
other elements and left space for these
new elements, namely eka-silicon
(germanium), eka-aluminium (gallium),
and eka-boron (scandium). Thus, there
was no disturbance in the periodic table.
• He pointed out that some of the then
current atomic weights were incorrect.
• He provided for variance from atomic
weight order.
Shortcomings of Mendeleev's table
• His table did not include any of the noble
gases, which were discovered later.
These were added by Sir William
Ramsay as Group 0, without any
disturbance to the basic concept of the
periodic table.
• There was no place for the isotopes of the
various elements, which were discovered
later.
This version of Mendeleev's periodic table from 1891. It is lacking the noble gases
Lothar Meyer
Unknown to Mendeleev, Lothar Meyer was also working on a periodic table. Although his work was published in
1864, and was done independently of Mendeleev, few historians regard him as an equal co-creator of the periodic
table. For one thing, Meyer's table only included 28 elements. Furthermore, Meyer classified elements not by atomic
weight, but by valence alone. Finally, Meyer never came to the idea of predicting new elements and correcting
atomic weights. Only a few months after Mendeleev published his periodic table of all known elements (and
predicted several new elements to complete the table, plus some corrected atomic weights), Meyer published a
virtually identical table. While a few people consider Meyer and Mendeleev the co-creators of the periodic table,
most agree that, by itself, Mendeleev's accurate prediction of the qualities of the undiscovered elements lands him
the larger share of credit. In any case, at the time Mendeleev's predictions greatly impressed his contemporaries and
were eventually found to be correct. An English chemist, William Odling, also drew up a table that is remarkably
similar to that of Mendeleev, in 1864.
History 13

Refinements to the periodic table

Henry Moseley
In 1914 Henry Moseley found a relationship between an element's X-ray wavelength and its atomic number (Z), and
therefore resequenced the table by nuclear charge rather than atomic weight. Before this discovery, atomic numbers
were just sequential numbers based on an element's atomic weight. Moseley's discovery showed that atomic numbers
had an experimentally measurable basis.
Thus Moseley placed argon (Z=18) before potassium (Z=19) based on their X-ray wavelengths, despite the fact that
argon has a greater atomic weight (39.9) than potassium (39.1). The new order agrees with the chemical properties of
these elements, since argon is a noble gas and potassium an alkali metal. Similarly, Moseley placed cobalt before
nickel, and was able to explain that tellurium occurs before iodine without revising the experimental atomic weight
of tellurium (127.6) as proposed by Mendeleev.
Moseley's research also showed that there were gaps in his table at atomic numbers 43 and 61 which are now known
to be Technetium and Promethium, respectively, both radioactive and not naturally occurring. Following in the
footsteps of Dmitri Mendeleev, Henry Moseley also predicted new elements.

Glenn T. Seaborg
During his Manhattan Project research in 1943 Glenn T. Seaborg experienced unexpected difficulty isolating
Americium (95) and Curium (96). He began wondering if these elements more properly belonged to a different
series which would explain why the expected chemical properties of the new elements were different. In 1945, he
went against the advice of colleagues and proposed a significant change to Mendeleev's table: the actinide series.
Seaborg's actinide concept of heavy element electronic structure, predicting that the actinides form a transition series
analogous to the rare earth series of lanthanide elements, is now well accepted in the scientific community and
included in all standard configurations of the periodic table. The actinide series are the second row of the f-block (5f
series) and comprise the elements from Actinium to Lawrencium. Seaborg's subsequent elaborations of the actinide
concept theorized a series of superheavy elements in a transactinide series comprising elements 104 through 121 and
a superactinide series inclusive of elements 122 through 153.
History 14

Main discovery periods

The history of the periodic table is also a history of the discovery of the chemical elements. IUPAC[10] suggest five
"main discovery periods":

• Before 1800 (36 elements): discoveries during and before the Enlightenment.
• 1800-1849 (+22 elements): impulse from scientific (empirical processes systematization and modern atomic
theory) and industrial revolutions.
• 1850-1899 (+23 elements): the age of classifying elements received an impulse from the spectrum analysis.
Boisbaudran, Bunsen, Crookes, Kirchhoff, and others "hunting emission line signatures".
• 1900-1949 (+13 elements): impulse from the old quantum theory, the consolitated periodic table, and quantum
mechanics.
• 1950-1999 (+15 elements): "atomic bomb" and Particle physics issues, for atomic numbers 97 and above.

The periodic table as a cultural icon

Throughout the 20th century, the periodic table grew in ubiquity. Its presence on a classroom wall tells the
movie-viewing audience that they are viewing a science classroom. It is often provided to students taking
standardized tests as a necessary tool to complete chemical problems.
In 1998, a 35-by-65 foot periodic table was constructed at the Science Museum of Virginia and is a Guinness World
Record. [11]
History 15

See also
• Prout's hypothesis
• History of chemistry
• Discoveries of the chemical elements
• Periodic table
• Alternative periodic tables

External links
• History of the Development of the Periodic Table of Elements [12]
• Development of the periodic table [13]
• Classification of the elements [14]
• The path to the periodic table [15]
• Web page listing several scholarly and semi-popular articles on various aspects of the periodic system and
underlying theoretical concepts. Some are downloadable! [16]
• Periodic Table Database [17]

References
[1] IUPAC article on periodic table (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ didac/ Didac Eng/ Didac01/ Content/ S01. htm)
[2] Scerri, E. R. (2006). The Periodic Table: Its Story and Its Significance; New York City, New York; Oxford University Press.
[3] "A Brief History of the Development of Periodic Table" (http:/ / www. wou. edu/ las/ physci/ ch412/ perhist. htm). .
[4] Leicester, Henry M. (1971). The Historical Background of Chemistry; New York City, New York; Dover Publications.
[5] Annales des Mines history page (http:/ / www. annales. org/ archives/ x/ chancourtois. html).
[6] in a letter published in the Chemical News in February 1863, according to the Notable Names Data Base (http:/ / www. nndb. com/ people/
480/ 000103171/ )
[7] Irving Langmuir, “The Structure of Atoms and the Octet Theory of Valence”, Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, Vol. V, 252,
Letters (1919) - online at (http:/ / dbhs. wvusd. k12. ca. us/ webdocs/ Chem-History/ Langmuir-1919. html)
[8] Irving Langmuir, “The Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules”, Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 41, No, 6, pg.
868 (June 1919) - beginning and ending of the paper are transcribed online at (http:/ / dbhs. wvusd. k12. ca. us/ webdocs/ Chem-History/
Langmuir-1919b. html); the middle is missing
[9] Physical Science, Holt Rinehart & Winston (January 2004), page 302 ISBN 0-03-073168-2
[10] http:/ / old. iupac. org/ reports/ periodic_table/ index. html
[11] "Richmond in the Record Books" (http:/ / www. richmond. com/ museums-galleries/ 6300). August 18, 2004. .
[12] http:/ / www. bpc. edu/ mathscience/ chemistry/ history_of_the_periodic_table. html
[13] http:/ / www. chemsoc. org/ viselements/ pages/ history. html
[14] http:/ / members. optushome. com. au/ scottsofta/ Pintro. htm
[15] http:/ / www. chemheritage. org/ EducationalServices/ chemach/ ppt/ ppt. html
[16] http:/ / www. chem. ucla. edu/ dept/ Faculty/ scerri/ index. html
[17] http:/ / www. meta-synthesis. com/ webbook/ 35_pt/ pt_database. php
Alternative periodic tables 16

Alternative periodic tables

Alternative periodic tables are
tabulations of chemical elements
differing significantly in their
organization from the traditional
depiction of the Periodic System.[1] [2]
Several have been devised, often
purely for didactic reasons, as not all
correlations between the chemical
elements are effectively captured by
the standard periodic table. A 1974
review of the tables then known is
considered a definitive work on the
topic.[3]

Aims
Theodor Benfey's periodic table
Alternative periodic tables are
developed often to highlight or
emphasize different chemical or physical properties of the elements which are not as apparent in traditional periodic
tables. Some tables aim to emphasize both the nucleon and electronic structure of atoms. This can be done changing
the spatial relationship or representation each element has with respect to another element in the table. Other tables
aim to emphasize the chemical element isolations by humans over time.

Major alternatives
Janet's Left Step Periodic Table [4] (1928) is considered to be the most significant alternative to the traditional
depiction of the periodic system. It organizes elements according to orbital filling and is widely used by physicists.
Its modern version, known as ADOMAH Periodic Table [5], (2006) is helpful for writing electron configurations.[6]

f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7 f8 f9 f10 f11 f12 f13 f14 d1 d2 d3 d4 d5 d6 d7 d8 d9 d10 p1 p2 p3 p4 p5 p6 s1 s2

H He
Li Be
B C N O F Ne Na Mg
Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca
Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Rb Sr
Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Cs Ba
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Fr Ra
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo Uue Ubn

[7]
The Janet Periodic Table (with current element symbols).

In Theodor Benfey's periodic table (1960), the elements form a two-dimensional spiral, starting from hydrogen, and
folding their way around two islands, the transition metals, and lanthanides and actinides. A superactinide island is
already slotted in. The Chemical Galaxy (2004) is organized in a similar way.
Alternative periodic tables 17

In the extended periodic table, suggested by Glenn T. Seaborg in 1969, yet unknown elements are included up to
atomic number 218. Helium is placed in the group 2 elements.
The oldest periodic table is the short
form table of Dmitri Mendeleev, which
shows secondary chemical kinships.
For example, the alkali metals and the
coinage metals (copper, silver, gold)
are in the same column because both
groups tend to have a valence of one.
This format is still used by many, as
shown by this contemporary Russian
short form table [8] which includes all
elements and element names to date. Mendeleev's 1869 periodic table

Timmothy Stowe's physicist's periodic

table is three-dimensional with the three axes representing the principal quantum number, orbital quantum number,
and orbital magnetic quantum number. Helium is again a group 2 element.
Paul Giguere's 3-D periodic table consists of 4 billboards with the elements written on the front and the back. The
first billboard has the group 1 elements on the front and the group 2 elements at the back, with hydrogen and helium
omitted altogether. At a 90° angle the second billboard contains the groups 13 to 18 front and back. Two more
billboard each making 90° angles contain the other elements.
In the research field of superatoms, clusters of atoms have properties of single atoms of another element. It is
suggested to extend the periodic table with a second layer to be occupied with these cluster compounds. The latest
addition to this multi-story table is the aluminum cluster ion Al−7, which behaves like a multivalent germanium
atom.[9]
Ronald L. Rich has proposed a periodic table where elements appear more than once when appropriate.[10] He notes
that hydrogen shares properties with group 1 elements based on valency, with group 17 elements because hydrogen
is a non-metal but also with the carbon group based on similarities in chemical bonding to transition metals and a
similar electronegativity. In this rendition of the periodic table carbon and silicon also appear in the same group as
titanium and zirconium. An interesting new chemists' table ("Newlands Revisited") that solves many of the problems
of position of hydrogen, helium and the lanthanides, etc., was published by EG Marks and JA Marks in 2010.[11]

External links
• Janet's Left Step Periodic Table [12]
• Correction to Physicist periodic table offered by Jeries Rihani [13] as Meitnerium occupies the position that
Hassium should have.
• A Wired Article on Alternate Periodic Tables [14]
• A Selection of Periodic Tables [15]
• http://periodicspiral.com/arranges the periodic table in a (hexagonal) spiral.
• Rotaperiod.com [16] A new periodic table.
• Note [17] on the T-shirt topology of the Z-spiral.
• New Periodic Table of the Elements [18] this is in a square-triangular periodic arrangement.
• Periodic Table based on electron configurations [5]
• Database of Periodic Tables [17]
• Periodic Fractal of the Elements [19]
Alternative periodic tables 18

• Bob Doyle Periodic Table of the Elements [20] A regrouping by properties that suggests a maximum of 120
elements.
• Earth Scientist's Periodic Table [21]

References
[1] E.R. Scerri. The Periodic Table, Its Story and Its Significance. Oxford University Press, New York, 2007.
[2] Henry Bent. New Ideas in Chemistry from Fresh Energy for the Periodic Law. AuthorHouse, 2006. ISBN 9781425948627
[3] Mazurs, E. G. Graphical Representations of the Periodic System During One Hundred Years. Alabama; University of Alabama Press, 1974.
ISBN 0-8173-3200-6.
[4] http:/ / www. meta-synthesis. com/ webbook/ 35_pt/ pt_database. php?PT_id=152
[5] http:/ / www. perfectperiodictable. com/ userguide
[6] Philip J. Stewart: Charles Janet: unrecognized genius of the periodic system. Foundations of Chemistry. January, 2009. ISSN 1386-4238
(Print) ISSN 1572-8463 (Online), Vol.12, No.1 April, 2010;
[7] WebElements (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ nexus/ Janet_Periodic_Table) : The Janet Periodic Table.
[8] http:/ / flerovlab. jinr. ru/ flnr/ dimg/ Periodic_Table. jpg
[9] Beyond The Periodic Table Metal clusters mimic chemical properties of atoms Ivan Amato Chemical & Engineering News November 21,
2006 Link (http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ cen/ news/ 84/ i48/ 8448notw8. html)
[10] Rich, Ronald L. J. Chem. Educ. 2005 82 1761
[11] Foundations of Chemistry 2010, 12: 85-93 (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ q7j4670426845322/ fulltext. pdf) Newlands revisited:
a display of the periodicity of the chemical elements for chemists.
[12] http:/ / www. meta-synthesis. com/ webbook/ 35_pt/ pt. html#j
[13] http:/ / jeries. rihani. com/ references. html
[14] http:/ / www. wired. com/ wired/ archive/ 13. 10/ start. html?pg=11
[15] http:/ / www. meta-synthesis. com/ webbook/ 35_pt/ pt. html
[16] http:/ / www. rotaperiod. com
[17] http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ physics/ 0603026
[18] http:/ / www. egregoralfa. republika. pl/ english/ newtable. html
[19] http:/ / www. superliminal. com/ pfractal. htm
[20] http:/ / www. wizworld. com/ dox/ doyle_periodic_table. gif
[21] http:/ / www. gly. uga. edu/ railsback/ PT. html
Element 19

Element
A chemical element is a pure chemical substance consisting of one type of atom distinguished by its atomic number,
which is the number of protons in its nucleus.[1] Common examples of elements are iron, copper, silver, gold,
hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen. In total, 118 elements have been observed as of March 2010, of which 92
occur naturally on Earth. Of these, oxygen is the most abundant element in the earth's crust. 80 elements have stable
isotopes, namely all elements with atomic numbers 1 to 82, except elements 43 and 61 (technetium and
promethium). Elements with atomic numbers 83 or higher (bismuth and above) are inherently unstable, and undergo
radioactive decay. The elements from atomic number 83 to 92 have no stable nuclei, but are nevertheless found in
nature, either surviving as remnants of the primordial stellar nucleosynthesis that produced the elements in the solar
system, or else produced as short-lived daughter-isotopes through the natural decay of uranium and thorium.[2]
All chemical matter consists of these elements. New elements of higher atomic number are discovered from time to
time, as products of artificial nuclear reactions. When two distinct elements are chemically combined, the result is
termed a compound.

The periodic table of the chemical elements

Element 20

History
Ancient philosophy posited a set of classical
elements to explain patterns in nature.
Elements originally referred to earth, water,
air and fire rather than the chemical
elements of modern science.
The term 'elements' (stoicheia) was first
used by the Greek philosopher Plato in about
360 BCE, in his dialogue Timaeus, which
includes a discussion of the composition of
inorganic and organic bodies and is a
speculative treatise on chemistry. Plato
believed the elements introduced a century
earlier by Empedocles were composed of
small polyhedral forms: tetrahedron (fire),
octahedron (air), icosahedron (water), and
cube (earth).[3] [4]

Aristotle, c. 350 BCE, also used the term

stoicheia and added a fifth element called
aether, which formed the heavens. Aristotle
defined an element as:
Element – one of those bodies into
which other bodies can decompose,
Mendeleev's 1869 periodic table
and that itself is not capable of being
divided into other.[5]
In 1661, Robert Boyle showed that there were more than just four classical elements as the ancients had assumed.[6]
The first modern list of chemical elements was given in Antoine Lavoisier's 1789 Elements of Chemistry, which
contained thirty-three elements, including light and caloric.[7] By 1818, Jöns Jakob Berzelius had determined atomic
weights for forty-five of the forty-nine accepted elements. Dmitri Mendeleev had sixty-six elements in his periodic
table of 1869.
From Boyle until the early 20th century, an element was defined as a pure substance that cannot be decomposed into
any simpler substance.[6] Put another way, a chemical element cannot be transformed into other chemical elements
by chemical processes. In 1913, Henry Moseley discovered that the physical basis of the atomic number of the atom
was its nuclear charge, which eventually led to the current definition. The current definition also avoids some
ambiguities due to isotopes and allotropes.
By 1919, there were seventy-two known elements.[8] In 1955, element 101 was discovered and named mendelevium
in honor of Mendeleev, the first to arrange the elements in a periodic manner. In October 2006, the synthesis of
element 118 was reported; the synthesis of element 117 was reported in April 2010.[9]
Element 21

Description
The lightest elements are hydrogen and helium, both theoretically created by Big Bang nucleosynthesis during the
first 20 minutes of the universe[10] in a ratio of around 3:1 by mass (approximately 12:1 by number of atoms).
Almost all other elements found in nature, including some further hydrogen and helium created since then, were
made by various natural or (at times) artificial methods of nucleosynthesis, including occasionally breakdown
activities such as nuclear fission, alpha decay, cluster decay, and cosmic ray spallation.
As of 2010, there are 118 known elements (in this context, "known" means observed well enough, even from just a
few decay products, to have been differentiated from any other element).[11] [12] Of these 118 elements, 94 occur
naturally on Earth. Six of these occur in extreme trace quantities: technetium, atomic number 43; promethium,
number 61; astatine, number 85; francium, number 87; neptunium, number 93; and plutonium, number 94. These 94
elements, and also possibly element 98 californium, have been detected in the universe at large, in the spectra of
stars and also supernovae, where short-lived radioactive elements are newly being made.
The remaining 24 elements, not found on Earth or in astronomical spectra, have been derived artificially. All of the
elements that are derived solely through artificial means are radioactive with very short half-lives; if any atoms of
these elements were present at the formation of Earth, they are extremely likely to have already decayed, and if
present in novae, have been in quantities too small to have been noted. Technetium was the first purportedly
non-naturally occurring element to be synthesized, in 1937, although trace amounts of technetium have since been
found in nature, and the element may have been discovered naturally in 1925. This pattern of artificial production
and later natural discovery has been repeated with several other radioactive naturally occurring trace elements.
Lists of the elements are available by name, by symbol, by atomic number, by density, by melting point, and by
boiling point as well as Ionization energies of the elements. The most convenient presentation of the elements is in
the periodic table, which groups elements with similar chemical properties together.

Atomic number
The atomic number of an element, Z, is equal to the number of protons that defines the element. For example, all
carbon atoms contain 6 protons in their nucleus; so the atomic number "Z" of carbon is 6. Carbon atoms may have
different numbers of neutrons; atoms of the same element having different numbers of neutrons are known as
isotopes of the element.
The number of protons in the atomic nucleus also determines its electric charge, which in turn determines the
electrons of the atom in its non-ionized state. This in turn (by means of the Pauli exclusion principle) determines the
atom's various chemical properties. So all carbon atoms, for example, ultimately have identical chemical properties
because they all have the same number of protons in their nucleus, and therefore have the same atomic number. It is
for this reason that atomic number rather than mass number (or atomic weight) is considered the identifying
characteristic of an element.

Atomic mass
The mass number of an element, A, is the number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the atomic nucleus.
Different isotopes of a given element are distinguished by their mass numbers, which are conventionally written as a
super-index on the left hand side of the atomic symbol (e.g., 238U).
The relative atomic mass of an element is the average of the atomic masses of all the chemical element's isotopes as
found in a particular environment, weighted by isotopic abundance, relative to the atomic mass unit (u). This number
may be a fraction that is not close to a whole number, due to the averaging process. On the other hand, the atomic
mass of a pure isotope is quite close to its mass number. Whereas the mass number is a natural (or whole) number,
the atomic mass of a single isotope is a real number that is close to a natural number. In general, it differs slightly
from the mass number as the mass of the protons and neutrons is not exactly 1 u, the electrons also contribute
Element 22

slightly to the atomic mass, and because of the nuclear binding energy. For example, the mass of 19F is 18.9984032
u. The only exception to the atomic mass of an isotope not being a natural number is 12C, which has a mass of
exactly 12, because u is defined as 1/12th of the mass of a free carbon-12 atom.

Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (that is, with the same number of protons in their atomic nucleus), but having
different numbers of neutrons. Most (66 of 94) naturally occurring elements have more than one stable isotope. Thus,
for example, there are three main isotopes of carbon. All carbon atoms have 6 protons in the nucleus, but they can
have either 6, 7, or 8 neutrons. Since the mass numbers of these are 12, 13 and 14 respectively, the three isotopes of
carbon are known as carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14, often abbreviated to 12C, 13C, and 14C. Carbon in
everyday life and in chemistry is a mixture of 12C, 13C, and 14C atoms.
Except in the case of the isotopes of hydrogen (which differ greatly from each other in relative mass—enough to
cause chemical effects), the isotopes of the various elements are typically chemically nearly indistinguishable from
each other. For example, the three naturally occurring isotopes of carbon have essentially the same chemical
properties, but different nuclear properties. In this example, carbon-12 and carbon-13 are stable atoms, but carbon-14
is unstable; it is radioactive, undergoing beta decay into nitrogen-14.
As illustrated by carbon, all of the elements have some isotopes that are radioactive (radioisotopes), which decay into
other elements upon radiating an alpha or beta particle. Certain elements only have radioactive isotopes: specifically
the elements without any stable isotopes are technetium (atomic number 43), promethium (atomic number 61), and
all observed elements with atomic numbers greater than 82.
Of the 80 elements with at least one stable isotope, 26 have only one stable isotope, and the mean number of stable
isotopes for the 80 stable elements is 3.1 stable isotopes per element. The largest number of stable isotopes that occur
for an element is 10 (for tin, element 50).

Allotropes
Atoms of pure elements may bond to each other chemically in more than one way, allowing the pure element to exist
in multiple structures (spacial arrangements of atoms), known as allotropes, which differ in their properties. For
example, carbon can be found as diamond, which has a tetrahedral structure around each carbon atom; graphite,
which has layers of carbon atoms with a hexagonal structure stacked on top of each other; graphene, which is a
single layer of graphite that is incredibly strong; fullerenes, which have nearly spherical shapes; and carbon
nanotubes, which are tubes with a hexagonal structure (even these may differ from each other in electrical
properties). The ability for an element to exist in one of many structural forms is known as 'allotropy'.

Standard state
The standard state, or reference state, of an element is defined as its thermodynamically most stable state at 1 bar at a
given temperature (typically at 298.15 K). In thermochemistry, an element is defined to have an enthalpy of
formation of zero in its standard state. For example, the reference state for carbon is graphite, because it is more
stable than the other allotropes.

Nomenclature
The naming of elements precedes the atomic theory of matter, although at the time it was not known which
chemicals were elements and which compounds. When it was learned, existing names (e.g., gold, mercury, iron)
were kept in most countries, and national differences emerged over the names of elements either for convenience,
linguistic niceties, or nationalism. For example, the Germans use "Wasserstoff" for "hydrogen", "Sauerstoff" for
"oxygen" and "Stickstoff" for "nitrogen", while English and some romance languages use "sodium" for "natrium"
Element 23

and "potassium" for "kalium", and the French, Italians, Greeks, Portuguese and Poles prefer "azote/azot/azoto" for
"nitrogen".
But for international trade, the official names of the chemical elements both ancient and recent are decided by the
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, which has decided on a sort of international English language.
That organization has recently prescribed that "aluminium" and "caesium" take the place of the US spellings
"aluminum" and "cesium", while the US "sulfur" takes the place of the British "sulphur". Chemicals that are practical
to sell in bulk in many countries, however, still have national names, and those that do not use the Latin alphabet
cannot be expected to use the IUPAC name.
According to IUPAC, the full name of an element is not capitalized, even if it is derived from a proper noun such as
the elements californium or einsteinium (unless it would be capitalized by some other rule, such as to begin a
sentence). Isotopes of chemical elements are also uncapitalized if written out: carbon-12 or uranium-235. Symbols of
chemical elements, however, are capitalized: thus the symbols for the elements just discussed are Cf and Es; C-12
and U-235.
In the second half of the twentieth century physics laboratories became able to produce nuclei of chemical elements
that have a half life too short for them to remain in any appreciable amounts. These are also named by IUPAC,
which generally adopts the name chosen by the discoverer. This can lead to the controversial question of which
research group actually discovered an element, a question that delayed naming of elements with atomic number of
104 and higher for a considerable time. (See element naming controversy).
Precursors of such controversies involved the nationalistic namings of elements in the late nineteenth century. For
example, lutetium was named in reference to Paris, France. The Germans were reluctant to relinquish naming rights
to the French, often calling it cassiopeium. The British discoverer of niobium originally named it columbium, in
reference to the New World. It was used extensively as such by American publications prior to international
standardization.

Chemical symbols
For the listing of current and not used Chemical symbols, and other symbols that look like chemical symbols,
please see List of elements by symbol.

Specific chemical elements

Before chemistry became a science, alchemists had designed arcane symbols for both metals and common
compounds. These were however used as abbreviations in diagrams or procedures; there was no concept of atoms
combining to form molecules. With his advances in the atomic theory of matter, John Dalton devised his own
simpler symbols, based on circles, which were to be used to depict molecules.
The current system of chemical notation was invented by Berzelius. In this typographical system chemical symbols
are not used as mere abbreviations - though each consists of letters of the Latin alphabet - they are symbols intended
to be used by peoples of all languages and alphabets. The first of these symbols were intended to be fully universal;
since Latin was the common language of science at that time, they were abbreviations based on the Latin names of
metals - Cu comes from Cuprum, Fe comes from Ferrum, Ag from Argentum. The symbols were not followed by a
period (full stop) as abbreviations were. Later chemical elements were also assigned unique chemical symbols, based
on the name of the element, but not necessarily in English. For example, sodium has the chemical symbol 'Na' after
the Latin natrium. The same applies to "W" (wolfram) for tungsten, "Fe" (ferrum) for Iron, "Hg" (hydrargyrum) for
mercury, "Sn" (stannum) for tin, "K" (kalium) for potassium, "Au" (aurum) for gold, "Ag" (argentum) for silver,
"Pb" (plumbum) for lead, and "Sb" (stibium) for antimony.
Chemical symbols are understood internationally when element names might need to be translated. There are
sometimes differences; for example, the Germans have used "J" instead of "I" for iodine, so the character would not
Element 24

be confused with a roman numeral.

The first letter of a chemical symbol is always capitalized, as in the preceding examples, and the subsequent letters,
if any, are always lower case (small letters).

General chemical symbols

There are also symbols for series of chemical elements, for comparative formulas. These are one capital letter in
length, and the letters are reserved so they are not permitted to be given for the names of specific elements. For
example, an "X" is used to indicate a variable group amongst a class of compounds (though usually a halogen), while
"R" is used for a radical, meaning a compound structure such as a hydrocarbon chain. The letter "Q" is reserved for
"heat" in a chemical reaction. "Y" is also often used as a general chemical symbol, although it is also the symbol of
yttrium. "Z" is also frequently used as a general variable group. "L" is used to represent a general ligand in inorganic
and organometallic chemistry. "M" is also often used in place of a general metal.

Isotope symbols
The three main isotopes of the element hydrogen are often written as H for protium, D for deuterium and T for
tritium. This is in order to make it easier to use them in chemical equations, as it replaces the need to write out the
mass number for each atom. E.g. the formula for heavy water may be written D2O instead of ²H2O.

The periodic table

The periodic table of the chemical elements is a tabular method of displaying the chemical elements. Although
precursors to this table exist, its invention is generally credited to Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869.
Mendeleev intended the table to illustrate recurring ("periodic") trends in the properties of the elements. The layout
of the table has been refined and extended over time, as new elements have been discovered, and new theoretical
models have been developed to explain chemical behavior.
The periodic table is now ubiquitous within the academic discipline of chemistry, providing an extremely useful
framework to classify, systematize and compare all the many different forms of chemical behavior. The table has
also found wide application in physics, biology, engineering, and industry. The current standard table contains 118
confirmed elements as of April 10, 2010.

Abundance
During the early phases of the Big Bang, nucleosynthesis of hydrogen nuclei resulted in the production of hydrogen
and helium isotopes, as well as very minuscule amounts (on the order of 10−10) of lithium and beryllium. There is
argument about whether or not some boron was produced in the Big Bang, as it has been observed in some very
young stars,[13] but no heavier elements than boron were produced. As a result, the primordial abundance of atoms
consisted of roughly 75% 1H, 25% 4He, and 0.01% deuterium.[14] Subsequent enrichment of galactic halos occurred
due to Stellar nucleosynthesis and Supernova nucleosynthesis.[15] However intergalactic space can still closely
resemble the primordial abundance, unless it has been enriched by some means.
The following graph (note log scale) shows abundance of elements in our solar system. The table shows the twelve
most common elements in our galaxy (estimated spectroscopically), as measured in parts per million, by mass.[16]
Nearby galaxies that have evolved along similar lines have a corresponding enrichment of elements heavier than
hydrogen and helium. The more distant galaxies are being viewed as they appeared in the past, so their abundances
of elements appear closer to the primordial mixture. As physical laws and processes appear common throughout the
visible universe, however, it is expected that these galaxies will likewise have evolved similar abundances of
elements.
Element 25

Abundances of the chemical elements in the Solar system.

Element Parts per

million
by mass

Hydrogen 739,000

Helium 240,000

Oxygen 10,400

Carbon 4,600

Neon 1,340

Iron 1,090

Nitrogen 960

Silicon 650

Magnesium 580

Sulfur 440

Potassium 210

Nickel 100

Recently discovered elements

The first transuranium element (element with atomic number greater than 92) discovered was neptunium in 1940. As
of February 2010, only the elements up to 112, copernicium, have been confirmed as discovered by IUPAC, while
more or less reliable claims have been made for synthesis of elements 113, 114, 115, 116 and 118. The discovery of
element 112 was acknowledged in 2009, and the name 'copernicium' and the atomic symbol 'Cn' were suggested for
it.[17] The name and symbol were officially endorsed by IUPAC on February 19, 2010.[18] The heaviest element that
is believed to have been synthesized to date is element 118, ununoctium, on October 9, 2006, by the Flerov
Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions in Dubna, Russia.[19] [20]
Element 117, ununseptium, has been synthesised[21] , and its place in the periodic table is preestablished.
On April 24, 2008, Amnon Marinov and six other researchers claimed that element 122 has been detected in purified
natural thorium.[22] [23] If confirmed, this would be the first naturally occurring heavy element discovered in more
than 50 years. It has yet to be proved as it is still under confirmation by the university but could be a major
development as previously all transuranic elements were artificial. The claim of Marinov et al. was criticized by a
part of the scientific community, and Marinov says he has submitted the article to the journals Nature and Nature
Physics but both turned it down without sending it for peer review.[24]
Element 26

See also
• Abundance of the chemical elements
• Compound
• Chemical symbol
• Chemistry
• Discovery of the chemical elements
• Elements song
• Fictional element
• Goldschmidt classification
• Island of stability
• List of chemical element name etymologies
• List of elements by atomic number
• List of elements by name
• Periodic table
• Systematic element name
• Prices of elements and their compounds

Further reading
• E.R. Scerri, The Periodic Table, Its Story and Its Significance, Oxford University Press, NY, 2007.

External links
• Videos for each element [25] by the University of Nottingham

References
[1] International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. " (http:/ / goldbook. iupac. org/ C01022. html)". Compendium of Chemical Terminology
Internet edition.
[2] A. Earnshaw, Norman Greenwood (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2 ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann.
[3] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xSjvowNydN8C& lpg=PP1& ots=eRla--Y6Ul& dq=Plato%20timaeus& pg=PA45#v=onepage&
q=cube& f=false
[4] Hillar, Marian (2004). "The Problem of the Soul in Aristotle's De anima" (http:/ / www. socinian. org/ aristotles_de_anima. html). NASA
WMAP. . Retrieved 2006-08-10.
[5] Partington, J.R. (1937). A Short History of Chemistry. New York: Dover Publications, Inc.. ISBN 0486659771.
[6] Boyle, Robert (1661). The Sceptical Chymist. London. ISBN 0922802904.
[7] Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent (1790). Elements of chemistry translated by Robert Kerr (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=4BzAjCpEK4gC&
pg=PA175). Edinburgh. pp. 175–176. ISBN 9780415179140. .
[8] Carey, George, W. (1914). The Chemistry of Human Life. Los Angeles. ISBN 0766128407.
[9] http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2010/ 04/ 07/ science/ 07element. html?hp
[10] Gaitskell, R; Utyonkov, V. K.; Lobanov, Yu. V.; Abdullin, F. Sh.; Polyakov, A. N.; Sagaidak, R. N.; Shirokovsky, I. V.; Tsyganov, Yu. S. et
al. (2006). "Evidence for Dark Matter" (http:/ / gaitskell. brown. edu/ physics/ talks/ 0408_SLAC_SummerSchool/
Gaitskell_DMEvidence_v16. pdf) (PDF). Physical Review C 74: timeline on page 10. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.74.044602. . Retrieved
2008-10-08.
[11] Sanderson, Katherine (17 October 2006). "Heaviest element made - again" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ news/ 2006/ 061016/ full/ 061016-4.
html). [email protected]. Nature. . Retrieved 2006-10-19.
[12] Phil Schewe and Ben Stein (17 October 2006). "Elements 116 and 118 Are Discovered" (http:/ / www. aip. org/ pnu/ 2006/ 797. html).
Physics News Update. American Institute of Physics. . Retrieved 2006-10-19.
[13] Hubble Observations Bring Some Surprises - New York Times (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage.
html?res=9E0CE5D91F3AF937A25752C0A964958260)
[14] Wright, Edward L. (September 12, 2004). "Big Bang Nucleosynthesis" (http:/ / www. astro. ucla. edu/ ~wright/ BBNS. html). UCLA
Division of Astronomy. . Retrieved 2007-02-22.
[15] G. Wallerstein, I. Iben Jr., P. Parker, A. M. Boesgaard, G. M. Hale, A. E. Champagne, C. A. Barnes, F. KM-dppeler, V. V. Smith, R. D.
Hoffman, F. X. Timmes, C. Sneden, R.N. Boyd, B.S. Meyer, D.L. Lambert (1999). "Synthesis of the elements in stars: forty years of progress"
Element 27

(http:/ / www. cococubed. com/ papers/ wallerstein97. pdf) (pdf). Reviews of Modern Physics 69 (4): 995–1084.
doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.69.995. . Retrieved 2006-08-04.
[16] Croswell, Ken (February 1996). Alchemy of the Heavens (http:/ / kencroswell. com/ alchemy. html). Anchor. ISBN 0-385-47214-5. .
[17] "IUPAC Announces Start of the Name Approval Process for the Element of Atomic Number 112" (http:/ / media. iupac. org/ news/
112_Naming_Process_20090720. pdf). 20 July 2009. . Retrieved 2009-08-27.
[18] IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry): Element 112 is Named Copernicium (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ web/ nt/
2010-02-20_112_Copernicium)
[19] Phil Schewe and Ben Stein (17 October 2006). "Elements 116 and 118 Are Discovered" (http:/ / www. aip. org/ pnu/ 2006/ 797. html).
Physics News Update. American Institute of Physics. . Retrieved 2006-10-19.
[20] Oganessian, Yu. Ts. et al.; Utyonkov, V.; Lobanov, Yu.; Abdullin, F.; Polyakov, A.; Sagaidak, R.; Shirokovsky, I.; Tsyganov, Yu. et al.
(2006-10-09). "Synthesis of the isotopes of elements 118 and 116 in the 249Cf and 245Cm+48Ca fusion reactions". Physical Review C 74 (4):
044602. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.74.044602.
[21] http:/ / www. jinr. ru/ img_sections/ PAC/ NP/ 31/ PAK_NP_31_recom_eng. pdf
[22] Marinov, A.; Rodushkin, I.; Kolb, D.; Pape, A.; Kashiv, Y.; Brandt, R.; Gentry, R. V.; Miller, H. W. (2008). "Evidence for a long-lived
superheavy nucleus with atomic mass number A=292 and atomic number Z=~122 in natural Th" (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ 0804. 3869).
ArXiv.org 74: 044602. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.74.044602. . Retrieved 2008-04-28.
[23] Battersby, Stephen (2008-05-02). "Has the heaviest element been found?" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/
dn13828-has-the-heaviest-element-been-found. html). NewScientist. . Retrieved 2009-05-01.
[24] Van Noorden, Richard (2008-05-02). "Heaviest element claim criticised" (http:/ / www. rsc. org/ chemistryworld/ News/ 2008/ May/
02050802. asp). Chemistry World (Royal Society of Chemistry). . Retrieved 2009-05-01.
[25] http:/ / periodicvideos. com/

Isotope
Isotopes are different types of atoms (nuclides) of the same chemical element, each having a different number of
neutrons. In a corresponding manner, isotopes differ in mass number (or number of nucleons) but never in atomic
number.[1] The number of protons (the atomic number) is the same because that is what characterizes a chemical
element. For example, carbon-12, carbon-13 and carbon-14 are three isotopes of the element carbon with mass
numbers 12, 13 and 14, respectively. The atomic number of carbon is 6, so the neutron numbers in these isotopes of
carbon are therefore 12−6 = 6, 13−6 = 7, and 14–6 = 8, respectively.
A nuclide is an atomic nucleus with a specified composition of protons and neutrons. The nuclide concept
emphasizes nuclear properties over chemical properties, while the isotope concept emphasizes chemical over
nuclear. The neutron number has drastic effects on nuclear properties, but negligible effects on chemical properties.
Since isotope is the older term, it is better known, and is still sometimes used in contexts where nuclide might be
more appropriate, such as nuclear technology.
An isotope and/or nuclide is specified by the name of the particular element (this indicates the atomic number
implicitly) followed by a hyphen and the mass number (e.g. helium-3, carbon-12, carbon-13, iodine-131 and
uranium-238). When a chemical symbol is used, e.g., "C" for carbon, standard notation is to indicate the number of
nucleons with a superscript at the upper left of the chemical symbol and to indicate the atomic number with a
subscript at the lower left (e.g. 32He, 42He, 126C, 146C, 23592U, and 23992U).
Some isotopes are radioactive and are therefore described as radioisotopes or radionuclides, while others have never
been observed to undergo radioactive decay and are described as stable isotopes. For example, 14C is a radioactive
form of carbon while 12C and 13C are stable isotopes. There are about 339 naturally occurring nuclides on Earth[2] ,
of which 288 are primordial nuclides. These include 31 nuclides with very long half lives (over 80 million years) and
257 which are formally considered as "stable"[2] . About 30 of these "stable" isotopes have actually been observed to
decay, but with half lives too long to be estimated so far. This leaves 227 nuclides that have not been observed to
decay at all.
Many more apparently "stable" isotopes are predicted by theory to be radioactive, with extremely long half-lives
(this does not count the posibility of proton decay, which would make all nuclides unstable). Of the 227 nuclides
never observed to decay, only 90 of these (all from the first 40 elements) are stable in theory to all known forms of
Isotope 28

decay. Element 41 (niobium) is theoretically unstable to spontaneous fission, but this has never been detected. Many
other stable nuclides are in theory energetically susceptible to other known forms of decay such as alpha decay or
double beta decay, but no decay has yet been observed. The half lives for these processes often exceed a million
times the estimated age of the universe.
Adding in the radioactive nuclides that have been created artificially, there are more than 3100 currently known
nuclides.[3] . These include 905 nuclides which are either stable, or have half lives longer than 60 minutes. See list of
nuclides for details.

History of the term

The term isotope was coined in 1913 by Margaret Todd, a Scottish
physician, during a conversation with Frederick Soddy (to whom she
was distantly related by marriage).[4] Soddy, a chemist at Glasgow
University, explained that it appeared from his investigations as if each
position in the periodic table was occupied by multiple entities. Hence
Todd made the suggestion, which Soddy adopted, that a suitable name
for such an entity would be the Greek term for "at the same place".

Soddy's own studies were of radioactive (unstable) atoms. The first

observation of different stable isotopes for an element was by J. J.
Thomson in 1913. As part of his exploration into the composition of
canal rays, Thomson channeled streams of neon ions through a
magnetic and an electric field and measured their deflection by placing
a photographic plate in their path. Each stream created a glowing patch
on the plate at the point it struck. Thomson observed two separate
patches of light on the photographic plate (see image), which suggested
two different parabolas of deflection. Thomson eventually concluded
In the bottom right corner of JJ Thomson's
that some of the atoms in the neon gas were of higher mass than the
photographic plate are the separate impact marks
rest. F.W. Aston subsequently discovered different stable isotopes for for the two isotopes of neon: neon-20 and
numerous elements using a mass spectrograph. neon-22.

Variation in properties between isotopes

Chemical and molecular properties

A neutral atom has the same number of electrons as protons. Thus, different isotopes of a given element all have the
same number of protons and electrons and share a similar electronic structure. Because the chemical behavior of an
atom is largely determined by its electronic structure, different isotopes exhibit nearly identical chemical behavior.
The main exception to this is the kinetic isotope effect: due to their larger masses, heavier isotopes tend to react
somewhat more slowly than lighter isotopes of the same element. This is most pronounced for protium (1H) and
deuterium (2H), because deuterium has twice the mass of protium. The mass effect between deuterium and the
relatively light protium also affects the behavior of their respective chemical bonds, by means of changing the center
of gravity (reduced mass) of the atomic systems. However, for heavier elements, which have more neutrons than
lighter elements, the ratio of the nuclear mass to the collective electronic mass is far greater, and the relative mass
difference between isotopes is much less. For these two reasons, the mass-difference effects on chemistry are usually
negligible.
Isotope 29

In similar manner, two molecules that differ

only in the isotopic nature of their atoms
(isotopologues) will have identical
electronic structure and therefore almost
indistinguishable physical and chemical
properties (again with deuterium providing
the primary exception to this rule). The
vibrational modes of a molecule are
determined by its shape and by the masses
of its constituent atoms. As a consequence,
isotopologues will have different sets of
vibrational modes. Since vibrational modes
allow a molecule to absorb photons of
corresponding energies, isotopologues have
different optical properties in the infrared
range.

