Galaxy Global Group of Institutions, Ambala
Galaxy Global Group of Institutions, Ambala
Contents:
Defining Group
Types of Group
Objective of the group
Why do people work in groups
Group Member Resources
Building better work groups
Why are groups good at problem solving?
Review Questions
PERSONALITY
“ the sum total of the ways in which an individual reacts to interact and interacts with others.”
It is concerned with external appperanec and behavior, self, measurable traits and situational
interaction.
NATURE / CHARACTERSTICS
It is distinguished by self-consistency
It is a process of becoming.
From the above it becomes clear that personality is a very diverse psychological concept.
SELF-REPORT SURVEYS
OBSERVER RATING
DETERMINENTS of PERSONALITY
HEREDITY:
According to S.P. Robbins, the ultimate explanation of individual personality is the molecular structure
of the genes located in chromosomes, so heredity plays an important role in one’s personality.
ENVIRONMENT
Culture:
Culture establishes norms, attitudes, values that are passed along from generation to generation.
Persons belonging to different cultural groups generally have different attitudes towards indepenedence
, aggression , competition, cooperation , artistic talent etc.
Although culture plays a significant role in personality development , a linear relationshoop cannot be
established between culture and personality due to :
individuals within same culture can differ in their behavior and personality formats.
Managers must recognize and understand these difference while dealing with the people in the
organization.
FAMILY FACTORS
Family influences the behavior of a person especially in the early stages. Every child tries to identify
himself with some person whom he feels ideal in the family. This process can be examined from three
different perspectives :
i) Identification can be viewed as the similarity of behavior including feelings and attitudes
between child and model.
ii) Identification can be looked upon as the child’s motives or desires to be like the model.
iii) Lastly, identification can be viewed as the process through which the child actually takes on the
attributes of the model.
From all three perspectives , the identification process is fundamental to the understanding of
personality development.
SOCIAL FACTORS
Socialisation is a process by which an infant acquires from the enormously wide range of
behavior potentialities that are open to him at the time of birth. It starts with the contact of
infant with the mother and extends to schoolmates, friends , colleagues , groups to which an
individual belongs.
All these social groups influence the behavior of individual.
Much of the behavior of the individual arises out of the respect for norms and laws of society
or organizations.
Thus , we can say that a social life has a considerable impact on the individual’s behavior.
SITUATIONAL
A situation exerts an important press on the individual .In certain circumstances , it is not so much the
kind of a person a man is , as the kind of situation in which he is placed that determines his actions.
For example : a weak and coward person may spontaneously performs heroic action in saving
someone’s life without regard to his own safety.
From the above, it is clear that personality is a complex concept that reflects many influences both
from within and outside the individuals.
DEVELOPMENT of PERSONALITY
Or
THEORIES of PERSONALITY
•This theory explained that human behavior is motivated by an inner force called the human
Early in his career, he used hypnosis to treat people with physical and emotional problem. From
his work with these patients, he began to conceptualize a theory of human behavior.
The ID
The EGO
The SUPEREGO
i) The ID :
biological and instinctual needs. These needs include sexual pleasure and other
to control the ID, but even then it remains a driving force throughout life and an
The Ego is associated with realities of life. Ego is the conscious and logical part of
behavior because it is concerned with the realities of external environment. The Ego
With its logic and intellect, ego controls the Id so that the pleasures unconsciously
demanded by human beings are granted at an appropriate time and place and in an
appropriate manner.
The Super Ego is the higher level of force to restrain the id and is described as the
conscious of a person. The Super Ego represents the norms of the individual, his
family and the society and is an ethical constraint on the behavior. The conscious of a
person continuously telling him what is wrong and what is right. A person may not be
aware of the working of the super ego, because conscious is developed by the cultural
All these three elements are interrelated. In order to create a normal personality,
there must be a proper balance in relationship among these forces. For example, if the
super ego is overdeveloped, a man will become very impractical and irrational. He
will feel guilty over trivial matters. Such a person cannot exists in modern life. On the
other hand, an underdeveloped super ego would let the Id urges loose, which would
make a man highly immoral or with very few morals. Then there will not be much
differences between the man and the animals. Therefore, there must be a proper
LEVEL OF AWARENESS
PRECONSCIOUS / SUBCONSCIOUS
•Contains the partially forgotten memories that can be recalled at will. Preconscious
UNCONSCIOUS – The largest part of the personality that is often compared to the
hidden iceberg under the water that contains memory that are forgotten & cannot be
The psychoanalytic approach to personality structure analysis has made some impact
unconscious in nature can be brought out with the help of psychoanalytical analysis.
analytical analysis.
