Fluids/Solids Handling

General Rules for

Aboveground Storage
Tank Design and Operation
Various codes and regulations dictate the
Yacine Amrouche, Chaitali DavÈ,
specification and construction of these tanks,
Kamal Gursahani, Rosabella helping to ensure optimum design and safe
Lee and Lisa Montemayor,
KBR
operation.

V
ertical, aboveground atmospheric-pressure Design of storage tanks
storage tanks are commonly used in pro- Various factors play a role in the selection and de-
cessing facilities. By definition, an atmo- sign of a tank:
spheric tank has a design pressure less than Process considerations — One of the first steps in
2.5 psig (1). Atmospheric tanks can be equipped with selecting or designing a tank is to determine its capaci-
a fixed roof or a floating roof. A vertical, fixed-roof ty. The total capacity is the sum of the inactive (non-
tank consists of a cylindrical metal shell with a perma- working) capacity, actual or net working capacity, and
nently attached roof that can be flat, conical or dome- the overfill protection capacity (figure). The inactive
shaped, among other styles. Fixed-roof tanks are used working (or non-working) capacity is the volume below
to store materials with a true vapor pressure (TVP) the bottom invert of the outlet nozzle, which is normally
less than 1.5 psia. (TVP, a measure of volatility, is the a minimum of 10 in. above the bottom seam to avoid
equilibrium partial pressure for a liquid at 100°F.) weld interference (2). The net working capacity is the
These tanks are less expensive to construct than those volume between the low liquid level (LLL) and the high
with floating roofs, and are generally considered the liquid level (HLL). For an in-process tank, the net
minimum acceptable type for storing chemicals, or- working capacity is calculated by multiplying the re-
ganics and other liquids. quired retention time of the liquid by its flowrate. For
There are two types of floating roof tanks: large, off-site storage tanks, the net working capacity is
• External floating roof (EFR). The roof floats di- determined by performing an economic analysis (3), in-
rectly on the surface of the stored liquid (called a con- cluding items such as the savings in bulk transportation
tact deck). The deck has a seal system attached to the costs, the size and frequency of shipments, and the risks
roof perimeter, closing off the annular space between of a plant shutdown. In some cases, the required net
the roof and the tank wall. These tanks store materials working capacity may be divided up into multiple
with TVPs from 1.5–11 psia. tanks, if the size of a single tank is physically unrealis-
• Internal floating roof (IFR) tanks have an inside tic, or if separate tanks are needed for other reasons,
floating deck, which is either a contact deck or one that such as dedicated service or rundown. The overfill pro-
rests on pontoons, and a fixed roof. IFR tanks are used tection capacity of a tank is that between the HLL and
where there can be heavy accumulations of snow or rain- the design liquid level. The design liquid level is set
water on the floating roof. Such accumulations affect the higher than the normal operating liquid level to provide
operating buoyancy of the roof. In these cases, the vapor a safety margin for upsets. The overfill section is filled
space above the liquid is purged with an inert gas. with vapor under normal operating conditions.