Nuclear properties and stability

Atomic nuclei consist of protons and
neutrons bound together by the residual
strong force. Because protons are positively
charged, they repel each other. Neutrons, Isotope half lifes. Note that the plot for stable isotopes diverges from the line,
which are electrically neutral, stabilize the protons Z = neutrons N as the element number Z becomes larger

nucleus in two ways. Their copresence

pushes protons slightly apart, reducing the electrostatic repulsion between the protons, and they exert the attractive
nuclear force on each other and on protons. For this reason, one or more neutrons are necessary for two or more
protons to be bound into a nucleus. As the number of protons increases, so does the ratio of neutrons to protons
necessary to ensure a stable nucleus (see graph at right). For example, although the neutron:proton ratio of 32He is
1:2, the neutron:proton ratio of 23892U is greater than 3:2. A number of lighter elements have stable nuclides with the
ratio 1:1 (Z = N). The nuclide 4020Ca (calcium-40) is the heaviest stable nuclide with the same number of neutrons
and protons; all heavier stable nuclides contain more neutrons than protons.

Numbers of isotopes per element

Of the 80 elements with a stable isotope, the largest number of stable isotopes observed for any element is ten (for
the element tin). Xenon is the only element that has nine stable isotopes. Cadmium has eight stable isotopes. Five
elements have seven stable isotopes, eight have six stable isotopes, ten have five stable isotopes, eight have four
stable isotopes, nine have three stable isotopes, 16 have two stable isotopes (counting 180m73Ta as stable), and 26
elements have only a single stable isotope (of these, 19 are so-called mononuclidic elements, having a single
primordial stable isotope that dominates and fixes the atomic weight of the natural element to high precision; 3
radioactive mononuclidic elements occur as well).[5] In total, there are 257 nuclides that have not been observed to
decay. For the 80 elements that have one or more stable isotopes, the average number of stable isotopes is 257/80 =
3.2 isotopes per element.
Isotope 30

Even and odd nucleon numbers

Even/odd N
Mass E O All

Stable 145 101 246

Longlived 20 6 26

Primordial 165 107 272

The proton:neutron ratio is not the only factor affecting nuclear stability. Adding neutrons to isotopes can vary their
nuclear spins and nuclear shapes, causing differences in neutron capture cross-sections and gamma spectroscopy and
nuclear magnetic resonance properties.

Even mass number

Beta decay of an even-even nucleus produces an odd-odd nucleus, and vice versa. An even number of protons or of
neutrons are more stable (lower binding energy) because of pairing effects, so even-even nuclei are much more
stable than odd-odd. One effect is that there are few stable odd-odd nuclei, but another effect is to prevent beta decay
of many even-even nuclei into another even-even nucleus of the same mass number but lower energy, because decay
proceeding one step at a time would have to pass through an odd-odd nucleus of higher energy. This makes for a
larger number of stable even-even nuclei, up to three for some mass numbers, and up to seven for some atomic
(proton) numbers. Double beta decay directly from even-even to even-even skipping over an odd-odd nuclide is only
occasionally possible, and even then with a half-life greater than a billion times the age of the universe.
Even-mass-number nuclides have integer spin and are bosons.

Even proton-even neutron

Even/odd Z, N
p,n EE OO EO OE

Stable 140 5 53 48

Longlived 16 4 2 4

Primordial 156 9 55 52

For example, the extreme stability of helium-4 due to a double pairing of 2 protons and 2 neutrons prevents any
nuclides containing five or eight nucleons from existing for long enough to serve as platforms for the buildup of
heavier elements during fusion formation in stars (see triple alpha process).
There are 141 stable even-even isotopes, forming 55% of the 257 stable isotopes. There are also 16 primordial
longlived even-even isotopes. As a result, many of the 41 even-numbered elements from 2 to 82 have many
primordial isotopes. Half of these even-numbered elements have six or more stable isotopes.
All even-even nuclides have spin 0 in their ground state.
Isotope 31

Odd proton-odd neutron

Only five stable nuclides contain both an odd number of protons and an odd number of neutrons: the first four
odd-odd nuclides 21H, 63Li, 105B, and 147N (where changing a proton to a neutron or vice versa would lead to a very
lopsided proton-neutron ratio) and 180m73Ta, which has not yet been observed to decay despite experimental
attempts[6] . Also, four long-lived radioactive odd-odd nuclides (4019K, 5023V, 13857La, 17671Lu) occur naturally.
Of these 9 primordial odd-odd nuclides, only 147N is the most common isotope of a common element, because it is a
part of the CNO cycle; 63Li and 105B are minority isotopes of elements that are rare compared to other light
elements, while the other six isotopes make up only a tiny percentage of their elements.
Few odd-odd nuclides (and none of the primordial ones) have spin 0 in the ground state.

Odd mass number

There is only one beta-stable nuclide per odd mass number because there is no difference in binding energy between
even-odd and odd-even comparable to that between even-even and odd-odd, and other nuclides of the same mass are
free to beta decay towards the lowest-energy one. For mass numbers 5, 147, 151, and 209 and up, the one beta-stable
isobar is able to alpha decay, so that there are no stable isotopes with these mass numbers. This gives a total of 101
stable isotopes with odd mass numbers.
Odd-mass-number nuclides have half-integer spin and are fermions.

Odd proton-even neutron

These form most of the stable isotopes of the odd-numbered elements, but there is only one stable odd-even isotope
for each of the 41 odd-numbered elements from 1 to 81, except for technetium (43Tc) and promethium (61Pm) that
have no stable isotopes, and chlorine (17Cl), potassium (19K), copper (29Cu), gallium (31Ga), bromine (35Br), silver
(47Ag), antimony (51Sb), iridium (Ir|BL=77), and thallium (81Tl), each of which has two, making a total of 48 stable
odd-even isotopes. There are also four primordial long-lived odd-even isotopes, 8737Rb, 11549In, 15163Eu, and
187
Re.
75

Even proton-odd neutron

There are 54 stable isotopes that have an even number of protons and an odd number of neutrons. There are also four
primordial long lived even-odd isotopes, 11348Cd (beta decay, half-life is 7.7 × 1015 years); 14762Sm (1.06 × 1011a);
and 14962Sm (>2 × 1015a); and the fissile 23592U.
The only even-odd isotopes that are the most common one for their element are 19578Pt and 94Be. Beryllium-9 is the
only stable beryllium isotope because the expected beryllium-8 has higher energy than two alpha particles and
therefore decays to them.

Odd neutron number

Isotope 32

Even/odd N
n E O

Stable 188 58

Longlived 20 6

Primordial 208 64

195 9
The only odd-neutron-number isotopes that are the most common isotope of their element are Pt, Be and
78 4
14
N.
7
Actinides with odd neutron number are generally fissile, while those with even neutron number are generally not,
though they are split when bombarded with fast neutrons.

Occurrence in nature
Elements are composed of one or more naturally occurring isotopes. The unstable (radioactive) isotopes are either
primordial, in which case they have persisted down to the present because their rate of decay is so slow (e.g.,
uranium-238 and potassium-40), or they are postprimordial, created by cosmic ray bombardment as cosmogenic
nuclides (e.g., tritium, carbon-14) or by the decay of a radioactive primordial isotope to a radioactive radiogenic
nuclide daughter (e.g., uranium to radium).
As discussed above, only 80 elements have any stable isotopes, and 26 of these have only one stable isotope. Thus,
about two thirds of stable elements occur naturally on Earth in multiple stable isotopes, with the largest number of
stable isotopes for an element being ten, for tin (50Sn). There are about 94 elements found naturally on Earth (up to
plutonium inclusive), though some are detected only in very tiny amounts, such as plutonium-244. Scientists
estimate that the elements that occur naturally on Earth (some only as radioisotopes) occur as 339 isotopes (nuclides)
in total.[7] Only 257 of these naturally occurring isotopes are stable in the sense of either never having been observed
to decay as of the present time (227 nuclides), or having been observed to decay but with a half life too long to
estimate (30 nuclides). An additional 31 primordial nuclides (to a total of 288 primordial nuclides), are radioactive
with known half lives, but have half lives longer than 80 million years, allowing them to exist from the beginning of
the solar system. See list of nuclides for details.
All the known stable isotopes occur naturally on Earth; the other naturally occurring-isotopes are radioactive but
occur on Earth due to their relatively long half-lives, or else due to other means of ongoing natural production. These
include the afore-mentioned cosmogenic nuclides and the short-lived radioisotopes formed by decay of a primordial
radioactive isotope, such as radon and radium from uranium.
An additional ~3000 radioactive isotopes not found in nature have been created in nuclear reactors and in particle
accelerators. Many short-lived isotopes not found naturally on Earth have also been observed by spectroscopic
analysis, being naturally created in stars or supernovae. An example is aluminum-26, which is not naturally found on
Earth, but which is found in abundance on an astronomical scale.
The tabulated atomic masses of elements are averages that account for the presence of multiple isotopes with
different masses. Before the discovery of isotopes, empirically determined noninteger values of atomic mass
confounded scientists. For example, a sample of chlorine contains 75.8% chlorine-35 and 24.2% chlorine-37, giving
an average atomic mass of 35.5 atomic mass units.
According to generally accepted cosmology theory, only isotopes of hydrogen and helium, and traces of some
isotopes of lithium and beryllium were created at the Big Bang, while all other isotopes were synthesized later, in
stars and supernovae, and in interactions between energetic particles such as cosmic rays, and previously produced
isotopes. (See nucleosynthesis for details of the various processes thought to be responsible for isotope production.)
The respective abundances of isotopes on Earth result from the quantities formed by these processes, their spread
through the galaxy, and the rates of decay for isotopes that are unstable. After the initial coalescence of the solar
Isotope 33

system, isotopes were redistributed according to mass, and the isotopic composition of elements varies slightly from
planet to planet. This sometimes makes it possible to trace the origin of meteorites.

Atomic mass of isotopes

The atomic mass (mr) of an isotope is determined mainly by its mass number (i.e. number of nucleons in its nucleus).
Small corrections are due to the binding energy of the nucleus (see mass defect), the slight difference in mass
between proton and neutron, and the mass of the electrons associated with the atom, the latter because the
electron:nucleon ratio differs among isotopes.
The mass number is a dimensionless quantity. The atomic mass, on the other hand, is measured using the atomic
mass unit based on the mass of the carbon atom. It is denoted with symbols "u" (for unit) or "Da" (for Dalton).
The atomic masses of naturally occurring isotopes of an element determine the atomic weight of the element. When
the element contains N isotopes, the equation below is applied for the atomic weight M:

where m1, m2, ..., mN are the atomic masses of each individual isotope, and x1, ... , xN are the relative abundances of
these isotopes.

Applications of isotopes
Several applications exist that capitalize on properties of the various isotopes of a given element. Isotope separation
is a significant technological challenge, particularly with heavy elements such as uranium or plutonium. Lighter
elements such as lithium, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen are commonly separated by gas diffusion of their compounds
such as CO and NO. The separation of hydrogen and deuterium is unusual since it is based on chemical rather than
physical properties, for example in the Girdler sulfide process. Uranium isotopes have been separated in bulk by gas
diffusion, gas centrifugation, laser ionization separation, and (in the Manhattan Project) by a type of production mass
spectroscopy.

Use of chemical and biological properties

• Isotope analysis is the determination of isotopic signature, the relative abundances of isotopes of a given element
in a particular sample. For biogenic substances in particular, significant variations of isotopes of C, N and O can
occur. Analysis of such variations has a wide range of applications, such as the detection of adulteration of food
products.[8] The identification of certain meteorites as having originated on Mars is based in part upon the
isotopic signature of trace gases contained in them.[9]
• Another common application is isotopic labeling, the use of unusual isotopes as tracers or markers in chemical
reactions. Normally, atoms of a given element are indistinguishable from each other. However, by using isotopes
of different masses, they can be distinguished by mass spectrometry or infrared spectroscopy. For example, in
'stable isotope labeling with amino acids in cell culture (SILAC)' stable isotopes are used to quantify proteins. If
radioactive isotopes are used, they can be detected by the radiation they emit (this is called radioisotopic
labeling).
• A technique similar to radioisotopic labeling is radiometric dating: using the known half-life of an unstable
element, one can calculate the amount of time that has elapsed since a known level of isotope existed. The most
widely known example is radiocarbon dating used to determine the age of carbonaceous materials.
• Isotopic substitution can be used to determine the mechanism of a reaction via the kinetic isotope effect.
Isotope 34

Use of nuclear properties

• Several forms of spectroscopy rely on the unique nuclear properties of specific isotopes. For example, nuclear
magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy can be used only for isotopes with a nonzero nuclear spin. The most
common isotopes used with NMR spectroscopy are 1H, 2D,15N, 13C, and 31P.
• Mössbauer spectroscopy also relies on the nuclear transitions of specific isotopes, such as 57Fe.
• Radionuclides also have important uses. Nuclear power and nuclear weapons development require relatively large
quantities of specific isotopes.

See also
• Atom
• Table of nuclides
• Radionuclide (or radioisotope)
• Nuclear medicine (includes medical isotopes)
• Isotopomer
• List of particles
• Isotopes are nuclides having the same number of protons; compare:
• Isotones are nuclides having the same number of neutrons.
• Isobars are nuclides having the same mass number, i.e. sum of protons plus neutrons.
• Nuclear isomers are different excited states of the same type of nucleus. A transition from one isomer to
another is accompanied by emission or absorption of a gamma ray, or the process of internal conversion. (Not
to be confused with chemical isomers.)
• Bainbridge mass spectrometer

External links
• Nucleonica Nuclear Science Portal [10]
• Nucleonica Nuclear Science Wiki [11]
• International Atomic Energy Agency [12]
• Atomic weights of all isotopes [13]
• Atomgewichte, Zerfallsenergien und Halbwertszeiten aller Isotope [14]
• Chart of the Nuclides [15] produced by the Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory $25
• Exploring the Table of the Isotopes [16] at the LBNL
• Current isotope research and information [17]
• Radioactive Isotopes [18] by the CDC
• Interacive Chart of the nuclides, isotopes and Periodic Table [19]

• The LIVEChart of Nuclides - IAEA [20] with isotope data, in Java [20] or HTML [21]
Isotope 35

References
[1] IUPAC http:/ / goldbook. iupac. org/ I03331. html
[2] "Radioactives Missing From The Earth" (http:/ / www. don-lindsay-archive. org/ creation/ isotope_list. html). .
[3] "NuDat 2 Description" (http:/ / www. nndc. bnl. gov/ nudat2/ help/ index. jsp). .
[4] Budzikiewicz H, Grigsby RD (2006). "Mass spectrometry and isotopes: a century of research and discussion". Mass spectrometry reviews 25
(1): 146–57. doi:10.1002/mas.20061. PMID 16134128.
[5] Sonzogni, Alejandro. "Interactive Chart of Nuclides" (http:/ / www. nndc. bnl. gov/ chart/ ). National Nuclear Data Center: Brook haven
National Laboratory. .
[6] hhttp://bryza.if.uj.edu.pl/zdfk/wp-includes/publications/misiaszek_180mTa_2009.pdf Search for the radioactivity of 180mTa using an
underground HPGe sandwich spectrometer, 2009
[7] (http:/ / www. don-lindsay-archive. org/ creation/ isotope_list. html)
[8] E. Jamin et al. (2003). "Improved Detection of Added Water in Orange Juice by Simultaneous Determination of the Oxygen-18/Oxygen-16
Isotope Ratios of Water and Ethanol Derived from Sugars"" (http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ cgi-bin/ article. cgi/ jafcau/ 2003/ 51/ i18/ pdf/ jf030167&
nbsp;m. pdf). J. Agric. Food Chem. 51: 5202. doi:10.1021/jf030167 m. .
[9] A. H. Treiman, J. D. Gleason and D. D. Bogard (2000). ""The SNC meteorites are from Mars"" (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/
science?_ob=ArticleURL& _udi=B6V6T-41WBDHD-8& _user=2400262& _coverDate=10/ 31/ 2000& _alid=678948366& _rdoc=3&
_fmt=summary& _orig=search& _cdi=5823& _sort=r& _docanchor=& view=c& _ct=89& _acct=C000057185& _version=1&
_urlVersion=0& _userid=2400262& md5=c5ae2aa8ea60dbd76c2870048730a299). Planet. Space. Sci. 48: 1213.
doi:10.1016/S0032-0633(00)00105-7. .
[10] http:/ / www. nucleonica. net
[11] http:/ / www. nucleonica. net/ wiki/ index. php/ Special:Allpages/ Help:
[12] http:/ / www. IAEA. org
[13] http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cgi-bin/ Compositions/ stand_alone. pl?ele=& ascii=html& isotype=some
[14] http:/ / atom. kaeri. re. kr/
[15] http:/ / www. chartofthenuclides. com/
[16] http:/ / ie. lbl. gov/ education/ isotopes. htm
[17] http:/ / www. isotope. info/
[18] http:/ / www. bt. cdc. gov/ radiation/ isotopes/
[19] http:/ / www. yoix. org/ elements. html
[20] http:/ / www-nds. iaea. org/ livechart
[21] http:/ / www-nds. iaea. org/ relnsd/ vcharthtml/ VChartHTML. html
Orbital 36

Orbital
An atomic orbital is a mathematical function that describes the wave-like behavior of either one electron or a pair of
electrons in an atom.[1] This function can be used to calculate the probability of finding any electron of an atom in
any specific region around the atom's nucleus. These functions may serve as three-dimensional graph of an electron’s
likely location. The term may thus refer directly to the physical region defined by the function where the electron is
likely to be.[2] Specifically, atomic orbitals are the possible quantum states of an individual electron in the collection
of electrons around a single atom, as described by the orbital function.
Despite the obvious analogy to planets revolving around the Sun, electrons cannot be described as solid particles and
so atomic orbitals rarely, if ever, resemble a planet's elliptical path. A more accurate analogy might be that of a large
and often oddly-shaped atmosphere (the electron), distributed around a relatively tiny planet (the atomic nucleus).
Atomic orbitals exactly describe the shape of this atmosphere only when a single electron is present in an atom.
When more electrons are added to a single atom, the additional electrons tend to more evenly fill in a volume of
space around the nucleus so that the resulting collection (sometimes termed the atom’s “electron cloud” [3] ) tends
toward a generally spherical zone of probability describing where the atom’s electrons will be found.
The idea that electrons might revolve
around a compact nucleus with definite
angular momentum was convincingly
argued in 1913 by Niels Bohr,[4] and
the Japanese physicist Hantaro
Nagaoka published an orbit-based
hypothesis for electronic behavior as
early as 1904.[5] However, it was not
until 1926 that the solution of the
Schrödinger equation for
electron-waves in atoms provided the
functions for the modern orbitals.[6]

Because of the difference from

Electron atomic and molecular orbitals. The chart of orbitals (left) is arranged by
classical mechanical orbits, the term
increasing energy (see Madelung rule). Note that atomic orbits are functions of three
"orbit" for electrons in atoms, has been variables (two angles, and the distance from the nucleus, r). These images are faithful to
replaced with the term orbital—a term the angular component of the orbital, but not entirely representative of the orbital as a
first coined by chemist Robert whole.

Mulliken in 1932.[7] Atomic orbitals

are typically described as “hydrogen-like” (meaning one-electron) wave functions over space, categorized by n, l, and
m quantum numbers, which correspond to the electrons' energy, angular momentum, and an angular momentum
direction, respectively. Each orbital is defined by a different set of quantum numbers and contains a maximum of
two electrons. The simple names s
Orbital 37

orbital, p orbital, d orbital and f

orbital refer to orbitals with angular
momentum quantum number l = 0, 1, 2
and 3 respectively. These names
indicate the orbital shape and are used
to describe the electron configurations
as shown on the right. They are
derived from the characteristics of their
spectroscopic lines: sharp, principal,
diffuse, and fundamental, the rest
being named in alphabetical order
(omitting j).[8] [9]

From about 1920, even before the

advent of modern quantum mechanics,
the aufbau principle (construction
principle) that atoms were built up of
pairs of electrons, arranged in simple
repeating patterns of increasing odd
numbers (1,3,5,7..), had been used by
Niels Bohr and others to infer the Computed hydrogen atom orbital for n=6, l=0, m=0
presence of something like atomic
orbitals within the total electron configuration of complex atoms. In the mathematics of atomic physics, it is also
often convenient to reduce the electron functions of complex systems into combinations of the simpler atomic
orbitals. Although each electron in a multi-electron atom is not confined to one of the “one-or-two-electron atomic
orbitals” in the idealized picture above, still the electron wave-function may be broken down into combinations
which still bear the imprint of atomic orbitals; as though, in some sense, the electron cloud of a many-electron atom
is still partly “composed” of atomic orbitals, each containing only one or two electrons. The physicality of this view
is best illustrated in the repetitive nature of the chemical and physical behavior of elements which results in the
natural ordering known from the 19th century as the periodic table of the elements. In this ordering, the repeating
periodicity of 2, 6, 10, and 14 elements in the periodic table corresponds with the total number of electrons which
occupy a complete set of s, p, d and f atomic orbitals, respectively.

Orbital names
Orbitals are given names in the form:

where X is the energy level corresponding to the principal quantum number n, type is a lower-case letter denoting
the shape or subshell of the orbital and it corresponds to the angular quantum number l, and y is the number of
electrons in that orbital.
For example, the orbital 1s2 (pronounced "one ess two") has two electrons and is the lowest energy level (n = 1) and
has an angular quantum number of l = 0. In X-ray notation, the principal quantum number is given a letter associated
with it. For n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ..., the letters associated with those numbers are K, L, M, N, O, ... respectively.
Orbital 38

Formal quantum mechanical definition

In quantum mechanics, the state of an atom, i.e. the eigenstates of the atomic Hamiltonian, is expanded (see
configuration interaction expansion and basis (linear algebra)) into linear combinations of anti-symmetrized products
(Slater determinants) of one-electron functions. The spatial components of these one-electron functions are called
atomic orbitals. (When one considers also their spin component, one speaks of atomic spin orbitals.)
In atomic physics, the atomic spectral lines correspond to transitions (quantum leaps) between quantum states of an
atom. These states are labelled by a set of quantum numbers summarized in the term symbol and usually associated
to particular electron configurations, i.e. by occupations schemes of atomic orbitals (e.g. 1s2 2s2 2p6 for the ground
state of neon -- term symbol: 1S0).
This notation means that the corresponding Slater determinants have a clear higher weight in the configuration
interaction expansion. The atomic orbital concept is therefore a key concept for visualizing the excitation process
associated to a given transition. For example, one can say for a given transition that it corresponds to the excitation
of an electron from an occupied orbital to a given unoccupied orbital. Nevertheless one has to keep in mind that
electrons are fermions ruled by Pauli exclusion principle and cannot be distinguished from the other electrons in the
atom. Moreover, it sometimes happens that the configuration interaction expansion converges very slowly and that
one cannot speak about simple one-determinantal wave function at all. This is the case when electron correlation is
large.
Fundamentally, an atomic orbital is a one-electron wavefunction, even though most electrons do not exist in
one-electron atoms, and so the one-electron view is an approximation. When thinking about orbitals, we are often
given an orbital vision which (even if it is not spelled out) is heavily influenced by this Hartree–Fock approximation,
which is one way to reduce the complexities of molecular orbital theory.

Connection to uncertainty relation

Immediately after Heisenberg formulated his uncertainty relation, it was noted by Bohr that the existence of any sort
of wave packet implies uncertainty in the wave frequency and wavelength, since a spread of frequencies is needed to
create the packet itself. In quantum mechanics, where all particle momenta are associated with waves, it is the
formation of such a wave packet which localizes the wave, and thus the particle, in space. In states where a quantum
mechanical particle is bound, it must be localized as a wave packet, and the existence of the packet and its minimum
size implies a spread and minimal value in particle wavelength, and thus also momentum and energy. In quantum
mechanics, as a particle is localized to a smaller region in space, the associated compressed wave packet requires a
larger and larger range of momenta, and thus larger kinetic energy. Thus, the binding energy to contain or trap a
particle in a smaller region of space, increases without bound, as the region of space grows smaller. Particles cannot
be restricted to a geometric point in space, since this would require an infinite particle momentum.
In chemistry, Schrödinger, Pauling, Mulliken and others noted that the consequence of Heisenberg's relation was that
the electron, as a wave packet, could not be considered to have an exact location in its orbital. Max Born suggested
that the electron's position needed to be described by a probability distribution which was connected with finding the
electron at some point in the wave-function which described its associated wave packet. The new quantum
mechanics did not give exact results, but only the probabilities for the occurrence of a variety of possible such
results. Heisenberg held that the path of a moving particle has no meaning if we cannot observe it, as we cannot with
electrons in an atom.
In the quantum picture of Heisenberg, Schrödinger and others, the Bohr atom number n for each orbital became
known as an n-sphere in a three dimensional atom and was pictured as the mean energy of the probability cloud of
the electron's wave packet which surrounded the atom.
Although Heisenberg used infinite sets of positions for the electron in his matrices, this does not mean that the
electron could be anywhere in the universe. Rather there are several laws that show the electron must be in one
Orbital 39

localized probability distribution. An electron is described by its energy in Bohr's atom which was carried over to
matrix mechanics. Therefore, an electron in a certain n-sphere had to be within a certain range from the nucleus
depending upon its energy. This restricts its location.

Hydrogen-like atoms
The simplest atomic orbitals are those that occur in an atom with a single electron, such as the hydrogen atom. In this
case the atomic orbitals are the eigenstates of the hydrogen Hamiltonian. They can be obtained analytically (see
hydrogen atom). An atom of any other element ionized down to a single electron is very similar to hydrogen, and the
orbitals take the same form.
For atoms with two or more electrons, the governing equations can only be solved with the use of methods of
iterative approximation. Orbitals of multi-electron atoms are qualitatively similar to those of hydrogen, and in the
simplest models, they are taken to have the same form. For more rigorous and precise analysis, the numerical
approximations must be used.
A given (hydrogen-like) atomic orbital is identified by unique values of three quantum numbers: n, l, and ml. The
rules restricting the values of the quantum numbers, and their energies (see below), explain the electron
configuration of the atoms and the periodic table.
The stationary states (quantum states) of the hydrogen-like atoms are its atomic orbital. However, in general, an
electron's behavior is not fully described by a single orbital. Electron states are best represented by time-depending
"mixtures" (linear combinations) of multiple orbitals. See Linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital
method.
The quantum number n first appeared in the Bohr model where it determines the radius of each circular electron
orbit. In modern quantum mechanics however, n determines the mean distance of the electron from the nucleus; all
electrons with the same value of n lie at the same average distance. For this reason, orbitals with the same value of n
are said to comprise a "shell". Orbitals with the same value of n and also the same value of l are even more closely
related, and are said to comprise a "subshell".

Qualitative characterization

Limitations on the quantum numbers

An atomic orbital is uniquely identified by the values of the three quantum numbers, and each set of the three
quantum numbers corresponds to exactly one orbital, but the quantum numbers only occur in certain combinations of
values. The rules governing the possible values of the quantum numbers are as follows:
The principal quantum number n is always a positive integer. In fact, it can be any positive integer, but for reasons
discussed below, large numbers are seldom encountered. Each atom has, in general, many orbitals associated with
each value of n; these orbitals together are sometimes called electron shells.
The azimuthal quantum number is a non-negative integer. Within a shell where n is some integer n0, ranges
across all (integer) values satisfying the relation . For instance, the n = 1 shell has only orbitals
with , and the n = 2 shell has only orbitals with , and . The set of orbitals associated with a
particular value of are sometimes collectively called a subshell.
The magnetic quantum number is also always an integer. Within a subshell where is some integer ,
ranges thus: .
The above results may be summarized in the following table. Each cell represents a subshell, and lists the values of
available in that subshell. Empty cells represent subshells that do not exist.
Orbital 40

1 2 3 4 ...

2 0 -1, 0,
1

3 0 -1, 0, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2

4 0 -1, 0, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3

5 0 -1, 0, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 -4, -3, -2 -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4

... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Subshells are usually identified by their - and -values. is represented by its numerical value, but is
represented by a letter as follows: 0 is represented by 's', 1 by 'p', 2 by 'd', 3 by 'f', and 4 by 'g'. For instance, one may
speak of the subshell with and as a '2s subshell'.

The shapes of orbitals

Any discussion of the shapes of electron
orbitals is necessarily imprecise, because a
given electron, regardless of which orbital it
occupies, can at any moment be found at
any distance from the nucleus and in any
direction due to the uncertainty principle.
The shapes of the first five atomic orbitals: 1s, 2s, 2px,2py, and 2pz. The colors
However, the electron is much more likely show the wavefunction phase.
to be found in certain regions of the atom
than in others. Given this, a boundary surface can be drawn so that the electron has a high probability to be found
anywhere within the surface, and all regions outside the surface have low values. The precise placement of the
surface is arbitrary, but any reasonably compact determination must follow a pattern specified by the behavior of
, the square of the wavefunction. This boundary surface is what is meant when the "shape" of an orbital is referred to.
Generally speaking, the number determines the size and energy of the orbital for a given nucleus: as increases,
the size of the orbital increases. However, in comparing different elements, the higher nuclear charge Z of heavier
elements causes their orbitals to contract by comparison to lighter ones, so that the overall size of the whole atom
remains very roughly constant, even as the number of electrons in heavier elements (higher Z) increases.
Also in general terms, determines an orbital's shape, and its orientation. However, since some orbitals are
described by equations in complex numbers, the shape sometimes depends on also.
The single -orbitals ( ) are shaped like spheres. For n=1 the sphere is "solid" (it is most dense at the center
and fades exponentially outwardly), but for n=2 or more, each single s-orbital is composed of spherically symmetric
surfaces which are nested shells (i.e., the "wave-structure" is radial, following a sinusoidal radial component as
well). The -orbitals for all n numbers are the only orbitals with an anti-node (a region of high wave function
density) at the center of the nucleus. All other orbitals (p, d, f, etc.) have angular momentum, and thus avoid the
nucleus (having a wave node at the nucleus).
The three -orbitals for n=2 have the form of two ellipsoids with a point of tangency at the nucleus (sometimes
referred to as a dumbbell). The three -orbitals in each shell are oriented at right angles to each other, as
determined by their respective linear combination of values of .
Orbital 41

Four of the five -orbitals for n=3 look similar, each with four pear-shaped balls, each ball tangent to two others,
and the centers of all four lying in one plane, between a pair of axes. Three of these planes are the -, -, and
-planes, and the fourth has the centres on the and axes. The fifth and final -orbital consists of three
regions of high probability density: a torus with two pear-shaped regions placed symmetrically on its axis.
There are seven -orbitals, each with shapes more complex than those of the -orbitals.
For each s, p, d, f and g set of orbitals, the set of orbitals which composes it forms a spherically symmetrical set of
shapes. For non-s orbitals, which have lobes, the lobes point in directions so as to fill space as symmetrically as
possible for number of lobes which exist for a set of orientations. For example, the three p orbitals have six lobes
which are oriented to each of the six primary directions of 3-D space; for the 5 d orbitals, there are a total of 18
lobes, in which again six point in primary directions, and the 12 additional lobes fill the 12 gaps which exist between
each pairs of these 6 primary axes.
Additionally, as is the case with the s orbitals, individual p, d, f and g orbitals with n values higher than the lowest
possible value, exhibit an additional radial node structure which is reminiscent of harmonic waves of the same type,
as compared with the lowest (or fundamental) mode of the wave. As with s orbitals, this phenomenon provides p, d,
f, and g orbitals at the next higher possible value of n (for example, 3p orbitals vs. the fundamental 2p), an additional
node in each lobe. Still higher values of n further increase the number of radial nodes, for each type of orbital.
The shapes of atomic orbitals in one-electron atom are related to 3-dimensional spherical harmonics. These shapes
are not unique, and any linear combination is valid, in fact it is possible to generate sets where all the d's are the
same shape, just like the px, py, and pz are the same shape.[10] [11]

Orbitals table
This table shows all orbital configurations for the real hydrogen-like wave functions up to 7s, and therefore covers
the simple electronic configuration for all elements in the periodic table up to radium. It is should also be noted that
the pz orbital is the same as the p0 orbital, but the px and py are formed by taking linear compbinations of the p+1 and
p-1 orbitals (which is why they are listed under the m=±1 label). Also, the p+1 and p-1 are not the same shape as the
p0, since they are pure spherical harmonics.

s (l=0) p (l=1) d (l=2) f (l=3)

m=0 m=0 m=±1 m=0 m=±1 m=±2 m=0 m=±1 m=±2 m=±3

s pz px py dxz dyz dxy d 2 2

dz2 fz3 fxz2 fyz2 fxyz fz(x2-y2) fx(x2-3y2) fy(3x2-y2)
x -y

n=1

n=2

n=3

n=4

n=5 ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

n=6 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

n=7 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Orbital 42

Orbital energy
In atoms with a single electron (hydrogen-like atoms), the energy of an orbital (and, consequently, of any electrons
in the orbital) is determined exclusively by . The orbital has the lowest possible energy in the atom. Each
successively higher value of has a higher level of energy, but the difference decreases as increases. For high
, the level of energy becomes so high that the electron can easily escape from the atom.
In atoms with multiple electrons, the energy of an electron depends not only on the intrinsic properties of its orbital,
but also on its interactions with the other electrons. These interactions depend on the detail of its spatial probability
distribution, and so the energy levels of orbitals depend not only on but also on . Higher values of are
associated with higher values of energy; for instance, the 2p state is higher than the 2s state. When = 2, the
increase in energy of the orbital becomes so large as to push the energy of orbital above the energy of the s-orbital in
the next higher shell; when = 3 the energy is pushed into the shell two steps higher.
The energy sequence of the first 24 subshells is given in the following table. Each cell represents a subshell with
and given by its row and column indices, respectively. The number in the cell is the subshell's position in the
sequence.

1 1

2 2 3

3 4 5 7

4 6 8 10 13

5 9 11 14 17 21

6 12 15 18 22 26

7 16 19 23 27 31

8 20 24 28 32 36

Note: empty cells indicate non-existent sublevels, while numbers in italics indicate sublevels that could exist, but
which do not hold electrons in any element currently known.

Electron placement and the periodic table

Several rules govern the placement of electrons in orbitals (electron configuration). The first dictates that no two
electrons in an atom may have the same set of values of quantum numbers (this is the Pauli exclusion principle).
These quantum numbers include the three that define orbitals, as well as s, or spin quantum number. Thus, two
electrons may occupy a single orbital, so long as they have different values of . However, only two electrons,
because of their spin, can be associated with each orbital.
Additionally, an electron always tends to fall to the lowest possible energy state. It is possible for it to occupy any
orbital so long as it does not violate the Pauli exclusion principle, but if lower-energy orbitals are available, this
condition is unstable. The electron will eventually lose energy (by releasing a photon) and drop into the lower
orbital. Thus, electrons fill orbitals in the order specified by the energy sequence given above.
This behavior is responsible for the structure of the periodic table. The table may be divided into several rows (called
'periods'), numbered starting with 1 at the top. The presently known elements occupy seven periods. If a certain
period has number , it consists of elements whose outermost electrons fall in the th shell.
The periodic table may also be divided into several numbered rectangular 'blocks'. The elements belonging to a given
block have this common feature: their highest-energy electrons all belong to the same -state (but the associated
with that -state depends upon the period). For instance, the leftmost two columns constitute the 's-block'. The
Orbital 43

outermost electrons of Li and Be respectively belong to the 2s subshell, and those of Na and Mg to the 3s subshell.
The number of electrons in a neutral atom increases with the atomic number. The electrons in the outermost shell, or
valence electrons, tend to be responsible for an element's chemical behavior. Elements that contain the same number
of valence electrons can be grouped together and display similar chemical properties.

Relativistic effects
For elements with high atomic number Z, the effects of relativity become more pronounced, and especially so for s
electrons, which move at relativistic velocities as they penetrate the screening electrons near the core of high Z
atoms. This relativistic increase in momentum for high speed electrons causes a corresponding decrease in
wavelength and contraction of 6s orbitals relative to 5d orbitals (by comparison to corresponding s and d electrons in
lighter elements in the same column of the periodic table); this results in 6s valence electrons becoming lowered in
energy.
Examples of significant physical outcomes of this effect include the lowered melting temperature of mercury (which
results from 6s electrons not being available for metal bonding) and the golden color of gold and caesium (which
results from narrowing of 6s to 5d transition energy to the point that visible light begins to be absorbed). See [12].
In the Bohr Model, an electron has a velocity given by , where Z is the atomic number, is the
fine-structure constant, and c is the speed of light. In non-relativistic quantum mechanics, therefore, any atom with
an atomic number greater than 137 would require its 1s electrons to be traveling faster than the speed of light. Even
in the Dirac equation, which accounts for relativistic effects, the wavefunction of the electron for atoms with Z >
137 is oscillatory and unbound. The significance of element 137, also known as untriseptium, was first pointed out
by the physicist Richard Feynman. Element 137 is sometimes informally called feynmanium (symbol Fy). However,
Feynman's approximation fails to predict the exact critical value of Z due to the non-point-charge nature of the
nucleus and very small orbital radius of inner electrons, resulting in a potential seen by inner electrons which is
effectively less than Z. The critical Z value which makes the atom unstable with regard to high-field breakdown of
the vacuum and production of electron-positron pairs, does not occur until Z is about 173. These conditions are not
seen except transiently in collisions of very heavy nuclei such as lead or uranium in accelerators, where such
electron-positron production from these effects has been claimed to be observed. See Extension of the periodic table
beyond the seventh period.

See also
• Atomic electron configuration table
• Electron configuration
• Energy level
• List of Hund's rules
• Molecular orbital
• Quantum chemistry computer programs
Orbital 44

Further reading
• Tipler, Paul; Ralph Llewellyn (2003). Modern Physics (4 ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.
ISBN 0-7167-4345-0.
• Scerri, Eric (2007). The Periodic Table, Its Story and Its Significance. New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-530573-9.

External links
• Guide to atomic orbitals [13]
• Covalent Bonds and Molecular Structure [14]
• Animation of the time evolution of an hydrogenic orbital [15]
• The Orbitron [16], a visualization of all common and uncommon atomic orbitals, from 1s to 7g
• Grand table [17] Still images of many orbitals
• David Manthey's Orbital Viewer [18] renders orbitals with n ≤ 30
• Java orbital viewer applet [19]
• What does an atom look like? Orbitals in 3D [20]
• Atom Orbitals v.1.5 visualization software [21]

References
[1] Milton Orchin,Roger S. Macomber, Allan Pinhas, and R. Marshall Wilson(2005)" Atomic Orbital Theory (http:/ / media. wiley. com/
product_data/ excerpt/ 81/ 04716802/ 0471680281. pdf)"
[2] Daintith, J. (2004). Oxford Dictionary of Chemistry. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-860918-3.
[3] The Feynman Lectures on Physics -The Definitive Edition, Vol 1 lect 6 pg 11. Feynman, Richard; Leighton; Sands. (2006) Addison Wesley
ISBN 0-8053-9046-4
[4] Bohr, Niels (1913). "On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules". Philosophical Magazine 26 (1): 476.
[5] Nagaoka, Hantaro (May 1904). "Kinetics of a System of Particles illustrating the Line and the Band Spectrum and the Phenomena of
Radioactivity" (http:/ / www. chemteam. info/ Chem-History/ Nagaoka-1904. html). Philosophical Magazine 7: 445–455. .
[6] Bryson, Bill (2003). A Short History of Nearly Everything. Broadway Books. pp. 141–143. ISBN 0-7679-0818-X.
[7] Mulliken, Robert S. (July 1932). "Electronic Structures of Polyatomic Molecules and Valence. II. General Considerations" (http:/ / prola. aps.
org/ abstract/ PR/ v41/ i1/ p49_1). Phys. Rev. 41 (1): 49–71. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.41.49. .
[8] Griffiths, David (1995). Introduction to Quantum Mechanics. Prentice Hall. pp. 190–191. ISBN 0-13-124405-1.
[9] Levine, Ira (2000). Quantum Chemistry (5 ed.). Prentice Hall. pp. 144–145. ISBN 0-13-685512-1.
[10] Powell, Richard E. (1968). "The five equivalent d orbitals". Journal of Chemical Education 45: 45. doi:10.1021/ed045p45.
[11] Kimball, George E. (1940). "Directed Valence". The Journal of Chemical Physics 8: 188. doi:10.1063/1.1750628.
[12] http:/ / www. chem1. com/ acad/ webtut/ atomic/ qprimer/ #Q26
[13] http:/ / www. chemguide. co. uk/ atoms/ properties/ atomorbs. html
[14] http:/ / wps. prenhall. com/ wps/ media/ objects/ 602/ 616516/ Chapter_07. html
[15] http:/ / strangepaths. com/ atomic-orbital/ 2008/ 04/ 20/ en/
[16] http:/ / www. shef. ac. uk/ chemistry/ orbitron/
[17] http:/ / www. orbitals. com/ orb/ orbtable. htm
[18] http:/ / www. orbitals. com/ orb/ index. html
[19] http:/ / www. falstad. com/ qmatom/
[20] http:/ / www. hydrogenlab. de/ elektronium/ HTML/ einleitung_hauptseite_uk. html
[21] http:/ / taras-zavedy. narod. ru/ PROGRAMMS/ ATOM_ORBITALS_v_1_5_ENG/ Atom_Orbitals_v_1_5_ENG. html
45

Groups

Group
In chemistry, a group (also known as a
family) is a vertical column in the
periodic table of the chemical
elements. There are 18 groups in the
standard periodic table.
The modern explanation of the pattern
of the table is that the elements in a
group have similar configurations of
the outermost electron shells of their
atoms: as most chemical properties are
dominated by the orbital location of
the outermost electron. There are three The periodic table of the chemical elements
conventional ways of numbering: One
using Arabic numerals, and two using Roman numerals. The Roman numeral names are the original traditional
names of the groups; the Arabic numeral names are those recommended by the International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) to replace the old names in an attempt to reduce the confusion generated by the two
older, but mutually confusing, schemes.