The biggest drawback of this theory is that, it is based upon theoretical concept. It
does not give a total picture of behavior which is emerging from the personality. This
theory is not very relevant from the behavioral science point of view.
CARL JUNG’s PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL CONCEPT
The psychoanalytical theory was taken a step further by Carl Jung. While Freud laid
stress on the idea that human life is driven by personal unconscious motivators. Jung
proposed that there is a collective experiences of all the past generations .This theory
may be a far out one, but it is a reality that some personality trait cannot be explained
rationally.
These two (2) basic instincts are not always socially acceptable. When people exhibit behavior
that is not acceptable, they often experience punishment, guilt and anxiety.
•Freud’s theory describes a conflict between a person’s instinctual needs for gratification and
the demands of society for socialization. For Freud, a person’s core tendency is to maximize
–Addresses the relationship among inner experience, behavior, social roles & functioning.
This theory proposes that conflicts among unconscious motivating factors affect behavior
DRAWBACK :
ERIKSON STAGES
Erik Erikson, a German psychoanalyst heavily influenced by Sigmund Freud, explored three
aspects of identity: the ego identity (self), personal identity (the personal idiosyncrasies that
distinguish a person from another, social/cultural identity (the collection of social roles a person
might play).
Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development considers the impact of external factors, parents
and society on personality development from childhood to adulthood. According to Erikson’s
theory, every person must pass through a series of eight interrelated stages over the entire life
cycle.
These eight stages, spanning from birth to death, are split in general age ranges.
During the first or second year of life, the major emphasis is on the mother and father’s nurturing
ability and care for a child, especially in terms of visual contact and touch. The child will
develop optimism, trust, confidence, and security if properly cared for and handled. If a child
does not experience trust, he or she may develop insecurity, worthlessness, and general mistrust
to the world.
The second stage occurs between 18 months and 3 years. At this point, the child has an
opportunity to build self-esteem and autonomy as he or she learns new skills and right from
wrong. The well-cared for child is sure of himself, carrying himself or herself with pride rather
than shame. During this time of the “terrible twos”, defiance, temper tantrums, and
stubbornness can also appear. Children tend to be vulnerable during this stage, sometimes
feeling shame and and low self-esteem during an inability to learn certain skills.
3. Preschooler: 3 to 5 Years
During this period we experience a desire to copy the adults around us and take initiative in
creating play situations. We make up stories with Barbie’s and Ken’s, toy phones and miniature
cars, playing out roles in a trial universe, experimenting with the blueprint for what we believe it
means to be an adult. We also begin to use that wonderful word for exploring the world
—”WHY?”
While Erikson was influenced by Freud, he downplays biological sexuality in favor of the
psychosocial features of conflict between child and parents. Nevertheless, he said that at this
stage we usually become involved in the classic “Oedipal struggle” and resolve this struggle
through “social role identification.” If we’re frustrated over natural desires and goals, we may
easily experience guilt.
During this stage, often called the Latency, we are capable of learning, creating and
accomplishing numerous new skills and knowledge, thus developing a sense of industry. This is
also a very social stage of development and if we experience unresolved feelings of inadequacy
and inferiority among our peers, we can have serious problems in terms of competence and self-
esteem.
As the world expands a bit, our most significant relationship is with the school and
neighborhood. Parents are no longer the complete authorities they once were, although they are
still important.
5. Adolescent: 12 to 18 Years
Up until this fifth stage, development depends on what is done to a person. At this point,
development now depends primarily upon what a person does. An adolescent must struggle to
discover and find his or her own identity, while negotiating and struggling with social
interactions and “fitting in”, and developing a sense of morality and right from wrong.
Some attempt to delay entrance to adulthood and withdraw from responsibilities (moratorium).
Those unsuccessful with this stage tend to experience role confusion and upheaval. Adolescents
begin to develop a strong affiliation and devotion to ideals, causes, and friends.
6. Young adult: 18 to 35
Intimacy and Solidarity vs. Isolation – Love
At the young adult stage, people tend to seek companions hip and love. Some also begin to
“settle down” and start families, although seems to have been pushed back farther in recent
years.
Young adults seek deep intimacy and satisfying relationships, but if unsuccessful, isolation may
occur. Significant relationships at this stage are with marital partners and friends.
7. Middle-aged Adult: 35 to 55 or 65
Career and work are the most important things at this stage, along with family. Middle
adulthood is also the time when people can take on greater responsibilities and control.
For this stage, working to establish stability and Erikson’s idea of generativity – attempting to
produce something that makes a difference to society. Inactivity and meaninglessness are
common fears during this stage.