54 www.cepmagazine.org December 2002 CEP

 The bottom, shell and roof of
storage tanks consist of steel plates
FC
Inert Gas that are usually lap-welded togeth-
Flare/ er. To calculate plate dimensions,
Atmosphere designers normally refer to indus-
Design Liquid Level
try codes, such as those of the
Overflow American Petroleum Institute
Liquid Line (API) (4).
Overfill Protection Capacity
Process High Liquid Level Storage tanks must have lad-
LC
Inlet
ders to provide access to their top.
Normal Liquid Level Per API 650, tanks 20 ft or less in
height must be furnished with a
Net Working Capacity ladder without a cage. Tanks
taller than 20 ft require a spiral
Low Liquid Level
Process
stairway. A landing platform at
TC Outlet the top of the ladder can lead to
Cooling/ Non-working Capacity LC
walkways extending to the center
Heating
Utilities
of the roof. Roofs and shells are
Sump provided with manholes that are
Optional 2-ft in dia. Details on such re-
quirements are in API 650.
■ Figure 1. An aboveground storage tank can have internal coils for heating or cooling the liquid. Most storage tanks construct-
ed in petroleum refining and
Other process design considerations include specifying petrochemical plants are made to conform to one of the
the temperature and pressure for the tank, and determining API standards. These standards cover design, construc-
the need for heaters, chillers or phase-separation equipment. tion, inspection, erection, testing and maintenance re-
Mechanical design — This involves specifying the ma- quirements. They lay down certain minimum require-
terials of construction, determining the dimensions of the ments for API certification. The key API codes for stor-
tank and the plates used to build it, and sizing and position- age tank design are as follows:
ing the nozzles and accessories. • “Field Welded Tanks for Storage of Production Liq-
Mild-quality carbon steel (A-36, A-328) is the most uids,” API Specification 12D — covers vertical, cylindri-
widely used material for storage tanks. For corrosive ser- cal, aboveground, welded steel tanks in nominal capacities
vices, a suitable corrosion allowance is added to the thick- of 500–10,000 bbl in standard sizes for production service.
ness of the structure. If this is uneconomical, or if product Standard capacity, dimensions and design pressures of API
contamination due to corrosion cannot be tolerated, then 12D tanks are shown in Table 1 (3).
the tank material is upgraded to stainless steel or a high • “Shop Welded Tanks for Storage of Production Liq-
alloy. Alternatively, carbon steel tanks can be lined with uids,” API Specification 12F — covers vertical, cylindrical,
corrosion-resistant materials such as rubber, plastic or ce- aboveground, shop-welded steel tanks in nominal capacities
ramic tile. Tanks can also be insulated
for temperature control, personnel pro-
tection, energy conservation, or to pre- Table 1. Standard capacities, dimensions and design
vent external condensation. For these pressures for API 12D tanks (4).
instances, materials used are fiberglass, Nominal Outside Dia., Height, Design Pressure, Design Vacuum,
mineral wool, expanded polystyrene or Capacity, ft-in. ft oz./in.2 oz./in.2
polyurethane. bbl
The wind and seismic loadings, 500 15-6 16 8 1/2
available space and soil- bearing 750 15-6 24 8 1/2
500 21-6 8 6 1/2
strength determine the optimal height-
to-diameter ratio. Reduced heights and 1,000 21-6 16 6 1/2
wider shapes are preferred in windy or 1,500 29-9 24 6 1/2
1,000 20-9 8 4 1/2
seismically active areas, or where soil-
bearing capacity is limited. As available 2,000 29-9 16 4 1/2
3,000 29-9 24 4 1/2
plot space decreases and soil-bearing 5,000 38-8 24 3 1/2
strength increases, tanks are designed to 10,000 55-0 24 3 1/2
be taller with smaller diameters.