There is considerable confusion surrounding the two old systems in use (old IUPAC and CAS) that combined the use
of Roman numerals with letters. In the old IUPAC system the letters A and B were designated to the left (A) and
right (B) part of the table, while in the CAS system the letters A and B were designated to main group elements (A)
and transition elements (B). The old IUPAC system was frequently used in Europe while the CAS was most
common in America. The new IUPAC scheme was developed to replace both systems as they confusingly used the
same names to mean different things. The IUPAC proposal was first circulated in 1985 for public comments,[1] and
was later included as part of the 1990 edition of the Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry.[2]
The periodic table groups are as follows (in the brackets are shown the old systems: European and American):
• Group 1 (IA,IA): the alkali metals or lithium family
• Group 2 (IIA,IIA): the alkaline earth metals or beryllium family
• Group 3 (IIIA,IIIB): the scandium family
• Group 4 (IVA,IVB): the titanium family
• Group 5 (VA,VB): the vanadium family
• Group 6 (VIA,VIB): the chromium family
• Group 7 (VIIA,VIIB): the manganese family
• Group 8 (VIII, VIIIB): the iron family
• Group 9 (VIII, VIIIB): the cobalt family
• Group 10 (VIII, VIIIB): the nickel family
• Group 11 (IB,IB): the coinage metals (not an IUPAC-recommended name) or copper family
• Group 12 (IIB,IIB): the zinc family
• Group 13 (IIIB,IIIA): the boron family
• Group 14 (IVB,IVA): the carbon family
Group 46

• Group 15 (VB,VA): the pnictogens or nitrogen family

• Group 16 (VIB,VIA): the chalcogens or oxygen family
• Group 17 (VIIB,VIIA): the halogens or fluorine family
• Group 18 (Group 0, VIIIA): the helium family/neon family; for the first six periods, these are the noble gases

References
[1] Fluck, E. New notations in the periodic table. Pure & App. Chem. 1988, 60, 431-436. (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 1988/ pdf/
6003x0431. pdf)
[2] Leigh, G. J. Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry: Recommendations 1990. Blackwell Science, 1990. ISBN 0632024941.

3. Scerri, E. R. The Periodic Table, Its Story and Its Significance, Oxford University Press, 2007. ISBN
978-0-19-530573-9.

Group I
The alkali metals are a series of chemical elements forming Group 1 (IUPAC style) of the periodic table: lithium
(Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), caesium (Cs), and francium (Fr). (Hydrogen, although nominally
also a member of Group 1, very rarely exhibits behavior comparable to the alkali metals). The alkali metals provide
one of the best examples of group trends in properties in the periodic table, with well characterized homologous
behavior down the group.

Properties
The alkali metals are all highly reactive and are never found in elemental forms in nature. Because of this, they are
usually stored immersed in mineral oil or kerosene (paraffin oil). They also tarnish easily and have low melting
points and densities.
Physically, the alkali metals are mostly silver-colored, except for metallic caesium, which has a golden tint. These
elements are all soft metals of low density. Chemically, all of the alkali metals react aggressively with the halogens
to form ionic salts. They all react with water to form strongly alkaline hydroxides. The vigor of reaction increases
down the group. All of the atoms of alkali metals have one electron in their outmost electron shells, hence their only
way for achieving the equivalent of filled outmost electron shells is to give up one electron to an element with high
electronegativity, and hence to become singly charged positive ions, i.e. cations.
When it comes to their nuclear physics, the elements potassium and rubidium are naturally weakly radioactive
because they each contain a long half-life radioactive isotope.
The element hydrogen, with its solitary one electron per atom, is usually placed at the top of Group 1 of the periodic
table for convenience, but hydrogen is not counted as an alkali metal. Under typical conditions, pure hydrogen exists
as a diatomic gas consisting of two atoms per molecule.
The removal of the single electron of hydrogen requires considerably more energy than removal of the outer electron
from the atoms of the alkali metals. As in the halogens, only one additional electron is required to fill in the
outermost shell of the hydrogen atom, so hydrogen can in some circumstances behave like a halogen, forming the
negative hydride ion. Binary compounds of hydrogen with the alkali metals and some transition metals have been
produced in the laboratory, but these are only laboratory curiosities without much practical use. Under extremely
high pressures and low temperatures, such as those found at the cores of the planets Jupiter and Saturn, hydrogen
does become a metallic element, and it behaves like an alkali metal. (See metallic hydrogen.)
The alkali metals have the lowest ionization potentials in their periods of the periodic table, because the removal of
their single electrons from their outmost electron shells gives them the stable electron configuration of inert gases.
Another way of stating this is that they all have a high electropositivity. The "second ionization potential" of all of
Group I 47

the alkali metals is very high, since removing any electron from an atom having a noble gas configuration is difficult
to do.
All of the alkali metals are notable for their vigorous reactions with
water, and these reactions become increasingly vigorous when going
down their column in the periodic table towards the heaviest alkali
metals, such as caesium. Their chemical reactions with water are as
follows:
Alkali metal + water → Alkali metal hydroxide + hydrogen gas
For a typical example (M represents an alkali metal):
2 M (s) + 2 H2O (l) → 2 MOH (aq) + H2 (g)
Series of alkali metals, stored in mineral oil
("natrium" is sodium.)

Trends
Like in other columns of the periodic table, the members of the alkali metal family show patterns in their electron
configurations, especially their outmost electron shells. This causes similar patterns in their chemical properties:

Z Element No. of electrons/shell

1 Hydrogen 1

3 Lithium 2, 1

11 Sodium 2, 8, 1

19 Potassium 2, 8, 8, 1

37 Rubidium 2, 8, 18, 8, 1

55 Caesium 2, 8, 18, 18, 8, 1

87 Francium 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8, 1

The alkali metals show a number of trends when moving down the group - for instance: decreasing electronegativity,
increasing reactivity, and decreasing melting and boiling point. Their densities generally increase, with the notable
exception that potassium is less dense than sodium, and the possible exception of francium being less dense than
caesium. (The highly radioactive element francium only exists in microscopic quantities.)

Alkali metal Standard atomic weight (u) Melting point (K) Boiling point (K) Electronegativity (Pauling)
Density
(g·cm−3)

Lithium 6.941 453 1615 0.534 0.98

Sodium 22.990 370 1156 0.968 0.93

Potassium 39.098 336 1032 0.89 0.82

Rubidium 85.468 312 961 1.532 0.82

Caesium 132.905 301 944 1.93 0.79

Francium (223) 295 950 1.87 0.70

Group I 48

Compounds
Alkali metals form a very wide range of amalgams.[1] They tend to form ionically bonded salts with most
electronegative elements on the periodic table, like cesium fluoride and sodium chloride.

See also
• alkaline earth metal
• Lithium
• Sodium
• Potassium
• Rubidium
• Caesium
• Francium

References
[1] Deiseroth, H (1997). "Alkali metal amalgams, a group of unusual alloys". Progress in Solid State Chemistry 25: 73.
doi:10.1016/S0079-6786(97)81004-7.

• Campbell, Linda M., Aaron T. Fisk, Xianowa Wang, Gunter Kock, and Derek C. Muir (2005). "Evidence for
Biomagnification of Rubidium in Freshwater and Marine Food Webs". Canadian Journal of Fisheries and
Aquatic Sciences 62: 1161–1167. doi:10.1139/f05-027.
• Chang, Cheng-Hung, and Tian Y. Tsong (2005). "Stochastic Resonance of Na, K-Ion Pumps on the Red Cell
Membrane". AIP Conference Proceedings: 18th International Conference on Noise and Fluctuations. 780.
American Institute of Physics. pp. 587–590. doi:10.1063/1.2036821. ISBN 0-7354-0267-1.
• Joffe, Russell T., Stephen T. Sokolov and Anthony J. Levitt (2006). "Lithium and Triiodothyronine Augmentation
of Antidepressants". Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 51 (12): 791–793. PMID 17168254.
• Bauer, Brent A., Robert Houlihan, Michael J. Ackerman, Katya Johnson, and Himeshkumar Vyas (2006).
"Acquired Long QT Syndrome Secondary to Cesium Chloride Supplement". Journal of Alternative and
Complementary Medicine 12 (10): 1011–1014. doi:10.1089/acm.2006.12.1011. PMID 17212573.
• Erermis, Serpil, Muge Tamar, Hatice Karasoy, Tezan Bildik, Eyup S. Ercan, and Ahmet Gockay (1997).
"Double-Blind Randomised Trial of Modest Salt Restriction in Older People". Lancet 350: 850–854.
doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(97)02264-2.
• Krachler, M, and E Rossipal (1999). "Trace Elements Transfer From Mother to the Newborn - Investigations on
Triplets of Colostrum, Maternal and Umbilical Sera". European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 53 (6): 486–494.
doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1600781. PMID 10403586.
• Stein, Benjamin P., Stephen G. Benka, Phillip F. Schewe, and Bertram Schwarzhild (1996). "Physics Update".
Physics Today 49 (6): 9. doi:10.1063/1.2807642.
• "Group 1: The Alkali Metals" (http://www.chemsoc.org/Viselements/pages/data/intro_groupi_data.html).
Visual Elements. Royal Society of Chemistry. Retrieved 2009-12-08.
Group I 49

External links
• Science aid:Alkali metals (http://www.scienceaid.co.uk/chemistry/periodictable/alkalimetals.html) A simple
look at alkali metals
• Atomic and Physical Properties of the Group 1 Elements (http://www.chemguide.co.uk/inorganic/group1/
properties.html) An in-depth look at alkali metals

Explanation of above periodic table slice:

Alkali Atomic numbers in black Solid borders indicate primordial elements Dashed borders indicate natural radioactive elements with no
metals are solids (older than the Earth) isotopes older than the Earth

Group II
Group → 2

↓ Period

2 4
Be

3 12
Mg

4 20
Ca

5 38
Sr

6 56
Ba

7 88
Ra

The alkaline earth metals are a series of elements comprising Group 2 (IUPAC style) (Group IIA) of the periodic
table: beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), barium (Ba) and radium (Ra). This specific
group in the periodic table owes its name to their oxides that simply give basic alkaline solutions. These oxides melt
at such high temperature that they remain solids (“earths”) in fires. The alkaline earth metals provide a good example
of group trends in properties in the periodic table, with well-characterized homologous behavior down the group.
With the exception of Be and Mg, the metals have a distinguishable flame color, brick-red for Ca, magenta-red for
Sr, green for Ba and crimson red for Ra.
Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in its electron configuration, especially the outermost
shells resulting in trends in chemical behavior:
Group II 50

Z Element No. of electrons/shell

4 Beryllium 2, 2

12 Magnesium 2, 8, 2

20 Calcium 2, 8, 8, 2

38 Strontium 2, 8, 18, 8, 2

56 Barium 2, 8, 18, 18, 8, 2

88 Radium 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8, 2

The alkaline earth metals are silver colored, soft metals, which react readily with halogens to form ionic salts, and
with water, though not as rapidly as the alkali metals, to form strong alkaline (basic) hydroxides. For example, where
sodium and potassium react with water at room temperature, magnesium reacts only with steam and calcium with
hot water:
Mg + 2 H2O → Mg(OH)2 + H2
Beryllium is an exception: It does not react with water or steam, and its halides are covalent.
All the alkaline earth metals have two electrons in their valence shell, so the energetically preferred state of
achieving a filled electron shell is to lose two electrons to form doubly charged positive ions.
The alkaline earth metals are named after their oxides, the alkaline earths, whose old-fashioned names were beryllia,
magnesia, lime, strontia and baryta. These oxides are basic (alkaline) when combined with water. "Earth" is an old
term applied by early chemists to nonmetallic substances that are insoluble in water and resistant to
heating—properties shared by these oxides. The realization that these earths were not elements but compounds is
attributed to the chemist Antoine Lavoisier. In his Traité Élémentaire de Chimie (Elements of Chemistry) of 1789 he
called them salt-forming earth elements. Later, he suggested that the alkaline earths might be metal oxides, but
admitted that this was mere conjecture. In 1808, acting on Lavoisier's idea, Humphry Davy became the first to obtain
samples of the metals by electrolysis of their molten earths.

Biological occurrences
• Beryllium's low aqueous solubility
means it is rarely available to
biological systems; it has no known
role in living organisms, and when
encountered by them, is generally
highly toxic.
• Magnesium and calcium are ubiquitous
and essential to all known living
organisms. They are involved in more
than one role, with, for example,
Mg/Ca ion pumps playing a role in
some cellular processes, magnesium
functioning as the active center in
The alkaline earth metals.
some enzymes, and calcium salts
taking a structural role (e.g. bones).

• Strontium and barium have a lower availability in the biosphere. Strontium plays an important role in marine
aquatic life, especially hard corals. They use strontium to build their exoskeleton. These elements have some uses
in medicine, for example "barium meals" in radio graphic imaging, whilst strontium compounds are employed in
Group II 51

some toothpastes.
• Radium has a low availability and is highly radioactive, making it toxic to life.

Comparison of the physical properties and chemical properties between

alkaline earth and alkali metals
Just like their names, they do not differ completely. The main difference is the electron configuration, which is ns2
for alkaline earth metals and ns1 for alkali metals. For the alkaline earth metals, there are two electrons that are
available to form a metallic bond, and the nucleus contains an additional positive charge. Also, the elements of group
2A (alkaline earth) have much higher melting points and boiling points compared to those of group 1A (alkali
metals). The alkali also have a softer and more lighweight figure whereas the alkaline earth metals are much harder
and denser. The second valence electron is very important when it comes to comparing chemical properties of the
alkaline earth and the alkali metals. The second valence electron is in the same “sublevel” as the first valence
electron. Therefore, the Zeff is much greater. This means that the elements of the group 2A contain a smaller atomic
radius and much higher ionization energy than the group 1A. Even though the group 2A contains much higher
ionization energy, they still form an ionic compound with 2+ cations. Beryllium, however, behaves differently. This
is because in order to remove two electrons from this particular atom, it requires significantly more energy. It never
forms Be2+ and its bonds are polar covalent.

Beryllium
As mentioned earlier, Be is “special”; it behaves differently. If the Be2+ ion did exist, it would polarize electron
clouds that are near it very strongly and would cause extensive orbital overlap, since Be has a high charge density.
All compounds that include Be have a covalent bond. Even the compound BeF2 , which is the most ionic Be
compound, has a low melting point and a low electrical conductivity when melted.

Important reactions and compounds

Reactions:
Note: E = elements that act as reducing agents
1. The metals reduce halogens to form ionic halides: E(s) + X2 → EX2 (s) where X = F, Cl, Br or I
2. The metals reduce O2 to form the oxides: 2E(s) + O2 → 2EO(s)
3. The larger metals react with water to produce hydrogen gas: E(s) + 2H2O(l) → E2+(aq) + 2OH-aq + H2 (g) where E =
Ca, Sr or Ba
Compounds
1. Alkylmagnesium halides (RMgX where R = hydrocarbon group and X = halogen). They are used to synthetise
organic compounds.
Here’s an example: 3RMgCl + SnCl4 → 3MgCl2 + R3SnCl
2. Magnesium oxide (MgO). It is used as a material to refract furnace brick and wire insulation (melting point of
2852°C).
3. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3). It is mainly used in the construction industry and for making limestone, marble,
chalk, and coral.
Group II 52

References
• Group 2 - Alkaline Earth Metals [1], Royal Chemistry Society.
• Group 1 Alkali Metals and Group 2 Alkaline Earth Metals [2], Doc Brown's Chemistry Clinic.
• Science aid: Group 2 Metals [3] Study aid for teens
• Maguire, Michael E. "Alkaline Earth Metals." Chemistry: Foundations and Applications. Ed. J. J. Lagowski. Vol.
1. New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 2004. 33-34. 4 vols. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Thomson Gale.
• Silberberg, M.S., Chemistry: The molecular nature of Matter and Change (3e édition, McGraw-Hill 2009)
• Petrucci R.H., Harwood W.S. et Herring F.G., General Chemistry (8e édition, Prentice-Hall 2002)

Explanation of above periodic table slice:

Alkaline earth Atomic numbers in black Solid borders indicate primordial Dashed borders indicate natural radioactive elements
metals indicate solids elements (older than the Earth) with no isotopes older than the Earth

References
[1] http:/ / www. chemsoc. org/ visElements/ pages/ data/ intro_groupii_data. html
[2] http:/ / www. wpbschoolhouse. btinternet. co. uk/ page07/ sblock. htm
[3] http:/ / scienceaid. co. uk/ chemistry/ fundamental/ group2. html

Group III
Period Group 3

4
21
Sc

5
39
Y

Group 3/ungrouped

*
Lanthanides

**
Actinides

6 *Lanthanides
Group III 53

57 58 59 60
La Ce Pr Nd

61 62 63 64
Pm Sm Eu Gd

65 66 67 68
Tb Dy Ho Er

69 70 71
Tm Yb Lu

7 **Actinides

89 90 91 92
Ac Th Pa U

93 94 95 96
Np Pu Am Cm

97 98 99 100
Bk Cf Es Fm

101 102 103

Md No Lr

The Group 3 elements are chemical elements comprising the third vertical column of the periodic table.
IUPAC has not recommended a specific format for the periodic table, so different conventions are permitted and are
often used for group 3. The following d-block transition metals are always considered members of group 3:
• scandium (Sc)
• yttrium (Y)

The metals

Scandium Yttrium

When defining the remainder of group 3, four different conventions may be encountered:
• Some tables [1] include lanthanum (La) and actinium (Ac), (the beginnings of the lanthanide and actinide series of
elements, respectively) as the remaining members of group 3. In their most commonly encountered tripositive ion
forms, these elements do not possess any partially filled f orbitals, thus resulting in more d-block-like behavior.
• Some tables [2] include lutetium (Lu) and lawrencium (Lr) as the remaining members of group 3. These elements
terminate the lanthanide and actinide series, respectively. Since the f-shell is nominally full in the ground state
electron configuration for both of these metals, they behave most like d-block metals out of all the lanthanides
Group III 54

and actinides, and thus exhibit the most similarities in properties with Sc and Y. For Lr, this behavior is expected,
but it has not been observed because sufficient quantities are not available. (See also Periodic table (wide) and
Periodic table (extended).)
Some tables [3] refer to all lanthanides and actinides by a marker in group 3. A third and fourth alternative are
suggested by this arrangement:
• The third alternative is to regard all 30 lanthanide and actinide elements as included in group 3. Lanthanides, as
electropositive trivalent metals, all have a closely related chemistry, and all show many similarities to Sc and Y.
• The fourth alternative is to include none of the lanthanides and actinides in group 3. The lanthanides possess
additional properties characteristic of their partially-filled f orbitals which are not common to Sc and Y.
Furthermore, the actinides show a much wider variety of chemistry (for instance, in range of oxidation states)
within their series than the lanthanides, and comparisons to Sc and Y are even less useful.
The term rare earth elements is often used for group 3 elements including the lanthanides but excluding the
actinides.

Occurrence
Scandium, yttrium, and the lanthanides (except promethium) tend to occur together in the Earth's crust, and are
relatively abundant compared with most d-block metals, but often harder to extract from their ores.

Biological chemistry
Group 3 elements are generally hard metals with low aqueous solubility, and have low availability to the biosphere.
No group 3 has any documented biological role in living organisms. The radioactivity of the actinides generally
makes them highly toxic to living cells.

Notes
Explanation of Transition Lanthanide Actinide Atomic numbers Solid borders indicate Dashed borders Dotted borders
above periodic metals series series in black indicate primordial elements indicate natural indicate synthetic
table slice: solids (older than the Earth) radioactive elements elements

References
[1] Periodic table at Lanl.gov (http:/ / periodic. lanl. gov/ )
[2] "WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements" (http:/ / www. webelements. com). Webelements.com. . Retrieved 2010-04-03.
[3] "International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry > Periodic Table of the Elements" (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ reports/ periodic_table/
index. html). Iupac.org. . Retrieved 2010-04-03.
Group IV 55

Group IV
Group → 4

↓ Period

22
Ti
5

40
Zr
6

72
Hf
7 104
Rf

Legend

Transition metal

Primordial element

Synthetic

The Group 4 elements are a group of chemical elements in the periodic table. In the modern IUPAC nomenclature,
Group 4 of the periodic table contains titanium (Ti), zirconium (Zr), hafnium (Hf) and rutherfordium (Rf). This
group lies in the d-block of the periodic table. The group itself has not acquired a trivial name; it belongs to the
broader grouping of the transition metals.
The three Group 4 elements that occur naturally are titanium (Ti), zirconium (Zr) and hafnium (Hf). The first three
members of the group share similar properties; all three are hard refractory metals under standard conditions.
However the fourth element rutherfordium (Rf), has been synthesized in the laboratory, none of them have been
found occurring in nature. All isotopes of rutherfordium are radioactive. So far, no experiments in a supercollider
were conducted to synthesize the next member of the group Unpentquadium (Upq). As Upq is a late member of
period 8 element it is unlikely that this element will be synthesized in the near future.

Characteristics

Chemistry
Most of the chemistry has been observed only for the first three members of the group, the chemistry of
rutherfordium is not very established and therefore the rest of the section deals only with titanium, zirconium, and
hafnium. All the elements of the group are reactive metals with a high melting point (1668 °C, 1855 °C, 2233 °C).
The reactivity is not always obvious due to the rapid formation of a stable oxide layer, which prevents further
reactions. The oxides TiO2, ZrO2 and HfO2 are white solids with high melting points and unreactive against most
acids.[1]
Group IV 56

H He

Li Be B C N O F Ne

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

Cs Ba La * Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

Fr Ra Ac ** Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn

* Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

** Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

Group 4 in the periodic table

As tetravalent transition metals, all three elements form various inorganic compounds, generally in the oxidation
state of +4. For the first three metals, it has been shown that they are resistant to concentrated alkalis, but halogens
react with them to form tetrahalides. At higher temperatures, all three metals react with oxygen, nitrogen, carbon,
boron, sulfur, and silicon. Because of the lanthanide contraction of the elements in the fifth period, zirconium and
hafnium have nearly identical ionic radii. The ionic radius of Zr4+ is 79 picometers and that of Hf4+ is 78 pm.[1] [2]
This similarity results in nearly identical chemical behavior and in the formation of similar chemical compounds.[2]
The chemistry of hafnium is so similar to that of zirconium that a separation on chemical reactions was not possible,
only the physical properties of the compounds differ. The melting points and boiling points of the compounds and
the solubility in solvents are the major differences in the chemistry of these twin elements.[1]

Physical

Properties of the Group 4 element

Name Titanium Zirconium Hafnium Rutherfordium

Melting point 1941 K (1668 2130 K (1857 2506 K (2233 ?

°C) °C) °C)

Boiling point 3560 K (3287 4682 K (4409 4876 K (4603 ?

°C) °C) °C)

Density ?
4.507 g·cm−3 6.511 g·cm−3 13.31 g·cm−3

Appearance silver metallic silver white silver gray ?

Atomic radius 140 pm 155 pm 155 pm ?

Group IV 57

History
While titanium and zirconium, as relatively abundant elements, were
discovered in the late 18th century, it took until 1923 for hafnium to be
identified. This was only partly due to hafnium's relative scarcity. The
chemical similarity between zirconium and hafnium made a separation
difficult and, without knowing what to look for, hafnium was left
undiscovered, although all samples of zirconium, and all of its
compounds, used by chemists for over two centuries contained
significant amounts of hafnium.[3]

William Gregor, Franz Joseph Muller and Martin Heinrich Klaproth Crystal of the abundant mineral Ilmenite
independently discovered titanium between 1791 and 1795. Klaproth
named it for the Titans of Greek mythology.[4] Klaproth also discovered zirconium in the mineral zircon in 1789 and
named it after the already known Zirkonerde (zirconia). Hafnium had been predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869
and Henry Moseley measured in 1914 the effective nuclear charge by X-ray spectroscopy to be 72, placing it
between the already known elements lanthanum and tantalum. Dirk Coster and Georg von Hevesy were the first to
search for the new element in zirconium ores.[5] Hafnium was discovered by the two in 1923 in Copenhagen,
Denmark, validating the original 1869 prediction of Mendeleev.[6]

Rutherfordium was reportedly first detected in 1966 at the Joint Institute of Nuclear Research at Dubna (then in the
Soviet Union). Researchers there bombarded 242Pu with accelerated 22Ne ions and separated the reaction products
by gradient thermochromatography after conversion to chlorides by interaction with ZrCl4.[7]
242
Pu + 2210Ne → 264−x104Rf → 264−x104RfCl4
94
The next element after Rutherfordium is expected to be Unpentquadium (Upq). There are no plans to attempt to
synthesize the next element in the near future, since it is a late member of the Period 8 elements. Currently none of
the period 8 elements have been discovered yet. It is also probable that, due to drip instabilities, only the lower
Period 8 elements are physically possible.

Production
The production of the metals itself is difficult due to their reactivity. The formation of oxides, nitrides and carbides
must be avoided to yield workable metals, this is normally achieved by the Kroll process. The oxides (MO2) are
reacted with coal and chlorine to form the chlorides (MCl4).The chlorides of the metals are than reacted with
magnesium yielding magnesium chloride and the metals.
Further purification is done by a chemical transport reaction developed by Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik
de Boer. In a closed vessel, the metal reacts with iodine at temperatures of above 500 °C forming metal(IV) iodide;
at a tungsten filament of nearly 2000 °C the reverse reaction happens and the iodine and metal are set free. The metal
forms a solid coating at the tungsten filament and the iodine can react with additional metal resulting in a steady turn
over.[1] [8]
M + 2 I2 (low temp.) → MI4
MI4 (high temp.) → M + 2 I2
Group IV 58

Occurrence
If the abundance of elements in Earth's crust is compared for titanium,
zirconium and hafnium, the abundance decreases with increase of
atomic mass. Titanium is the seventh most abundant metal in Earth's
crust and has an abundance of 6320 ppm, while zirconium has an
abundance of 162 ppm and hafnium has only an abundance of 3
ppm.[9]

All three stable elements occur in heavy mineral sands ore deposits,
which are placer deposits formed, most usually in beach environments,
Heavy minerals (dark) in a quartz beach sand
by concentration due to the specific gravity of the mineral grains of
(Chennai, India).
erosion material from mafic and ultramafic rock. The titanium minerals
are mostly anatase and rutile, and zirconium occurs in the mineral
zircon. Because of the chemical similarity, up to 5% of the zirconium in zircon is replaced by hafnium. The largest
producers of the group 4 elements are Australia, South Africa and Canada.[10] [11] [12] [13] [14]

Applications
Titanium metal and its alloys have a wide range of applications, where the corrosion resistance, the heat stability and
the low density (light weight) are of benefit. The foremost use of corrosion-resistant hafnium and zirconium has been
in nuclear reactors. Zirconium has a very low and hafnium has a high thermal neutron-capture cross-section.
Therefore, zirconium (mostly as zircaloy) is used as cladding of fuel rods in nuclear reactors,[15] while hafnium is
used as control rod for nuclear reactors, because each hafnium atom can absorb multiple neutrons.[16] [17]
Smaller amounts of hafnium[18] and zirconium are used in supper alloys to improve the properties of those alloys.[19]

Biological occurrences
The group 4 elements are not known to be involved in the biological chemistry of any living systems.[20] They are
hard refractory metals with low aqueous solubility and low availability to the biosphere. Titanium is one of the few
first row d-block transition metals with no known biological role. Rutherfordium's radioactivity would make it toxic
to living cells.

Precaution
Titanium is non-toxic even in large doses and does not play any natural role inside the human body.[20] Zirconium
powder can cause irritation, but only contact with the eyes requires medical attention.[21] OSHA recommends for
zirconium are 5 mg/m3 time weighted average limit and a 10 mg/m3 short-term exposure limit.[22] Only limited data
exists on the toxicology of hafnium.[23]
Group IV 59

References
[1] Holleman, Arnold F.; Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils; (1985) (in German). Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie (91-100 ed.). Walter de
Gruyter. pp. 1056–1057. ISBN 3110075113.
[2] "Los Alamos National Laboratory – Hafnium" (http:/ / periodic. lanl. gov/ elements/ 72. html). . Retrieved 2008-09-10.
[3] Barksdale, Jelks (1968). The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements. Skokie, Illinois: Reinhold Book Corporation. pp. 732–38 "Titanium".
LCCCN 68-29938.
[4] Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). "III. Some Eighteenth-Century Metals". Journal of Chemical Education: 1231–1243.
[5] Urbain, M. G. (1922). "Sur les séries L du lutécium et de l'ytterbium et sur l'identification d'un celtium avec l'élément de nombre atomique 72
(The L series from lutetium to ytterbium and the identification of element 72 celtium" (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k3127j/ f1348.
table) (in French). Comptes rendus 174: 1347–1349. . Retrieved 2008-10-30.
[6] Coster, D.; Hevesy, G. (1923-01-20). "On the Missing Element of Atomic Number 72". Nature 111: 79–79. doi:10.1038/111079a0.
[7] Barber, R. C.; Greenwood, N. N.; Hrynkiewicz, A. Z.; Jeannin, Y. P.; Lefort, M.; Sakai, M.; Ulehla, I.; Wapstra, A. P.; Wilkinson, D. H.
(1993). "Discovery of the transfermium elements. Part II: Introduction to discovery profiles. Part III: Discovery profiles of the transfermium
elements" (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 65/ 8/ 1757/ ). Pure and Applied Chemistry 65 (8): 1757–1814.
doi:10.1351/pac199365081757. .
[8] van Arkel, A. E.; de Boer, J. H. (1925). "Darstellung von reinem Titanium-, Zirkonium-, Hafnium- und Thoriummetall (Production of pure
titanium, zirconium, hafnium and Thorium metal)" (in German). Zeitschrift für anorganische und allgemeine Chemie 148 (1): 345–350.
doi:10.1002/zaac.19251480133.
[9] "Abundance in Earth's Crust" (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ periodicity/ abundance_crust/ ). WebElements.com. . Retrieved 2007-04-14.
[10] "Dubbo Zirconia Project Fact Sheet" (http:/ / www. alkane. com. au/ projects/ nsw/ dubbo/ DZP Summary June07. pdf) (PDF). Alkane
Resources Limited. June 2007. . Retrieved 2008-09-10.
[11] "Zirconium and Hafnium" (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ zirconium/ mcs-2008-zirco. pdf) (PDF). Mineral
Commodity Summaries (US Geological Survey): 192–193. January 2008. . Retrieved 2008-02-24.
[12] Callaghan, R. (2008-02-21). "Zirconium and Hafnium Statistics and Information" (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/
zirconium/ ). US Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2008-02-24.
[13] "Minerals Yearbook Commodity Summaries 2009: Titanium" (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ titanium/
myb1-2007-titan. pdf) (PDF). US Geological Survey. May 2009. . Retrieved 2008-02-24.
[14] Gambogi, Joseph (January 2009). "Titanium and Titanium dioxide Statistics and Information" (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/
commodity/ titanium/ mcs-2009-titan. pdf). US Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2008-02-24.
[15] Schemel, J. H. (1977). ASTM Manual on Zirconium and Hafnium (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=dI_LssydVeYC). ASTM International.
pp. 1–5. ISBN 9780803105058. .
[16] Hedrick, James B.. "Hafnium" (http:/ / minerals. er. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ zirconium/ 731798. pdf) (PDF). United States
Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2008-09-10.
[17] Spink, Donald (1961). "Reactive Metals. Zirconium, Hafnium, and Titanium". Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 53 (2): 97–104.
doi:10.1021/ie50614a019.
[18] Hebda, John (2001). "Niobium alloys and high Temperature Applications" (http:/ / www. cbmm. com. br/ portug/ sources/ techlib/
science_techno/ table_content/ sub_3/ images/ pdfs/ 016. pdf) (PDF). CBMM. . Retrieved 2008-09-04.
[19] Donachie, Matthew J. (2002). Superalloys (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=vjCJ5pI1QpkC& pg=PA235). ASTM International.
pp. 235–236. ISBN 9780871707499. .
[20] Emsley, John (2001). "Titanium". Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford, England, UK: Oxford University Press.
pp. 457–456. ISBN 0198503407.
[21] "International Chemical Safety Cards" (http:/ / www. ilo. org/ legacy/ english/ protection/ safework/ cis/ products/ icsc/ dtasht/ _icsc14/
icsc1405. htm). International Labour Organization. October 2004. . Retrieved 2008-03-30.
[22] "Zirconium Compounds" (http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ niosh/ pel88/ 7440-67. html). National Institute for Occupational Health and Safety.
2007-12-17. . Retrieved 2008-02-17.
[23] "Occupational Safety & Health Administration: Hafnium" (http:/ / www. osha. gov/ SLTC/ healthguidelines/ hafnium/ index. html). U.S.
Department of Labor. . Retrieved 2008-09-10.
Group V 60

Group V
Group → 5

↓ Period

23
V
5

41
Nb
6

73
Ta
7 105
Db

A Group 5 element is one in the series of elements in group 5 (IUPAC style) in the periodic table, which consists of
vanadium (V), niobium (Nb), tantalum (Ta), and dubnium (Db).
Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in its electron configuration, especially the outermost
shells, though niobium curiously does not follow the trend:

Z Element No. of electrons/shell

23 vanadium 2, 8, 11, 2

41 niobium 2, 8, 18, 12, 1

73 tantalum 2, 8, 18, 32, 11, 2

105 dubnium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 11, 2

Dubnium can only be produced in the laboratory, and does not exist in nature.
Group V 61

History
The discovery of all elements in the group led to controversies. The verification of those discoveries was difficult
due to similarity of vanadium and group 6 element chromium, the chemical similarity of niobium and tantalum and
the complicated setup which was necessary to produce a few atoms of dubnium.

Biological occurrences
Of the group 5 elements, only vanadium has been identified as playing a role in the biological chemistry of living
systems: it is involved in some of the enzymes of higher organisms, and also, unusually, in the biochemistry of some
marine tunicates.

See also
Explanation of periodic table Transition atomic number in solid borders are older than the Earth dotted borders are made artificially
slice on right: metals black are solids (Primordial elements) (Synthetic elements)

• Greenwood, N (2003). "Vanadium to dubnium: from confusion through clarity to complexity". Catalysis Today
78: 5. doi:10.1016/S0920-5861(02)00318-8.

Group VI
Group → 6

↓ Period

24
Cr
5

42
Mo
6

74
W
7 106
Sg

Legend

Transition metal

Primordial element

Synthetic
Group VI 62

A Group 6 element is one in the series of elements in group 6 (IUPAC style) in the periodic table, which consists of
the transition metals chromium (Cr), molybdenum (Mo), tungsten (W), and seaborgium (Sg).
Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in its electron configuration, especially the outermost
shells resulting in trends in chemical behavior:

Z Element No. of electrons/shell

24 chromium 2, 8, 13, 1

42 molybdenum 2, 8, 18, 13, 1

74 tungsten 2, 8, 18, 32, 12, 2

106 seaborgium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 12, 2

"Group 6" is the new IUPAC name for this group; the old style name was "group VIA" in the old European system or
"group VIB" in the old US system. Group 6 must not be confused with the group with the old-style group names of
either VIB (European system) or VIA (US system); that group is now called group 16.

Biological occurrences
Group 6 is notable in that it contains some of the only elements in periods 5 and 6 with a known role in the
biological chemistry of living organisms: molybdenum is common in enzymes of many organisms, and tungsten has
been identified in an analogous role in enzymes from some archaea, such as Pyrococcus furiosus. In contrast, and
unusually for a first-row d-block transition metal, chromium appears to have few biological roles, although it is
thought to form part of the glucose metabolism enzyme in some mammals.

See also
Explanation of right side Transition atomic number in solid borders are older than the Earth dotted borders are made artificially
periodic table slice: metals black are solids (Primordial elements) (Synthetic elements)
Group VII 63

Group VII
Group → 7

↓ Period

4 25
Mn

5 43
Tc

6 75
Re

7 107
Bh

A Group 7 element is one in the series of elements in group 7 (IUPAC style) in the periodic table, which consists of
the transition metals manganese (Mn), technetium (Tc), rhenium (Re), and bohrium (Bh).
Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in its electron configuration, especially the outermost
shells resulting in trends in chemical behavior:

Z Element No. of electrons/shell

25 manganese 2, 8, 13, 2

43 technetium 2, 8, 18, 13, 2

75 rhenium 2, 8, 18, 32, 13, 2

107 bohrium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 13, 2

All of these elements are classed in Group 7 because their valence shells hold seven electrons. Technetium has no
stable isotopes. Technetium and promethium are the only two such elements before lead, after which (with bismuth
having an extremely long-lived isotope) no known element has a stable isotope.

Occurrence
Two of the four members of the group 2, technetium and bohrium, are radioactive with short enough half life that
they are not present in nature. Furthermore rhenium is a rare element which occurs only in traces in other mineral.
These facts make manganese the only abundant element of the group. This is also shown in difference in the annual
world production. In 2007 11 million metric tons of manganese were mined while in the same year the world
production of rhenium was between 40 and 50 metric tons. They are also very reactive.

See also
Explanation of right side Transition atomic number in solid borders are older than dotted borders are made dashed borders have no
periodic table slice: metals black are solids the Earth (Primordial artificially (Synthetic isotopes older than the
elements) elements) earth
Group VIII 64

Group VIII
For "Group VIII", the rightmost group on the Periodic Table, see noble gas.

Group → 4

↓ Period

26
Fe
5

44
Ru
6

76
Os
7 108
Hs

Legend

Transition metal

Primordial element

Synthetic

A Group 8 element is one in the series of elements in group 8 (IUPAC style) in the periodic table, which consists of
the transition metals iron (Fe), ruthenium (Ru), osmium (Os) and hassium (Hs).
Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in its electron configuration, especially the outermost
shells though ruthenium curiously does not follow the trend:

Z Element No. of electrons/shell

26 iron 2, 8, 14, 2

44 ruthenium 2, 8, 18, 15, 1

76 osmium 2, 8, 18, 32, 14, 2

108 hassium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 14, 2

All of these elements are classed in Group 8 because their valence shells hold eight electrons. Hassium can only be
produced in the laboratory and has not been found in nature.
Group VIII 65

Z Element No. of electrons/shell

27 cobalt 2, 8, 15, 2

45 rhodium 2, 8, 18, 16, 1

77 iridium 2, 8, 18, 32, 15, 2

109 meitnerium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 15, 2

Applications
• Alloys with other metals, primarily to add corrosion and wear resistance
• Industrial Catalysts
• Superalloys
• Electrical Components

Z Element No. of electrons/shell

28 nickel 2, 8, 16, 2

46 palladium 2, 8, 18, 18

78 platinum 2, 8, 18, 32, 17, 1

110 darmstadtium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 17, 1

Properties
Group ten metals are white to light grey in color, and possess a high luster, a resistance to tarnish(oxidation) at STP,
are highly ductile, and enter into oxidation states of +2 and +4, with +1 being seen in special conditions. The
existence of a +3 state is debated, as the state could be an illusory state created by +2 and +4 states. Theory suggests
that group 10 metals may produce a +6 oxidation state under precise conditions, but this remains to be proven
conclusively in the laboratory.

Applications
The group ten metals share several uses. These include:
• Decorative purposes, in the form of jewelry and electroplating
• Catalysts in a variety of chemical reactions
• Metal Alloys
• Electrical components, due to their predictable changes in electrical resistivity with regard to temperature.
• Superconductors, as components in alloys with other metals.
Group X 67

Z Element No. of electrons/shell

29 copper 2, 8, 18, 1

47 silver 2, 8, 18, 18, 1

79 gold 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 1

111 roentgenium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 1

They are all relatively inert, corrosion-resistant metals. Copper and gold are colored.
These elements have low electrical resistivity so they are used for wiring. Copper is the cheapest and most widely
used. Bond wires for integrated circuits are usually gold. Silver and silver plated copper wiring are found in some
special applications.

Applications
These metals, especially silver, have unusual properties that make them essential for industrial applications outside
of their monetary or decorative value. They are all excellent conductors of electricity. The most conductive of all
metals are silver, copper and gold in that order. Silver is also the most thermally conductive element, and the most
light reflecting element. Silver also has the unusual property that the tarnish that forms on silver is still highly
electrically conductive.
Copper is used extensively in electrical wiring and circuitry. Gold contacts are sometimes found in precision
equipment for their ability to remain corrosion-free. Silver is used widely in mission-critical applications as electrical
contacts, and is also used in photography (because silver nitrate reverts to metal on exposure to light), agriculture,
medicine, audiophile and scientific applications.
Gold, silver, and copper are quite soft metals and so are easily damaged in daily use as coins. Precious metal may
also be easily abraded and worn away through use. In their numismatic functions these metals must be alloyed with
other metals to afford coins greater durability. The alloying with other metals makes the resulting coins harder, less
likely to become deformed and more resistant to wear.
Gold coins: Gold coins are typically produced as either 90% gold (e.g. with pre-1933 US coins), or 22 carat (92%)
gold (e.g. current collectible coins and Krugerrands), with copper and silver making up the remaining weight in each
case. Bullion gold coins are being produced with up to 99.999% gold (in the Canadian Gold Maple Leaf series).
Silver coins: Silver coins are typically produced as either 90% silver - in the case of pre 1965 US minted coins
(which were circulated in many countries), or sterling silver (92.5%) coins for pre-1967 British Commonwealth and
other silver coinage, with copper making up the remaining weight in each case.
Copper coins: Copper coins are often of quite high purity, around 97%, and are usually alloyed with small amounts
of zinc and tin.
Inflation has caused the face value of coins to fall below the hard currency value of the historically used metals. This
had led to most modern coins being made of base metals - copper nickel (around 80:20, silver in color) is popular as
are nickel-brass (copper (75), nickel (5) and zinc (20), gold in color), manganese-brass (copper, zinc, manganese,
Group XI 69

and nickel), bronze, or simple plated steel.

Some properties of the elements

zinc cadmium mercury

Electronic [Ar]3d104s2 [Kr]4d105s2 [Xe]4f145d106s2

configuration

Metallic radius /pm 134 151 151

74 95 102
Ionic radius /pm (M2+)

Electronegativity 1.6 1.7 1.9

Melting point /°C 419.5 320.8 −38.9

Boiling point /°C 907 765 357

All elements in this group are metals. The similarity of the metallic radii of cadmium and mercury is a knock-on
effect of the lanthanide contraction. So, the trend in this group is unlike the trend in group 2, the alkaline earths,
where metallic radius increases smoothly from top to bottom of the group. All three metals have relatively low
melting and boiling points, which indicates that the metallic bond is relatively weak, with relatively little overlap
between the valence band and the conduction band. Thus, zinc is close to the boundary between metallic and
metalloid elements which is usually placed between gallium and germanium, though gallium participates in
semi-conductors such as gallium arsenide.
Zinc is the most electropositive element in the group and zinc metal is a good reducing agent. The group oxidation
state is +2 in which the ions have the rather stable d10 electronic configuration, with a full sub-shell. However,
mercury can easily be reduced to the +1 oxidation state; usually, as in the ion Hg22+, two mercury(I) ions come
together to form a metal-metal bond and a diamagnetic species. Cadmium can also form species such as [Cd2Cl6]4−
Group XII 70

in which the metal's oxidation state is +1. Just as with mercury, the formation of a metal-metal bond results in a
diamagnetic compound in which there are no unpaired electrons which would otherwise make the species very
reactive. Zinc(I) is known only in the gas phase, in such compounds as linear Zn2Cl2, analogous to calomel.
All three metal ions form many tetrahedral species, such as MCl42−. When a divalent ion of these elements forms a
tetrahedral complex, it obeys the octet rule. Both zinc and cadmium can also form octahedral complexes such as the
aqua ions [M(H2O)6]2+ which are present in aqueous solutions of salts of these metals. Covalent character is
achieved by using the 4d or 5d orbitals, respectively, forming sp3d2 hybrid orbitals. Mercury, however, rarely
exceeds a coordination number of four; when it does so the 5f orbitals must be involved. Coordination numbers of 2,
3, 5, 7 and 8 are also known.
The elements in group 12 are usually considered to be d-block elements, but not transition elements as the d-shell is
full. Some authors classify these elements as main-group elements because the valence electrons are in ns2 orbitals.
Nevertheless zinc shares many characteristics with the neighbouring transition metal, copper. For instance, zinc
complexes merit inclusion in the Irving-Williams series as zinc forms many complexes with the same stoichiometry
as complexes of copper(II), albeit with smaller stability constants. There is little similarity between cadmium and
silver as compounds of silver(II) are rare and those that do exist are very strong oxidizing agents. Likewise the
common oxidation state for gold is +3, which precludes there being much common chemistry between mercury and
gold, though there are similarities between mercury(I) and gold(I) such as the formation of linear dicyano
complexes, [M(CN)2]−.