Major life shifts can occur during this stage. For example, children leave the household, careers
can change, and so on. Some may struggle with finding purpose. Significant relationships are
those within the family, workplace, local church and other communities.
Erikson believed that much of life is preparing for the middle adulthood stage and the last stage
involves much reflection. As older adults, some can look back with a feeling of integrity — that
is, contentment and fulfillment, having led a meaningful life and valuable contribution to
society. Others may have a sense of despair during this stage, reflecting upon their experiences
and failures. They may fear death as they struggle to find a purpose to their lives, wondering
“What was the point of life? Was it worth it?”
Erikson believed that childhood is very important in personality development. He accepted many
of Freud's theories, including the id, ego, and superego, and Freud's theory of infantile sexuality.
But Erikson rejected Freud's attempt to describe personality solely on the basis of sexuality, and,
unlike Freud, felt that personality continued to develop beyond five years of age.
All of the stages in Erikson's epigenetic theory are implicitly present at birth (at least in latent
form), but unfold according to both an innate scheme and one's up-bringing in a family that
expresses the values of a culture. Each stage builds on the preceding stages, and paves the way
for subsequent stages. Each stage is characterized by a psychosocial crisis, which is based on
physiological development, but also on demands put on the individual by parents and/or society.
Ideally, the crisis in each stage should be resolved by the ego in that stage, in order for
development to proceed correctly. The outcome of one stage is not permanent, but can be altered
by later experiences. Everyone has a mixture of the traits attained at each stage, but personality
development is considered successful if the individual has more of the "good" traits than the
"bad" traits.
Ego Psychology
Erikson's theory of ego psychology holds certain tenets that differentiate his theory from Freud's.
Some of these include:
Erikson's theory was more comprehensive than Freud's, and included information about "normal"
personality as well as neurotics. He also broadened the scope of personality to incorporate
society and culture, not just sexuality. Criticisms of his theories, in addition to the factors
discussed in class, have noted that he did no statistical research to generate his theories, and it is
very hard to test his theories in order to validate them.
"a" "b" and "c" identify the oral, anal, and gential zones, respectively; and numbers "1" through
"5" pertain to the passive and active incorporative, the retentive and eliminative, and the
intrusive modes, respectively.
Erikson's illustration of "the interplay of one zone with all the modes" (1950, p. 73ff.) by means
of circles and arrows is among the most confusing moments in his book. Here are the diagrams
(Erikson, 1950, p. 89), at the point male and female development are said to diverge in
locomotor/intrusive/"phallic"/Oedipal Stage 3:
Each cell of the diagram represents a child at some moment of zone-mode interaction.
Note that the dark-bordered, stair-case-like, trend of developmet for the boy (Figure 4) is turned
back in the case of the girl (Figure 5), but that each has the other's dominent mode in latent
(dotted-border) form. The boy seems to give up much of his incorporativeness, and the girl much
of her intrusiveness, at the fourth level (i.e., early in the "Initiative/Guilt" stage).
Developing trust is the first task of the ego, and it is never complete.
The child will let mother out of sight without anxiety and rage because she has become an inner
certainty as well as an outer predictability.
The balance of trust with mistrust depends largely on the quality of maternal relationship.
If denied autonomy, the child will turn against him/herself urges to manipulate and
discriminate.
Shame develops with the child's self-consciousness.
Doubt has to do with having a front and back -- a "behind" subject to its own rules. Left over
doubt may become paranoia.
The sense of autonomy fostered in the child and modified as life progresses serves the
preservation in economic and political life of a sense of justice.
Initiative adds to autonomy the quality of undertaking, planning, and attacking a task for the
sake of being active and on the move.
The child feels guilt over the goals contemplated and the acts initiated in exuberant enjoyment
of new locomoter and mental powers.
The castration complex occuring in this stage is due to the child's erotic fantasies.
A residual conflict over initiative may be expressed as hysterical denial, which may cause the
repression of the wish or the abrogation of the child's ego: paralysis and inhibition, or
overcompensation and showing off.
The Oedipal stage results not only in oppressive establishment of a moral sense restricting the
horizon of the permissible, but also sets the direction towards the possible and the tangible
which permits dreams of early childhood to be attached to goals of an active adult life.
After Stage 3, one may use the whole repetoire of previous modalities, modes, and zones for
industrious, identity-maintaining, intimate, legacy-producing, dispair-countering purposes.
To bring a productive situation to completion is an aim which gradually supersedes the whims
and wishes of play.
The fundamentals of technology are developed
To lose the hope of such "industrious" association may pull the child back to the more isolated,
less conscious familial rivalry of the Oedipal time
The child can become a conformist and thoughtless slave whom others exploit.