CEP December 2002 www.cepmagazine.org 55

Fluids/Solids Handling

of 90–500 bbl in standard sizes for production service. flares, vapor recovery systems (such as a thermal oxidizer
• “Large, Field Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks,” or scrubber) and disposal systems, such as pressure or vac-
API Standard 620 — covers vertical, cylindrical, above- uum vents. Table 2 lists examples of the different types of
ground, field-welded steel tanks for oil storage with maxi- requirements and their basis for applicability, taken from
mum operating temperatures not greater than 200°F and 40 CFR, Part 60.
pressures in the vapor space less than 2.5 psig. Information for the permit includes properties of materi-
• “Large, Field Welded, Storage Tanks,” API Standard al stored, operating conditions, TVP, tank physical charac-
650 — covers vertical, cylindrical, aboveground, field- teristics, tank construction and rim-seal system, roof type,
welded steel tanks for oil storage with maximum operating fittings, deck characteristics, estimated emissions, and
temperatures not greater than 250°F and pressures in the chemical identification. EPA has guidelines, “Compilation
vapor space less than 1.5 psig. of Air Pollutant Emission Factors,” API-42, that present
Although API standards cover many aspects of storage models for estimating air emissions for organic-liquid stor-
tank design and operation, they are not all-inclusive. There age tanks, and include emissions estimation equations de-
are several other organizations that publish standards on tank veloped by API. An EPA-developed program called
design, fabrication, installation, inspection, and repair that TANKS Version 4.09 calculates tank emissions based on
supplement the API standards. API 42 – Chapter 12 methodology. The software is avail-
These include the American Society of Mechanical Engi- able at www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/software/tanks/index.html.
neers (ASME; www.asme.org); American Society for Test- Vent control measures are included in the operating air
ing and Materials (ASTM; www.astm.org); American Water permit as permit conditions. Some examples of possible
Works Association (AWWA; www.awwa.org); Building Of- operating permit conditions include (5):
ficials and Code Administrators International (BOCA; • For storage and loading of VOCs — An internal float-
www.bocai.org); (NACE International; www.nace.org); Na- ing deck or equivalent control must be installed in all
tional Fire Protection Association (NFPA; www.nfpa.org); tanks. The floating roof must have one of the following
Petroleum Equipment Institute (PEI; www.pei.org); Steel closure devices between the wall and the edge of the deck:
Tank Institute (STI; www.steeltank.com) Underwriters Lab- (1) a liquid-mounted seal; (2) two continuous seals mount-
oratories (UL; ulstandardsinfonet.ul.com); and the Interna- ed one above the other; or (3) a mechanical shoe seal. In-
tional Fire Code Institute (Uniform Fire Code; stallation of an equivalent control system requires review
www.ifci.com). and approval. (A shoe seal is a type of rim seal that closes
the space between the floating roof rim and the tank shell.)
Environmental requirements • For any tank equipped with a floating roof, the holder
Storage tanks are considered a source of air emissions of the permit has to follow the tests and procedures to veri-
due to losses of vapor (5). Emissions from tanks must be fy the seal integrity, as given in 40 CFR 60.113b. There are
addressed in obtaining the air permit. Volatile organic com- reporting and recordkeeping requirements for the dates that
pounds (VOCs) are the major pollutants of concern for air the seals are inspected, their integrity, and any corrective
emissions. In addition, specific organics that are toxic or actions taken.
hazardous are also regulated, e.g., benzene. Adequate con- • Uninsulated tanks exposed to the sun have to be paint-
trol and proper management and maintenance are neces- ed white or made of aluminum.
sary to prevent releases of tank contents.
In preparing an application for an air-quality operating Structural requirements
permit, a review of all applicable regulations must be com- Tank type and size, the soil conditions at the site, tank
pleted. Environmental regulations often dictate the type of loading and tank settlement are critical factors for the de-
emissions-control device that must be used in a particular sign of the tank foundation. Examples of foundation types
application. Minimum emission-control requirements de- include earth or crushed stone, concrete slabs, slabs sup-
pend upon the material stored, when the tank was con- ported by piles and concrete ring-walls.
structed or modified, its capacity, the TVP of the com- Earth or crushed stone foundations are simply rings of
pound at storage conditions, and the location of the facility. material that support the tank walls. These foundations are
Ref. 5 lists some of the national regulatory codes and stan- typically used in locations with in-situ soil conditions, and
dards used for the design of storage tanks and control of air can only be used when anchor bolts are not required. A
emissions. Among these is the “New Source Performance concrete slab set under the entire surface area of the tank is
Standards (NSPS), Standards for Performance for Storage used for tanks less than 15 ft in dia. If soil conditions are
Vessels for Petroleum Liquids,” from the U.S. Environ- poor or the tank needs insulation, piles may needed.
mental Protection Agency’s regulation 40 CFR, Part 60, A concrete ring-wall is constructed by pouring a con-
Subparts K, Ka and Kb. This standard sets rules for the crete mixture around the tank to support it. Ring-wall
systems to control emissions. Emissions-control devices foundations are an economical way to support tanks, are
include internal and external floating roofs, seals, vents to typically used for large tanks and can withstand uplift

56 www.cepmagazine.org December 2002 CEP

 Table 2.Typical regulatory requirements for storage tanks (5).

Subpart Materials Tanks Modified or Tank Size, True Vapor Control

Stored Construction Date gal Pressure, psia Requirements
40 CFR, Petroleum After March 8, 1974, > 40,000 > 1.5 but Floating roof, or vapor recovery
Part 60 liquids and prior to < 11.1 system (VRS), or equivalent
Subpart May 19, 1978
K > 40,000 > 11.1 VRS, or equivalent
After June 11, 1973, > 65,000 > 1.5 but Floating roof, or VRS,
and prior to < 11.1 or equivalent
May 18, 1978 > 65,000 > 11.1 VRS, or equivalent
40 CFR, Petroleum After May 19, 1978 > 40,000 > 1.5 but External floating roof (EFR) with
Part 60 liquids < 11.1 two seals, or internal floating
Subpart roof (IFR), or VRS with 95%
Ka reduction, or equivalent
> 40,000 > 11.1 VRS with 95% reduction
40 CFR, Volatile After July 23, 1984 < 20,000 Any
Part 60 organic
Subpart liquids 20,000 but < 2.2 Exempt from Subpart Kb
Kb < 40,000
40,000 < 0.5
20,000 but > 4.0 but IFR with liquid-mounted seal or
< 40,000 < 11.1 with mechanical shoe seal, or
with vapor-mounted seal and
40,000 > 0.75 but rim-mounted secondary seal, or
< 11.1 EFR with two seals, or VRS with
95% reduction or equivalent
20,000 11.1 VRS with 95% reduction or
equivalent