References
[1] Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997), Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.), Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 0080379419
[2] Cotton, F. Albert; Wilkinson, Geoffrey; Murillo, Carlos A.; Bochmann, Manfred (1999), Advanced Inorganic Chemistry (6th ed.), New York:
Wiley-Interscience, ISBN 0-471-19957-5
[3] Housecroft, C. E.; Sharpe, A. G. (2008). Inorganic Chemistry (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0131755536.
[4] Eichler, R; Aksenov, NV; Belozerov, AV; Bozhikov, GA; Chepigin, VI; Dmitriev, SN; Dressler, R; Gäggeler, HW et al. (2007). "Chemical
Characterization of Element 112". Nature 447 (7140): 72–75. doi:10.1038/nature05761. PMID 17476264.
Group XIII 71

Group XIII
Group → 13

↓ Period

2 5
B

3 13
Al

4 31
Ga

5 49
In

6 81
Tl

The boron group is the series of elements in group 13 (IUPAC style) in the periodic table. The boron group consists
of boron (B), aluminium (Al), gallium (Ga), indium (In), thallium (Tl), and ununtrium (Uut).
Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in its electron configuration, especially the outermost
shells resulting in trends in chemical behavior:

Z Element No. of electrons/shell

5 boron 2, 3

13 aluminium 2, 8, 3

31 gallium 2, 8, 18, 3

49 indium 2, 8, 18, 18, 3

81 thallium 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 3

The group has previously also been referred to as the earth metals and the triels, from the Latin tri, three, stemming
from the naming convention of this group as Group IIIB. These elements are characterized by having three electrons
in their outer energy levels (valence layers).
Boron is considered a metalloid, and the rest are considered metals of the poor metals groups. Boron occurs sparsely
probably because of disruption of its nucleus by bombardment with subatomic particles produced from natural
radioactivity. Aluminium occurs widely on earth and in fact, it is the third most abundant element in the Earth's crust
(7.4%).

Explanation of above periodic table slice:

Metalloids Poor atomic number in black are solid borders are primordial elements (older than dotted borders are radioactive, synthetic
metals solids the Earth) elements
Group XIV 72

Group XIV
Group → 14

↓ Period

2 6
C

3 14
Si

4 32
Ge

5 50
Sn

6 82
Pb

7 114
Uuq

The carbon group is a periodic table group consisting of carbon (C), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), lead
(Pb), and ununquadium (Uuq).
In modern IUPAC notation, it is called Group 14. In the old IUPAC and CAS systems, it was called Group IVB
and Group IVA, respectively.[1] In the field of semiconductor physics, it is still universally called Group IV. The
group was once also known as the tetrels (from Greek tetra, four), stemming from the Roman numeral IV in the
group names, or (not coincidentally) from the fact that these elements have four valence electrons (see below).
Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in its electron configuration, especially the outermost
shells resulting in trends in chemical behavior:

Z Element No. of electrons/shell

6 carbon 2, 4

14 silicon 2, 8, 4

32 germanium 2, 8, 18, 4

50 tin 2, 8, 18, 18, 4

82 lead 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 4

114 ununquadium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 4

Each of the elements in this group has 4 electrons in its outer energy level. The last orbital of all these elements is the
p2 orbital. In most cases, the elements share their electrons. The tendency to lose electrons increases as the size of the
atom increases, as it does with increasing atomic number. Carbon alone forms negative ions, in the form of carbide
(C4−) ions. Silicon and germanium, both metalloids, each can form +4 ions. Tin and lead both are metals while
ununquadium is a synthetic short-lived radioactive metal. Tin and lead are both capable of forming +2 ions.
Except for germanium and ununquadium, all of these elements are familiar in daily life either as the pure element or
in the form of compounds. However, except for silicon, none of these elements are particularly plentiful in the
Earth’s crust. Carbon forms a very large variety of compounds, in both the plant and animal kingdoms. Silicon and
silicate minerals are fundamental components of the Earth’s crust; silica (silicon dioxide) is sand.
Tin and lead, although with very low abundances in the crust, are nevertheless common in everyday life. They occur
in highly concentrated mineral deposits, can be obtained easily in the metallic state from those minerals, and are
Group XIV 73

useful as metals and as alloys in many applications. Germanium, on the other hand, forms few characteristic
minerals and is most commonly found only in small concentrations in association with the mineral zinc blende and
in coals. Although germanium is indeed one of the rarer elements, it assumed importance upon recognition of its
properties as a semiconductor.

History
Carbon, tin, and lead, are a few of the elements well known in the ancient world - together with sulfur, iron, copper,
mercury, silver, and gold.
Carbon as an element was discovered by the first human to handle charcoal from his fire. Modern carbon chemistry
dates from the development of coals, petroleum, and natural gas as fuels and from the elucidation of synthetic
organic chemistry, both substantially developed since the 1800s.
Amorphous elemental silicon was first obtained pure in 1824 by the Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius; impure
silicon had already been obtained in 1811. Crystalline elemental silicon was not prepared until 1854, when it was
obtained as a product of electrolysis. In the form of rock crystal, however, silicon was familiar to the predynastic
Egyptians, who used it for beads and small vases; to the early Chinese; and probably to many others of the ancients.
The manufacture of glass containing silica was carried out both by the Egyptians — at least as early as 1500 BCE —
and by the Phoenicians. Certainly, many of the naturally occurring compounds called silicates were used in various
kinds of mortar for construction of dwellings by the earliest people.
Germanium is one of three elements the existence of which was predicted in 1871 by the Russian chemist Dmitri
Mendeleev when he first devised his periodic table. Not until 1886, however, was germanium identified as one of the
elements in a newly found mineral.
The origins of tin seem to be lost in history. It appears that bronzes, which are alloys of copper and tin, were used by
prehistoric man some time before the pure metal was isolated. Bronzes were common in early Mesopotamia, the
Indus Valley, Egypt, Crete, Israel, and Peru. Much of the tin used by the early Mediterranean peoples apparently
came from the Scilly Isles and Cornwall in the British Isles,[2] where mining of the metal dates from about 300–200
BCE. Tin mines were operating in both the Inca and Aztec areas of South and Central America before the Spanish
conquest.
Lead is mentioned often in early Biblical accounts. The Babylonians used the metal as plates on which to record
inscriptions. The Romans used it for tablets, water pipes, coins, and even cooking utensils; indeed, as a result of the
last use, lead poisoning was recognized in the time of Augustus Caesar. The compound known as white lead was
apparently prepared as a decorative pigment at least as early as 200 BCE. Modern developments date to the
exploitation in the late 1700s of deposits in the Missouri–Kansas–Oklahoma area in the United States.

Explanation of above periodic table slice:

Nonmetals Metalloids Poor atomic number in black solid borders are primordial elements dotted borders are radioactive,
metals are solids (older than the Earth) synthetic elements

References
[1] Fluck, E. New notations in the periodic table. Pure & App. Chem. 1988, 60, 431-436. (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 1988/ pdf/
6003x0431. pdf)
[2] Online Encyclopaedia Britannica, Tin (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 596431/ tin)
Group XV 74

Group XV
Group → 15

↓ Period

2 7
N

3 15
P

4 33
As

5 51
Sb

6 83
Bi

7 115
Uup

The nitrogen group is a periodic table group consisting of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), arsenic (As), antimony
(Sb), bismuth (Bi) and ununpentium (Uup) (unconfirmed).
In modern IUPAC notation, it is called Group 15. In the old IUPAC and CAS systems, it was called Group VB and
Group VA, respectively (pronounced "group five B" and "group five A", because "V" is a Roman numeral).[1] In the
field of semiconductor physics, it is still universally called Group V.[2] It is also collectively named the
pnictogens.[3] The "five" ("V") in the historical names comes from the fact that these elements have five valence
electrons (see below).
Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in its electron configuration, especially the outermost
shells resulting in trends in chemical behavior:

Z Element No. of electrons/shell

7 nitrogen 2, 5

15 phosphorus 2, 8, 5

33 arsenic 2, 8, 18, 5

51 antimony 2, 8, 18, 18, 5

83 bismuth 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 5

115 ununpentium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 5

This group has the defining characteristic that all the component elements have 5 electrons in their outermost shell,
that is 2 electrons in the s subshell and 3 unpaired electrons in the p subshell. They are therefore 3 electrons short of
filling their outermost electron shell in their non-ionized state. The most important element of this group is nitrogen
(chemical symbol N), which in its diatomic form is the principal component of air.
Binary compounds of the group can be referred to collectively as pnictides. The spelling derives from the Greek
πνίγειν (pnigein), to choke or stifle, which is a property of nitrogen; they are also mnemonic for the two most
common members, P and N. The name pentels (from the Latin penta, five) was also used for this group at one time,
stemming from the earlier group naming convention (Group VB).
Group XV 75

These elements are also noted for their stability in compounds due to
their tendency for forming double and triple covalent bonds. This is the
property of these elements which leads to their potential toxicity, most
evident in phosphorus, arsenic and antimony. When these substances
react with various chemicals of the body, they create strong free
radicals not easily processed by the liver, where they accumulate.
Paradoxically it is this strong bonding which causes nitrogen and
bismuth's reduced toxicity (when in molecules), as these form strong
bonds with other atoms which are difficult to split, creating very A collection of nitrogen-group chemical element
unreactive molecules. For example N2, the diatomic form of nitrogen, samples.

is used for inert atmosphere in situations where argon or another noble

gas would be prohibitively expensive.

The nitrogen group consists of two non-metals, two metalloids, one metal, and one synthetic (presumably metallic)
element. All the elements in the group are a solid at room temperature except for Nitrogen which is a gas at room
temperature. Nitrogen and bismuth, despite both being part of the nitrogen group, are very different in their physical
properties. For example, at STP nitrogen is a transparent nonmetallic gas, while bismuth is a brittle pinkish metallic
solid.

See also
• oxypnictide includes superconductors discovered in 2008
• ferropnictide includes oxypnictide superconductors.

Notes
[1] Fluck, E. New notations in the periodic table. Pure & App. Chem. 1988, 60, 431-436. (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 1988/ pdf/
6003x0431. pdf)
[2] For example, a 2005 book (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=J6W5n5Z1EQIC) is titled Properties of group-IV, III-V and II-VI
semiconductors.
[3] Edited by N G Connelly and T Damhus (with R M Hartshorn and A T Hutton), ed (2005). Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry: IUPAC
Recommendations 2005 section IR-3.5 (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ publications/ books/ rbook/ Red_Book_2005. pdf). ISBN 0-85404-438-8. .

Explanation of above periodic table slice:

Nonmetals Metalloids Poor atomic number in atomic number in solid borders are primordial dotted borders are radioactive,
metals red are gases black are solids elements (older than the Earth) synthetic elements
Group XVI 76

Group XVI
Group → 16

↓ Period

2 8
O

3 16
S

4 34
Se

5 52
Te

6 84
Po

7 116
Uuh

The chalcogens (pronounced /ˈkælkədʒɨn/) are the chemical elements in group 16 (old-style: VIB or VIA) of the
periodic table. This group is also known as the oxygen family. It consists of the elements oxygen (O), sulfur (S),
selenium (Se), tellurium (Te), the radioactive element polonium (Po), and the synthetic element ununhexium (Uuh).
Although all group 16 elements of the periodic table, including oxygen are defined as chalcogens, oxygen and oxides
are usually distinguished from chalcogens and chalcogenides. The term chalcogenide is more commonly reserved
for sulfides, selenides, and tellurides, rather than for oxides. Oxides are usually not indicated as chalcogenides.[1] [2]
[3] [4]
Binary compounds of the chalcogens are called chalcogenides (rather than chalcides, which breaks the pattern
of halogen/halide and pnictogen/pnictide).

Properties
Members of this group show similar patterns in their electron configuration, especially the outermost shells, resulting
in similar trends in chemical behavior:

Z Element No. of electrons/shell

8 oxygen 2, 6

16 sulfur 2, 8, 6

34 selenium 2, 8, 18, 6

52 tellurium 2, 8, 18, 18, 6

84 polonium 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 6

116 ununhexium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 6

Oxygen and sulfur are nonmetals, and selenium, tellurium, and polonium are metalloid semiconductors (that means,
their electrical properties are between those of a metal and an insulator). Nevertheless, tellurium, as well as selenium,
is often referred to as a metal when in elemental form.
Metal chalcogenides are common as minerals. For example, pyrite (FeS2) is an iron ore. The rare mineral calaverite
is the ditelluride AuTe2.
Group XVI 77

The formal oxidation number of the most common chalcogen copounds is −2. Other values, such as −1 in pyrite, can
be attained. The highest formal oxidation number +6 is found in sulfates, selenates and tellurates, such as in sulfuric
acid or sodium selenate (Na2SeO4).

Explanation of above periodic table slice:

Nonmetals Metalloids Poor Atomic Atomic Solid borders indicate Dashed borders Dotted borders
metals numbers in red numbers in primordial elements indicate radioactive indicate radioactive
are gases black are solids (older than the Earth) natural elements synthetic elements

Etymology
The name chalcogen comes from the Greek words χαλκος (chalkos, literally "copper"), and γενεσ (genes, born)[5] .
Thus the chalcogens give birth to, produce copper. It was first used around 1930 by Wilhelm Biltz's group at the
University of Hanover, where it was proposed by a man named Werner Fischer.[6] Although the literal meanings of
the Greek words imply that chalcogen means "copper-former", this is misleading because the chalcogens have
nothing to do with copper in particular. "Ore-former" has been suggested as a better translation,[7] both because the
vast majority of metal ores are chalcogenides, and because the word χαλκος in ancient Greek was associated with
metals and metal-bearing rock in general (because copper, and its alloy bronze, was one of the first metals to be used
by humans).

Z Element No. of electrons/shell

9 fluorine 2, 7

17 chlorine 2, 8, 7

35 bromine 2, 8, 18, 7

53 iodine 2, 8, 18, 18, 7

85 astatine 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 7

117 ununseptium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 7

The halogens show a series of trends when moving down the group—for instance, decreasing electronegativity and
reactivity, and increasing melting and boiling point.
Group XVII 80

Halogen Standard Atomic Weight (u) Melting Point (K) Boiling Point (K) Electronegativity (Pauling)

Fluorine 18.998 53.53 85.03 3.98

Chlorine 35.453 171.60 239.11 3.16

Bromine 79.904 265.80 332.00 2.96

Iodine 126.904 386.85 457.40 2.66

Astatine (210) 575 610 (?) 2.20

Diatomic halogen molecules

halogen molecule structure model d(X−X) / d(X−X) / pm
pm (solid phase)
(gas phase)

fluorine F2 143 149

chlorine Cl2 199 198

bromine Br2 228 227

iodine I2 266 272

The elements become less reactive and have higher melting points as the atomic number increases.

Chemistry

Reactivity
Halogens are highly reactive, and as such can be harmful or lethal to biological organisms in sufficient quantities.
This high reactivity is due to the atoms being highly electronegative due to their high effective nuclear charge. They
can gain an electron by reacting with atoms of other elements. Fluorine is one of the most reactive elements in
existence, attacking otherwise inert materials such as glass, and forming compounds with the heavier noble gases. It
is a corrosive and highly toxic gas. The reactivity of fluorine is such that if used or stored in laboratory glassware, it
can react with glass in the presence of small amounts of water to form silicon tetrafluoride (SiF4). Thus fluorine must
be handled with substances such as Teflon (which is itself an organofluorine compound), extremely dry glass, or
metals such as copper or steel which form a protective layer of fluoride on their surface.
The high reactivity of fluorine means that once it does react with something, it bonds with it so strongly that the
resulting molecule is very inert and non-reactive to anything else. For example, Teflon is fluorine bonded with
carbon.
Both chlorine and bromine are used as disinfectants for drinking water, swimming pools, fresh wounds, spas, dishes,
and surfaces. They kill bacteria and other potentially harmful microorganisms through a process known as
sterilization. Their reactivity is also put to use in bleaching. Sodium hypochlorite, which is produced from chlorine,
is the active ingredient of most fabric bleaches and chlorine-derived bleaches are used in the production of some
paper products.
Group XVII 81

Hydrogen halides
The halogens all form binary compounds with hydrogen known as the hydrogen halides (HF, HCl, HBr, HI, and
HAt), a series of particularly strong acids. When in aqueous solution, the hydrogen halides are known as hydrohalic
acids. HAt, or "hydroastatic acid", should also qualify, but it is not typically included in discussions of hydrohalic
acid due to astatine's extreme instability toward alpha decay.

Interhalogen compounds
The halogens react with each other to form interhalogen compounds. Diatomic interhalogen compounds such as BrF,
ICl, and ClF bear resemblance to the pure halogens in some respects. The properties and behaviour of a diatomic
interhalogen compound tend to be intermediate between those of its parent halogens. Some properties, however, are
found in neither parent halogen. For example, Cl2 and I2 are soluble in CCl4, but ICl is not since it is a polar
molecule due to the relatively large electronegativity difference between I and Cl.

Organohalogen compounds
Many synthetic organic compounds such as plastic polymers, and a few natural ones, contain halogen atoms; these
are known as halogenated compounds or organic halides. Chlorine is by far the most abundant of the halogens, and
the only one needed in relatively large amounts (as chloride ions) by humans. For example, chloride ions play a key
role in brain function by mediating the action of the inhibitory transmitter GABA and are also used by the body to
produce stomach acid. Iodine is needed in trace amounts for the production of thyroid hormones such as thyroxine.
On the other hand, neither fluorine nor bromine are believed to be essential for humans.

Polyhalogenated compounds
Polyhalogenated compounds are industrially created compounds substituted with multiple halogens. Many of them
are very toxic and bioaccumulate in humans, and have a very wide application range. They include the much
maligned PCB's, PBDE's, and PFC's as well as numerous other compounds.

Drug discovery
In drug discovery, the incorporation of halogen atoms into a lead drug candidate results in analogues that are usually
more lipophilic and less water soluble.[2] Consequently, halogen atoms are used to improve penetration through lipid
membranes and tissues. Consequently, there is a tendency for some halogenated drugs to accumulate in adipose
tissue.
The chemical reactivity of halogen atoms depends on both their point of attachment to the lead and the nature of the
halogen. Aromatic halogen groups are far less reactive than aliphatic halogen groups, which can exhibit considerable
chemical reactivity. For aliphatic carbon-halogen bonds the C-F bond is the strongest and usually less chemically
reactive than aliphatic C-H bonds. The other aliphatic-halogen bonds are weaker, their reactivity increasing down the
periodic table. They are usually more chemically reactive than aliphatic C-H bonds. Consequently, the most common
halogen substitutions are the less reactive aromatic fluorine and chlorine groups.
Group XVII 82

Reactivity with water

Fluorine reacts vigorously with water to produce oxygen (O2) and hydrogen fluoride (HF):[3]
2 F2(g) + 2 H2O(l) → O2(g) + 4 HF(aq)
Chlorine has minimal solubility of 0.7g Cl2 per kg of water at ambient temperature (21oC).[4] Dissolved chlorine
reacts to form hydrochloric acid (HCl) and hypochlorous acid, a solution that can be used as a disinfectant or bleach:
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) → HCl(aq) + HClO(aq)
Bromine has a solubility of 3.41 g per 100 g of water,[5] but it slowly reacts to form hydrogen bromide (HBr) and
hypobromous acid (HBrO):
Br2(g) + H2O(l) → HBr(aq) + HBrO(aq)
Iodine, however, is minimally soluble in water (0.03 g/100 g water @ 20 °C) and does not react with it.[6] However,
iodine will form an aqueous solution in the presence of iodide ion, such as by addition of potassium iodide (KI),
because the triiodide ion is formed.

See also
• Pseudohalogen
• Halogen bond
• Halogen lamp

Further reading
• N. N. Greenwood, A. Earnshaw, Chemistry of the Elements [7], 2nd ed., Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, UK,
1997.

Explanation of above periodic table slice:

Halogens Atomic numbers in red are gases Atomic numbers in green are Atomic numbers in black are
liquids solids

Solid borders indicate primordial Dashed borders indicate Dotted borders indicate radioactive No borders indicates
elements (older than the Earth) radioactive natural elements synthetic elements undiscovered elements

References
[1] Online Etymology Dictionary halogen (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?search=halogen).
[2] G. Thomas, Medicinal Chemistry an Introduction, John Wiley & Sons, West Sussex, UK, 2000.
[3] The Oxidising Ability of the Group 7 Elements (http:/ / www. chemguide. co. uk/ inorganic/ group7/ halogensasoas. html)
[4] Solubility of chlorine in water (http:/ / www. resistoflex. com/ chlorine_graphs. htm#9)
[5] Properties of bromine (http:/ / www. bromaid. org/ hand_chap1. htm)
[6] Iodine MSDS (http:/ / www. jtbaker. com/ msds/ englishhtml/ I2680. htm)
[7] http:/ / www. knovel. com/ knovel2/ Toc. jsp?BookID=402
Group XVIII 83

Group XVIII
Group → 18

↓ Period

1 2
He

2 10
Ne

3 18
Ar

4 36
Kr

5 54
Xe

6 86
Rn

7 118
Uuo

Legend

Noble gas

Gas

Primordial element

From decay

Synthetic

A group 18 element is any chemical element from the last column of the standard periodic table.
For the first six periods, the group 18 elements are exactly the noble gases. However, the seventh member of group
18 (the synthetic element ununoctium) is probably not a noble gas.
Group 18 was previously called 'group 8A' or 'group 0'.

Properties
According to the classical shell model for electrons, the group 18 elements have a fully filled outer shell, rendering
them inert to most chemical reactions. This holds true for the first six elements of this group (though they tend to
become slightly less inert with increasing periods). For the seventh period group 18 element (ununoctium), this
"nobility" is predicted to break down due to relativistic effects.[1]

Chemical elements in the first period

Group 1/17 2/18

# 1 2
Name H He

The first period contains fewer elements than any other, with only two, hydrogen and helium. They therefore do not
follow the octet rule. Chemically, helium behaves as a noble gas, and thus is taken to be part of the group 18
elements. However, in terms of its nuclear structure it belongs to the s block, and is therefore sometimes classified as
a group 2 element, or simultaneously both 2 and 18. Hydrogen readily loses and gains an electron, and so behaves
chemically as both a group 1 and a group 17 element.
Period 86

• Hydrogen (H) is the most abundant of the chemical elements, constituting roughly 75% of the universe's
elemental mass.[1] Ionized hydrogen is just a proton. Stars in the main sequence are mainly composed of
hydrogen in its plasma state. Elemental hydrogen is relatively rare on Earth, and is industrially produced from
hydrocarbons such as methane. Hydrogen can form compounds with most elements and is present in water and
most organic compounds.[2]
• Helium (He) exists only as a gas except in extreme conditions.[3] It is the second lightest element and is the
second most abundant in the universe.[4] Most helium was formed during the Big Bang, but new helium is created
through nuclear fusion of hydrogen in stars.[5] On Earth, helium is relatively rare, only occurring as a byproduct
of the natural decay of some radioactive elements.[6] Such 'radiogenic' helium is trapped within natural gas in
concentrations of up to seven percent by volume.[7]

Chemical elements in the second period

Group 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18

# 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Name Li Be B C N O F Ne

Period 2 elements involve the 2s and 2p orbitals. They include the biologically most essential elements besides
hydrogen: carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen.
• Lithium is the lightest metal and the least dense solid element.[8] In its non-ionized state it is one of the most
reactive elements, and so is only ever found naturally in compounds. It is the heaviest primordial element forged
in large quantities during the Big Bang.
• Beryllium has one of the highest melting points of all the light metals. Small amounts of beryllium were
synthesised during the Big Bang, although most of it decayed or reacted further within stars to create larger
nucleii, like carbon, nitrogen or oxygen. Beryllium is classified by the International Agency for Research on
Cancer as Group 1 carcinogens.[9] Between 1% and 15% of people are sensitive to beryllium and may develop an
inflammatory reaction in their respiratory system and skin, called chronic beryllium disease.[10]
• Boron (B) does not occur naturally as a free element, but in compounds such as borates. It is an essential plant
micronutrient, required for cell wall strength and development, cell division, seed and fruit development, sugar
transport and hormone development,[11] [12] though high levels are toxic.
• Carbon (C) is the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen, helium and oxygen[13]
and is the second most abundant element in the human body by mass after oxygen,[14] the third most abundant by
number of atoms.[15] There are an almost infinite number of compounds that contain carbon due to carbon's
ability to form long stable chains of C—C bonds.[16] [17] All organic compounds, those essential for life, contain
at least one atom of carbon;[16] [17] combined with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus, carbon is
the basis of every important biological compound.[17]
• Nitrogen (N) is found mainly as mostly inert diatomic gas, N2, which makes up 78% of the earth's atmosphere. It
is an essential component of proteins and therefore of life.
• Oxygen (O) comprising 21% of the atmosphere and is required for respiration by all (or nearly all) animals, as
well as being the principal component of water. Oxygen is the third most abundant element in the universe, and
oxygen compounds dominate the earth's crust.
• Fluorine (F) is the most reactive element in its non-ionized state, and so is never found that way in nature.
• Neon is a noble gas used in neon lights.
Period 87

Chemical elements in the third period

Group 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18

# 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Name Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

All period three elements occur in nature and have at least one stable isotope. All but the noble gas argon are all
essential to basic geology and biology.
• Sodium (symbol Na) is an alkali metal. It is present in Earth's oceans in large quantities in the form of sodium
chloride (table salt).
• Magnesium (symbol Mg) is an alkaline earth metal. Magnesium ions are found in chlorophyll.
• Aluminium (symbol Al) is a poor metal. It is the most abundant metal in the Earth's crust.
• Silicon (symbol Si) is a metalloid. It is a semiconductor, making it the principal component in many integrated
circuits. Silicon dioxide is the principal constituent of sand.
• Phosphorus (symbol P) is a nonmetal essential to DNA. It is highly reactive, and as such is never found in nature
as a free element.
• Sulfur (symbol S) is a nonmetal. It is found in two amino acids: cysteine and methionine.
• Chlorine (symbol Cl) is a halogen. It is used as a disinfectant, especially in swimming pools.
• Argon (symbol Ar) is a noble gas, making it almost entirely nonreactive. Incandescent lamps are often filled with
noble gasses such as argon in order to preserve the filaments at high temperatures.

Chemical elements in the fourth period

Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Atomic number 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Name K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

electron 4s1 4s2 3d1 3d2 3d3 3d5 3d5 3d6 3d7 3d8 3d10 3d10 3d10 3d10 3d10 3d10 3d10 3d10
configuration 4s2 4s2 4s2 4s1 4s2 4s2 4s2 4s2 4s1 4s2 4s2 4s2 4s2 4s2 4s2 4s2
all begin with [Ar] 4p1 4p2 4p3 4p4 4p5 4p6

Period 4 includes the biologically essential elements

potassium and calcium, and is the first period in the
d-block with the lighter transition metals. These include
iron, the heaviest element forged in main-sequence
stars and a principal component of the earth, as well as
other important metals such as cobalt, nickle, copper,
and zinc. Almost all have biological roles. From left to right, aqueous solutions of: Co(NO3)2 (red); K2Cr2O7
(orange); K2CrO4 (yellow); NiCl2 (green); CuSO4 (blue); KMnO4
(purple).
Period 88

Chemical elements in the fifth period

Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

# 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Name Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

Period 5 includes the important metals silver and tin and the biologically important element iodine. Also in period 5
is the lightest purely radioactive element, technetium, the first element to be artificially synthesized.

Chemical elements in the sixth period

Group 1 2 3 (Lanthanides) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

# 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Name Cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

Period 6 is the first period to include the F block, with the lanthanides aka rare earth elements, and includes the
heaviest stable elements. Many of these heavy metals are toxic and some are radioactive, but platinum and gold are
largely inert.

Chemical elements in the seventh period

Group 1 2 3 (Actinides) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

# 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Name Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo

All elements of period 7 are radioactive. This period contains the heaviest element which occurs naturally on earth,
uranium. Most of the subsequent elements in the period have been synthesized artificially. Whilst some of these (e.g.
plutonium) are now available in tonne quantities, most are extremely rare, having only been prepared in microgram
amounts or less. Some of the later elements have only ever been identified in laboratories in quantities of a few
atoms at a time.
Although the rarity of many of these elements means that experimental results are not very extensive, periodic and
group trends in behaviour appear to be less well defined for period 7 than for other periods. Whilst francium and
radium do show typical properties of Groups 1 and 2 respectively, the actinides display a much greater variety of
behaviour and oxidation states that than the lanthanides. Initial studies suggest Group 14 element ununquadium
appears to be a noble gas instead of a poor metal, and group 18 element ununoctium probably is not a noble gas.[18]
These peculiarities of period 7 may be due to a variety of factors, including a large degree of spin-orbit coupling and
relativistic effects, ultimately caused by the very high positive electrical charge from their massive atomic nuclei.

Chemical elements in the eighth period

No element of the eighth period has yet been synthesized. A G block is predicted. It is not clear if all elements
predicted for the eighth period are in fact physically possible. There may therefore be no ninth period.
Element categories in the periodic table
Period 89

Metals Metalloids Nonmetals Unknown

chemical
Alkali Alkaline Inner transition Transition Other Other Halogens Noble
properties
metals earth metals elements elements metals nonmetals gases

Lanthanides Actinides

References
[1] Palmer, David (November 13, 1997). "Hydrogen in the Universe" (http:/ / imagine. gsfc. nasa. gov/ docs/ ask_astro/ answers/ 971113i. html).
NASA. . Retrieved 2008-02-05.
[2] "hydrogen". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
[3] "Helium: physical properties" (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ helium/ physics. html). WebElements. . Retrieved 2008-07-15.
[4] "Helium: geological information" (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ helium/ geology. html). WebElements. . Retrieved 2008-07-15.
[5] Cox, Tony (1990-02-03). "Origin of the chemical elements" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ mg12517027.
000-origin-of-the-chemical-elements. html). New Scientist. . Retrieved 2008-07-15.
[6] "Helium supply deflated: production shortages mean some industries and partygoers must squeak by.". Houston Chronicle. 2006-11-05.
[7] Brown, David (2008-02-02). "Helium a New Target in New Mexico" (http:/ / www. aapg. org/ explorer/ 2008/ 02feb/ helium. cfm). American
Association of Petroleum Geologists. . Retrieved 2008-07-15.
[8] Lithium (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ lithium/ ) at WebElements.
[9] "IARC Monograph, Volume 58" (http:/ / www. inchem. org/ documents/ iarc/ vol58/ mono58-1. html). International Agency for Research on
Cancer. 1993. . Retrieved 2008-09-18.
[10] Information (http:/ / www. chronicberylliumdisease. com/ medical/ med_bediseases. htm#cbd) about chronic beryllium disease.
[11] "Functions of Boron in Plant Nutrition" (http:/ / www. borax. com/ agriculture/ files/ an203. pdf) (PDF). U.S. Borax Inc.. .
[12] Blevins, Dale G.; Lukaszewski, Krystyna M. (1998). "Functions of Boron in Plant Nutrition". Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant
Molecular Biology 49: 481–500. doi:10.1146/annurev.arplant.49.1.481. PMID 15012243.
[13] Ten most abundant elements in the universe, taken from The Top 10 of Everything, 2006, Russell Ash, page 10. Retrieved October 15, 2008.
(http:/ / plymouthlibrary. org/ faqelements. htm)
[14] Chang, Raymond (2007). Chemistry, Ninth Edition. McGraw-Hill. pp. 52. ISBN 0-07-110595-6.
[15] Freitas Jr., Robert A. (1999). Nanomedicine (http:/ / www. foresight. org/ Nanomedicine/ Ch03_1. html),. Landes Bioscience. Tables 3-1 &
3-2. ISBN 1570596808.
[16] "Structure and Nomenclature of Hydrocarbons" (http:/ / chemed. chem. purdue. edu/ genchem/ topicreview/ bp/ 1organic/ organic. html).
Purdue University. . Retrieved 2008-03-23.
[17] Alberts, Bruce; Alexander Johnson, Julian Lewis, Martin Raff, Keith Roberts, Peter Walter. Molecular Biology of the Cell (http:/ / www.
ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ books/ bv. fcgi?highlight=carbon& rid=mboc4. section. 165). Garland Science. .
[18] See references in the articles Ununquadium, Ununoctium
Pediod 1 90

Pediod 1
A period 1 element is one of the chemical elements in the first row (or period) of the periodic table of the chemical
elements. The periodic table is laid out in rows to illustrate recurring (periodic) trends in the chemical behaviour of
the elements as their atomic number increases: a new row is begun when chemical behaviour begins to repeat,
meaning that elements with similar behaviour fall into the same vertical columns. The first period contains fewer
elements than any other row in the table, with only two: hydrogen and helium. This situation can be explained by
modern theories of atomic structure.

Elements

Hydrogen
Hydrogen (H) is the chemical element with atomic number 1. At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a
colorless, odorless, nonmetallic, tasteless, highly flammable diatomic gas with the molecular formula H2. With an
atomic mass of 1.00794 amu, hydrogen is the lightest element.[1]
Hydrogen is the most abundant of the chemical elements, constituting roughly 75% of the universe's elemental
mass.[2] Stars in the main sequence are mainly composed of hydrogen in its plasma state. Elemental hydrogen is
relatively rare on Earth, and is industrially produced from hydrocarbons such as methane, after which most elemental
hydrogen is used "captively" (meaning locally at the production site), with the largest markets almost equally divided
between fossil fuel upgrading, such as hydrocracking, and ammonia production, mostly for the fertilizer market.
Hydrogen may be produced from water using the process of electrolysis, but this process is significantly more
expensive commercially than hydrogen production from natural gas.[3]
The most common naturally occurring isotope of hydrogen, known as protium, has a single proton and no
neutrons.[4] In ionic compounds, it can take on either a positive charge, becoming a cation composed of a bare
proton, or a negative charge, becoming an anion known as a hydride. Hydrogen can form compounds with most
elements and is present in water and most organic compounds.[5] It plays a particularly important role in acid-base
chemistry, in which many reactions involve the exchange of protons between soluble molecules.[6] As the only
neutral atom for which the Schrödinger equation can be solved analytically, study of the energetics and spectrum of
the hydrogen atom has played a key role in the development of quantum mechanics.[7]
The interactions of hydrogen with various metals are very important in metallurgy, as many metals can suffer
hydrogen embrittlement,[8] and in developing safe ways to store it for use as a fuel.[9] Hydrogen is highly soluble in
many compounds composed of rare earth metals and transition metals[10] and can be dissolved in both crystalline and
amorphous metals.[11] Hydrogen solubility in metals is influenced by local distortions or impurities in the metal
crystal lattice.[12]

Helium
Helium (He) is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, inert monatomic chemical element that heads the noble gas
series in the periodic table and whose atomic number is 2.[13] Its boiling and melting points are the lowest among the
elements and it exists only as a gas except in extreme conditions.[14]
Helium was discovered in 1868 by French astronomer Pierre Janssen, who first detected the substance as an
unknown yellow spectral line signature in light from a solar eclipse.[15] In 1903, large reserves of helium were found
in the natural gas fields of the United States, which is by far the largest supplier of the gas.[16] The substance is used
in cryogenics,[17] in deep-sea breathing systems,[18] to cool superconducting magnets, in helium dating,[19] for
inflating balloons,[20] for providing lift in airships,[21] and as a protective gas for industrial uses such as arc welding
and growing silicon wafers.[22] Inhaling a small volume of the gas temporarily changes the timbre and quality of the
Pediod 1 91

human voice.[23] The behavior of liquid helium-4's two fluid phases, helium I and helium II, is important to
researchers studying quantum mechanics and the phenomenon of superfluidity in particular,[24] and to those looking
at the effects that temperatures near absolute zero have on matter, such as with superconductivity.[25]
Helium is the second lightest element and is the second most abundant in the observable universe.[26] Most helium
was formed during the Big Bang, but new helium is being created as a result of the nuclear fusion of hydrogen in
stars.[27] On Earth, helium is relatively rare and is created by the natural decay of some radioactive elements[28]
because the alpha particles that are emitted consist of helium nuclei. This radiogenic helium is trapped with natural
gas in concentrations of up to seven percent by volume,[29] from which it is extracted commercially by a
low-temperature separation process called fractional distillation.[30]

References
• Bloch, D. R. (2006). Organic Chemistry Demystified [31]. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0-07-145920-0.

References
[1] "Hydrogen – Energy" (http:/ / www. eia. doe. gov/ kids/ energyfacts/ sources/ IntermediateHydrogen. html). Energy Information
Administration. . Retrieved 2008-07-15.
[2] Palmer, David (November 13, 1997). "Hydrogen in the Universe" (http:/ / imagine. gsfc. nasa. gov/ docs/ ask_astro/ answers/ 971113i. html).
NASA. . Retrieved 2008-02-05.
[3] Staff (2007). "Hydrogen Basics — Production" (http:/ / www. fsec. ucf. edu/ en/ consumer/ hydrogen/ basics/ production. htm). Florida Solar
Energy Center. . Retrieved 2008-02-05.
[4] Sullivan, Walter (1971-03-11). "Fusion Power Is Still Facing Formidable Difficulties". The New York Times.
[5] "hydrogen". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
[6] Eustis, S. N.; Radisic, D; Bowen, KH; Bachorz, RA; Haranczyk, M; Schenter, GK; Gutowski, M (2008-02-15). "Electron-Driven Acid-Base
Chemistry: Proton Transfer from Hydrogen Chloride to Ammonia". Science 319 (5865): 936–939. doi:10.1126/science.1151614.
PMID 18276886.
[7] "Time-dependent Schrödinger equation". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
[8] Rogers, H. C. (1999). "Hydrogen Embrittlement of Metals". Science 159 (3819): 1057–1064. doi:10.1126/science.159.3819.1057.
PMID 17775040.
[9] Christensen, C. H.; Nørskov, J. K.; Johannessen, T. (July 9, 2005). "Making society independent of fossil fuels — Danish researchers reveal
new technology" (http:/ / www. dtu. dk/ English/ About_DTU/ News. aspx?guid={E6FF7D39-1EDD-41A4-BC9A-20455C2CF1A7}).
Technical University of Denmark. . Retrieved 2008-03-28.
[10] Takeshita, T.; Wallace, W.E.; Craig, R.S. (1974). "Hydrogen solubility in 1:5 compounds between yttrium or thorium and nickel or cobalt".
Inorganic Chemistry 13 (9): 2282–2283. doi:10.1021/ic50139a050.
[11] Kirchheim, R.; Mutschele, T.; Kieninger, W (1988). "Hydrogen in amorphous and nanocrystalline metals". Materials Science and
Engineering 99: 457–462. doi:10.1016/0025-5416(88)90377-1.
[12] Kirchheim, R. (1988). "Hydrogen solubility and diffusivity in defective and amorphous metals". Progress in Materials Science 32 (4):
262–325. doi:10.1016/0079-6425(88)90010-2.
[13] "Helium: the essentials" (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ helium/ ). WebElements. . Retrieved 2008-07-15.
[14] "Helium: physical properties" (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ helium/ physics. html). WebElements. . Retrieved 2008-07-15.
[15] "Pierre Janssen" (http:/ / encarta. msn. com/ encyclopedia_762508746/ pierre_janssen. html). MSN Encarta. . Retrieved 2008-07-15.
[16] Theiss, Leslie (2007-01-18). "Where Has All the Helium Gone?" (http:/ / www. blm. gov/ wo/ st/ en/ info/ newsroom/ 2007/ january/
NR0701_2. html). Bureau of Land Management. . Retrieved 2008-07-15.
[17] Timmerhaus, Klaus D. (2006-10-06). Cryogenic Engineering: Fifty Years of Progress. Springer. ISBN 0-387-33324-X.
[18] Copel, M. (September 1966). "Helium voice unscrambling". Audio and Electroacoustics 14 (3): 122–126. doi:10.1109/TAU.1966.1161862.
[19] "helium dating". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
[20] Brain, Marshall. "How Helium Balloons Work" (http:/ / www. howstuffworks. com/ helium. htm). How Stuff Works. . Retrieved
2008-07-15.
[21] Jiwatram, Jaya (2008-07-10). "The Return of the Blimp" (http:/ / www. popsci. com/ military-aviation-space/ article/ 2008-07/
return-blimp). Popular Science. . Retrieved 2008-07-15.
[22] "When good GTAW arcs drift; drafty conditions are bad for welders and their GTAW arcs.". Welding Design & Fabrication. 2005-02-01.
[23] Montgomery, Craig (2006-09-04). "Why does inhaling helium make one's voice sound strange?" (http:/ / www. sciam. com/ article.
cfm?id=why-does-inhaling-helium). Scientific American. . Retrieved 2008-07-15.
[24] "Probable Discovery Of A New, Supersolid, Phase Of Matter" (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2004/ 09/ 040903085531. htm).
Science Daily. 2004-09-03. . Retrieved 2008-07-15.
Pediod 1 92

[25] Browne, Malcolm W. (1979-08-21). "Scientists See Peril In Wasting Helium; Scientists See Peril in Waste of Helium". The New York
Times.
[26] "Helium: geological information" (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ helium/ geology. html). WebElements. . Retrieved 2008-07-15.
[27] Cox, Tony (1990-02-03). "Origin of the chemical elements" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ mg12517027.
000-origin-of-the-chemical-elements. html). New Scientist. . Retrieved 2008-07-15.
[28] "Helium supply deflated: production shortages mean some industries and partygoers must squeak by.". Houston Chronicle. 2006-11-05.
[29] Brown, David (2008-02-02). "Helium a New Target in New Mexico" (http:/ / www. aapg. org/ explorer/ 2008/ 02feb/ helium. cfm).
American Association of Petroleum Geologists. . Retrieved 2008-07-15.
[30] Voth, Greg (2006-12-01). "Where Do We Get the Helium We Use?". The Science Teacher.
[31] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=yVPcSIn5xjAC

Extensions
There are currently seven periods in the periodic table of chemical elements, culminating with atomic number 118. If
further elements with higher atomic numbers than this are discovered, they will be placed in additional periods, laid
out (as with the existing periods) to illustrate periodically recurring trends in the properties of the elements
concerned. Any additional periods are expected to contain a larger number of elements than the seventh period, as
they are calculated to have an additional so-called g-block, containing 18 elements with partially filled g-orbitals in
each period. An eight-period table containing this block was suggested by Glenn T. Seaborg in 1969.[1]
No elements in this region have been synthesized or discovered in nature. (Element 122 was claimed to exist
naturally in April 2008, but this claim was widely believed to be erroneous.)[2] The first element of the g-block may
have atomic number 121, and thus would have the systematic name unbiunium. Elements in this region are likely to
be highly unstable with respect to radioactive decay, and have extremely short half lives, although element 126 is
hypothesized to be within an island of stability that is resistant to fission but not to alpha decay. It is not clear how
many elements beyond the expected island of stability are physically possible, if period 8 is complete, or if there is a
period 9. If period 9 does exist, it is likely to be the last.
According to the orbital approximation in quantum mechanical descriptions of atomic structure, the g-block would
correspond to elements with partially-filled g-orbitals. However, spin-orbit coupling effects reduce the validity of the
orbital approximation substantially for elements of high atomic number.[3]

Extended periodic table, including the g-block

[4]
Extended Periodic Table

1 1 2

H He

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Li Be B C N O F Ne

3 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

4 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

5 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

6 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86

Cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

7 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118

Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo

Extensions 93

8 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168

Uue Ubn Ubu Ubb Ubt Ubq Ubp Ubh Ubs Ubo Ube Utn Utu Utb Utt Utq Utp Uth Uts Uto Ute Uqn Uqu Uqb Uqt Uqq Uqp Uqh Uqs Uqo Uqe Upn Upu Upb Upt Upq Upp Uph Ups Upo Upe Uhn Uhu Uhb Uht Uhq Uhp Uhh Uhs Uho

9 169 170 171 172 173

Uhe Usn Usu Usb Ust

Blocks of the periodic table

s-block p-block d-block f-block g-block

(Undiscovered (theorized) elements are coloured in a lighter shade)

All of these hypothetical undiscovered elements are named by the International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC) systematic element name standard which creates a generic name for use until the element has
been discovered, confirmed, and an official name approved.
The positioning of the g-block in the table (to the left of the f-block, to the right, or in between) is speculative. The
positions shown in the table above corresponds to the assumption that the Madelung rule will continue to hold at
higher atomic number; this assumption may or may not be true. At element 118, the orbitals 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d, 4s,
4p, 4d, 4f, 5s, 5p, 5d, 5f, 6s, 6p, 6d, 7s and 7p are assumed to be filled, with the remaining orbitals unfilled. The
orbitals of the eighth period are predicted to be filled in the order 8s, 5g, 6f, 7d, 8p. However, after approximately
element 120, the proximity of the electron shells makes placement in a simple table problematic; for example,
calculations suggest that it may be elements 165 and 166 which occupy the 9s block (leaving the 8p orbital
incomplete) assuming they are physically possible.[5]

End of the periodic table

The number of physically possible elements is unknown. The light-speed limit on electrons orbiting in ever-bigger
electron shells theoretically limits neutral atoms to a Z of approximately 173,[6] after which it would be nonsensical
to assign the elements to blocks on the basis of electron configuration. However, it is likely that the periodic table
actually ends much earlier, possibly soon after the island of stability,[7] which is expected to center around Z =
126.[8]
Additionally the extension of the periodic and nuclides tables is restricted by the proton drip line and the neutron drip
line.