Body and ego must be masters of organ modes and of the other nuclear conflicts in order to
face the fear of ego loss in situations which call for self-abandon.
The avoidance of these experiences leads to isolation and self-absorption.
The counterpart of intimacy is distantiation, which is the readiness to isolate and destroy forces
and people whose essence seems dangerous to one's own.
Now true genitality can fully develop.
The danger at this stage is isolation which can lead to sever character problems.
Erikson's listed criteria for "genital utopia" illustrate his insistence on the role of many modes
and modalities in harmony:
mutuality of orgasm
with a loved partner
of opposite sex
with whom one is willing and able to share a trust, and
with whom one is willing and able to regulate the cycles of work, procreation, and recreation
so as to secure to the offspring all the stages of satisfactory development
Ego integrity is the ego's accumulated assurance of its capacity for order and meaning.
Despair is signified by a fear of one's own death, as well as the loss of self-sufficiency, and of
loved partners and friends.
Healthy children, Erikson tells us, won't fear life if their elders have integrity enough not to fear
death.
Erikson was a Neo-Freudian. He has been described as an "ego psychologist" studying the stages
of development, spanning the entire lifespan. Each of Erikson's stages of psychosocial
development are marked by a conflict, for which successful resolution will result in a favourable
outcome, for example, trust vs. mistrust, and by an important event that this conflict resolves
itself around, for example, meaning of one's life.
Favourable outcomes of each stage are sometimes known as "virtues", a term used, in the context
of Eriksonian work, as it is applied to medicines, meaning "potencies." For example, the virtue
that would emerge from successful resolution. Oddly, and certainly counter-intuitively, Erikson's
research suggests that each individual must learn how to hold both extremes of each specific life-
stage challenge in tension with one another, not rejecting one end of the tension or the other.
Only when both extremes in a life-stage challenge are understood and accepted as both required
and useful, can the optimal virtue for that stage surface. Thus, 'trust' and 'mis-trust' must both be
understood and accepted, in order for realistic 'hope' to emerge as a viable solution at the first
stage. Similarly, 'integrity' and 'despair' must both be understood and embraced, in order for
actionable 'wisdom' to emerge as a viable solution at the last stage.
The Erikson life-stage virtues, in the order of the stages in which they may be acquired, are:
1. hope - Basic Trust vs. Mistrust - Infant stage. Does the child believe its caregivers to be reliable?
2. will - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt - Toddler stage. Child needs to learn to explore the world.
Bad if the parent is too smothering or completely neglectful.
3. purpose - Initiative vs. Guilt - Kindergarten - Can the child plan or do things on his own, such as
dress him or herself. If "guilty" about making his or her own choices, the child will not function
well. Erikson has a positive outlook on this stage, saying that most guilt is quickly compensated
by a sense of accomplishment.
4. competence - Industry vs. Inferiority - Around age 6 to puberty. Child comparing self worth to
others (such as in a classroom environment). Child can recognize major disparities in personal
abilities relative to other children. Erikson places some emphasis on the teacher, who should
ensure that children do not feel inferior.
5. fidelity - Identity vs. Role Confusion - Teenager. Questioning of self. Who am I, how do I fit in?
Where am I going in life? Erikson believes that if the parents allow the child to explore, they will
conclude their own identity. However, if the parents continually push him/her to conform to
their views, the teen will face identity confusion.
6. love (in intimate relationships, work and family) - Intimacy vs. Isolation - Young adult. Who do I
want to be with or date, what am I going to do with my life? Will I settle down? This stage has
begun to last longer as young adults choose to stay in school and not settle.
7. caring - Generativity vs. Stagnation - the Mid-life crisis. Measure accomplishments/failures. Am I
satisfied or not? The need to assist the younger generation. Stagnation is the feeling of not
having done anything to help the next generation.
8. wisdom - Ego Integrity vs. Despair - old age. Some handle death well. Some can be bitter,
unhappy, and/or dissatisfied with what they have accomplished or failed to accomplish within
their life time. They reflect on the past, and either conclude at satisfaction or despair.
On ego identity versus Role Confusion, ego identity enables each person to have a sense of
individuality, or as Erikson would say, "Ego identity, then, in its subjective aspect, is the
awareness of the fact that there is a self-sameness and continuity to the ego's synthesizing
methods and a continuity of one's meaning for others" (1963). Role Confusion, however, is,
according to Barbara Engler in her book Personality Theories (2006), "The inability to conceive
of oneself as a productive member of one's own society" (158). This inability to conceive of
oneself as a productive member is a great danger; it can occur during adolescence when looking
for an occupation.