Bohr model breakdown

The Bohr model exhibits difficulty for atoms with atomic number greater than 137, for the speed of an electron in a
1s electron orbital, v, is given by

where Z is the atomic number, and α is the fine structure constant, a measure of the strength of electromagnetic
interactions.[9] Under this approximation, any element with an atomic number of greater than 137 would require 1s
electrons to be traveling swifter than c, the speed of light. Hence a non-relativistic model such as the Bohr model is
inadequate for such calculations.
Extensions 94

The Dirac equation

The semi-relativistic Dirac equation also has problems for Z > 137, for the ground state energy is

where m0 is the rest mass of the electron. For Z > 137, the wave function of the Dirac ground state is oscillatory,
rather than bound, and there is no gap between the positive and negative energy spectra, as in the Klein paradox.[10]
Richard Feynman pointed out this effect, so the last element expected under this model, 137 (untriseptium), is
sometimes called feynmanium.
However, a realistic calculation has to take into account the finite extension of the nuclear-charge distribution. This
results in a critical Z of ≈ 173 (unseptrium), such that non-ionized atoms may be limited to elements equal to or
lower than this.[6]

See also
• Electron configuration
• Nuclear shell model
• Table of nuclides (combined)

References
[1] (http:/ / acs. lbl. gov/ Seaborg. talks/ 65th-anniv/ 29. html)
[2] "Heaviest element claim criticised" (http:/ / www. rsc. org/ chemistryworld/ News/ 2008/ May/ 02050802. asp). Rsc.org. 2008-05-02. .
Retrieved 2010-03-16.
[3] For example, an element in the column labeled g1 may indeed have exactly one valence-shell g-electron (as the name suggests), but it is also
possible that it would have more, or none at all.
[4] The labels "g1", etc. are inspired by the Madelung rule, but this is merely an empirical rule, with well-known exceptions such as copper.
[5] Pekka Pyykkö, Peter Schwerdtfeger (2004), Relativistic electronic structure theory, p 23.
[6] Walter Greiner and Stefan Schramm (2008). American Journal of Physics 76: 509. doi:10.1119/1.2820395., and references therein.
[7] Encyclopædia Britannica. "transuranium element (chemical element) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/
EBchecked/ topic/ 603220/ transuranium-element). Britannica.com. . Retrieved 2010-03-16.
[8] S. Cwiok, P.-H. Heenen and W. Nazarewicz (2005). "Shape coexistence and triaxiality in the superheavy nuclei". Nature 433: 705.
[9] See for example R. Eisberg and R. Resnick, Quantum Physics of Atoms, Molecules, Solids, Nuclei and Particles, Wiley (New York: 1985).
[10] James D. Bjorken and Sidney D. Drell, Relativistic Quantum Mechanics, McGraw-Hill (New York:1964).

• http://www.springerlink.com/content/j303171428652143/

External links
• Images of g-orbitals (http://www.uky.edu/~holler/html/g.html) from the University of Kentucky
• jeries.rihani.com (http://jeries.rihani.com) - The extended periodic table of the elements.
• Eric Scerri, The Periodic Table, Its Story and Its Significance, Oxford University Press, 2007.
95

Blocks

Block
A block of the periodic table of elements is a set of adjacent groups. The term appears to have been first used (in
French) by Charles Janet. [1] The respective highest-energy electrons in each element in a block belong to the same
atomic orbital type. Each block is named after its characteristic orbital; thus, the blocks are:
• s-block
• p-block
• d-block
• f-block
• g-block (hypothetical)
The block names (s, p, d, f. and g) are derived from the quality of the spectroscopic lines of the associated atomic
orbitals: sharp, principal, diffuse and fundamental, the rest being named in alphabetical order. Blocks are sometimes
called families.
[1] Charles Janet, La classification helicoidal des elements chimiques, Beauvais, 1928

s-block
Chemical elements in s-block
Group 1 2 18

Period

1 1 2
H He

2 3 4
Li Be

3 11 12
Na Mg

4 19 20
K Ca

5 37 38
Rb Sr

6 55 56
Cs Ba

7 87 88
Fr Ra

The s-block of the periodic table of elements consists of the first two groups: the alkali metals and alkaline earth
metals, plus hydrogen and helium.
These elements are distinguished by the property that in the atomic ground state, the highest-energy electron is in an
s-orbital. Except in hydrogen and helium, these electrons are very easily lost to form positive ions. The helium
s-block 96

configuration is chemically exceedingly stable and thus helium has no known stable compounds; thus it is generally
grouped with the noble gases.
The other elements of the s-block are all extremely powerful reducing agents, so much so that they never occur
naturally in the free state. The metallic forms of these elements can only be extracted by electrolysis of a molten salt,
since water is much more easily reduced to hydrogen than the ions of these metals. Sir Humphry Davy, in 1807 and
1808, was the first to isolate all of these metals except lithium, beryllium, rubidium and caesium. Beryllium was
isolated independently by F. Wooler and A.A. Bussy in 1828, while lithium was isolated by Robert Bunsen in 1854,
who isolated rubidium nine years later after having observed it and caesium spectroscopically. Caesium was not
isolated until 1881 when Carl Setterberg electrolysed the molten cyanide.
The s-block metals vary from extremely soft (all the alkali metals) to quite hard (beryllium). With the exception of
beryllium and magnesium, the metals are too reactive for any structural use except as very minor components (<2%)
of alloys with lead. Beryllium and magnesium, though very expensive, are valuable for uses that require strength and
lightness. They are extremely valuable as reducing agents to extract titanium, zirconium, thorium and tantalum from
their ores, and have other uses as reducing agents in organic chemistry.
All the s-block metals are dangerous fire hazards which require special extinguishants to extinguish, except for
beryllium and magnesium, storage must be under either argon or an inert liquid hydrocarbon. They react vigorously
with water to liberate hydrogen, except for magnesium, which reacts slowly, and beryllium, which reacts only when
amalgamated with mercury to destroy the oxide film. Lithium has similar properties to magnesium due to the
diagonal relationship with magnesium in the periodic table.

See also
• Electron configuration

p-block
Chemical elements in p-block
Group 13 14 15 16 17 18

Period

2 5 6 7 8 9 10
B C N O F Ne

3 13 14 15 16 17 18
Al Si P S Cl Ar

4 31 32 33 34 35 36
Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

5 49 50 51 52 53 54
In Sn Sb Te I Xe

6 81 82 83 84 85 86
Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

7 113 114 115 116 117 118

Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo

The p-block of the periodic table of the elements consists of the last six groups minus helium (which is located in the
s-block). In the elemental form of the p-block elements, the highest energy electron occupies a p-orbital. The p-block
contains all of the nonmetals (except for Hydrogen and Helium which are in the s-block) and semimetals, as well as
p-block 97

some of the metals.

The groups of the p-block are:
• 13 (IIIB,IIIA): Boron Group
• 14 (IVB,IVA): Carbon Group
• 15 (VB,VA): Nitrogen Group
• 16 (VIB,VIA): Chalcogens
• 17 (VIIB,VIIA): Halogens
• 18 (Group 0): Noble gases (excluding Helium)

See also
• Electron configuration

Explanation of above periodic table slice:

atomic number atomic number in atomic number in solid borders are primordial dotted borders are dashed borders have no
in red are gases black are solids green are liquids elements (older than the radioactive, synthetic isotopes older than the
Earth) elements earth

d-block
The d-block is a the portion of the periodic table which contains the element groups 3-12.[1] [2] These groups
correspond to the filling of the atomic d-orbital subshell, with electron configurations ranging from s2d1 (Group 3) to
s2d10 (Group 12). There are however some irregularities in the sequence; for example Cr is s1d5 (not s2d4) and the
Group 11 metals are s1d10 (not s2d9), so that the d-subshell is actually complete at Group 11.
The d-block elements are often also known as transition metals or transition elements. However the exact limits of
the transition metal region are usually not considered to be identical to the d-block. Although some authors do
identify the entire d-block as transition metals[1] , most define transition metals as elements with partly filled d
subshells either in the neutral atom or in ions in common oxidation states.[2] [3] This definition has now been adopted
by IUPAC[4] and corresponds to including only Groups 3-11 as transition metals. Group 12 metals lack the
characteristic chemical and physical properties associated with incomplete d subshells and are considered
post-transition metals. Jensen has reviewed the historical usage of the terms transition element (or metal) and
d-block.[5]
In the s-block and p-block of the periodic table, similar properties across the periods are generally not observed: the
most important similarities tend to be vertical, down groups. However the d-block is notable in that horizontal
similarities across the periods do become important.
Although Lutetium and Lawrencium are in the d-block, they are not considered transition metals but a lanthanide
and an actinide, respectively, according to IUPAC.[6] Group 12 elements are also in the d-block but are considered
post-transition metals as their d-subshell is completely filled.[6]
d-block 98

Chemical elements in d-block

Group → 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

↓ Period

4 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn

5 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd

6 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg

7 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn

A Way to learn 3d elements:

SupremeCourt - Sc

Tied - Ti

Various - V

CriMinals - Cr,
Mn

For - Fe

Controlling - Co

Night - Ni

Club - Cu

Zones - Zn

See also
• Electron configuration

References
[1] R.H. Petrucci, W.S. Harwood and F.G. Herring “General Chemistry” (8th ed, Prentice-Hall 2002), p.341-2
[2] C.E. Housecroft and A.G. Sharpe “Inorganic Chemistry” (2nd ed, Pearson Prentice-Hall 2005), p..20-21
[3] F.A. Cotton and G. Wilkinson “Advanced Inorganic Chemistry” (5th ed, John Wiley 1988) p.625
[4] International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. " transition element (http:/ / goldbook. iupac. org/ T06456. html)". Compendium of
Chemical Terminology Internet edition.
[5] Jensen, William B. (2003). "The Place of Zinc, Cadmium, and Mercury in the Periodic Table" (http:/ / www. uv. es/ ~borrasj/ ingenieria_web/
temas/ tema_1/ lecturas_comp/ p952. pdf). Journal of Chemical Education 80 (8): 952–961. doi:10.1021/ed080p952. .
[6] IUPAC Provisional Recommendations for the Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry (2004) (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ reports/ provisional/
abstract04/ connelly_310804. html) (online draft of an updated version of the "Red Book" IR 3-6)
f-block 99

f-block
The f-block of the periodic table of the elements consists of those elements whose atoms or ions have valence
electrons in f-orbitals. Actual electronic configurations may be slightly different from what is predicted by the
aufbau principle. The elements are also known as inner transition elements. There are two series. Elements of the
series in which the electrons are in 4f orbitals belong to the lanthanoid series. Elements of the series in which the
electrons are in 5f orbitals belong to the actinoid series. There is a long-standing controversy as to whether La and
Ac or Lu and Lr should belong to the f-block. IUPAC has now compromised by putting all four elements into the
block, but this is contested, because there can only be 14 elements in f orbitals, so the block cannot be 15 elements
wide. [1]

f-block

Lanthanoids 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

Actinoids 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

All elements in the lanthanide series form M3+ ions. In aqueous solution the early lanthanides are surrounded by nine
water molecules while the later lanthanides have a coordination number of 8. Cerium also forms compounds with the
+4 oxidation state; Ce4+ has the very stable electronic configuration of the noble gas Xe. Ce(IV) is a strong oxidising
agent. Eu2+ has the configuration [Xe]4f7 and is a strong reducing agent. The existence of Eu(II) is attributed to the
stability of the half-filled f-shell.[2]
The lighter actinides (uranium to americium) show oxidation states of +3, +4, +5 and +6. The later actinides
resemble the lanthanides in that the +3 oxidation state is favoured.

See also
• Electron configuration

External links
• Images of f-orbitals [3]
• Interactive f-orbital models can be found at this site:[4]

References
[1] f-block stands for fundamental-block. IUPAC Periodic Table 2007 .pdf (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ reports/ periodic_table/
IUPAC_Periodic_Table-22Jun07b. pdf)
[2] Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997), Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.), Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 0080379419
Chapters 30 and 31
[3] http:/ / www. uky. edu/ ~holler/ html/ f. html
[4] http:/ / www. d. umn. edu/ ~pkiprof/ ChemWebV2/ AOs/ ao4. html
100

Other divisions

Actinide
The actinide or actinoid (IUPAC nomenclature) series encompasses the 14 chemical elements with atomic numbers
from 90 to 103, thorium to lawrencium.[1] [2] [3] The actinide series derives its name from the group 3 element
actinium which can be included in the series for the purpose of comparisons. Only thorium and uranium occur in
usable quantities in nature. The other actinides are man-made elements. The actinides are usually considered to be
f-block elements. The actinides show much more variable valency than the lanthanoids. All actinides are radioactive.

History
Prior to 1945, it was generally thought, following Mendeleev, that thorium and uranium were transition metals in
groups 4 and 6 respectively. The assumption was that the transuranium elements would also have the properties of
transition metals. However, Charles Janet proposed in 1928 that, starting with actinium, there would be 14 elements
corresponding with the lanthanides. The transuranium elements were first synthesized as part of the Manhattan
Project in around 1944. Glenn T. Seaborg, the principal investigator, found that americium and curium did not have
the properties to be expected of transition elements.[4] In 1945, he went against the advice of colleagues and, without
knowing of Janet, adopted his proposal, which thus became the most significant change to the periodic table to have
been accepted universally by the scientific community: that the actinide elements belong to a new series, similar to
the lanthanide series in that the valence electrons would be situated in f orbitals. This is also in accord with the
Aufbau principle which predicts that 5f orbitals will be filled before 6d orbitals.

Chemistry
Atomic 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
No.

Name Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

Atoms 7s26d1 7s26d2 7s25f26d1 7s25f36d1 7s25f46d1 7s25f6 7s25f7 7s25f76d1 7s25f9 7s25f10 7s25f11 7s25f12 7s25f13 7s25f14 7s25f147p1

Some actinide atoms have electrons in 6d orbitals, but in compounds the 6s electrons and any d electrons are lost,
leaving the ions with an electronic configuration [Rn]5fn. In this respect the actinides are similar to the lanthanoids,
with only f electrons in the valence shell in compounds. There is also a similarity in the fact that the maximum
oxidation state of the later actinides is +3. However, the early actinides, Th and U can lose all their valence electrons
to achieve a maximum oxidation state of 4 and 6 respectively. Historically this led to some debate as to whether
thorium, and uranium should be considered as d-block elements, that is, with thorium in group 4, below hafnium,
and uranium in group 6, below tungsten. The chemistry of these elements does in fact follow the trends expected
with increasing atomic number going down those groups, taking into account the effects of the lanthanide
contraction. Np can also lose all its valence electrons, as in [NpO5]3-.
The highest oxidation states of U, Np and Pu occur in covalent, mostly oxo- and fluoro compounds. For example,
UF6 (mp 64oC) is sufficiently volatile to be used in gaseous diffusion or gas centrifuge isotope separation plants. All
uranium (VI) compounds, apart from fluoro complexes and UO2, contain the linear "uranyl" group, UO22+. Between
4 to 6 ligands can be accommodated in an equatorial plane perpendicular to the uranyl group. The uranyl group acts
as a hard acid and form stronger complexes with oxygen-donor ligands than with nitrogen-donor ligands. NpO22+
Actinide 101

and PuO22+ are also the common form of Np and Pu in the +6 oxidation state.
Compound in the +5 and +4 oxidation states are also predominantly covalent. A notable feature of complexes of
actinides in the +4 oxidation state is that they can achieve coordination numbers as high as 11. Compounds in the +3
oxidation state are semi-covalent. For example the trichlorides crystallize with ionic-type structures, but with clear
evidence for some covalent bonding. Compounds of Th(III) and U(III) are very strong reducing agents, but the
reducing power decreases from left to right along the actinide series, in line with the decreasing size.

The actinide contraction

The size of the actinides decreases with increasing
atomic number. This is the normal periodic trend and is
similar to the lanthanide contraction. The trend is
shown in each of the oxidation states +3, +4 and +5.

[5]
Radii of 6-coordinate actinides in various oxidation states.

Colour and magnetism

Approximate colours of actinide ions in aqueous solution[6] [7]

Oxidation 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99
state

+3 Ac3+ Th3+ Pa3+ U3+ Np3+ Pu3+ Am3+ Cm3+ Bk3+ Cf3+ Es3+

+4 Th4+ Pa4+ U4+ Np4+ Pu4+ Am4+ Cm4+ Bk4+ Cf4+

+5 PaO2+ UO2+ NpO2+ PuO2+ AmO2+

+6 UO22+ NpO22+ PuO22+ AmO22+

+7 NpO23+ PuO23+ [AmO6]5-

The colours of the actinide ions in the lower oxidation states are due to f-f transitions. In the high oxidation states
there may also be charge-transfer transitions. There is strong spin-orbit coupling, but weak crystal field splitting, so
there is little colour variation in compounds of a given element in a given oxidation state. Transitions between 5f and
6d orbitals can be observed in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum. Magnetic moments of the paramagnetic species
are far from spin-only values.
Actinide 102

Organometallic chemistry
An organometallic compound of an actinide is known as an organoactinide. The organometallic chemistry of the
actinides is not extensive. Uranocene, U(C8H8)2, is particularly interesting for the presence of the planar, Huckel rule
aromatic cyclooctatrenyl anion, analogous to the cyclopentadenyl ion found in ferrocene. The formation of this
compound is helped by the relative large size the U4+ ion.

Chemical aspects of radioactivity

All actinides are radioactive. Protactinium and all isotopes of the elements following uranium (the trans-uranium
elements) are man-made elements and have half-lives much less than the age of the earth and are not found in usable
quantity in nature. Uranium and thorium are weak alpha emitters with very long half-lives and can be handled with
minimum radiological protection procedures.
Elements beyond einsteinium have not been synthesized in sufficient quantity to make detailed studies of their
chemistry.
Radioactive decay is a significant source of heat, so temperature control is an issue with the trans-uranium elements.
Also, emitted alpha particles can act as oxidizing agents. For example,
He2+ + H2O → 2H+ + 1/2 O2 + He

Occurrence
Actinides Half-life Fission products

Cmf 10–30 y
244 241
Pu f 250 243 137 90 85
Cm Cf Cs Sr Kr

232 f is for 69–90 y

U  f 238 151
Pu Sm nc➔
fissile
4n 249 141–351
Cf  f 242
Amf No fission product
has half-life 102
Cf  f 431–898
241 251
Am to 2×105 years

240 229 246 243 5–7 ky

Pu Th Cm Am

4n 245 8–24 ky
Cmf 250 239
Cm Pu f

233 32–160
U f 230 231
Th Pa

4n+1 234 4n+3 211–290 99 126 79

U Tc Sn Se

248 242 340–373 Long-lived fission products

Cm Pu

237 4n+2 1–2 my 93 135

Np Zr Cs nc➔

4n+1 Cmf 6–23

236 247 107 129
U Pd I

244 80 my >7% >5% >1% >.1%

232 238 235 fission product yield

Th U U f 0.7–12by

Only thorium and uranium occur naturally in the Earth's crust in anything more than trace quantities. Protactinium
and actinium, which are both decay products of uranium, are the only remaining actinides that were discovered in
nature before they were synthesized. Neptunium and plutonium have also been known to show up naturally in trace
amounts in uranium ores as a result of decay or bombardment, but this was only discovered after they were
synthesized. The remaining actinides were synthesized in particle colliders or nuclear reactors, and none of them has
been found to occur naturally on earth. Actinides beyond californium possess exceedingly short half-lives.
Actinide 103

Isotopes of all of the transuranium elements up to and including fermium can be produced by rapid neutron
bombardment of lighter nuclides. The nuclei created have an excess of neutrons. β-decay occurs with a neutron
decaying to a proton and an electron, increasing the atomic number in the process. Conditions suitable for the
synthesis of transuranium elements occur in supernovae. These elements may also be produced in specialized
nuclear reactors. They may be created in a nuclear explosion and come to earth as nuclear fallout from an
atmospheric test explosion. The heavier elements may be synthesized by bombardment with heavier particles, such
as α particles or heavier nuclei.
In 1961, Antoni Przybylski discovered a star, HD 101065, commonly called Przybylski's star, that contains unusually
high amounts of actinides.

See also
• Actinides in the environment

Further reading
• Tamer Andrea and Moris S. Eisen (2008). "Recent advances in organothorium and organouranium catalysis".
Chem. Soc. Rev. 37: 550 - 567. doi:10.1039/b614969n.
• Morss, Lester R.; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean, eds (2006). The Chemistry of the Actinide and
Transactinide Elements (3rd ed.). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer. ISBN 13978-1-4020-3555-5.

External links
• The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. [8]
• Chemical Elements website [9]
• Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory image of historic periodic table by Seaborg showing actinide series for the first
time [10]
• Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Uncovering the Secrets of the Actinides [11]
• Los Alamos National Laboratory, Actinide Research Quarterly [12]

References
[1] IUPAC Periodic Table (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ reports/ periodic_table)
[2] IUPAC Periodic Table 2007 .pdf (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ reports/ periodic_table/ IUPAC_Periodic_Table-22Jun07b. pdf)
[3] Connelly, Neil G.; et al. (2005). "Elements". Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry. London: Royal Society of Chemistry. pp. 52.
[4] Seaborg, Glenn T. (1946). "The Transuranium Elements" (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 1675046). Science 104 (2704): 379–386.
doi:10.1126/science.104.2704.379. .
[5] Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997), Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.), Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 0080379419, p
1263
[6] Arnold F. Holleman, Nils Wiberg: Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie, 102. Auflage, de Gruyter, Berlin 2007, S. 1956; ISBN
978-3-11-017770-1.
[7] dtv-Atlas zur Chemie 1981, Teil 1, S. 224.
[8] http:/ / www. bartleby. com/ 65/ ac/ actinide. html
[9] http:/ / www. chemicalelements. com/ groups/ rareearth. html
[10] http:/ / imglib. lbl. gov/ ImgLib/ COLLECTIONS/ BERKELEY-LAB/ SEABORG-ARCHIVE/ index/ 96B05654. html
[11] http:/ / www. llnl. gov/ str/ pdfs/ 06_00. 2. pdf#search=%22actinide%20series%22
[12] http:/ / arq. lanl. gov/
Lanthanide 104

Lanthanide
The lanthanide or lanthanoid (IUPAC nomenclature)[1] series comprises the fourteen elements with atomic
numbers 58 through 71, from cerium to lutetium.[2] All lanthanides are f-block elements, corresponding to the filling
of the 4f electron shell. Lanthanum, which is a d-block element, may also be considered to be a lanthanide. All
lanthanide elements form trivalent cations, Ln3+, whose chemistry is largely determined by the ionic radius, which
decreases steadily from lanthanum to lutetium.

Classification

Atomic No. 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Name La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

M3+ f electrons 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

The lanthanide elements are the group of elements with atomic number increasing from 58 (cerium) to 71 (lutetium).
They are termed lanthanide because the lighter elements in the series are chemically similar to lanthanum. Strictly
speaking lanthanum is a group 3 element element and the ion La3+ has no f electrons. However this element is often
included in any general discussion of the chemistry of the lanthanide elements.

Chemistry
The electronic structure of the lanthanide elements, with minor exceptions is [Xe]6s24fn. In their compounds, the 6s
electrons are lost and the ions have the configuration [Xe]4fm.[3] The chemistry of the lanthanides differs from main
group elements and transition metals because of the nature of the 4f orbitals. These orbitals are "buried" inside the
atom and are shielded from the atom's environment by the 4d and 5p electrons. As a consequence of this the
chemistry of the elements is largely determined by their size, which decreases gradually from 102 pm (La3+) with
increasing atomic number to 86 pm (Lu3+), the so-called lanthanide contraction. All the lanthanide elements exhibit
the oxidation state +3. In addition Ce3+ can lose its single f electron to form Ce4+ with the stable electronic
configuration of xenon. Also, Eu3+ can gain an electron to form Eu2+ with the f7 configuration which has the extra
stability of a half-filled shell. Promethium is effectively a man-made element as all its isotopes are radioactive with
half-lives of less than 20 y.
The similarity in ionic radius between adjacent lanthanide elements makes it difficult to separate them from each
other in naturally occurring ores and other mixtures. Historically the very laborious processes of cascading and
fractional crystallization was used. Because the lanthanide ions have slightly different radii, the lattice energy of
their salts and hydration energies of the ions will be slightly different, leading to a small difference in solubility.
Salts of the formula Ln(NO3)3.2NH4NO3.4H2O can be used. Industrially, the elements are separated from each other
by solvent extraction. Typically an aqueous solution of nitrates is extracted into kerosene containing
tri-n-butylphosphate, (BunO)3PO. The strength of the complexes formed increases as the ionic radius decreases, so
solubility in the organic phase increases. Complete separation can be achieved continuously by use of countercurrent
exchange methods. The elements can also be separated by ion-exchange chromatography, making use of the fact that
the stability constant for formation of EDTA complexes increases for log K ≈ 15.5 for [La(EDTA)]- to log K ≈ 19.8
for [Lu(EDTA)]-.[4] The process, involving two columns, is described in detail in Greenwood & Earnshaw[5]
Ce(IV) is a useful oxidising agent, and Eu(II) is a useful reducing agent. The trivalent lanthanides mostly form ionic
salts. The trivalent ions are hard acceptors and form more stable complexes with oxygen-donor ligands than with
nitrogen-donor ligands. The larger ions are 9-coordinate in aqueous solution, [Ln(H2O)9]3+ but the smaller ions are
8-coordinate, [Ln(H2O)8]3+. There is some evidence that the later lanthanides have more water molecules in the
Lanthanide 105

second coordination sphere.[6] Complexation with monodentate ligands is generally weak because it is difficult to
displace water molecules from the first coordination sphere. Stronger complexes are formed with chelating ligands
because of the chelate effect.

Magnetic and spectroscopic properties

All the trivalent lanthanide ions, except lutetium, have unpaired f electrons. However the magnetic moments deviate
considerably from the spin-only values because of strong spin-orbit coupling. The maximum number of unpaired
electrons is 7, in Gd3+, with a magnetic moment of 7.94 B.M., but the largest magnetic moments, at 10.4-10.7 B.M.,
are exhibited by Dy3+ and Ho3+. However, in Gd3+ all the electrons have parallel spin and this property is important
for the use of gadolinium complexes as contrast reagent in MRI scans.
Crystal field splitting is rather small for the lanthanide ions and is less
important than spin-orbit coupling in regard to energy levels.[7]
Transitions of electrons between f orbitals are forbidden by the Laporte
rule. Furthermore, because of the "buried" nature of the f orbitals,
coupling with molecular vibrations is weak. Consequently the spectra
of lanthanide ions are rather weak and the absorption bands are
similarly narrow. Glass containing holmium oxide and holmium oxide
solutions (usually in perchloric acid) have sharp optical absorption A solution of 4% holmium oxide in 10%
peaks in the spectral range 200–900 nm and can be used as a perchloric acid, permanently fused into a quartz
wavelength calibration standard for optical spectrophotometers[8] , and cuvette as a wavelength calibration standard

are available commercially.[9]

As f-f transitions are Laporte-forbidden, once an electron has been excited, decay to the ground state will be slow.
This makes them suitable for use in lasers as it makes the population inversion easy to achieve. The Nd:YAG laser is
one that is widely used. Lanthanide ions are also fluorescent as a result of the forbidden nature of f-f transitions.
Europium-doped yttrium vanadate was the first red phosphor to enable the development of colour television
screens.[10]
Lanthanide 106

Organometallic chemistry
Metal-carbon σ bonds are found in alkyls of the lanthanide elements such as [LnMe6]3- and Ln[CH(SiMe3)3].[11] The
cyclopentadiene complexes, of formula [Ln(C5H5)3] and [Ln(C5H5)2Cl] may have η-1, η-2, and η-5 rings.
Analogues to uranocene are formed with the cyclo-octadienide ion, C8H82- which is a Hückel's rule aromatic ring.

Geochemistry
The trivial name "rare earths" is
sometimes used to describe all the
lanthanides together with scandium
and yttrium. This name arises from the
minerals from which they were
isolated, which were uncommon
oxide-type minerals. However, the use
of the name is deprecated by IUPAC,
as the elements are neither rare in
abundance nor "earths" (an obsolete
term for water-insoluble strongly basic
oxides of electropositive metals
incapable of being smelted into metal
using late 18th century technology) .
Cerium is the 26th most abundant
element in the Earth's crust,
Abundance of elements in the Earth crust per million of Si atoms
neodymium is more abundant than
gold and even thulium (the least
common naturally occurring lanthanide) is more abundant than iodine.[12] Despite their abundance, even the
technical term "lanthanides" could be interpreted to reflect a sense of elusiveness on the part of these elements, as it
comes from the Greek λανθανειν (lanthanein), "to lie hidden". However, if not referring to their natural abundance,
but rather to their property of "hiding" behind each other in minerals, this interpretation is in fact appropriate. The
etymology of the term must be sought in the first discovery of lanthanum, at that time a so-called new rare earth
element "lying hidden" in a cerium mineral, but we might call it a fortunate twist of irony that exactly lanthanum was
later identified as the first in an entire series of chemically similar elements and could give name to the whole series.

The lanthanide contraction is responsible for the great geochemical divide that splits the lanthanides into light and
heavy-lanthanide enriched minerals, the latter being almost inevitably associated with and dominated by yttrium.
This divide is reflected in the first two "rare earths" that were discovered: yttria (1794) and ceria (1803). The
geochemical divide has put more of the light lanthanides in the Earth's crust, but more of the heavy members in the
Earth's mantle. The result is that although large rich ore-bodies are found that are enriched in the light lanthanides,
correspondingly large ore-bodies for the heavy members are few. The principal ores are monazite and bastnaesite.
Monazite sands usually contain all the lanthanide elements, but the heavier elements are lacking in bastnaesite. The
lanthanides obey the Oddo-Harkins rule - odd-numbered elements are less abundant than their even-numbered
neighbours.
Three of the lanthanide elements have radioactive isotopes with long half-lives (138La, 147Sm and 176Lu) that can be
used to date minerals and rocks from Earth, the Moon and meteorites.[13]
Lanthanide 107

Biological effects
Lanthanides entering the human body due to exposure to various industrial processes can affect metabolic processes.
Trivalent lanthanide ions, especially La3+ and Gd3+, can interfere with calcium channels in human and animal cells.
Lanthanides can also alter or even inhibit the action of various enzymes. Lanthanide ions found in neurons can
regulate synaptic transmission, as well as block some receptors (for example, glutamate receptors).[14]

Applications
Most lanthanides are widely used in lasers. These elements deflect ultraviolet and infrared radiation and are
commonly used in the production of sunglass lenses. Other applications are summarized in the following table:[12]

Application Percentage

Catalytic converters 45

Petroleum refining catalysts 25

Permanent magnets 12

Glass polishing and 7

ceramics

Metallurgical 7

Phosphors 3

Other 1

See also
• Actinoid
• Group 3 element
• Lanthanide contraction
• Rare earth element

External links
• lanthanide Sparkle Model [15], used in the computational chemistry of lanthanoid complexes
• USGS Rare Earths Statistics and Information [16]
• Ana de Bettencourt-Dias: Chemistry of the lanthanides and lanthanide-containing materials [17]

References
[1] the current IUPAC recommendation is that the name lanthanoid be used rather than lanthanide, as the suffix "-ide" is preferred for negative
ions whereas the suffix "-oid" indicates similarity to one of the members of the containing family of elements. However, lanthanide is still
favored in most (~90%) scientific articles and is currently adopted on wikipedia. In the older literature, the name "lanthanon" was often used.
[2] Holden, Norman E.; Coplen, Tyler (January-February 2004). The Periodic Table of the Elements (IUPAC) 26 (1): 8. http:/ / www. iupac. org/
publications/ ci/ 2004/ 2601/ 2_holden. html. Retrieved March 23, 2010.
[3] Mark Winter. Lanthanum ionisation energies (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ lanthanum/ atoms. html). WebElements Ltd, UK. . Retrieved
02-09-2010.
[4] L. Pettit and K. Powell, SC-database (http:/ / www. acadsoft. co. uk/ scdbase/ scdbase. htm)
[5] Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997), Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.), Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 0080379419 p
1231
[6] Burgess,, J. (1978). 'Metal ions in solution'. , New York: Ellis Horwood. ISBN 0853120277.
[7] Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997), Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.), Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 0080379419 p
1242
Lanthanide 108

[8] R. P. MacDonald (1964). "Uses for a Holmium Oxide Filter in Spectrophotometry" (http:/ / www. clinchem. org/ cgi/ reprint/ 10/ 12/ 1117.
pdf). Clinical Chemistry 10: 1117. .
[9] "Holmium Glass Filter for Spectrophotometer Calibration" (http:/ / www. labshoponline. com/
holmium-glass-filter-spectrophotometer-calibration-p-88. html). . Retrieved 2009-06-06.
[10] Levine, Albert K.; Palilla, Frank C. (1964). "A new, highly efficient red-emitting cathodoluminescent phosphor (YVO4:Eu) for color
television". Applied Physics Letters 5: 118. doi:10.1063/1.1723611.
[11] Cotton, S.A. (1997). "Aspects of the lanthanide-carbon σ-bond". Coord. Chem. Revs. 160: 93–127. doi:10.1016/S0010-8545(96)01340-9.
[12] Helen C. Aspinall (2001). Chemistry of the f-block elements (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=bLI2maI1_xAC). CRC Press. p. 8.
ISBN 905699333X. .
[13] There exist other naturally occurred radioactive isotopes of lanthanides with long half-lives (144Nd, 150Nd, 148Sm, 151Eu, 152Gd) but they are
not used as chronometers.
[14] Pałasz, A; Czekaj, P (2000). "Toxicological and cytophysiological aspects of lanthanides action." (http:/ / www. actabp. pl/ pdf/ 4_2000/
1107-1114s. pdf). Acta biochimica Polonica 47 (4): 1107–14. PMID 11996100. .
[15] http:/ / www. sparkle. pro. br
[16] http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ rare_earths/
[17] http:/ / www. chem. unr. edu/ faculty/ abd/
Metal 109

Metal
Alkali metals

Lithium, Sodium, Potassium

Rubidium, Caesium, Francium

Alkaline earth metals

Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium

Strontium, Barium, Radium

Transition metals

Zinc, Molybdenum, Cadmium

Scandium, Titanium, Vanadium

Chromium, Manganese, Iron

Cobalt, Nickel, Copper

Yttrium, Zirconium, Niobium

Technetium, Ruthenium, Rhodium

Palladium, Silver, Hafnium

Tantalum, Tungsten, Rhenium

Osmium, Iridium, Platinum

Gold, Mercury, Rutherfordium,

Dubnium, Seaborgium, Bohrium,

Hassium, Meitnerium,

Darmstadtium, Roentgenium, Copernicium

Post-transition metals

Aluminium, Gallium, Indium

Tin, Thallium, Lead, Bismuth

Ununtrium, Ununquadium

Ununpentium, Ununhexium

Lanthanoids

Lanthanum, Cerium, Praseodymium

Neodymium, Promethium, Samarium

Europium, Gadolinium, Terbium

Dysprosium, Holmium, Erbium

Thulium, Ytterbium, Lutetium

Actinoids

Actinium, Thorium, Protactinium

Uranium, Neptunium, Plutonium

Americium, Curium, Berkelium

Californium, Einsteinium, Fermium

Mendelevium, Nobelium, Lawrencium

Metal 110

A metal is a chemical element that is a good conductor of both electricity and heat and forms cations and ionic
bonds with non-metals. In chemistry, a metal (from Greek "μέταλλον" - métallon, "mine"[1] ) is an element,
compound, or alloy characterized by high electrical conductivity. In a metal, atoms readily lose electrons to form
positive ions (cations). Those ions are surrounded by delocalized electrons, which are responsible for the
conductivity. The solid thus produced is held by electrostatic interactions between the ions and the electron cloud,
which are called metallic bonds.[2]
Usage in astronomy is quite different.

Definition
Metals are sometimes described as an arrangement of positive ions surrounded by a sea of delocalized electrons.
They are one of the three groups of elements as distinguished by their ionization and bonding properties, along with
the metalloids and non-metals.
Metals occupy the bulk of the periodic table, while non-metallic elements can only be found on the right-hand-side
of the Periodic Table of the Elements. A diagonal line drawn from boron (B) to polonium (Po) separates the metals
from the nonmetals. Most elements on this line are metalloids, sometimes called semiconductors. This is because
these elements exhibit electrical properties common to both conductors and insulators. Elements to the lower left of
this division line are called metals, while elements to the upper right of the division line are called non-metals.
An alternative definition of metal refers to the band theory. If one fills the energy bands of a material with available
electrons and ends up with a top band partly filled then the material is a metal. This definition opens up the category
for metallic polymers and other organic metals, which have been made by researchers and employed in high-tech
devices. These synthetic materials often have the characteristic silvery gray reflectiveness (luster) of elemental
metals.

Astronomy
In the specialized usage of astronomy and astrophysics, the term "metal" is often used to refer collectively to all
elements other than hydrogen or helium, including substances as chemically non-metallic as neon, fluorine, and
oxygen. Nearly all the hydrogen and helium in the Universe was created in Big Bang nucleosynthesis, whereas all
the "metals" were produced by nucleosynthesis in stars or supernovae. The Sun and the Milky Way Galaxy are
composed of roughly 74% hydrogen, 24% helium, and 2% "metals" (the rest of the elements; atomic numbers 3-118)
by mass.[3]
The concept of a metal in the usual chemical sense is irrelevant in stars, as the chemical bonds that give elements
their properties cannot exist at stellar temperatures.

Properties

Chemical
Metals are usually inclined to form cations through electron loss,[2] reacting with oxygen in the air to form oxides
over changing timescales (iron rusts over years, while potassium burns in seconds). Examples:
4 Na + O2 → 2 Na2O (sodium oxide)
2 Ca + O2 → 2 CaO (calcium oxide)
4 Al + 3 O2 → 2 Al2O3 (aluminium oxide)
The transition metals (such as iron, copper, zinc, and nickel) take much longer to oxidize. Others, like palladium,
platinum and gold, do not react with the atmosphere at all. Some metals form a barrier layer of oxide on their surface
which cannot be penetrated by further oxygen molecules and thus retain their shiny appearance and good
Metal 111

conductivity for many decades (like aluminium, magnesium, some steels, and titanium). The oxides of metals are
generally basic, as opposed to those of nonmetals, which are acidic.
Painting, anodizing or plating metals are good ways to prevent their corrosion. However, a more reactive metal in the
electrochemical series must be chosen for coating, especially when chipping of the coating is expected. Water and
the two metals form an electrochemical cell, and if the coating is less reactive than the coatee, the coating actually
promotes corrosion.

Physical
Metals in general have high electrical conductivity, thermal
conductivity, luster and density, and the ability to be deformed under
stress without cleaving.[2] While there are several metals that have low
density, hardness, and melting points, these (the alkali and alkaline
earth metals) are extremely reactive, and are rarely encountered in their
elemental, metallic form. Optically speaking, metals are opaque, shiny
and lustrous. This is because visible lightwaves are not readily
transmitted through the bulk of their microstructure. The large number
of free electrons in any typical metallic solid (element or alloy) is
Gallium crystals
responsible for the fact that they can never be categorized as
transparent materials.