THE “BIG FIVE” PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS/TRAITS
Standardized personality tests determine how positively or negatively a person scores on each of the Big
Five .
For instance , someone scoring negatively on extroversion would be an introverted person prone to shy
and withdrawn behavior.
Someone scoring negatively on emotional security would be nervous , tense , angry and worried.
Big Five personality dimensions that correlate positively and strongly with job perfprmance would be
helpful in selection , training and appraisal of employees.
Among Big Five , conscientiousness has strongest positive correlation with job performance and training
performance.
Research has shown five major dimensions to be consistent components of personality. The Big
Conscientiousness - defined as being reliable and dependable, being careful and organized, and
being a person who plans - is the dimension most strongly correlated to job performance.
Extroversion/introversion –
It refers to the degree to which a person is sociable, talkative, assertive, active, and ambitious.
Openness
Emotional stability
Emotional stability is the degree to which someone is anxious, depressed, angry, and insecure.
Agreeableness
Agreeableness refers to the degree to which a person is courteous, likable, good-natured, and
flexible. Managers must remember that the relevance of any personality dimension depends on
the situation, the type of job, and the level at which a person is working.
emphatic, caring
Conscientiousness Dependable, responsible, Unreliable ,
systematic
Emotional Stability Relaxed , Nervous ,
calm,confident insecure
Openness to Intellectual , creative , Less receptive to new
conventional.s
Hundreds of personality traits have been identified .Following characteristics have been selected
They are :
AUTHORITARINSAIM:
Developed by Adorno
According to Adorno , “ This concept refers to belief that there should be status and power
People with such trait are generally conservatives concerned with toughness and power, close
minded.
Because of acceptance of authority they make good followers , work better and arre productive
BUEAURUCRATIC PERSONALITY :
Such people values subordination , conformity to rules and regulations , impersonal formal
relationships.
These people become better supervisors when the type of work is routine , repetitive and
proceduralised because these people are not innovative , donot like taking risks , feel more at
MACHIAVELLIANISM.
way.
Machiavellinaism strives in a situation where there are minimum number of rules and
regulations.
A Mach man is pragmatic , maintains , emotional distance and believes that end s can justify
means.
High-Machs flourish , when they interact face-to-face with others rather than indirectly
A high Mach man manipukates more ,wins more , are persuaded less and persuade others more
They are cool , calculating and have no hestitation using others or taking advantage of others in
They are not easily swayed by a sense of friendship, trust or loyal .They are specially successful
High-Machs are suitable in jobs that require bargaining skills or where there are substantial
Extroverts are gregarious and sociable individuals and introverts are shy,quiet ,retiring.
Extroverts are more suitable for positions that require considerable interaction with other that’s
Introvert people are more inclined to excel al tastes that require thought and analytical skill.
An extreme introvert works best alone in a quiet office without external interruption or influence.
5. PROBLEM-SOLVING STYLE :
The problem solving style of individuals affect their personality in certain ways.
i) Sensation Feeling Style : Such people are dependable , friendly , social and
These people are pragmatic , methodical , like jobs which involve human
ii) Sensation Thinking Style : Such people are practical , logical , decisive ,
sensitive to details.
They are not highly suitable for jobs requiring interpersonal relations.
engineering, computers.
Personnel.
They do the jobs where the outcome is directly attributed to the effort.
and reward.
7. SELF- ESTEEM :
Such people believe their strengths are more important than their
weakness.
Believe they possess more of the ability they need in order to succeed at
work.
-will take more risks in job selection and more likely to choose
unconventional jobs.
High self esteem have positive characterstic , manager should encourage their
9. SELF- EFFICACY :
task.
Managers can help their employees develop self-efficacy by providing avenues for
SELF-MONITORING
A PE
Self-monitoring, is the degree to which people are capable of reading and using cues from the
environment to determine their own behavior. Strong self-monitoring skills can help managers
and employees read environmental and individual cues quickly and accurately and adjust
behavior accordingly.
Locus of control indicates an individual's sense of control over his/her life, the environment, and
external events. Those with an internal locus of control believe that their actions affect what
happens to them, while those with an external locus of control believe that outside factors affect
Type-A behavior
People who exhibit Type-A behavior try to do more in less and less time in an apparently
tireless pursuit of everything. Type-A people feel great time urgency, are very competitive, try to
Four personality traits that have been consistently related to work-related behavior are
Locus of control,
Type-A behavior,
Self-monitoring, and
Machiavellianism.
Machiavellian
People with elements of a Machiavellian personality put self-interest above the group's interests
PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH
–Is based on the belief that childhood experiences greatly influence the development of late
personality traits and psychological problems. It also stresses the influence of unconscious fears,
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