The majority of metals have higher densities than the majority of nonmetals.[2] Nonetheless, there is wide variation
in the densities of metals; lithium is the least dense solid element and osmium is the densest. The metals of groups I
A and II A are referred to as the light metals because they are exceptions to this generalization[2] . The high density
of most metals is due to the tightly packed crystal lattice of the metallic structure. The strength of metallic bonds for
different metals reaches a maximum around the center of the transition series, as those elements have large amounts
of delocalized electrons in a metallic bond. However, other factors (such as atomic radius, nuclear charge, number of
bonding orbitals, overlap of orbital energies, and crystal form) are involved as well.[2]

Electrical
The electrical and thermal conductivity of metals originate from the fact that in the metallic bond, the outer electrons
of the metal atoms form a gas of nearly free electrons, moving as an electron gas in a background of positive charge
formed by the ion cores. Good mathematical predictions for electrical conductivity, as well as the electrons'
contribution to the heat capacity and heat conductivity of metals can be calculated from the free electron model,
which does not take the detailed structure of the ion lattice into account.
When considering the exact band structure and binding energy of a metal, it is necessary to take into account the
positive potential caused by the specific arrangement of the ion cores - which is periodic in crystals. The most
important consequence of the periodic potential is the formation of a small band gap at the boundary of the Brillouin
zone. Mathematically, the potential of the ion cores can be treated by various models, the simplest being the nearly
free electron model.

Mechanical
Mechanical properties of metals include ductility, which is largely due to their inherent capacity for plastic
deformation. Reversible elasticity in metals can be described by Hooke's Law for restoring forces, where the stress is
linearly proportional to the strain. Forces larger than the elastic limit, or heat, may cause a permanent (irreversible)
deformation of the object, known as plastic deformation or plasticity. This irreversible change in atomic arrangement
may occur as a result of:
Metal 112

• The action of an applied force (or work). An applied force may be tensile (pulling) force, compressive (pushing)
force, shear, bending or torsion (twisting) forces.
• A change in temperature (or heat). A temperature change may affect the mobility of the structural defects such as
grain boundaries, point vacancies, line and screw dislocations, stacking faults and twins in both crystalline and
non-crystalline solids. The movement or displacement of such mobile defects is thermally activated, and thus
limited by the rate of atomic diffusion.
Viscous flow near grain boundaries, for
example, can give rise to internal slip, creep
and fatigue in metals. It can also contribute
to significant changes in the microstructure
like grain growth and localized densification
due to the elimination of intergranular
porosity. Screw dislocations may slip in the
direction of any lattice plane containing the
dislocation, while the principal driving force
for "dislocation climb" is the movement or
diffusion of vacancies through a crystal
lattice.

In addition, the nondirectional nature of

metallic bonding is also thought to Hot metal work from a blacksmith.
contribute significantly to the ductility of
most metallic solids. When the planes of an ionic bond slide past one another, the resultant change in location shifts
ions of the same charge into close proximity, resulting in the cleavage of the crystal; such shift is not observed in
covalently bonded crystals where fracture and crystal fragmentation occurs.[4]

Alloys
An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements in solid solution in which the major component is a metal. Most pure
metals are either too soft, brittle or chemically reactive for practical use. Combining different ratios of metals as
alloys modifies the properties of pure metals to produce desirable characteristics. The aim of making alloys is
generally to make them less brittle, harder, resistant to corrosion, or have a more desirable color and luster. Of all the
metallic alloys in use today, the alloys of iron (steel, stainless steel, cast iron, tool steel, alloy steel) make up the
largest proportion both by quantity and commercial value. Iron alloyed with various proportions of carbon gives low,
mid and high carbon steels, with increasing carbon levels reducing ductility and toughness. The addition of silicon
will produce cast irons, while the addition of chromium, nickel and molybdenum to carbon steels (more than 10%)
results in stainless steels.
Other significant metallic alloys are those of aluminium, titanium, copper and magnesium. Copper alloys have been
known since prehistory—bronze gave the Bronze Age its name—and have many applications today, most
importantly in electrical wiring. The alloys of the other three metals have been developed relatively recently; due to
their chemical reactivity they require electrolytic extraction processes. The alloys of aluminium, titanium and
magnesium are valued for their high strength-to-weight ratios; magnesium can also provide electromagnetic
shielding. These materials are ideal for situations where high strength-to-weight ratio is more important than material
cost, such as in aerospace and some automotive applications.
Alloys specially designed for highly demanding applications, such as jet engines, may contain more than ten
elements.
Metal 113

Neon, like all noble gases, has a full valence

shell. Noble gases have eight electrons in the
outermost shell, except in the case of helium,
which has two.
Noble gas 120

Z Element No. of electrons/shell

2 helium 2

10 neon 2, 8

18 argon 2, 8, 8

36 krypton 2, 8, 18, 8

54 xenon 2, 8, 18, 18, 8

86 radon 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8

The noble gases have full valence electron shells. Valence electrons are the outermost electrons of an atom and are
normally the only electrons that participate in chemical bonding. Atoms with full valence electron shells are
extremely stable and therefore do not tend to form chemical bonds and have little tendency to gain or lose
electrons.[24] However, heavier noble gases such as radon are held less firmly together by electromagnetic force than
lighter noble gases such as helium, making it easier to remove outer electrons from heavy noble gases.
As a result of a full shell, the noble gases can be used in conjunction with the electron configuration notation to form
the noble gas notation. To do this, the nearest noble gas that precedes the element in question is written first, and
then the electron configuration is continued from that point forward. For example, the electron notation of carbon is
1s²2s²2p², and the noble gas notation is [He]2s²2p². This notation makes it easier to identify elements, and is shorter
than writing out the full notation of atomic orbitals.[25]

Compounds
The noble gases show extremely low chemical reactivity;
consequently, only a few hundred noble gas compounds have been
formed. Neutral compounds in which helium and neon are involved in
chemical bonds have not been formed (although there is some
theoretical evidence for a few helium compounds), while xenon,
krypton, and argon have shown only minor reactivity.[26] The reactivity
follows the order Ne < He < Ar < Kr < Xe < Rn.

In 1933, Linus Pauling predicted that the heavier noble gases could
form compounds with fluorine and oxygen. He predicted the existence
of krypton hexafluoride (KrF6) and xenon hexafluoride (XeF6),
Structure of XeF4, one of the first noble gas
compounds to be discovered. speculated XeF8 might exist as an unstable compound, and suggested
xenic acid could form perxenate salts.[27] [28] These predictions were
shown to be generally accurate, except XeF8 is now thought to be both thermodynamically and kinetically
unstable.[29]

Xenon compounds are the most numerous of the noble gas compounds that have been formed.[30] Most of them have
the xenon atom in the oxidation state of +2, +4, +6, or +8 bonded to highly electronegative atoms such as fluorine or
oxygen, as in xenon difluoride (XeF2), xenon tetrafluoride (XeF4), xenon hexafluoride (XeF6), xenon tetroxide
(XeO4), and sodium perxenate (Na4XeO6). Some of these compounds have found use in chemical synthesis as
oxidizing agents; XeF2, in particular, is commercially available and can be used as a fluorinating agent.[31] As of
2007, about five hundred compounds of xenon bonded to other elements have been identified, including
organoxenon compounds (those bonded to carbon), and xenon bonded to nitrogen, chlorine, gold, mercury, and
xenon itself.[26] [32] Compounds of xenon bound to boron, hydrogen, bromine, iodine, beryllium, sulphur, titanium,
copper, and silver have also been observed but only at low temperatures in noble gas matrices, or in supersonic noble
gas jets.[26]
Noble gas 121

In theory, radon is more reactive than xenon, and therefore should form chemical bonds more easily than xenon
does. However, due to the high radioactivity and short half-life of radon isotopes, only a few fluorides and oxides of
radon have been formed in practice.[33]
Krypton is less reactive than xenon, but several compounds have been reported with krypton in the oxidation state of
+2.[26] Krypton difluoride is the most notable and easily characterized. Compounds in which krypton forms a single
bond to nitrogen and oxygen have also been characterized,[34] but are only stable below −60 °C (−76 °F) and −90 °C
(−130 °F) respectively).[26]
Krypton atoms chemically bound to other nonmetals (hydrogen, chlorine, carbon) as well as some late transition
metals (copper, silver, gold) have also been observed, but only either at low temperatures in noble gas matrices, or in
supersonic noble gas jets.[26] Similar conditions were used to obtain the first few compounds of argon in 2000, such
as argon fluorohydride (HArF), and some bound to the late transition metals copper, silver, and gold.[26] As of 2007,
no stable neutral molecules involving covalently bound helium or neon are known.[26]
The noble gases—including helium—can form stable molecular ions in the gas phase. The simplest is the helium
hydride molecular ion, HeH+, discovered in 1925.[35] Because it is composed of the two most abundant elements in
the universe, hydrogen and helium, it is believed to occur naturally in the interstellar medium, although it has not
been detected yet.[36] In addition to these ions, there are many known neutral excimers of the noble gases. These are
compounds such as ArF and KrF that are stable only when in an excited electronic state; some of them find
application in excimer lasers.
In addition to the compounds where a noble gas atom is involved in a covalent bond, noble gases also form
non-covalent compounds. The clathrates, first described in 1949,[37] consist of a noble gas atom trapped within
cavities of crystal lattices of certain organic and inorganic substances. The essential condition for their formation is
that the guest (noble gas) atoms must be of appropriate size to fit in the cavities of the host crystal lattice. For
instance, argon, krypton, and xenon form clathrates with hydroquinone, but helium and neon do not because they are
too small or insufficiently polarizable to be retained.[38] Neon, argon, krypton, and xenon also form clathrate
hydrates, where the noble gas is trapped in ice.[39]
Noble gases can form endohedral fullerene compounds, in which the
noble gas atom is trapped inside a fullerene molecule. In 1993, it was
discovered that when C60, a spherical molecule consisting of
60 carbon atoms, is exposed to noble gases at high pressure, complexes
such as He@C60 can be formed (the @ notation indicates He is
contained inside C60 but not covalently bound to it).[40] As of 2008,
endohedral complexes with helium, neon, argon, krypton, and xenon
have been obtained.[41] These compounds have found use in the study
of the structure and reactivity of fullerenes by means of the nuclear
magnetic resonance of the noble gas atom.[42]

An endohedral fullerene compound containing a

noble gas atom
Noble gas 122

Noble gas compounds such as xenon

difluoride (XeF2) are considered to be
hypervalent because they violate the octet
rule. Bonding in such compounds can be
explained using a 3-center-4-electron bond
model.[43] [44] This model, first proposed in
1951, considers bonding of three collinear
atoms. For example, bonding in XeF2 is
described by a set of three molecular
Bonding in XeF2 according to the 3-center-4-electron bond model orbitals (MOs) derived from p-orbitals on
each atom. Bonding results from the
combination of a filled p-orbital from Xe with one half-filled p-orbital from each F atom, resulting in a filled
bonding orbital, a filled non-bonding orbital, and an empty antibonding orbital. The highest occupied molecular
orbital is localized on the two terminal atoms. This represents a localization of charge which is facilitated by the high
electronegativity of fluorine.[45]

The chemistry of heavier noble gases, krypton and xenon, are well established. The chemistry of the lighter ones,
argon and helium, is still at an early stage, while a neon compound is still yet to be identified.

Occurrence and production

The abundances of the noble gases in the universe decrease as their atomic numbers increase. Helium is the most
common element in the universe after hydrogen, with a mass fraction of about 24%. Most of the helium in the
universe was formed during Big Bang nucleosynthesis, but the amount of helium is steadily increasing due to the
fusion of hydrogen in stellar nucleosynthesis.[46] [47] Abundances on Earth follow different trends; for example,
helium is only the third most abundant noble gas in the atmosphere. The reason is that there is no primordial helium
in the atmosphere; due to the small mass of the atom, helium cannot be retained by the Earth's gravitational field.[48]
Helium on Earth comes from the alpha decay of heavy elements such as uranium and thorium found in the Earth's
crust, and tends to accumulate in natural gas deposits.[48] The abundance of argon, on the other hand, is increased as
a result of the beta decay of potassium-40, also found in the Earth's crust, to form argon-40, which is the most
abundant isotope of argon on Earth despite being relatively rare in the Solar System. This process is the base for the
potassium-argon dating method.[49] Xenon has an unexpectedly low abundance in the atmosphere, in what has been
called the missing xenon problem; one theory is that the missing xenon may be trapped in minerals inside the Earth's
crust.[50] Radon is formed in the lithosphere as from the alpha decay of radium. It can seep into buildings through
cracks in their foundation and accumulate in areas that are not well ventilated. Due to its high radioactivity, radon
presents a significant health hazard; it is implicated in an estimated 21,000 lung cancer deaths per year in the United
States alone.[51]
Noble gas 123

Abundance Helium Neon Argon Krypton Xenon Radon

[52] 2343 2.148 0.1025 –

Solar System (for each atom of silicon) 5.515 × 10−5 5.391 × 10−6

5.20 18.20 9340.00 1.10 0.09 [54]

Earth's atmosphere (volume fraction in (0.06–18) × 10−19
[53]
ppm)

[55] – –
Igneous rock (mass fraction in ppm) 3 × 10−3 7 × 10−5 4 × 10−2 1.7 × 10−10

Gas 2004 price

[56]
(USD/m3)

Helium (industrial grade) 4.20–4.90

Helium (laboratory grade) 22.30–44.90

Argon 2.70–8.50

Neon 60–120

Krypton 400–500

Xenon 4000–5000

Neon, argon, krypton, and xenon are obtained from air using the methods of liquefaction of gases, to convert
elements to a liquid state, and fractional distillation, to separate mixtures into component parts. Helium is typically
produced by separating it from natural gas, and radon is isolated from the radioactive decay of radium
compounds.[11] The prices of the noble gases are influenced by their natural abundance, with argon being the
cheapest and xenon the most expensive. As an example, the table to the right lists the 2004 prices in the United
States for laboratory quantities of each gas.

Applications
Noble gases have very low boiling and melting points, which makes
them useful as cryogenic refrigerants.[57] In particular, liquid helium,
which boils at 4.2 K (−268.95 °C; −452.11 °F), is used for
superconducting magnets, such as those needed in nuclear magnetic
resonance imaging and nuclear magnetic resonance.[58] Liquid neon,
although it does not reach temperatures as low as liquid helium, also
finds use in cryogenics because it has over 40 times more refrigerating
capacity than liquid helium and over three times more than liquid
hydrogen.[54]
Liquid helium is used to cool the superconducting
magnets in modern MRI scanners. Helium is used as a component of breathing gases to replace nitrogen,
due its low solubility in fluids, especially in lipids. Gases are absorbed
by the blood and body tissues when under pressure like in scuba diving, which causes an anesthetic effect known as
nitrogen narcosis.[59] Due to its reduced solubility, little helium is taken into cell membranes, and when helium is
used to replace part of the breathing mixtures, such as in trimix or heliox, a decrease in the narcotic effect of the gas
at depth is obtained.[60] Helium's reduced solubility offers further advantages for the condition known as
decompression sickness, or the bends.[11] [61] The reduced amount of dissolved gas in the body means that fewer gas
bubbles form during the decrease in pressure of the ascent. Another noble gas, argon, is considered the best option
for use as a drysuit inflation gas for scuba diving.[62]
Noble gas 124

Since the Hindenburg disaster in 1937,[63] helium has replaced

hydrogen as a lifting gas in blimps and balloons due to its lightness and
incombustibility, despite an 8.6%[64] decrease in buoyancy.[11]
In many applications, the noble gases are used to provide an inert
atmosphere. Argon is used in the synthesis of air-sensitive compounds
The Spirit of Goodyear, one of the iconic
that are sensitive to nitrogen. Solid argon is also used for the study of
Goodyear Blimps
very unstable compounds, such as reactive intermediates, by trapping
them in an inert matrix at very low temperatures.[65] Helium is used as
the carrier medium in gas chromatography, as a filler gas for thermometers, and in devices for measuring radiation,
such as the Geiger counter and the bubble chamber.[56] Helium and argon are both commonly used to shield welding
arcs and the surrounding base metal from the atmosphere during welding and cutting, as well as in other
metallurgical processes and in the production of silicon for the semiconductor industry.[54]

Noble gases are commonly used in lighting because of their lack of

chemical reactivity. Argon, mixed with nitrogen, is used as a filler gas
for incandescent light bulbs.[54] Krypton is used in high-performance
light bulbs, which have higher color temperatures and greater
efficiency, because it reduces the rate of evaporation of the filament
more than argon; halogen lamps, in particular, use krypton mixed with
small amounts of compounds of iodine or bromine.[54] The noble gases
glow in distinctive colors when used inside gas-discharge lamps, such
as neon lights, which produce an orange-red color. Xenon is commonly
15,000-watt xenon short-arc lamp used in IMAX
used in xenon arc lamps which, due to their nearly continuous
projectors
spectrum that resembles daylight, find application in film projectors
and as automobile headlamps.[54]

The noble gases are used in excimer lasers, which are based on short-lived electronically excited molecules known
as excimers. The excimers used for lasers may be noble gas dimers such as Ar2, Kr2 or Xe2, or more commonly, the
noble gas is combined with a halogen in excimers such as ArF, KrF, XeF, or XeCl. These lasers produce ultraviolet
light which, due to its short wavelength (193 nm for ArF and 248 nm for KrF), allows for high-precision imaging.
Excimer lasers have many industrial, medical, and scientific applications. They are used for microlithography and
microfabrication, which are essential for integrated circuit manufacture, and for laser surgery, including laser
angioplasty and eye surgery.[66]

Some noble gases have direct application in medicine. Helium is sometimes used to improve the ease of breathing of
asthma sufferers.[54] Xenon is used as an anesthetic because of its high solubility in lipids, which makes it more
potent than the usual nitrous oxide, and because it is readily eliminated from the body, resulting in faster
recovery.[67] Xenon finds application in medical imaging of the lungs through hyperpolarized MRI.[68] Radon, which
is highly radioactive and is only available in minute amounts, is used in radiotherapy.[11]

Discharge color
Noble gas 125

Colors and spectra (bottom row) of electric discharge in pure noble gases

Helium Neon Argon Krypton Xenon

(with some Hg in the "Ar" image)

The color of gas discharge emission depends on several factors, including the following:[69]
• discharge parameters (local value of current density and electric field, temperature, etc. – note the color variation
along the discharge in the top row);
• gas purity (even small fraction of certain gases can affect color);
• color balance and saturation level of the image recording medium;
• material of the discarge tube envelope – note suppression of the UV and blue components in the bottom-row
tubes made of thick household glass.

See also
• Noble gas (data page), for extended tables of physical properties.
• Noble metal, for metals that are resistant to corrosion or oxidation.
• Inert gas, for any gas that is not reactive under normal circumstances.
• Industrial gas

References
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Noble gas 126

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1220–1247. doi:10.1086/375492.
[53] "The Atmosphere" (http:/ / www. srh. noaa. gov/ jetstream/ / atmos/ atmos_intro. htm). National Weather Service. . Retrieved 2008-06-01.
[54] Häussinger, Peter; Glatthaar, Reinhard; Rhode, Wilhelm; Kick, Helmut; Benkmann, Christian; Weber, Josef; Wunschel, Hans-Jörg; Stenke,
Viktor; Leicht, Edith; Stenger, Hermann (2002). "Noble gases". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley.
doi:10.1002/14356007.a17_485.
[55] Greenwood 1997, p. 891
[56] Hwang, Shuen-Chen; Lein, Robert D.; Morgan, Daniel A. (2005). "Noble Gases". Kirk Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology.
Wiley. pp. 343–383. doi:10.1002/0471238961.0701190508230114.a01.
[57] "Neon". Encarta. 2008.
[58] Zhang, C. J.; Zhou, X. T.; Yang, L. (1992). "Demountable coaxial gas-cooled current leads for MRI superconducting magnets". Magnetics,
IEEE Transactions on (IEEE) 28 (1): 957–959. doi:10.1109/20.120038.
[59] Fowler, B; Ackles, K. N.; Porlier, G. (1985). "Effects of inert gas narcosis on behavior—a critical review" (http:/ / archive.
rubicon-foundation. org/ 3019). Undersea Biomed. Res. 12 (4): 369–402. ISSN 0093-5387. OCLC 2068005. PMID 4082343. . Retrieved
2008-04-08.
[60] Bennett 1998, p. 176
[61] Vann, R. D. (ed) (1989). "The Physiological Basis of Decompression" (http:/ / archive. rubicon-foundation. org/ 6853). 38th Undersea and
Hyperbaric Medical Society Workshop 75(Phys)6-1-89: 437. . Retrieved 2008-05-31.
[62] Maiken, Eric (2004-08-01). "Why Argon?" (http:/ / www. decompression. org/ maiken/ Why_Argon. htm). Decompression. . Retrieved
2008-06-26.
[63] "Disaster Ascribed to Gas by Experts". The New York Times: p. 1. 1937-05-07.
[64] Freudenrich, Craig (2008). "How Blimps Work" (http:/ / science. howstuffworks. com/ blimp2. htm). HowStuffWorks. . Retrieved
2008-07-03.
[65] Dunkin, I. R. (1980). "The matrix isolation technique and its application to organic chemistry". Chem. Soc. Rev. 9: 1–23.
doi:10.1039/CS9800900001.
[66] Basting, Dirk; Marowsky, Gerd (2005). Excimer Laser Technology. Springer. ISBN 3540200568.
Noble gas 128

[67] Sanders, Robert D.; Ma, Daqing; Maze, Mervyn (2005). "Xenon: elemental anaesthesia in clinical practice". British Medical Bulletin 71 (1):
115–135. doi:10.1093/bmb/ldh034. PMID 15728132.
[68] Albert, M. S.; Balamore, D. (1998). "Development of hyperpolarized noble gas MRI". Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics
Research A 402: 441–453. doi:10.1016/S0168-9002(97)00888-7. PMID 11543065.
[69] Ray, Sidney F. (1999). Scientific photography and applied imaging (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=AEFPNfghI3QC& pg=PA383). Focal
Press. pp. 383–384. ISBN 0240513231. .
[70] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ principlesofchem00menduoft
[71] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=CBM2LJDvRtgC

Noble metal
Noble metals are metals that are resistant to corrosion and oxidation in
moist air, unlike most base metals. They tend to be precious, often due
to their rarity in the Earth's crust. The noble metals are considered to be
(in order of increasing atomic number)[1] ruthenium, rhodium,
palladium, silver, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold .
Other sources include mercury[2] [3] [4] or even rhenium[5] as a noble
metal. On the other hand, neither titanium nor niobium nor tantalum
are called noble metals despite the fact that they are very resistant to
corrosion. The noble metals including mercury and rhenium
Noble metals should not be confused with precious metals (although together with the non-noble metal copper ordered
according their position in the periodic table of
many noble metals are precious).
the elements

Introduction
Palladium, osmium, platinum, gold and mercury can be dissolved in aqua regia, a highly concentrated mixture of
hydrochloric acid and nitric acid, but iridium and silver cannot. (Silver can dissolve in nitric acid though.)
Ruthenium can be dissolved in aqua regia only when in the presence of oxygen, while rhodium must be in a fine
pulverized form. Niobium and tantalum are resistant to acids, including aqua regia. [6]
This term can also be used in a relative sense, considering "noble" as an adjective for the word "metal". A "galvanic
series" is a hierarchy of metals (or other electrically conductive materials, including composites and semimetals) that
runs from noble to active, and allows designers to see at a glance how materials will interact in the environment used
to generate the series. In this sense of the word, graphite is more noble than silver and the relative nobility of many
materials is highly dependent upon context, as for aluminium and stainless steel in conditions of varying pH.[7]
In physics, the definition of a noble metal is even more strict. It is required that the d-bands of the electronic
structure are filled. Taking this into account, only copper, silver and gold are noble metals, as all d-like band are
filled and don't cross the Fermi level.[8] For platinum two d-bands cross the Fermi level, changing its chemical
behaviour; it is used as a catalyst. The different reactivity can easily be seen while preparing clean metal surfaces in
ultra high vacuum; surfaces of "physical defined" noble metals (e.g., gold) are easy to clean and stay clean for a long
time, while those of platinum or palladium, for example, are covered by carbon monoxide very quickly.[9]
Noble metal 129

Electrochemistry
Metallic elements, including several non-noble metals, sorted by their chemical "nobility" (noble metals bolded): [10]

element group reaction potential

Gold Ib/6 1.498 V

Au → Au3+ + 3 e−

Platinum VIIIb/6 Pt → Pt2+ + 2 e− 1.18 V

Iridium VIIIb/6 Ir → Ir3+ + 3 e− 1.156 V

Palladium VIIIb/5 Pd → Pd2+ + 2 e− 0.987 V

Osmium VIIIb/6 Os + 4 H O → OsO + 8 H+ + 8 e− 0.838 V

2 4

Silver Ib/5 0.7996 V

Ag → Ag+ + e−

Mercury IIb/6 0.7973 V

2 Hg → Hg22+ + 2 e−

Polonium VIa/6 Po → Po2+ + 2 e− 0.65 V

[11]

Rhodium VIIIb/5 Rh → Rh2+ + 2 e− 0.600 V

Ruthenium VIIIb/5 Ru → Ru2+ + 2 e− 0.455 V

Copper Ib/4 0.337 V

Cu → Cu2+ + 2 e−

Bismuth Va/6 0.308 V

Bi → Bi3+ + 3 e−

Technetium VIIb/5 0.272 V

Tc + 2 H2O → TcO2 + 4 H+ + 4 e−

Rhenium VIIb/6 0.259 V

Re + 2 H2O → ReO2 + 4 H+ + 4 e−

Antimony Va/5 2 Sb + 3 H2O → Sb2O3 + 6 H+ + 6 e− 0.152 V

The column group denotes its position in the periodic table, hence electronic configuration. The simplified reactions,
listed in the next column, can also be read in detail from the Pourbaix diagrams of the considered element in water.
Finally the column potential indicates the electric potential of the element measured against a H-electrode in
aqueous, pH 7 solution. All missing elements in this table are either not metals or have a negative standard potential.
Antimony and polonium are considered metalloids and thus can not be noble metals. Also chemists and metallurgists
consider copper and bismuth not noble metals because they easily oxidize due to the reaction O2 + 2 H2O + 4 e− ⇄ 4
OH−(aq) +0.40 V which is possible in moist air.
Silver and copper film over and oxidize easily and readily, thus the copper sheets with a patina of oxidation used in
architectural designs and the resultant market for a myriad of silver polishing compounds. The film over of Silver is
due to its high sensibility to hydrogen sulfide. Chemically patina is caused by an attack of oxygen in wet air and by
CO2 afterward.[6] On the other hand, rhenium coated mirrors are said to be very durable,[6] despite the fact that
rhenium and technetium are said to tarnish slowly in moist atmosphere.[12]
Noble metal 130

See also
• Base metal
• Precious metal

References
[1] A. Holleman, N. Wiberg, "Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie", de Gruyter, 1985, 33. edition, p. 1486
[2] Die Adresse für Ausbildung, Studium und Beruf (http:/ / www. uni-protokolle. de/ Lexikon/ Edelmetall. html)
[3] "Dictionary of Mining, Mineral, and Related Terms", Compiled by the American Geological Institute, 2nd edition, 1997
[4] Scoullos, M.J., Vonkeman, G.H., Thornton, I., Makuch, Z., "Mercury - Cadmium - Lead: Handbook for Sustainable Heavy Metals Policy and
Regulation",Series: Environment & Policy, Vol. 31, Springer-Verlag, 2002
[5] The New Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th edition, Vol. VII, 1976
[6] A. Holleman, N. Wiberg, "Inorganic Chemistry", Academic Press, 2001
[7] Everett Collier, "The Boatowner’s Guide to Corrosion", International Marine Publishing, 2001, p. 21
[8] Hüger, E.; Osuch, K. (2005). "Making a noble metal of Pd". EPL (Europhysics Letters) 71: 276. doi:10.1209/epl/i2005-10075-5.
[9] S. Fuchs, T.Hahn, H.G. Lintz, "The oxidation of carbon monoxide by oxygen over platinum, palladium and rhodium catalysts from 10−10 to 1
bar", Chemical engineering and processing, 1994, V 33(5), pp. 363-369 (http:/ / cat. inist. fr/ ?aModele=afficheN& cpsidt=3322977)
[10] D. R. Lidle editor, "CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics", 86th edition, 2005
[11] A. J. Bard, "Encyclopedia of the Electrochemistry of the Elements", Vol. IV, Marcel Dekker Inc., 1975
[12] R. D. Peack, "The Chemistry of Technetium and Rhenium", Elsevier, 1966

Notes
• R. R. Brooks, "Noble metals and biological systems: their role in Medicine, Mineral Exploration, and the
Environment", CRC Press, 1992

External links
• noble metal - chemistry (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/416979/noble-metal) Encyclopædia
Britannica, online edition
• To see which bands cross the Fermi level, the Fermi surfaces of almost all the metals can be found at the Fermi
Surface Database (http://www.phys.ufl.edu/fermisurface/)
• The following article might also clarify the correlation between band structure and the term noble metal: Hüger,
E.; Osuch, K. (2005). "Making a noble metal of Pd". EPL (Europhysics Letters) 71: 276.
doi:10.1209/epl/i2005-10075-5.
Nonmetal 131

Nonmetal
Nonmetal, or non-metal, is a term used in chemistry when classifying the chemical elements. On the basis of their
general physical and chemical properties, every element in the periodic table can be termed either a metal or a
nonmetal. (A few elements with intermediate properties are referred to as metalloids).
The elements generally regarded as nonmetals are:
• hydrogen (H)
• In Group 14: carbon (C)
• In Group 15 (the pnictogens): nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P)
• Several elements in Group 16, the chalcogens: oxygen (O), sulfur (S), selenium (Se)
• All elements in Group 17 - the halogens
• All elements in Group 18 - the noble gases
There is no rigorous definition for the term "nonmetal" - it covers a general spectrum of behaviour. Common
properties considered characteristic of a nonmetal include:
• poor conductors of heat and electricity when compared to metals
• they form acidic oxides (whereas metals generally form basic oxides)
• in solid form, they are dull and brittle, rather than metals which are lustrous, ductile or malleable
• usually have lower densities than metals
• they have significantly lower melting points and boiling points than metals
• non-metals have high electronegativity
They also have a negative valence, compared to the positive valence of metals.
Only eighteen elements in the periodic table are generally considered nonmetals, compared to over eighty metals, but
nonmetals make up most of the crust, atmosphere and oceans of the earth. Bulk tissues of living organisms are
composed almost entirely of nonmetals. Most nonmetals are monatomic noble gases or form diatomic molecules in
their elemental state, unlike metals which (in their elemental state) do not form molecules at all.

Metallisation at huge pressures

Nevertheless, even these 18 elements tend to become metallic at large enough pressures (see nearby periodic table at
~300 GPa).
Platinum group 132

Platinum group
H He

Li Be B C N O F Ne

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

Cs Ba La * Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

Fr Ra Ac ** Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn

* Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

** Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

Platinum group metals

The platinum group metals (abbreviated as the PGMs; alternatively, the platinoids, platidises, platinum group or
platinum metals) sometimes collectively refers to six metallic elements clustered together in the periodic table.
These elements are all transition metals, lying in the d-block (groups 8, 9, and 10, periods 5 and 6).
The six platinum group metals are ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum. They have
similar physical and chemical properties, and tend to occur together in the same mineral deposits.[1]

History
Naturally occurring platinum and platinum-rich alloys have been known by pre-Columbian Americans for a long
time.[2] Though the metal was used by pre-Columbian peoples, the first European reference to platinum appears in
1557 in the writings of the Italian humanist Julius Caesar Scaliger (1484–1558) as a description of a mysterious
metal found in Central American mines between Darién (Panama) and Mexico ("up until now impossible to melt by
any of the Spanish arts").[2]
The Spaniards named the metal platina ("little silver") when they first encountered it in Colombia. They regarded
platinum as an unwanted impurity in the silver they were mining.[2] [3]

Properties
The platinum metals have outstanding catalytic properties. They are highly resistant to wear and tarnish, making
platinum, in particular, well suited for fine jewelry. Other distinctive properties include resistance to chemical attack,
excellent high-temperature characteristics, and stable electrical properties. All these properties have been exploited
for industrial applications.[4]

Sources
Platinum
Sperrylite (platinum arsenide, PtAs2) ore is a major source of this metal. A naturally occurring
platinum-iridium alloy, platiniridium, is found in the mineral cooperite (platinum sulfide, PtS). Platinum in a
native state, often accompanied by small amounts of other platinum metals, is found in alluvial and placer
deposits in Colombia, Ontario, the Ural Mountains, and in certain western American states. Platinum is also
produced commercially as a by-product of nickel ore processing. The huge quantities of nickel ore processed
Platinum group 133

makes up for the fact that platinum makes up only two parts per million of the ore. South Africa, with vast
platinum ore deposits in the Merensky Reef of the Bushveld complex, is the world's largest producer of
platinum, followed by Russia.[5] [6] Platinum and palladium are also mined commercially from the Stillwater
igneous complex in Montana, USA.
Osmium
Iridiosmium is a naturally occurring alloy of iridium and osmium found in platinum-bearing river sands in the
Ural Mountains and in North and South America. Trace amounts of osmium also exist in nickel-bearing ores
found in the Sudbury, Ontario region along with other platinum group metals. Even though the quantity of
platinum metals found in these ores is small, the large volume of nickel ores processed makes commercial
recovery possible.[6] [7]
Iridium
Metallic iridium is found with platinum and other platinum group metals in alluvial deposits. Naturally
occurring iridium alloys include osmiridium and iridiosmium, both of which are mixtures of iridium and
osmium. It is recovered commercially as a by-product from nickel mining and processing.[6]
Ruthenium
Ruthenium is generally found in ores with the other platinum group metals in the Ural Mountains and in North
and South America. Small but commercially important quantities are also found in pentlandite extracted from
Sudbury, Ontario and in pyroxenite deposits in South Africa.[6]
Rhodium
The industrial extraction of rhodium is complex as the metal occurs in ores mixed with other metals such as
palladium, silver, platinum, and gold. It is found in platinum ores and obtained free as a white inert metal
which is very difficult to fuse. Principal sources of this element are located in river sands of the Ural
Mountains, in North and South America and also in the copper-nickel sulfide mining area of the Sudbury
Basin region. Although the quantity at Sudbury is very small, the large amount of nickel ore processed makes
rhodium recovery cost effective. However, the annual world production in 2003 of this element is only 7 or
8 tons and there are very few rhodium minerals.[8]
Palladium
Palladium is found as a free metal and alloyed with platinum and gold with platinum group metals in placer
deposits of the Ural Mountains of Eurasia, Australia, Ethiopia, South and North America. However it is
commercially produced from nickel-copper deposits found in South Africa and Ontario, Canada. The huge
volume of nickel-copper ore processed makes this extraction profitable in spite of its low concentration in
these ores.[8]

Production
The production of pure platinum group metals normally starts from residues of the production of other metals with a
mixture of several of those metals. One typical starting product is the anode residue of gold or nickel production. The
differences in chemical reactivity and solubility of several compounds of the metals under extraction are used to
separate them.[4]
A first step is to dissolve all the metals in aqua regia forming their respective nitrates. If silver is still present, this is
then separated by forming insoluble silver chloride. Rhodium sulfate is separated after the salts have been melted
together with sodium hydrogensulfate and leached with water. The residue is then melted together with sodium
peroxide, which dissolves all the metals and leaves the iridium. The two remaining metals, ruthenium and osmium,
form ruthenium and osmium tetroxides after chlorine has been added to solution. The osmium tetroxide is then
dissolved in alcoholic sodium hydroxide and separated from the ruthenium tetroxides. All of these metals' final
chemical compounds can ultimately be reduced to the elemental metal using hydrogen.[4]
Platinum group 134

Production in nuclear reactors

Significant quantities of platinum group metals – Ruthenium, Rhodium and Palladium are formed as fission products
in nuclear reactors.[9] With escalating prices and increasing global demand, reactor produced noble metals are
emerging as an alternative source. Various reports are available on the possibility of recovering fission noble metals
from spent nuclear fuel.[10] [11] [12]
Recently there is an upsurge in the recovery of valuable fission products which reflects in the form of articles in
leading scientific journals. Palladium has been of special interest due to its less complex behavior when compared to
rhodium and ruthenium. The special interest in palladium may be also due to its widespread application in chemical
catalysis and the electronics industry. Several research groups are exploring the possibility of recovering palladium
by various methods like direct electrolysis of high-level liquid waste,[13] [14] using room temperature ionic liquids
(RTILs) as electrolyte for nuclear fuel dissolution and recovery,[15] solvent extraction, ion exchange, etc. Room
temperature ionic liquids have been employed to recover rhodium,[16] and ruthenium [17] also recently.

See also
• Platinum group metals in Africa
• Merensky Reef

External links
• Platinum Today: The world's leading authority on platinum group metals [18]
• Platinum Group Spot Prices [19]
• USGS page on PGM's [20]
• Platinum Metals Review: the quarterly E-journal of research on the platinum metals and of developments in their
application in industry [21]

References
[1] Harris, D. C.; Cabri L. J. (1991). "Nomenclature of platinum-group-element alloys; review and revision". The Canadian Mineralogist 29 (2):
231–237.
[2] Weeks, M. E. (1968). Discovery of the Elements (7 ed.). Journal of Chemical Education. pp. 385–407. ISBN 0848685792. OCLC 23991202.
[3] Woods, Ian (2004). The Elements: Platinum (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=hy2WcbKpXSkC& printsec=frontcover). Benchmark Books.
ISBN 978-0761415503. .
[4] Hunt, L. B.; Lever, F. M. (1969). "Platinum Metals: A Survey of Productive Resources to industrial Uses" (http:/ / www.
platinummetalsreview. com/ pdf/ pmr-v13-i4-126-138. pdf). Platinum Metals Review 13 (4): 126–138. . Retrieved 2009-10-02.
[5] Xiao, Z.; Laplante, A. R. (2004). "Characterizing and recovering the platinum group minerals—a review". Minerals Engineering 17:
961–979. doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2004.04.001.
[6] "Platinum–Group Metals" (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ platinum/ platimcs07. pdf) (PDF). U.S. Geological
Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries. January 2007. . Retrieved 2008-09-09.
[7] Emsley, J. (2003). "Iridium" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC& pg=PA202). Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the
Elements. Oxford, England, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 201–204. ISBN 0198503407. .
[8] Chevalier, Patrick (?). "Mineral Yearbook: Platinum Group Metals" (http:/ / www. nrcan-rncan. gc. ca/ mms-smm/ busi-indu/ cmy-amc/
content/ 2004/ 71. pdf). Natural Resources Canada. . Retrieved 2008-10-17.
[9] R. J. Newman, F. J. Smith (1970). "Platinum Metals from Nuclear Fission – an evaluation of their possible use by the industry" (http:/ / www.
platinummetalsreview. com/ dynamic/ article/ view/ pmr-v14-i3-088-092). Platinum Metals Review 14 (3): 88. .
[10] Zdenek Kolarik, Edouard V. Renard (2003). "Recovery of Value Fission Platinoids from Spent Nuclear Fuel; PART I: general
considerations and basic chemistry" (http:/ / www. platinummetalsreview. com/ dynamic/ article/ view/ pmr-v47-i2-074-087). Platinum
Metals Review 47 (2): 74. .
[11] Kolarik, Zdenek; Renard, Edouard V. (2005). "Potential Applications of Fission Platinoids in Industry" (http:/ / www.
platinummetalsreview. com/ dynamic/ article/ view/ 49-2-79-90). Platinum Metals Review 49: 79. doi:10.1595/147106705X35263. .
[12] Zdenek Kolarik, Edouard V. Renard (2003). "Recovery of Value Fission Platinoids from Spent Nuclear Fuel; PART II: Separation process"
(http:/ / www. platinummetalsreview. com/ dynamic/ article/ view/ pmr-v47-i3-123-131). Platinum Metals Review 47 (3): 123. .
Platinum group 135

[13] Jayakumar, M; Venkatesan, K; Srinivasan, T; Rao, P (2009). "Studies on the feasibility of electrochemical recovery of palladium from
high-level liquid waste". Electrochimica Acta 54: 1083. doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2008.08.034.
[14] Pokhitonov, Yu. A.; Romanovskii, V. N. (2005). "Palladium in Irradiated Fuel. Are There Any Prospects for Recovery and Application?".
Radiochemistry 47: 1. doi:10.1007/s11137-005-0040-7.
[15] Jayakumar, M; Venkatesan, K; Srinivasan, T (2007). "Electrochemical behavior of fission palladium in 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium
chloride". Electrochimica Acta 52: 7121. doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2007.05.049.
[16] Jayakumar, M; Venkatesan, K; Srinivasan, T (2008). "Electrochemical behavior of rhodium(III) in 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride
ionic liquid". Electrochimica Acta 53: 2794. doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2007.10.056.
[17] Jayakumar, M; Venkatesan, K.A.; Srinivasan, T.G.; Vasudeva Rao, P.R. (2008). "Electrochemical behavior of ruthenium (III), rhodium (III)
and palladium (II) in 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ionic liquid". Electrochimica Acta 54: 2747. doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2009.06.043.
[18] http:/ / www. platinum. matthey. com/
[19] http:/ / www. kitco. com/ market/
[20] http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ platinum/
[21] http:/ / www. platinummetalsreview. com/ dynamic/

Post-transition metal

Group # 12 13 14 15

Period

4 30 31
Zn Ga

5 48 49 50
Cd In Sn

6 80 81 82 83
Hg Tl Pb Bi

Atomic numbers show

state at STP

Solids Liquids

In chemistry, the term post-transition metal is used to describe the category of metallic elements to the right of the
transition elements on the periodic table[1] [2] . IUPAC defines "transition elements" as either the elements in groups
3–11 or the elements in groups 3–12[3] . According to the first definition, post-transition metals include group
12—zinc, cadmium, and mercury. This collection of elements is illustrated by the element boxes to the right.
Occasionally germanium, antimony, and/or polonium are also included as metals, although these are usually
considered to be metalloids. According to the second definition of transition elements, group 12 would not be
included as a post-transition metal. An examination of textbooks and monographs in 2003 revealed that both
definitions are used with roughly equal frequency[4] .
In the 1950s, most inorganic chemistry textbooks defined transition elements as excluding group 11—copper, silver,
and gold in addition to group 12[4] . A third definition of post-transition metal that includes group 11 and group 12
elements is no longer recommended by IUPAC[3] but is still used on occasion[5] [6] .
Post-transition metal 136

Poor metals
The trivial name poor metals is sometimes applied to the metallic elements in the p-block of the periodic table.
Their melting and boiling points are generally lower than those of the transition metals and their electronegativity
higher, and they are also softer. They are distinguished from the metalloids, however, by their significantly higher
boiling points in the same row.
"Poor metals" is not a rigorous IUPAC-approved nomenclature, but the grouping is generally taken to include
aluminium, gallium, indium, tin, thallium, lead, and bismuth. Occasionally germanium, antimony, and polonium are
also included, although these are usually considered to be metalloids or "semi-metals". Elements 113, 114, 115, and
116, which are currently allocated the systematic names ununtrium, ununquadium, ununpentium, and ununhexium,
would likely exhibit properties characteristic of poor metals; however sufficient quantities of them have not yet been
synthesized to examine their chemical properties.

13 14 15 16

Al
Aluminium

Ga Ge
Gallium Germanium

In Sn Sb
Indium Tin Antimony

Tl Pb Bi Po
Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium

Uut Uuq Uup Uuh

ununtrium ununquadium ununpentium ununhexium

External links
• Patent-Invent - Poor Metals Quick Facts [7]
• Royal Armouries - Poor Metals [8]

References
[1] General Chemistry: Principles and Structure (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?& id=UVlGAAAAYAAJ& dq=post-transition+ metal+
brady& q=post-transition+ "just+ to+ the+ right"#search_anchor) (5th ed.), by James E. Brady, page 96. Published by Wiley, 1990. ISBN
0471621315, 9780471621317
[2] Instant Notes in Inorganic Chemistry (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=8yQOhvD3tWcC& pg=PA185#v=onepage& q=& f=false) (2nd
ed.), by P.A. Cox, page 185–186. Published by Garland Science/BIOS Scientific Publishers, 2004. ISBN 1859962890, 9781859962893
[3] Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry, IUPAC Recommendations (2005) (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ publications/ books/ rbook/
Red_Book_2005. pdf) IR 3-6.2 p 51
[4] William B. Jensen (2003). "The Place of Zinc, Cadmium, and Mercury in the Periodic Table". Journal of Chemical Education 80 (8):
952–961.
[5] Introductory solid state physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=w6eAC9y47_4C& pg=PA216#v=onepage& q=& f=false) (2nd ed.),
by H.P. Myers, page 216. Published by Taylor & Francis, 1997. ISBN 074840659X, 9780748406593
[6] Bioinorganic Chemistry (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=tCOyYeekTSEC& pg=PA69#v=onepage& f=false), by K. Hussain Reddy,
page 69. Published by New Age International, 2003. ISBN 8122414370, 9788122414370
[7] http:/ / www. chemistry. patent-invent. com/ chemistry/ poor_metals. html
[8] http:/ / www. royalarmouries. org/ extsite/ view. jsp?sectionId=2884
Transactinide element 137

Transactinide element
In chemistry, transactinide elements (also, transactinides, or super-heavy elements) are the chemical elements
with atomic numbers greater than those of the actinides, the heaviest of which is lawrencium (103).[1] [2]
Transactinide elements are also transuranic elements, that is, have an atomic number greater than that of uranium
(92), an actinide. The further distinction of having an atomic number greater than the actinides is significant in
several ways:
• The transactinide elements all have electrons in the 6d subshell in their ground state (and thus are placed in the
d-block). The last actinide, lawrencium, also has one electron in the 6d subshell.
• Except for dubnium, even the longest-lasting isotopes of transactinide elements have extremely short half-lives,
measured in seconds, or smaller units.
• The element naming controversy involved the first five or six transactinide elements. These elements thus used
three-letter systematic names for many years after their discovery had been confirmed. (Usually the three-letter
names are replaced with two-letter names relatively shortly after a discovery has been confirmed.)
Transactinides are radioactive and have only been obtained synthetically in laboratories. None of these elements has
ever been collected in a macroscopic sample. Transactinide elements are all named after nuclear physicists and
chemists or important locations involved in the synthesis of the elements.
Chemistry Nobelist Glenn T. Seaborg who first proposed the actinide concept which led to the acceptance of the
actinide series also proposed the existence of a transactinide series ranging from element 104 to 121 and a
superactinide series approximately spanning elements 122 to 153. The transactinide seaborgium is named in his
honor.
The term transactinide is an adjective, and is not commonly used alone as a noun to refer to the transactinide
elements.

List of the transactinide elements

• 104 Rutherfordium, Rf
• 105 Dubnium, Db
• 106 Seaborgium, Sg
• 107 Bohrium, Bh
• 108 Hassium, Hs
• 109 Meitnerium, Mt
• 110 Darmstadtium, Ds
• 111 Roentgenium, Rg
• 112 Copernicium, Cn
• 113 Ununtrium, Uut*
• 114 Ununquadium, Uuq*
• 115 Ununpentium, Uup*
• 116 Ununhexium, Uuh*
• 117 Ununseptium, Uus*
• 118 Ununoctium, Uuo*
* The synthesis of these elements has not been officially attested by IUPAC, while in several cases previous
syntheses have been confirmed by other institutions or other methods. The names and symbols given are provisional
as no names for the elements have been agreed on.
Transactinide element 138

See also
• Transuranium element
• Bose-Einstein condensate (also known as Superatom)
• Island of stability

References
[1] IUPAC Provisional Recommendations for the Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry (2004) (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ reports/ provisional/
abstract04/ connelly_310804. html) (online draft of an updated version of the "Red Book" IR 3-6)
[2] Morss, Lester R.; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean, eds (2006). The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements (3rd ed.).
Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer. ISBN 13978-1-4020-3555-5.

Transuranium element
In chemistry, transuranium elements (also known as transuranic elements) are the chemical elements with atomic
numbers greater than 92 (the atomic number of uranium). None of these elements are stable; they decay
radioactively into other elements.

Overview
Of the elements with atomic numbers 1
to 92, all but four (technetium,
promethium, astatine, and francium)
occur in easily detectable quantities on
Earth, having stable, or very long
half-life isotopes, or are created as
common products of the decay of
uranium.

All of the elements with higher atomic

numbers, however, have been first
discovered in the laboratory, other than
neptunium and plutonium. They are all
radioactive, with a half-life much
shorter than the age of the Earth, so
any atoms of these elements, if they Periodic table with elements colored according to the half-life of their most stable isotope.
ever were present at the Earth's      Stable elements;      Radioactive elements with very long-lived isotopes.
Their half-lives of over four million years confer them very small, if not
formation, have long since decayed.
negligible radioactivities;      Radioactive elements that may present low health
Trace amounts of neptunium and hazards. Their most stable isotopes have half-lives between 800 and 34.000
plutonium form in some uranium-rich years. Because of this, they usually have some commercial applications;
rock, and small amounts are produced      Radioactive elements that are known to pose high safety risks. Their most
stable isotopes have half-lifes between one day and 103 years. Their
during atmospheric tests of atomic
radioactivities confers them little potential for commercial uses;      Highly
weapons. The Np and Pu generated are radioactive elements. Their most stable isotopes have half-lifes between one
from neutron capture in uranium ore day and several minutes. They pose severe health risks. Few of them receive
with two subsequent beta decays (238U uses outside basic research;      Extremely radioactive elements. Very little is
known about these elements due to their extreme instability and radioactivity.
→ 239U → 239Np → 239Pu).
Transuranium element 139

Those that can be found on Earth now are artificially generated synthetic elements, via nuclear reactors or particle
accelerators. The half lives of these elements show a general trend of decreasing with atomic number. There are
exceptions, however, including dubnium and several isotopes of curium. Further anomalous elements in this series
have been predicted by Glenn T. Seaborg, and are categorised as the “island of stability.”
Heavy transuranic elements are difficult and expensive to produce, and their prices go up rapidly with atomic
number. As of 2008, weapons-grade plutonium cost around $4,000/gram (or roughly 150 times more than gold),[1]
and californium cost $60,000,000/gram.[2] Due to production difficulties, none of the elements beyond californium
have industrial applications or were ever produced in macroscopic quantities.
Transuranic elements that have not been discovered, or have been discovered but are not yet officially named, use
IUPAC's systematic element names. The naming of transuranic elements is a source of controversy.

Discovery and naming of transuranium elements

The majority of the transuranium elements were produced by three groups:
• A group at the University of California, Berkeley, under three different leaders:
• Edwin Mattison McMillan, first to produce a transuranium element:
• 93. neptunium, Np, named after the planet Neptune, as it follows uranium and Neptune follows Uranus in
the planetary sequence (1940).
• Glenn T. Seaborg, next in order, who produced:
• 94. plutonium, Pu, named after the dwarf planet Pluto, following the same naming rule as it follows
neptunium and Pluto follows Neptune in the pre-2006 planetary sequence (1940).
• 95. americium, Am, named because it is an analog to europium, and so was named after the continent where
it was first produced (1944).
• 96. curium, Cm, named after Pierre and Marie Curie, famous scientists who separated out the first
radioactive elements (1944).
• 97. berkelium, Bk, named after the city of Berkeley, where the University of California, Berkeley is located
(1949).
• 98. californium, Cf, named after the state of California, where the university is located (1950).
• Albert Ghiorso, who had been on Seaborg's team when they produced curium, berkelium, and californium,
took over as director to produce:
• 99. einsteinium, Es, named after the theoretical physicist Albert Einstein (1952).
• 100. fermium, Fm, named after Enrico Fermi, the physicist who produced the first controlled chain reaction
(1952).
• 101. mendelevium, Md, named after the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev, credited for being the primary
creator of the periodic table of the chemical elements (1955).
• 102. nobelium, No, named after Alfred Nobel (1956).
• 103. lawrencium, Lr, named after Ernest O. Lawrence, a physicist best known for development of the
cyclotron, and the person for whom the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and the Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory (which hosted the creation of these transuranium elements) are named
(1961).
• A group at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia (then the Soviet Union) who produced:
• 104. rutherfordium, Rf, named after Ernest Rutherford, who was responsible for the concept of the atomic
nucleus (1966).
• 105. dubnium, Db, an element that is named after the city of Dubna, where the JINR is located. Also known in
Western circles as "hahnium" in honor of Otto Hahn (1968).
Transuranium element 140

• 106. seaborgium, Sg, named after Glenn T. Seaborg. This name caused controversy because Seaborg was still
alive, but eventually became accepted by international chemists (1974).
• 107. bohrium, Bh, named after the Danish physicist Niels Bohr, important in the elucidation of the structure of
the atom (1981).
• A group at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (Society for Heavy Ion Research) in Darmstadt, Hessen,
Germany, under Peter Armbruster, who produced:
• 108. hassium, Hs, named after the Latin form of the name of Hessen, the German Bundesland where this work
was performed (1984).
• 109. meitnerium, Mt, named after Lise Meitner, an Austrian physicist who was one of the earliest scientists to
become involved in the study of nuclear fission (1982).
• 110. darmstadtium, Ds named after Darmstadt, Germany, the city in which this work was performed (1994).
• 111. roentgenium, Rg named after Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, discoverer of X-rays (1994).
• 112. copernicium, Cn named after astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1996).

List of the transuranic elements

• Actinides • Transactinide elements
• 93 neptunium Np • 104 rutherfordium Rf
• 94 plutonium Pu • 105 dubnium Db
• 95 americium Am • 106 seaborgium Sg
• 96 curium Cm • 107 bohrium Bh
• 97 berkelium Bk • 108 hassium Hs
• 98 californium Cf • 109 meitnerium Mt
• 99 einsteinium Es • 110 darmstadtium Ds
• 100 fermium Fm • 111 roentgenium Rg
• 101 mendelevium • 112 copernicium Cn
Md • 113 ununtrium Uut*
• 102 nobelium No • 114 ununquadium Uuq*
• 103 lawrencium Lr • 115 ununpentium Uup*
• 116 ununhexium Uuh*
• 117 ununseptium Uus*
• 118 ununoctium Uuo*

*The existence of these elements has been confirmed, however the names and symbols given are provisional as no
names for the elements have been agreed on.

Super-heavy atoms
Super-heavy atoms, (super heavy elements, commonly
abbreviated SHE), are the transactinide elements
beginning with rutherfordium (atomic number 104).
They have only been made artificially, and currently
serve no useful purpose because their short half-lives
cause them to decay after a few minutes to just a few
milliseconds, which also makes them extremely hard to
study.[3] [4]

Super-heavy atoms have all been created during the

Position of the super-heavy elements in the periodic table.
latter half of the 20th century and are continually being
Transuranium element 141

created during the 21st century as technology advances. They are created through the bombardment of elements in a
particle accelerator, for example the nuclear fusion of californium-249 and carbon-12 creates rutherfordium. These
elements are created in quantities on the atomic scale and no method of mass creation has been found.[3]

See also
• Bose-Einstein condensate (also known as Superatom)
• Island of stability
• Minor actinides
• Waste Isolation Pilot Plant, repository for transuranic waste
• Extension of the periodic table beyond the seventh period

Further reading
• Annotated bibliography for the transuranic elements [5] from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues.
• Transuranium elements [6]
• Super Heavy Elements network official website [7] (network of the European integrated infrastructure initiative
EURONS)
• Prof. Amnon Marinov's Site with related publications [8]
• Darmstadium and beyond [9]

References
[1] "Price of Plutonium" (http:/ / hypertextbook. com/ facts/ 2008/ AndrewMorel. shtml). The Physics Factbook. .
[2] Rodger C. Martin and Steven E. Kos. "Applications and Availability of Californium-252 Neutron Sources for Waste Characterization" (http:/
/ www. ornl. gov/ ~webworks/ cpr/ pres/ 108701_. pdf) (pdf). .
[3] Heenen, P. H.; Nazarewicz, W. (2002). "Quest for superheavy nuclei". Europhysics News 33: 5. doi:10.1051/epn:2002102.
[4] Greenwood, N. N. (1997). "Recent developments concerning the discovery of elements 100-111". Pure and Applied Chemistry 69: 179.
doi:10.1351/pac199769010179.
[5] http:/ / alsos. wlu. edu/ qsearch. aspx?browse=science/ Transuranium+ Elements
[6] http:/ / web. fccj. org/ ~ethall/ uranium/ uranium. htm
[7] http:/ / www. transfermium. net/
[8] http:/ / www. phys. huji. ac. il/ ~marinov/ index. htm
[9] http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ cen/ 80th/ darmstadtium. html
Transition metal 142

Transition metal
The term transition metal (sometimes also called a transition element) has two possible meanings:
• In the past it referred to any element in the d-block of the periodic table, which includes groups 3 to 12 on the
periodic table. All elements in the d-block are metals. (In actuality, the f-block is also included in the form of the
lanthanide and actinide series.)
• The modern, IUPAC definition[1] states that a transition metal is "an element whose atom has an incomplete d
sub-shell, or which can give rise to cations with an incomplete d sub-shell." Group 12 elements are not transition
metals in this definition.
Jensen[2] has reviewed the historical usage of the terms transition element (or metal) and d-block. The word
"transition" was first used to describe the elements now known as the d-block by the English chemist Charles Bury
in 1921, who referred to a transition series of elements during the change of an inner layer of electrons (for example
n=3 in the 4th row of the periodic table) from a stable group of 8 to one of 18, or from 18 to 32.[3]

Classification
In the d-block the atoms of the elements have between 1 and 10 d electrons. The following table shows IUPAC
definition of what is called "transition metal".

Group 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Period 4 Sc 21 Ti 22 V 23 Cr 24 Mn 25 Fe 26 Co 27 Ni 28 Cu 29 Zn 30
Period 5 Y 39 Zr 40 Nb 41 Mo 42 Tc 43 Ru 44 Rh 45 Pd 46 Ag 47 Cd 48
Period 6 Hf 72 Ta 73 W 74 Re 75 Os 76 Ir 77 Pt 78 Au 79 Hg 80
Period 7 Rf 104 Db Sg Bh 107 Hs 108 Mt 109 Ds 110 Rg 111 Cn 112
105 106

Atoms of scandium and yttrium have a single d electron in the outermost shell, and thus are mostly considered
transition metals. However, as all their compounds contain the ions Sc3+ and Y3+ in which there are no d electrons,
these elements are not universally considered transition metals. This is disputed by people saying that classification
must be lead by neutral atoms properties, and fact zirconium and titanium compounds also don't contain d-electrons.
The two vacant places in group 3 is due to the fact that, for period 6, the place is disputed between lanthanum and
lutetium and for period 7, between actinium and lawrencium . To prevent this, IUPAC placed all of these 4 as
lanthanoids/actinoids, which makes both series 15 elements long, despite fact there are only 14 f-electrons possible
and then f-block can't be any longer. This means IUPAC lanthanoids/actinoids contains one d-element. Modern
scientists usually claim Lu and Lr as d-block elements rather La and Ac, however, both variants are widely used.
The electronic structure of transition metal atoms can be written, with a few minor exceptions, as [Ng]ns2(n-1)dm, as
the inner d orbital has more energy than the valence-shell s orbital. In divalent and trivalent ions of the transition
metals the situation is reversed so that the s electrons have higher energy. Consequently an ion such as Fe2+ has no s
electrons, it has the electronic configuration [Ar]3d6 as compared with the configuration of the atom, [Ar]4s23d6.
According to IUPAC, Zinc, cadmium, mercury and copernicium are transition metals, although some say they are
not.[2] as they have the electronic configuration [Ng]d10s2, with no incomplete d shell.[4] People who count Zn, Cd
and Hg as post-transition mention that in the oxidation state +2 the ions have the electronic configuration [ Ng ] d10.
and while compounds in the +1 oxidation state, such as Hg22+, are known there are no unpaired electrons because of
the formation of a covalent bond between the two atoms of the dimer. However, it is opposed by opinion that
d-block must be equal by its content to transition metals, because if mercury has no incompleteness in d-orbital, thus
ytterbium has no incompleteness in f-orbital and is a transition metal. Also, judging on some separated properties
Transition metal 143

(like Irving-Williams series of stability constants of complexes) is also mostly denied.

Characteristic properties
There are a number of properties shared by the transition elements that are not found in other elements, which results
from the partially filled d shell. These include
• the formation of compounds whose colour is due to d - d electronic transitions
• the formation of compounds in many oxidation states, due to the relatively low reactivity of unpaired d
electrons.[5]
• the formation of many paramagnetic compounds due to the presence of unpaired d electrons. A few compounds of
main group elements are also paramagnetic (e.g. nitric oxide, oxygen)

Coloured compounds
Colour in transition-series metal compounds is
generally due to electronic transitions of two principal
types.
• charge transfer transitions. An electron may jump
from a predominantly ligand orbital to a
predominantly metal orbital, giving rise to a
ligand-to-metal charge-transfer (LMCT) transition. From left to right, aqueous solutions of: Co(NO3)2 (red); K2Cr2O7
(orange); K2CrO4 (yellow); NiCl2 (turquoise); CuSO4 (blue); KMnO4
These can most easily occur when the metal is in a
(purple).
high oxidation state. For example, the colour of
chromate, dichromate and permanganate ions is due
to LMCT transitions. A metal-to ligand charge transfer (MLCT) transition will be most likely when the metal is in
a low oxidation state and the ligand is easily oxidised. Mercuric iodide, HgI2, is red because of a MLCT
transition. As this example shows, charge transfer transitions are not restricted to transition metals.[6]

• d-d transitions. An electron jumps from one d-orbital to another. In complexes of the transition metals the d
orbitals do not all have the same energy. The pattern of splitting of the d orbitals can be calculated using crystal
field theory. The extent of the splitting depends on the particular metal, its oxidation state and the nature of the
ligands. The actual energy levels are shown on Tanabe-Sugano diagrams.
In centrosymmetric complexes, such as octahedral complexes, d-d transitions are forbidden by the Laporte rule and
only occur because of vibronic coupling in which a molecular vibration occurs together with a d-d transition.
Tetrahedral complexes have somewhat more intense colour because mixing d and p orbitals is possible when there is
no centre of symmetry, so transitions are not pure d-d transitions. The molar absorptivity (ε) of bands caused by d-d
transitions are relatively low, roughly in the range 5-500 M−1cm−1 (where M = mol dm−3).[7] Some d-d transitions
are spin forbidden. An example occurs in octahedral, high-spin complexes of manganese(II), which has a d5
configuration in which all five electron has parallel spins; the colour of such complexes is much weaker than in
complexes with spin-allowed transitions. In fact many compounds of manganese(II) appear almost colourless. The
spectrum of [Mn(H2O)6]2+ shows a maximum molar absorptivity of about 0.04 M−1cm−1 in the visible spectrum.
Transition metal 144

Oxidation states
A characteristic of transition metals is that they exhibit two or more oxidation states, usually differing by one. For
example, compounds of vanadium are known in all oxidation states between −1, such as [V(CO)6]−, and +5, such as
VO3−4.
Main group elements in groups 13 to 17 also exhibit multiple oxidation states. The "common" oxidation states of
these elements typically differ by two. For example, compounds of gallium in oxidation states +1 and +3 exist in
which there is a single gallium atom. No compound of Ga(II) is known: any such compound would have an unpaired
electron and would behave as a free radical and be destroyed rapidly. The only compounds in which gallium has a
formal oxidation state of +2 are dimeric compounds, such as [Ga2Cl6]2−, which contain a Ga-Ga bond formed from
the unpaired electron on each Ga atom.[8] Thus the main difference in oxidation states, between transition elements
and other elements is that oxidation states are known in which there is a single atom of the element and one or more
unpaired electrons.
The maximum oxidation state in the first row transition metals is equal to the number of valence electron from
titanium (+4) up to manganese (+7), but decreases in the later elements. In the second and third rows the maximum
occurs with ruthenium and osmium (+8). In compounds such as [MnO4]− and OsO4 the elements achieve a stable
octet by forming four covalent bonds.
The lowest oxidation states are exhibited in such compounds as Cr(CO)6 (oxidation state zero) and [Fe(CO)4]2−
(oxidation state −2) in which the 18-electron rule is obeyed. These complexes are also covalent.
Ionic compounds are mostly formed with oxidation states +2 and +3. In aqueous solution the ions are hydrated by
(usually) six water molecules arranged octahedrally.

Magnetism
Transition metal compounds are paramagnetic when they have one or more unpaired d electrons.[9] In octahedral
complexes with between four and seven d electrons both high spin and low spin states are possible. Tetrahedral
transition metal complexes such as [FeCl4]2− are high spin because the crystal field splitting is small so that the
energy to be gained by virtue of the electrons being in lower energy orbitals is always less that the energy needed to
pair up the spins. Some compounds are diamagnetic. These include octahedral, low-spin, d6 and square-planar d8
complexes. In these cases, crystal field splitting is such that all the electrons are paired up.
Ferromagnetism occurs when individual atoms are paramagnetic and the spin vectors are aligned parallel to each
other in a crystalline material. Metallic iron and the alloy alnico are examples of ferromagnetic materials involving
transition metals. Antiferromagnetism is another example of a magnetic property arising from a particular alignment
of individual spins in the solid state.

See also
• Inner transition element, a name given to any member of the f-block
• Ligand field theory a development of crystal field theory taking covalency into account
• Post-transition metal

References
[1] International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. " transition element (http:/ / goldbook. iupac. org/ T06456. html)". Compendium of
Chemical Terminology Internet edition.
[2] Jensen, William B. (2003). "The Place of Zinc, Cadmium, and Mercury in the Periodic Table" (http:/ / www. uv. es/ ~borrasj/ ingenieria_web/
temas/ tema_1/ lecturas_comp/ p952. pdf). Journal of Chemical Education 80 (8): 952–961. doi:10.1021/ed080p952. .
[3] "Langmuir's theory of the arrangement of electrons in atoms and molecules" C.R. Bury, J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 43, p.1602-1609 (1921)
[4] Cotton, F. Albert; Wilkinson, G.; Murillo, C. A. (1999). Advanced Inorganic Chemistry (6th ed.). New York: Wiley.
Transition metal 145

[5] Matsumoto, Paul S (2005). "Trends in Ionization Energy of Transition-Metal Elements" (http:/ / www. jce. divched. org/ Journal/ Issues/
2005/ Nov/ abs1660. html). Journal of Chemical Education 82: 1660. doi:10.1021/ed082p1660. .
[6] T.M. Dunn in Lewis, J.; Wilkins,R.G. (1960). Modern Coordination Chemistry. New York: Interscience., Chapter 4, Section 4, "Charge
Transfer Spectra", pp. 268-273.
[7] Orgel, L.E. (1966). An Introduction to Transition-Metal Chemistry, Ligand field theory (2nd. ed.). London: Methuen.
[8] Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997), Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.), Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 0080379419 p.
240
[9] Figgis, B.N.; Lewis, J. (1960). Lewis, J. and Wilkins, R.G.. ed. The Magnetochemistry of Complex Compounds. Modern Coordination
Chemistry. New York: Interscience. pp. 400–454.
146

Description and utility

A chart or table of nuclides (capitalization optional) is a simple map to the nuclear, or radioactive, behaviour of
nuclides, as it distinguishes the isotopes of an element. It contrasts with a periodic table, which only maps their
chemical behavior, since isotopes of the same element do not differ chemically. Nuclide charts organize isotopes
along the X axis by their numbers of neutrons and along the Y axis by their numbers of protons, out to the limits of
the neutron and proton drip lines. This representation was first published by Giorgio Fea in 1935,[1] and expanded by
Emilio Segrè in 1945 or G. Seaborg. In 1958, Walter Seelmann-Eggebert and Gerda Pfennig published the first
edition of the Karlsruhe Nuclide Chart. Its 7th edition was made available in 2006. Today, one finds several nuclide
charts, four of them have a wide distribution: the Karlsruhe Nuclide Chart, the Strasbourg Universal Nuclide Chart,
the Chart of the Nuclides from the JAEA and the Nuclide Chart from Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory.[2] It has
become a basic tool of the nuclear community.

Trends in the Chart of Nuclides

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Ne 11
H He Li Be B C N O F

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Na 12
H He Li Be B C N O F Ne

7 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Mg 13
He Li Be B C N O F Ne Na

8 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Al 14
He Li Be B C N O F Ne Na Mg

9 Al Si
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
Li Be B C N O F Ne Na Mg

• Isotopes are nuclides with the same number of protons but differing numbers of neutrons; that is, they have the
same atomic number and are therefore the same chemical element. Isotopes neighbor each other vertically e.g.
Carbon-12, Carbon-13, and Carbon-14 in the sample table above.
• Isotones are nuclides with the same number of neutrons but differing number of protons. Isotones neighbor each
other horizontally. Example: Carbon-14, Nitrogen-15, Oxygen-16 in the sample table above.
• Isobars are nuclides with the same number of nucleons, i.e. mass number, but different numbers of protons and
different number of neutrons. Isobars neighbor each other diagonally from lower-left to upper-right. Example:
Table of nuclides 147

Carbon-14, Nitrogen-14, Oxygen-14 in the sample table above.

• Beyond the neutron drip line along the lower left, nuclides decay by neutron emission.
• Beyond the proton drip line along the upper right, nuclides decay by proton emission. Drip lines have only been
established for some elements.
• The island of stability is a hypothetical region of the table of nuclides that contains isotopes far more stable than
other transuranic elements.
• There are no stable atoms having an equal number of protons and neutrons in their nuclei with atomic number
greater than 20 as can be readily "read" from the chart. Nuclei of greater atomic number require an excess of
neutrons for stability.
• There are no stable atoms having atomic number greater than Z=82 (lead)[3] . Atoms with atomic numbers of 82
and lower all have stable isotopes, with the exceptions of technetium (Z=43) and promethium (Z=61).

Available representations

Charts of the nuclides

article description

Table of nuclides (complete) Presents the data via a single, contiguous chart that requires both vertical and horizontal scrolling to view all its
contents (262 kB total HTML download).

Table of nuclides Presents the data via four separate charts, each typically with 30 elements. Depending on the browser, no horizontal
(segmented, wide) scrolling is required in window widths of at least 1225 to 1440 pixels (311 kB total HTML download).

Table of nuclides Presents the data via eight separate charts, each typically with 15 elements. Horizontal scrolling is not required for
(segmented, narrow) all but the smallest computer monitors (321 KB total HTML download).

Table of nuclides (sorted by Presents the data in a one-dimensional list where all nuclides are sorted by their half-life, including specific mass
half-life) excess and decay-modes, no horizontal scrolling is required (95 kB total HTML download).

Table of nuclides (combined) Provides both the eight-chart, segmented presentation and the single, contiguous chart. Provides quick-jump
hyperlinks to jump between the two. Features expanded introductory text for first-time readers. (588 kB total HTML
download).

File:NuclideMap.PNG Single image (not HTML) of the National Nuclear Data Center chart from the NuDat 2 database (3.9 MB)

Articles on isotopes of an element

article description

Index to isotope A periodic table that provides links to a separate article on each element and its isotopes.
pages

Isotope lists A page that provides data on the isotopes of each element in groups of 24 elements.
Table of nuclides 148

See also
• List of nuclides. Presents information in list form, and in order of stability, for the 905 nuclides which are stable,
or are radioactive with half lives greater than 60 minutes.

External links
• Karlsruhe Nuclide Chart [4]
• Universal Nuclide Chart [5]
• Interactive Chart of Nuclides (Brookhaven National Laboratory) [6]
• The Lund/LBNL Nuclear Data Search [7]
• Another example of a Chart of Nuclides from Korea [8]
• YChartElements [19] dynamic periodic table and chart of the nuclides, a Yoix application

•
Compact Chart of Nuclides (non-standard representation with elements along a diagonal) 70x70. [9]

• The Live Chart of Nuclides - IAEA [20] in Java [20] or HTML [21]
• Map of the Nuclides [10]

References
[1] Georgio Fea. Il Nuovo Cimento 2 (1935) 368
[2] "What We Do: The Chart of Nuclides" (http:/ / www. knollslab. com/ nuclides. html). Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory. . Retrieved 14 May
2009.
[3] Holden,CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 90th Edition §11
[4] http:/ / www. karlsruhenuclidechart. net
[5] http:/ / www. nucleonica. net/ unc. aspx
[6] http:/ / www. nndc. bnl. gov/ chart
[7] http:/ / nucleardata. nuclear. lu. se/ nucleardata/ toi/
[8] http:/ / atom. kaeri. re. kr
[9] http:/ / adavidstubbs. home. comcast. net/ ~adavidstubbs/ Quark/ Isotope_table_(compact). htm
[10] http:/ / t2. lanl. gov/ data/ map. html
Island of stability 149

Island of stability
The island of stability is a term from
nuclear physics that describes the
possibility of elements with
particularly stable "magic numbers" of
protons and neutrons. This would
allow certain isotopes of some
transuranium elements to be far more
stable than others; that is, to decay
much more slowly (with half-lives of
at least minutes or days, compared to
3-dimensional rendering of the theoretical Island of Stability.
fractions of a second; some have even
suggested the possibility of half-lives
on the order of millions of years[1] ).

History
The idea of the island of stability was first proposed by Glenn T. Seaborg. The hypothesis is that the atomic nucleus
is built up in "shells" in a manner similar to the electron shells in atoms. In both cases shells are just groups of
quantum energy levels that are relatively close to each other. Energy levels from quantum states in two different
shells will be separated by a relatively large energy gap. So when the number of neutrons and protons completely fill
the energy levels of a given shell in the nucleus, the binding energy per nucleon will reach a local maximum and thus
that particular configuration will have a longer lifetime than nearby isotopes that do not have filled shells.[2]
A filled shell would have "magic numbers" of neutrons and protons. One possible magic number of neutrons for
spherical nuclei is 184, and some possible matching proton numbers are 114, 120 and 126 – which would mean that
the most stable spherical isotopes would be ununquadium-298, unbinilium-304 and unbihexium-310. Of particular
note is Ubh-310, which would be "doubly magic" (both its proton number of 126 and neutron number of 184 are
thought to be magic) and thus the most likely to have a very long half-life. (The next lighter doubly-magic spherical
nucleus is lead-208, the heaviest stable nucleus and most stable heavy metal.) Isotopes of elements in the range
between 110 through 114 have been found to decay more slowly than isotopes of nuclei nearby in the periodic table.
However, recent research indicates that large nuclei are deformed, causing magic numbers to shift. Hassium-270 is
now believed to be doubly-magic nucleus, with deformed magic numbers 108 and 162. Its half-life may be as high as
23 seconds.[3] [4]
Island of stability 150

Half-lives of large isotopes

Fermium is the heaviest element that
can be produced in a nuclear reactor.
The stability (half-life of the
longest-lived isotope) of elements
generally decreases from element 101
to element 109 and then approaches an
island of stability with longer-lived
isotopes in the range of elements 111
and 114.[5] The longest-lived observed
isotopes are shown in the following
table.

Periodic table with elements colored according to the half-life of their most stable isotope.
     Stable elements.      Radioactive elements with half-lives of over four million
years.      Half-lives between 800 and 34,000 years.      Half-lives between 1 day
and 103 years.      Half-lives ranging between several minutes and 1 day.
     Extremely radioactive elements with half-lives less than a minute.

Known isotopes of elements 100 through 118[5] [6]

Number Name Longest-lived Half-life Article
measured isotope

100 Fermium 257 101 days Isotopes of fermium

101 Mendelevium 258 52 days Isotopes of mendelevium

102 Nobelium 259 58 minutes Isotopes of nobelium

103 Lawrencium 262 3.6 hours Isotopes of lawrencium

104 Rutherfordium 267 1.3 hours Isotopes of rutherfordium

105 Dubnium 268 29 hours Isotopes of dubnium

106 Seaborgium 271 1.9 minutes Isotopes of seaborgium

107 Bohrium 270 61 seconds Isotopes of bohrium

108 Hassium 277 16.5 minutes Isotopes of hassium

109 Meitnerium 278 ~8 seconds Isotopes of meitnerium

110 Darmstadtium 281 11 seconds Isotopes of darmstadtium

111 Roentgenium 281 22.8 seconds Isotopes of roentgenium

112 Copernicium 285 29 seconds Isotopes of copernicium

113 Ununtrium 286 19.6 seconds Isotopes of ununtrium

Uut
Island of stability 151

114 Ununquadium 289 2.6 seconds Isotopes of ununquadium

Uuq

115 Ununpentium 289 220 ms Isotopes of ununpentium

Uup

116 Ununhexium 293 61 ms Isotopes of ununhexium

Uuh

117 Ununseptium 294 78 ms Isotopes of ununseptium

Uus

118 Ununoctium 294 0.89 ms Isotopes of ununoctium

Uuo

(Note that for elements 109-118 the longest-lived known isotope is always the heaviest one discovered, making it likely that there are still
longer-lived isotopes among the undiscovered heavier ones)

The half-lives of elements in the island are uncertain due to the small number of atoms manufactured and studied to
date. Many physicists think they are relatively short, on the order of minutes, hours, or perhaps days. However, some
theoretical calculations indicate that their half-lives may be long (some calculations put it on the order of 109
years).[7] It is possible that these elements could have unusual chemical properties, and, if long-lived enough, various
applications (such as targets in nuclear physics and neutron sources). However, the isotopes of several of these
elements still have too few neutrons to be stable. The island of stability still has not been reached, since the island's
"shores" are more neutron rich than nuclides that have been experimentally produced.
The alpha-decay half-lives of 1700 nuclei with 100 ≤ Z ≤ 130 have been calculated in a quantum tunneling model
with both experimental and theoretical alpha-decay Q-values.[8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] The theoretical calculations are in
good agreement with the available experimental data.

Island of relative stability

232
Th (thorium), 235U and 238U (uranium) are the only naturally occurring isotopes beyond bismuth that are
relatively stable over the current lifespan of the universe. Bismuth was found to be unstable in 2003, with an
α-emission half-life of 1.9×1019 years for Bi-209. All other isotopes beyond bismuth are relatively or very unstable.
So the main periodic table ends at bismuth, with an island at thorium and uranium. Between bismuth and thorium
there is a "sea of instability", which renders such elements as astatine, radon, and francium extremely short-lived
relative to all but the heaviest elements found so far.
Current theoretical investigation indicates that in the region Z=106–108 and N≈160–164, a small ‘island/peninsula’
might be stable with respect to fission and beta decay, such superheavy nuclei undergoing only alpha decay.[9] [10]
[11]
Also, 298114 is not the center of the magic island as predicted earlier.[14] On the contrary, the nucleus with
Z=110, N=183 appears to be near the center of a possible 'magic island' (Z=104–116, N≈176–186). In the N≈162
region the beta-stable, fission survived 268106 is predicted to have alpha-decay half-life ~3.2hrs that is greater than
that (~28s) of the deformed doubly-magic 270108.[15] The superheavy nucleus 268106 has not been produced in the
laboratory as yet (2009). For superheavy nuclei with Z>116 and N≈184 the alpha-decay half-lives are predicted to be
less than one second. The nuclei with Z=120, 124, 126 and N=184 are predicted to form spherical doubly-magic
nuclei and be stable with respect to fission.[16] Calculations in a quantum tunneling model show that such
superheavy nuclei would undergo alpha decay within microseconds or less.[9] [10] [11]

Synthesis problems
Manufacturing nuclei in the island of stability may be very difficult, because the nuclei available as starting materials
do not deliver the necessary sum of neutrons. So for the synthesis of isotope 298 of element 114 by using plutonium
and calcium, one would require an isotope of plutonium and one of calcium, which have together a sum of at least
298 nucleons (more is better, because at the nuclei reaction some neutrons are emitted). This would require, for
example, the use of calcium-50 and plutonium-248 for the synthesis of element 114. However these isotopes (and
heavier calcium and plutonium isotopes) are not available in weighable quantities. This is also the case for other
Island of stability 152

target-projectile combinations.
However it may be possible to generate the isotope 298 of element 114, if the multi-nucleon transfer reactions would
work in low-energy collisions of actinide nuclei.[17] One of these reactions may be:
248
Cm + 238U → 298Uuq + 186W + 2 1n

Quest for the island of stability

"We search for the island of stability because, like Mount Everest, it is there. But, as with Everest, there is
profound emotion, too, infusing the scientific search to test a hypothesis. The quest for the magic island shows
us that science is far from being coldness and calculation, as many people imagine, but is shot through with
passion, longing and romance."
—Oliver Sacks[18]

See also
• Island of stability: Ununquadium — Unbinilium — Unbihexium
• Table of nuclides — a visualization of the island of stability
• Periodic table and Periodic table (extended)

External links
• Hunting the biggest atoms in the universe [19] (July 23, 2008)
• The hunt for superheavy elements [20] (April 7, 2008)
• The synthesis of spherical superheavy nuclei in 48Ca induced reactions [21] (needs login so can not access !)
• Uut and Uup Add Their Atomic Mass to Periodic Table [22] (Feb 2004)
• New elements discovered and the island of stability sighted [23] (Aug 1999 - includes report on article later
retracted)
• First postcard from the island of nuclear stability [24] (1999)
• Second postcard from the island of stability [25] (Oct 2001)
• Superheavy Elements "Island of Stability" [26] (single text slide - undated)
• Superheavy elements [27] (Jul 2004 Yuri Oganessian of JINR )
• Can superheavy elements (such as Z=116 or 118) be formed in a supernova? Can we observe them? [28]
• NOVA - Island of Stability [29]
• New York Times Editorial by Oliver Sacks regarding the Island of Stability theory [30] (Feb 2004 re 113 and 115)

References
[1] "Superheavy Element 114 Confirmed: A Stepping Stone to the Island of Stability" (http:/ / www. physorg. com/ news173028810. html). .
Retrieved 11 October 2009.
[2] "Shell Model of Nucleus" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ nuclear/ shell. html). HyperPhysics. Department of Physics and
Astronomy, Georgia State University. . Retrieved 22 January 2007.
[3] Dvořák, Jan (2007-07-12). "PhD. Thesis: Decay properties of nuclei close to Z = 108 and N = 162" (http:/ / deposit. ddb. de/ cgi-bin/
dokserv?idn=985213566& dok_var=d1& dok_ext=pdf& filename=985213566. pdf). Technischen Universität München. .
[4] Dvorak, J.; Brüchle, W.; Chelnokov, M.; Dressler, R.; Düllmann, Ch.; Eberhardt, K.; Gorshkov, V.; Jäger, E. et al. (2006). "Doubly Magic
Nucleus Hs162108270". Physical Review Letters 97 (24): 242501. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.97.242501. PMID 17280272.
[5] Emsley, John (2001). Nature's Building Blocks ((Hardcover, First Edition) ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. (pages 143,144,458).
ISBN 0198503407.
[6] Alexandra Witze (April 6, 2010). ["http:/ / www. sciencenews. org/ view/ generic/ id/ 57964/ title/ Superheavy_element_117_makes_debut_"
"Superheavy element 117 makes debut"]. "". Retrieved April 6, 2010.
[7] Moller Theoretical Nuclear Chart 1997 (http:/ / ie. lbl. gov/ toipdf/ theory. pdf)
[8] P. Roy Chowdhury, C. Samanta, and D. N. Basu (January 26, 2006). "α decay half-lives of new superheavy elements" (http:/ / link. aps. org/
doi/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevC. 73. 014612). Phys. Rev. C 73: 014612. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.73.014612. .
Island of stability 153

[9] C. Samanta, P. Roy Chowdhury and D.N. Basu (2007). "Predictions of alpha decay half lives of heavy and superheavy elements". Nucl. Phys.
A 789: 142–154. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2007.04.001.
[10] P. Roy Chowdhury, C. Samanta, and D. N. Basu (2008). "Search for long lived heaviest nuclei beyond the valley of stability" (http:/ / link.
aps. org/ doi/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevC. 77. 044603). Phys. Rev. C 77: 044603. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.77.044603. .
[11] P. Roy Chowdhury, C. Samanta, and D. N. Basu (2008). "Nuclear half-lives for α -radioactivity of elements with 100 < Z < 130". At. Data
& Nucl. Data Tables 94: 781. doi:10.1016/j.adt.2008.01.003.
[12] P. Roy Chowdhury, D. N. Basu and C. Samanta (January 26, 2007). "α decay chains from element 113" (http:/ / link. aps. org/ doi/ 10. 1103/
PhysRevC. 75. 047306). Phys. Rev. C 75: 047306. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.75.047306. .
[13] Chhanda Samanta, Devasish Narayan Basu, and Partha Roy Chowdhury (2007). "Quantum tunneling in 277112 and its alpha-decay chain".
Journal of the Physical Society of Japan 76: 124201–124204. doi:10.1143/JPSJ.76.124201.
[14] Sven Gösta Nilsson, Chin Fu Tsang, Adam Sobiczewski, Zdzislaw Szymaski, Slawomir Wycech, Christer Gustafson, Inger-Lena Lamm,
Peter Möller and Björn Nilsson (February 14, 1969). "On the nuclear structure and stability of heavy and superheavy elements". Nuclear
Physics A 131 (1): 1–66. doi:10.1016/0375-9474(69)90809-4.
[15] J. Dvorak, W. Brüchle, M. Chelnokov, R. Dressler, Ch. E. Düllmann, K. Eberhardt, V. Gorshkov, E. Jäger, R. Krücken, A. Kuznetsov, Y.
Nagame, F. Nebel,1 Z. Novackova, Z. Qin, M. Schädel, B. Schausten, E. Schimpf, A. Semchenkov, P. Thörle, A. Türler, M. Wegrzecki, B.
Wierczinski, A. Yakushev, and A. Yeremin (2006). "Doubly Magic Nucleus 270108 Hs-162" (http:/ / scitation. aip. org/ getabs/ servlet/
GetabsServlet?prog=normal& id=PRLTAO000097000024242501000001& idtype=cvips& gifs=yes). Phys. Rev. Lett. 97 (24): 242501.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.97.242501. PMID 17280272. .
[16] S. Cwiok, P.-H. Heenen and W. Nazarewicz (2005). "Shape coexistence and triaxiality in the superheavy nuclei" (http:/ / www. phys. utk.
edu/ witek/ fission/ utk/ Papers/ natureSHE. pdf) (PDF). Nature 433 (7027): 705. doi:10.1038/nature03336. PMID 15716943. .
[17] Zagebraev, V; Greiner, W (2008). "Synthesis of superheavy nuclei: A search for new production reactions" (http:/ / arxiv. org/ pdf/ 0807.
2537v1). Physical Review C 78: 034610. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.78.034610. .
[18] "Greetings From the Island of Stability" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2004/ 02/ 08/ opinion/ 08SACK. html?ex=1391576400&
en=68476e9da837f91f& ei=5007& partner=USERLAND& pagewanted=all), Opinion in the New York Times, February 8, 2004
[19] http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ mg19926661. 200-hunting-the-biggest-atoms-in-the-universe. html?full=true
[20] http:/ / arxivblog. com/ ?p=350
[21] http:/ / 159. 93. 28. 88/ popeko/ e114_287. html
[22] http:/ / www. radiochemistry. org/ periodictable/ elements/ 115. html
[23] http:/ / www. ias. ac. in/ currsci/ aug10/ articles9. htm
[24] http:/ / www. cerncourier. com/ main/ article/ 39/ 7/ 18
[25] http:/ / www. cerncourier. com/ main/ article/ 41/ 8/ 17
[26] http:/ / imglib. lbl. gov/ ImgLib/ COLLECTIONS/ BERKELEY-LAB/ SEABORG-ARCHIVE/ index/ 96B05658. html
[27] http:/ / physicsweb. org/ articles/ world/ 17/ 7/ 7
[28] http:/ / curious. astro. cornell. edu/ question. php?number=599
[29] http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ sciencenow/ 3313/ 02. html
[30] http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2004/ 02/ 08/ opinion/ 08SACK. html?ex=1391576400& en=68476e9da837f91f& ei=5007&
partner=USERLAND
Article Sources and Contributors 154

Article Sources and Contributors

Periodic table Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=382320968 Contributors: 129.186.19.xxx, 158.252.248.xxx, 1993 lol, 203.109.250.xxx, 64.26.98.xxx, A-giau, A. di M.,
Aa35te, Abc518, Aciddoll, Aco47, Adam Bishop, Adamsbriand, Adashiel, AdiJapan, AdjustShift, Adult Swim Addict, Af648, Ageekgal, Ahoerstemeier, AlHalawi, Alansohn, AlimanRuna,
Alkivar, Allstarecho, Alphachimp, Altenmann, Alvinrune, Ambuj.Saxena, Anastrophe, Andre Engels, Andrew11, Andrewrost3241981, Android 93, Andy120290, Angrysockhop, Angusmclellan,
AnjuX, Anna Lincoln, Anoop.m, Antandrus, Aonrotar, Apastrophe, Arbitrarily0, Archenzo, Archimerged, Arjun Rana, Arkrishna, Arman Cagle, Asyndeton, Aushulz, Avicennasis, Avsa, AxG,
AxelBoldt, Az1568, AzaToth, BRG, BTolli, BalkanFever, Barneca, Bcorr, Beanyk, Beetstra, Benbest, Bensaccount, Betaeleven, Bevo, Bigsnake 19, Bigtimepeace, Bill Sayre, Bkell, Bkonrad,
Black and White, Blanchardb, Blargblarg89, Blobglob, BlueEarth, Bluemoose, Bob, Bob Jonkman, Bobblewik, Bobby131313, Bobet, Bobo192, Bonaparte, Borgdylan, Borislav, Bovineone,
Brendan Moody, BrianKnez, BrianScanlan, Brianga, Briséis, Brockert, BrotherFlounder, Bryan Derksen, Btg2290, C0RNF1AK35, CBM, Cacycle, Caesura, Caknuck, Caltas, Can't sleep, clown
will eat me, Canderson7, Canjth, CapitalR, Car132, Carbon-16, Caster23, Cataclysm, CharlesC, Chengyq19942007, ChickenMarengo, Chill doubt, Cholmes75, Chris 73, Chris the speller,
ChrisDHDR, ChrisSmol, Chrisk12, Christian List, Christophenstein, Cimex, Ckatz, Clawson, Clemwang, ClockworkSoul, Clorox, Closedmouth, Cobaltcigs, Coffee, Computerjoe, Conget,
ConnTorrodon, Conny, Corpx, Corsair18, Corvus cornix, Courcelles, Cpl Syx, Creator58, Cryptic C62, Cst17, Ctachme, Cwolfsheep, Cyan, D6, DBragagnolo, DMacks, DNAmaster, DR04,
DRosenbach, DSachan, DVD R W, Dagrimdialer619, Dale101usa, Dalta, Damnreds, Dan Koehl, DanKeshet, DancingPenguin, Danski14, Darklama, Darrien, Darth Panda, Darthchaos, Davewild,
David Edgar, David Gerard, David Little, DavidOaks, Dawn Bard, Dbchip, Dcljr, Ddon, Debresser, Deeptrivia, Deeryh01, Degg444, Dekisugi, Dellacomp, Delldot, DeltaQuad, Den fjättrade
ankan, Denelson83, Deon, DerHexer, Derek.cashman, Deus Ex, Dffgd, Dhollm, Digger3000, Dillard421, Dinamik, Discospinster, DixonD, Dlorang, Dmmaus, Dmoss, DocWatson42, Dogposter,
Dougofborg, Dpbsmith, Dpeters11, Dreadstar, Dreamyshade, Drova, Drunkenmonkey, Dtgm, Dustimagic, Dwaipayanc, Dyknowsore, EH74DK, EL Willy, EagleOne, EamonnPKeane,
EarthmatriX, EconoPhysicist, Edcolins, Eddideigel, Edgar181, Egil, Eirik (usurped), El C, Elcobbola, Eli84, Eliashedberg, Elk Salmon, Elkman, Elly4web, Elsweyn, Emperorbma,
EnDaLeCoMpLeX, EncMstr, EngineerScotty, Enviroboy, Eric119, Erik Zachte, Escape Orbit, Essam Sharaf, Eszett, EugeneZelenko, Eupedia, Everybody's Got One, Everyking, Excirial, Exert,
Exigentsky, Exodecai101, Extransit, FF2010, Fabartus, Feline1, Felix Wan, Femto, Fifo, Figma, Finngall, Fishekad, FisherQueen, FlyingToaster, Fonzy, Fork me, Fredrik, FreplySpang, Full On,
Fuzzform, Fyandcena, GDonato, GHe, GabrielF, Gadfium, Garudabd, Gawaxay, Gemmi3, Gentgeen, GeorgeTopouria, Georgedriver, Gffootball58, Ghirlandajo, Giftlite, Gilliam, Giraffedata,
Glenn L, Gobonobo, Gona.eu, Gonzonoir, Gopal81, Gprince007, Grahamec, Graniggo, Grick, Grim23, Gromlakh, Gurch, Gurchzilla, Gwernol, HGB, HLewis, Haeleth, Hairy Dude, Hak-kâ-ngìn,
HalfShadow, Hamilton hogs, Hamtechperson, Hdt83, Headbomb, Helixblue, Heron, HiDrNick, Hiddenfromview, Honeycake, Hughbert512369, Hut 8.5, Hv, Hwn tls, Hyuuganeji0123, I2yu, Ian
Fraser at Temple Newsam House, IanManka, Icairns, Ilovestars89, Imawsome 09, Imnotminkus, Infrogmation, Inkypaws, Insanity Incarnate, Into The Fray, Iosef, Islander, Itub, Iwilcox, Ixfd64,
J.delanoy, J0lt C0la, JDT1991, JForget, JRSP, Jachapo, Jack the Stripper, Jackfork, Jaeger Lotno, Jared Preston, Jauerback, Jaxl, Jaybo007, Jazjaz92, Jdrewitt, Jean-claude perez, Jeff G., Jeffq,
JenR32, Jengod, Jhd, Jiang, Jimmy Slade, JinJian, Jinglesmells999, Jklin, Jmocenigo, Jni, Jobroluver98, JodyB, Joeclark, John254, JohnWittle, Johnlogic, Johnnieblue, Jojit fb, Joka1991,
Jonmwang, Jose77, Joshlepaknpsa, Jossi, Jpatokal, Juanpdp, Junglecat, Jusjih, Just James, Just another user 2, Juve82, Jwissick, Kaeso Dio, Kaiba, Kaischwartz, Kangxi emperor6868, Kanonkas,
Kateshortforbob, Kathryn NicDhàna, Kbdank71, Keegan, Keenan Pepper, Kelvin35, Kerotan, Kesac, Ketsuekigata, Khalid Mahmood, Kingpin13, Kinston eagle, Kiran the great, Kitrkatr,
Kiwi137, Klenje, Knowhow, KnowledgeOfSelf, Konczewski, Kosebamse, KotVa, Kragenz, Kungfuadam, Kwamikagami, Kwekubo, Kwertii, La Pianista, Lani123, LeaveSleaves, Lee Daniel
Crocker, LegitimateAndEvenCompelling, Lightmouse, Lincmad, Littlealien182, LiveAgain, LizardJr8, Logical2u, Lollerskates, Lowellian, LtPowers, Lucent, Luckas Blade, Lucky 6.9,
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Matticus78, Mattvirajrenaudbrandon, Maurakt, Mav, Maximus Rex, McSly, Mchavez, Mdebets, Melchoir, Memorymike, Mentifisto, Metacomet, Methyl, Mets501, Michael Hardy, Michael phan,
Michael93555, Michaelbusch, Michfg, Mike Rosoft, Mikemoral, Milesnfowler, Miranda, Misza13, Mkouklis, Mo0, Monkeybutt5423, Moop stick, Mpatel, MrFish, Munkimunki, Musicloudball,
Mxn, Myanw, Mycroft.Holmes, NarSakSasLee, Natasha.fielding, Ndufour, Nebular110, NeilN, Nemti, NeoJustin, NewEnglandYankee, Nezzington, NicholasSThompson, Nick, Nishkid64,
Nivix, Nk, No Guru, Noctibus, Nofutureuk, Noisy, NolanRichard, Nopetro, Notapotato, Nposs, Nsim, Nsimya, NullAshton, Nuttycoconut, Nv8200p, Nyenyec, Oblivious, Ohnoitsjamie, Okome,
Olin, Olivier, Omgosh2, Onevalefan, Onorem, Opabinia regalis, OrangeDog, Orzetto, Oxymoron83, PDH, Pappapasd, Pathoschild, Patrick, Paulbkirk, Pearrari, Pearson3372, Peter Ellis,
Petergans, Peterwhy, Petri Krohn, Pezzells, Phaedrus86, Phantomsteve, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Philip Trueman, Philippe, Philthecow, Phisite, Physchim62, Pi Guy 31415, PiMaster3, Piano non
troppo, Pickweed, PierreAbbat, Pinethicket, Piolinfax, Pirateer, Pitcroft, Plumbago, Plutonium55, Poccil, PoliteCarbide, Poor Yorick, PostScript, Precious Roy, PrestonH, Psinu, Psycho Kirby,
Ptdecker, Pumeleon, Pwntskater, Quilbert, Qxz, RDBrown, RG2, RJFJR, RJHall, RUL3R, Racantrell, Radagast, RadiantRay, Ragesoss, Ran, Rarb, Rasmus vendelboe, Rawling, Realm up,
Redaktor, Reddi, Reedy, Rescorbic, Rettetast, RexNL, Rfc1394, Rich Farmbrough, Richard777, RichardF, Rifleman 82, Rihanij, Rintrah, Rjstott, Robert Skyhawk, RobertG, Roentgenium111,
Romanm, Ronz, Roscelese, Rowlaj01, RoyBoy, Rsrikanth05, Rudjek, Ryan Postlethwaite, RyanCross, Ryanminier, Ryoutou, Ryuken14, SJP, SWAdair, Sadi Carnot, Salsa Shark, Sam Hocevar,
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Obliterator, Onevalefan, Oxymoron83, Partnerintime12, Paul-L, Philip Trueman, Philthecow, Phuzion, Pinethicket, Ponder, Possum, ProhibitOnions, PrometheusX303, PublicPossum, Pyrochem,
Qtothec, Qxz, RIPCLB, Radon210, Rajragavan, Rambam rashi, Ravichandar84, Razorflame, Reach Out to the Truth, Remember, Rettetast, RevRagnarok, Rex the first, Rfc1394, Rich
Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rob Hooft, Robchurch, Romanm, Ronhjones, Rory096, Rosarote elfe, Sam Li, Scerri, ShaunMacPherson, Shelter7, Sirtrebuchet, Skatebiker, Smashking77, Snowolfd4,
SpaceFlight89, Spellmaster, Spinningspark, Spoon!, Squids and Chips, Stardust8212, StaticVision, Stephenb, Stone, Stowy2, Super-Magician, Tarquin, The Thing That Should Not Be,
Thedjatclubrock, TheresJamInTheHills, Titus III, Tnayin, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Tomos, Tomwalden, Tr-the-maniac, Trappleton, Tsange, Tsemii, Ummit, Velella, ViolentRager, Vsmith,
Watcharakorn, Wavelength, WaysToEscape, Whosasking, Wikipedia brown, Winchelsea, Xdamr, Xentrion, YOSF0113, Yakudza, Zarius, Վազգեն, 567 anonymous edits

Group II Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=375187611 Contributors: 1297, 64.26.98.xxx, Aadal, Ahoerstemeier, Alansohn, Ale jrb, Andre Engels, AndyVolykhov,
Antony1103, Apollo, Babychanel, Badocter, Bennybp, Bggoldie, Bkell, BlueEarth, Bomac, Brion VIBBER, Chris Dybala, Chrislk02, Chrumps, Chukonu xbow, Chuunen Baka, Cimex,
Conversion script, DO11.10, Darekun, Darnir redhat, Darth Panda, Dittaeva, Eddideigel, Edgar181, Element16, Ellywa, Eric119, Espi, Eugene van der Pijll, Falkflyer, Fastily, Feline1, Femto,
Fieldday-sunday, Firas@user, Firsfron, FocalPoint, Fonzy, GDonato, Gamma, Gentgeen, Glendoremus, GoingBatty, Graham87, Hadal, Hellbus, Heron, Hugo-cs, Hydrogen Iodide, Icairns,
IlGreven, Izalithium, J.delanoy, JForget, Jojhutton, Jóna Þórunn, Kesac, Khukri, Kingturtle, Laurinavicius, Longhair, Lop242438, MER-C, Mark grindell, Materialscientist, Mav, Mentifisto,
Michael Hardy, MickiWiki, Mikeo, Miquonranger03, Monterey Bay, Mr Stephen, Nergaal, Noctibus, Nonagonal Spider, Omicron777, Paul-L, Raymondwinn, Regibox, Remember,
Res2216firestar, Rex the first, Rfc1394, Rjd0060, Roadrunner, Romanm, Rrv1988, Scerri, Shellreef, Shinglor, Skatebiker, Smack, Soliloquial, Squids and Chips, Stone, Suisui, Synergism,
Tarquin, The Thing That Should Not Be, Tide rolls, Tim1357, Timmeh, Titus III, Tom harrison, Tom.k, Ummit, Versus22, Vsmith, Weasel the spriggan, Wiki alf, Wyklety, Xerxes314, आशीष
भटनागर, 265 anonymous edits
Article Sources and Contributors 156

Group III Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=374797882 Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, Alchemist-hp, Angela, Arakin, Archimerged, Auric, Bomac, Brane.Blokar, EdH,
Eddideigel, Edgar181, Eric119, Feline1, Femto, Firq, Fishing Chimp, Flying Jazz, Freddy S., Fvincent, Gentgeen, Heron, Hugo-cs, Icairns, Intelligentsium, Istilidion, J.delanoy, Jdrewitt,
Jimfbleak, Joanjoc, King of Hearts, Malcolm Farmer, Materialscientist, Michael Hardy, Mschel, RTC, Raistuumum, Rfc1394, Rifleman 82, Scerri, The Ronin, The way, the truth, and the light,
Vsmith, Wwoods, Yekrats, Zfr, 27 anonymous edits

Group IV Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=380399185 Contributors: 1297, ABF, Ahoerstemeier, Alchemist-hp, Arakin, Bomac, Brane.Blokar, Chemicalinterest, Cryptic C62,
Denelson83, Doprendek, Eric119, Feline1, Firq, Gaius Cornelius, Gary King, Gentgeen, Hugo-cs, Icairns, Jdrewitt, Jezhotwells, Jimp, Joanjoc, Koavf, LilHelpa, LukeSurl, Materialscientist,
Nergaal, Queenmomcat, Ranveig, Rfc1394, Rjwilmsi, Rpyle731, Sander123, Scerri, Steve Pucci, Stone, TerrenceandPhillip, Titus III, Vsmith, Wikispork, Wwoods, Yekrats, 16 anonymous edits

Group V Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=380401280 Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, Alchemist-hp, Amicon, Dungodung, Feline1, Firq, Gaius Cornelius, Gee Eight, Gentgeen,
Hugo-cs, Icairns, Nergaal, PhilipFrampton, Ranveig, Rfc1394, SQGibbon, Scerri, Steve Pucci, Stone, Titus III, Vainamainien, VasilievVV, Vsmith, Wwoods, 18 anonymous edits

Group VI Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=380406494 Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, Alchemist-hp, Banus, BillFlis, Brane.Blokar, Brockert, DavidLevinson, Eric119,
Feline1, Gentgeen, Gorm, Hashar, Heron, Hugo-cs, Icairns, Lexi Marie, Nergaal, Ranveig, Rfc1394, SJP, Sabbut, Scerri, Squid661, Steve Pucci, Stone, Sugarfish, Sverigekillen, Titus III, Vsmith,
Wapcaplet, Wwoods, Yekrats, Саша Стефановић, 17 anonymous edits

Group VII Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=380408555 Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, Brockert, DandyDan2007, Drbreznjev, Gentgeen, Hugo-cs, Icairns, Ilyushka88,
Lagatapirata, LizardWizard, Margoz, Michael Slone, Minesweeper, Nergaal, PhilipFrampton, Ranveig, Rfc1394, Scerri, Steve Pucci, Stone, Titus III, Vsmith, Wwoods, Xezbeth, 18 anonymous
edits

Group VIII Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=380411303 Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, Alchemist-hp, BartekChom, Booksworm, Brockert, D6, Donarreiskoffer, Firq,
Gentgeen, Heron, Hugo-cs, Icairns, Narayansg, Nergaal, PigFlu Oink, Ranveig, Rfc1394, Scerri, Soman, Sss333, Steve Pucci, Stone, Titus III, Unyoyega, Vsmith, Wayland, Wwoods, Yekrats, 13
anonymous edits

Group IX Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=380413634 Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, Brockert, Chem-awb, Dcljr, Feline1, Firq, Gentgeen, Heron, Hugo-cs, Icairns, Mild Bill
Hiccup, Nengli02, Nergaal, Pablo.cl, RexNL, Rfc1394, Robert Weemeyer, Scerri, Scorpion451, Steve Pucci, Stone, Tabor, Titus III, Vsmith, Wayland, Wwoods, Yekrats, 6 anonymous edits

Group X Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=380415501 Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, Brockert, Btards, Chelitaannal, Chem-awb, Chemicalinterest, Dcljr, Donarreiskoffer,
Femto, Firq, Gentgeen, Grm wnr, Heron, Hugo-cs, Icairns, Joanjoc, Moe Epsilon, NatureA16, Nergaal, Nk, Rfc1394, Scerri, Scorpion451, Sir Intellegence, Sss333, Steve Pucci, Stone, Titus III,
Unyoyega, Vsmith, Wayland, Wwoods, Yekrats, Yono, 13 anonymous edits

Group XI Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=380418286 Contributors: 1297, 193.237.249.xxx, 64.26.98.xxx, 7, Ahoerstemeier, Alchemist-hp, Alexwcovington, Bobblewik,
Bobo192, Brane.Blokar, Brockert, Caesura, Chmod007, Chochopk, Chris 73, Christian75, Conversion script, Cowbert, Cthomas sysplan, Dabomb87, Den fjättrade ankan, Djavko, Edward,
Elfguy, Enric Naval, Eric119, Everyking, Eweisser, Femto, Fg2, Graham87, Heron, Hick ninja, Hugo-cs, Hut 8.5, Icairns, Ike9898, IslandGyrl, Ixnayonthetimmay, Karn, Kurykh, Malbi, Mild
Bill Hiccup, Mom2jandk, Nergaal, Neutrality, Nirvana2013, Octothorn, Oxydo, PS4FA, Pakaran, Pmanderson, Pne, Polyparadigm, PrestonH, Ranveig, Rfc1394, Rgamble, Robert Foley, Robin
Patterson, SJP, Scerri, Searchme, Steve Pucci, Stone, The Anome, Titus III, Vsmith, Washerboy, Watashiwabakayo, Yekrats, Zandperl, Zoicon5, 83 anonymous edits

Group XII Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=380426441 Contributors: 1297, Ahoerstemeier, Benjah-bmm27, Brockert, D6, Dabomb87, Dcljr, Femto, Gentgeen, Heron,
Hugo-cs, Icairns, Jcwf, Jdrewitt, Joanjoc, Lfh, LiamE, Michael Hardy, Nergaal, Petergans, Philopp, Ranveig, Rfc1394, Roentgenium111, Ryanluck, Scerri, Steve Pucci, T-borg, Titus III, V8rik,
Vsmith, Watashiwabakayo, Wayland, Wwoods, YUL89YYZ, Yekrats, 11 anonymous edits

Group XIII Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=380684836 Contributors: 1297, Abshahas, Ahoerstemeier, Alex43223, Ary29, BlueEarth, Bob Saint Clar, Boothy443, Bowcek
don, Bryan Derksen, CactusWriter, Chem-awb, Chitusinha, Chris Dybala, Closedmouth, DMacks, Donarreiskoffer, Dpvwia, Eddideigel, Emperorbma, Eras-mus, Eric119, Ericxpenner, Femto,
Firq, Fonzy, Freakofnurture, Gamaliel, Gene Nygaard, Gurkha711, Hadal, Hall Monitor, Hugo-cs, Icairns, Itub, Jimfbleak, Mjp797, Mxn, Nergaal, Nirmos, Ochib, Ojs, Piplicus, Rfc1394, Scerri,
SchfiftyThree, Shell Kinney, Snoyes, Stone, Suriel1981, T. Anthony, Tarquin, Template namespace initialisation script, TheRanger, Titus III, Tmark111, Vsmith, Wikidenizen, Yekrats, 85
anonymous edits

Group XIV Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=380875889 Contributors: 1297, Ahoerstemeier, Al.locke, Alansohn, AliveFreeHappy, Bbernet13, Bkell, BlueEarth, Boothy443,
Brane.Blokar, Burntsauce, Chris Dybala, Claidheamohmor, CryptoDerk, Dandelions, Darnir redhat, Dpvwia, Eddideigel, Edgar181, Eras-mus, Eric119, Femto, Fonzy, French user, Gene
Nygaard, Gerard1894, Gurkha711, Hairy Dude, HighKing, Hugo-cs, Icairns, Inter, Isnow, Jag123, KevinXcore, LukeSurl, Margoz, Michael Hardy, MidnightBlueMan, Nergaal, NuclearWarfare,
Obliterator, Ojigiri, Philip Trueman, Puchiko, Res2216firestar, Reyk, Rfc1394, Rjwilmsi, Roentgenium111, Sapna3654, Sbyrnes321, Scerri, Scorpion451, Seano12345, Seglea, Silverxxx,
Stephenb, Stone, Titus III, Tonyrex, Versus22, Vsmith, West Brom 4ever, Woohookitty, Xerxes314, Yekrats, 95 anonymous edits

Group XV Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=380875622 Contributors: 1297, Afisch80, Ahoerstemeier, Ajraddatz, Altermattc, Andrea105, AngelOfSadness, Antonio Lopez,
Blindman shady, Bogey97, Brane.Blokar, Butko, Chris Dybala, ChrisHodgesUK, Dpvwia, Eddideigel, Edgar181, El C, Eras-mus, Feline1, Femto, GCarty, Giftlite, Gogo Dodo, Gracenotes,
H-Vergilius, Heron, Hugo-cs, Icairns, Isnow, Iwoelbern, J.delanoy, Jaknouse, Jimfbleak, Joseph Solis in Australia, Keenan Pepper, Kku, Laurinavicius, Melchoir, MichaelOReilly, Mr.Z-man, N
GaG3, Nergaal, Neverquick, NewEnglandYankee, Physchim62, Ploober33, Ranveig, Rfc1394, Rmhermen, Rod57, Sbyrnes321, Scerri, Scorpion451, Stone, ThingoeCRB, Tim Ross, Titus III,
Trivial, Uusitunnus, VSimonian, Vsmith, Weasel the spriggan, Xerxes314, 75 anonymous edits

Group XVI Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=375188816 Contributors: 1266asdsdjapg, Ahoerstemeier, Barticus88, Brianski, Bryan Derksen, Cacycle, Conversion script,
CryptoDerk, Ctachme, D-rew, DRE, DRLB, Diagonalfish, Dominus, Donarreiskoffer, Dude20202020202020, ESnyder2, Eddideigel, Edgar181, Eequor, Eleassar, Epbr123, Eras-mus, Eric119,
EscapingLife, Evercat, Femto, Fuzzyeric, Gene Nygaard, Gentgeen, Geoking66, Georgia guy, Giftlite, Gorm, Gothmog.es, Gritchka, H Padleckas, HarmonicSphere, Hike395, Hugo-cs, Icairns,
Imphras Heltharn, Ithunn, Jomegat, Jonel, Keenan Pepper, Kjkolb, Korath, Kwamikagami, Magnus Manske, Materialscientist, Mav, Maymay, Melaen, Nergaal, Orlica, Pencil Pusher, Rfc1394,
ScAvenger, Scerri, SchfiftyThree, Siddhant, Sl, Slechte124, Smokefoot, Stephen MUFC, Stone, T.vanschaik, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Tarquin, The Anome, The Thing That Should Not Be,
TheStarman, Titus III, V8rik, Vsmith, Wickey-nl, Wknight94, Xerxes314, Yekrats, 80 anonymous edits

Group XVII Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=380483507 Contributors: 1297, 4, 7, 8thstar, APC, Aadgray, Abeg92, Addshore, AdjustShift, Ahoerstemeier, Al Silonov,
Alansohn, Andre Engels, Anna Lincoln, Anonymous anonymous, Aremith, Ariel., Atlant, Badocter, Balloonguy, BaseballDetective, Bcai388, Benjah-bmm27, Bgold4, Blackcats, Blackjack48,
Blue520, Bojangleskelly, Bombhead, Bongwarrior, Bovineone, Brett leigh dicks, Buttered Bread, C.R.Selvakumar, Caesura, Caltrop, Calum-11, Camoflauge, Camw, Canderson7, Capricorn42,
CaptainVindaloo, Causesobad, Ceyockey, Chris Dybala, ChrisHamburg, Chrislk02, Christian75, Clarince63, Conversion script, Cosmo0, D.M.N., DMacks, DaMoose, Dajhorn, Daniel5127,
Danielj123, Darklord517, David.Monniaux, Deor, Dglosser, Dhall27, Dicklyon, Dirkbb, Dlohcierekim, Dogposter, Dominic Hardstaff, Doseiai2, Driedshroom, Drumguy8800, Dungodung,
Dysprosia, Eddideigel, Edgar181, El C, Epbr123, Eric119, Erutuon, Excirial, Feline1, Femto, Flameeyes, FocalPoint, Frankenpuppy, Fusionmix, Gene Nygaard, Gentgeen, Geoking66, Giftlite,
Gilliam, Glenn, GoTeamVenture, Gruzd, Gtman, Guybrush, Happysailor, Harrylewis101, Hdt83, HeartofaDog, Hellbus, HenryLi, HereToHelp, Heron, HokieJC, Horselover Frost, I own in the
bed, Icairns, IiizTheWiikiNerd, Imphras Heltharn, Inner Earth, Ispy1981, It Is Me Here, Itub, J.delanoy, JCraw, JForget, JMS Old Al, JRM, Jab843, James.Spudeman, JamesBWatson, Jebba,
Jeffq, Jennavecia, Jeronimo, Jfurr1981, Johnleemk, Jomasecu, Jorge Stolfi, Josh Grosse, Jujutacular, Julesd, Karenjc, Kcandnikko7, Killua98 killer, Knowhow, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kotiwalo,
Kukini, LMB, La goutte de pluie, Latka, Lightdarkness, Limideen, Lockesdonkey, Lop242438, Lumos3, MER-C, Madhero88, Malcolm Farmer, Mani1, Marx01, Materialscientist, Mattylak,
Mav, Meisterkoch, Memodude, Mendaliv, Messageman3, Mgiganteus1, Midnightblue94tg, Mikespedia, MindstormsKid, Muzekal Mike, Mxn, NathanHurst, NatureA16, Naught101,
NawlinWiki, Nergaal, Nick C, Nick Y., Ninly, Nlu, No Guru, Noctibus, Nscheffey, Nubiatech, OldakQuill, Oxymoron83, P1415926535, PanagosTheOther, Paul-L, Pb30, Peter.C, Physchim62,
Piano non troppo, Pinethicket, Piza pokr, Pko, Plumbago, Postlewaight, Praefectorian, RECTUM INSPECTUM, RJHall, RL0919, Raerae11, Raerae123, RandomStringOfCharacters, RayAYang,
RedAndr, Regardless143, Remember, Rfc1394, Roentgenium111, Rror, Russoc4, Scerri, SemperBlotto, Shootbamboo, Skraz, Sky Attacker, Sole Soul, Someguy1221, Squids and Chips,
Stevey7788, Stone, Sturm55, Suisui, Sven87, T-borg, Tarquin, Taxman, Tcncv, Teh Ploxanater, Terra Xin, The High Fin Sperm Whale, The Thing That Should Not Be, Tide rolls, Tim Goodwyn,
Timwi, Titoxd, Titus III, Tommo65, Tommy2010, Topbanana, Tssa 893, Venu62, Versus22, Vonlich, Vortexrealm, Vsmith, Wavelength, Wayward, Wceom, Welsh, Wickey-nl, Wifione, Wild
Wizard, William Avery, Willking1979, Woohookitty, Zbvhs, Þjóðólfr, Александър, 604 anonymous edits

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Scientific29, The Anome, Tphi, 6 anonymous edits

Period Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=377092824 Contributors: 1297, Adilch, Ahoerstemeier, Alansohn, Bethastrong, Brane.Blokar, Ctachme, Dcljr, Feline1, Fremsley,
Gentgeen, Golfandme, HexaChord, IRP, Icairns, Jakwra, Jared999, Jimbuckar00, Jusjih, Kandar, Kayau, Keilana, Kungfuadam, Kwamikagami, Laurinavicius, Legolost, Luuva, M412k, Mav,
Ms2ger, N2e, Noobatron30, Northumbrian, Plainandsimple, Pstuart, Qxz, R'n'B, Rdx-77, Rifleman 82, Rigadoun, RockMFR, Ronhjones, Suisui, Tckma, The Anome, VMS Mosaic, Wikijens,
Xnybre, Yankeesrule3, Yekrats, Александър, आशीष भटनागर, 101 anonymous edits
Article Sources and Contributors 157

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Artist Swyer, Feline1, Ferengi, Gary King, Hashar, IW.HG, Itub, K2dawest, Koavf, Kwamikagami, Magnus Manske, Marc Tobias Wenzel, Materialscientist, Mike Rosoft, Mr Stephen, Ms2ger,
Nergaal, Plasticup, RedHillian, Reywas92, Rfc1394, SiriusAlphaCMa, Suisui, Tony Sidaway, 19 anonymous edits

Extensions Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=379435876 Contributors: 09curranm, 4, AED, Ahoerstemeier, Alakasam, Alinor, AndrooUK, Bduke, Bkell, BlueEarth,
Brane.Blokar, Bryan Derksen, Choihei, Cowplopmorris, DMacks, DanielDeibler, Dcljr, Dixongrove, Donarreiskoffer, Droog Andrey, Eddideigel, Efficiency1101e, Ehrenkater, Feline1, Femto,
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Kwamikagami, LittleDan, Luna Santin, MTM, Mandarax, Mav, Mikespedia, Ospalh, Oxymoron83, Ozabluda, Patriot8790, Pauli133, Petergans, Phe, Pne, Psychonaut, R'n'B, Rfc1394, Richard
Arthur Norton (1958- ), Rihanij, Robo37, RockMFR, Roentgenium111, Sbyrnes321, Smack, Swpb, Tarquin, Tetracube, Tpbradbury, Unbitwise, UnitedStatesian, Vartan84, Vuerqex,
Yankeesrule3, Yinweichen, 155 anonymous edits

Block Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=379071790 Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, Brane.Blokar, Bth, Butros, Cantor, CardinalDan, Cosmium, Ctachme, DMacks,
EamonnPKeane, Emperorbma, Gentgeen, Höyhens, IvanLanin, J'88, Looxix, Mav, N2e, Numbo3, Pjstewart, Rich Farmbrough, SimonMayer, Smack, Sombrero, Suisui, Tarquin, The Anome,
Urod, WFPM, Yankeesrule3, आशीष भटनागर, 19 anonymous edits

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Pro.in.vbdnf, Rfc1394, Rjelves, Salsa Shark, Shellreef, Smack, SuperDT, Tarquin, Zeimusu, 36 anonymous edits

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Choihei, Dak0728, Dcljr, Donarreiskoffer, Eddideigel, Femto, Flying Jazz, Fonzy, Gentgeen, Hugo-cs, Icairns, JonLS, Knuckles, Mav, Modeha, PamD, Phe, Qvvx, Rfc1394, Rich Farmbrough,
Shellreef, Smack, Stefano85, Stone, 26 anonymous edits

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Divide, Dodo bird, Donarreiskoffer, Eddideigel, Feline1, Femto, Flying Jazz, Fonzy, Gail, Gentgeen, GeoffMacartney, Gogo Dodo, Icairns, Jdrewitt, Jnothman, Jrok311, Knuckles, Lfh, Mav,
Menchi, Merovingian, Modeha, Nergaal, Nick, OlEnglish, Phe, Rfc1394, Rogerb67, Shellreef, Simon the Likable, Smack, Sombrero, SusanLarson, Tarif Ezaz, Tlevine, Torika, Welsh,
Wikien2009, Zeugma21, 60 anonymous edits

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Donarreiskoffer, Dureo, Epbr123, Femto, Fonzy, Gentgeen, Givesnake79, Hugo-cs, Icairns, IceUnshattered, Imphras Heltharn, Jmendii, Knuckles, LedgendGamer, Malbi, Mav, Modeha, Nergaal,
Paul A, Petergans, Phe, Pjstewart, Rfc1394, Shellreef, Smack, 40 anonymous edits

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Metalloid Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=380764803 Contributors: Achim1999, Ahoerstemeier, Alansohn, Andre Engels, Army1987, Attilios, Ayrton Prost, Benbest, Binks,
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Noble gas Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=382361807 Contributors: 1297, 24.253.156.xxx, A Softer Answer, Acey365, Adamn, Adashiel, Adilch, AdultSwim, Agesworth,
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Noble metal Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=381749957 Contributors: Abdull, Achim1999, Amberroom, Art LaPella, Asfarer, Benbest, Bgpaulus, Bluemoose, Borgx,
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Whosyourjudas, Wizard191, 44 anonymous edits

Nonmetal Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=379530796 Contributors: 14albeev, 56, Acather96, Ahoerstemeier, Aleenf1, Andre Engels, Anoop.m, Barticus88, Benjah-bmm27,
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WpZurp, Yamamoto Ichiro, Zappon, Zero over zero, 106 anonymous edits

Post-transition metal Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=381464583 Contributors: Brane.Blokar, Cybercobra, DocWatson42, Filmore123, Flyguy649, Flying Jazz, Fritzpoll,
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Transactinide element Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=381999427 Contributors: Bob Saint Clar, DMacks, Eddideigel, Flying Jazz, FourteenDays, Gene Nygaard, Ghjthgh,
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Transuranium element Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=376129299 Contributors: -- April, 64.26.98.xxx, Abcdefgy2, Acer, AgnosticPreachersKid, Alex43223, Andre
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TwoOneTwo, Van helsing, Vsmith, Warut, Whiner01, Xavexgoem, Ytrepus, Zarboki, Zundark, 142 anonymous edits

Transition metal Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=380998386 Contributors: ABF, Ahoerstemeier, Ahruman, Aksi great, Alansohn, Andonic, Andrewa, Arkuat,
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Baka, Cmdrjameson, Coldphoenix182, Cometstyles, Commander, Conversion script, Courcelles, Cremepuff222, DMacks, Da monster under your bed, Darrien, Dawn Bard, Dax max, Denali134,
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Table of nuclides Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=382135078 Contributors: Abc518, Achim1999, Alansohn, Bob Bryan, Cflm001, Colinsweet, D-rew, David spector,
DenverRedhead, Donko XI, Efficiency1101e, Ewen, Giftlite, Greg L, Heron, Itub, JWB, Jmocenigo, KaiMartin, Kristhof, Kwamikagami, LastRanger, Mikhajist, Minivip, Mnmngb, My Flatley,
Ntouran, NukeMan, Quilbert, Rich Farmbrough, Rod57, Rorro, Sbharris, Shinkolobwe, Timwi, Tjlafave, TraceyR, UpstateNYer, User A1, WFPM, ZooFari, 26 anonymous edits

Island of stability Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=381527892 Contributors: Alexwcovington, AxelBoldt, Bearian, Benbest, Bender235, Bhangranuch, Biblbroks, Buster79,
Cdrk, ChaosR, Chmod007, Chrumps, Coemgenus, Control.valve, Dale101usa, Deewiant, Dude1818, Długosz, Ed Cormany, Edgar181, Eequor, Efficiency1101e, Einstein dark energys, Empty
Buffer, Emurphy42, Eric119, Eyu100, FrankH, Furrykef, Giftlite, Glenn L, GregorB, Hateless, Icairns, Inverse Tiger, JDspeeder1, JLM, JMTCP, JWB, Jaganath, Jayapura, John, Jpatokal,
Keenan Pepper, Kevin Baas, Kieff, Kurykh, Kwamikagami, Lamro, Lexicon, Limulus, LorenzoB, MarSch, Maralia, Mets501, Michael Snow, Miss Madeline, Morgoroth4, Mr. Billion,
Musiqueue, N. Harmonik, Nergaal, Netdragon, Niczar, Northfox, Nwbeeson, Olin, OttoMäkelä, Pauli133, Paulomatsui, Piperh, Planet-man828, Polonium, Pwjb, Quilbert,
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digby 121, Slawojarek, Smack, Smithbrenon, Stirling Newberry, Stone, Superheavy120, Svgalbertian, TerraFrost, Tetracube, The way, the truth, and the light, Thue, Tillman, Timwi,
Vanderdecken, Vicki Rosenzweig, Warut, Whitepaw, Who, Writtenright, Wtaa, Wwoods, Xanthine, Xezbeth, Yosha, Ytrottier, ~K, 99 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 159

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Periodic Table

Uploaded by

Periodic Table

Uploaded by

Periodic table

Other divisions 100

See also 146

** Actinoids 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Element categories in the periodic table

Metals Metalloids Nonmetals Unknown

Primordial From Synthetic (Undiscovered)

Other alternative periodic tables exist.

Periodicity of chemical properties

Russian chemistry professor Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev and

that Mendeleev had inadvertently listed the elements in order of

Elemental ideas from

put forth by the Sicilian philosopher

Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier

Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de Chancourtois

1. The elements, if arranged according Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev

Refinements to the periodic table

Main discovery periods

The periodic table as a cultural icon

Alternative periodic tables

f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7 f8 f9 f10 f11 f12 f13 f14 d1 d2 d3 d4 d5 d6 d7 d8 d9 d10 p1 p2 p3 p4 p5 p6 s1 s2

Timmothy Stowe's physicist's periodic

The periodic table of the chemical elements

Aristotle, c. 350 BCE, also used the term

Specific chemical elements

be confused with a roman numeral.

General chemical symbols

The periodic table

Abundances of the chemical elements in the Solar system.

Element Parts per

Recently discovered elements

History of the term

Soddy's own studies were of radioactive (unstable) atoms. The first

Variation in properties between isotopes

Chemical and molecular properties

In similar manner, two molecules that differ

Nuclear properties and stability

nucleus in two ways. Their copresence

Numbers of isotopes per element

Even and odd nucleon numbers

Stable 145 101 246

Primordial 165 107 272

Even mass number

Even proton-even neutron

Odd proton-odd neutron

Odd mass number

Odd proton-even neutron

Even proton-odd neutron

Odd neutron number

Atomic mass of isotopes

Use of chemical and biological properties

Use of nuclear properties

Because of the difference from

Mulliken in 1932.[7] Atomic orbitals

orbital, p orbital, d orbital and f

From about 1920, even before the

Formal quantum mechanical definition

Connection to uncertainty relation

Limitations on the quantum numbers

3 0 -1, 0, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2

4 0 -1, 0, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3

5 0 -1, 0, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 -4, -3, -2 -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4

... ... ... ... ... ... ...

The shapes of orbitals

s (l=0) p (l=1) d (l=2) f (l=3)

s pz px py dxz dyz dxy d 2 2

n=5 ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Electron placement and the periodic table

• Group 15 (VB,VA): the pnictogens or nitrogen family

Z Element No. of electrons/shell

55 Caesium 2, 8, 18, 18, 8, 1

87 Francium 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8, 1

Lithium 6.941 453 1615 0.534 0.98

Sodium 22.990 370 1156 0.968 0.93

Potassium 39.098 336 1032 0.89 0.82

Rubidium 85.468 312 961 1.532 0.82