forces from the tank. Most of the tanks used in chemical frost heave, or can be put on columns to allow air circula-
plants are greater than 15 ft in dia. and commonly have tion.
ring-wall foundations.
Estimates of the vertical and horizontal loads of the tank Additional considerations
are required for foundation design. Vertical loads to be Other items that need to be considered for the founda-
considered include the empty weight, live load, operating tion are leak detection systems, corrosivity, cathodic pro-
weight, test weight and internal pressure. The live load on tection, and secondary containment. The engineer must
the roof is typically 25 lb/ft2, based on API codes (620 and consider the environmental and safety implications of leak-
650). The operating weight is the dead weight plus the age into the containment space below the tank floor. For an
weight of the fluid, with corrections made for specific earth or concrete ring-wall, leak-detection is normally ac-
gravities greater than 1.0. The test weight consists of the complished by providing a flexible membrane liner at
dead weight of the tank plus the weight of the tank full of grade elevation with a drainpipe under the tank, which
water. The tank is subjected to an internal pressure during drains to the perimeter of the tank. For a concrete slab, leak
operating or test conditions. detection can be achieved similarly or by placing radial
Even a tank that has no liquid in it can still be under grooves in the top of the slab that extend to the perimeter
pressure. For example, a tank that held a volatile com- of the tank. When a leak occurs, one or more grooves will
pound can still have vapor in it after being drained. Heat contain the tank liquid.
from the sun can pressurize the vapor. Horizontal forces in- Cathodic protection can be used to control electrochem-
clude the wind and any seismic loads. ical corrosion. This method uses direct current from an ex-
Tank settlement is a common problem with compress- ternal source to oppose the discharge current from the
ible soils. Long-term settling of the foundation often oc- metal surface, thereby preventing corrosion. Further, metal
curs at the edge and center, due to operating conditions. In tanks that store flammable liquids are grounded as a pro-
a ring-wall design, the pressure on the bottom of the ring- tection against lightning or static electricity.
wall and tank must be equalized to prevent differential set- Secondary containment is often required to prevent liq-
tlement of the structure. uid from a leaking tank seeping into the ground and/or
Cryogenic tanks require cable heating systems to avoid groundwater. This can be achieved by either building dikes

CEP December 2002 www.cepmagazine.org 57

Fluids/Solids Handling

with liners made of high-density polyethylene (HDPE), or The level is then adjusted by closing or opening the ap-
by adding concrete walls and slabs, along with a leak de- propriate valves. When precise level control is not re-
tection system. Curb and dike containment are covered by quired, the liquid level is maintained between the HLL and
many regulations that govern the volume, area, height and the LLL. Automatic emergency cut-offs are applied when
spacing between multiple tanks and process units. Area the liquid level is at the overfill level to avoid overflow, or
sumps may also be required to contain possible leakage. when it is below the LLL to avoid cavitation of a pump.
Provisions must be made for removing water or debris Temperature control — A thermocouple, which is
from the sumps. mounted below the LLL of the tank, provides a continu-
ous readout of the temperature. Multiple measurement
Operation and control points are sometimes required to ensure representative
Pressure control — The design of a tank must take into temperature readings when the tank is large, there are
account both normal operations and certain upset condi- different feeds at different temperatures, or there is a
tions. Normal operations are filling, emptying and storing. heating coil. The tank temperature can be maintained by
When filling a tank, the displaced vapor must be vented, adjusting the flowrate of a cooling or heating medium in
typically to an emission-control device (or to atmosphere, an internal coil.
if allowed by environmental regulations). When withdraw- Upsets and safety — Typical upsets include overpres-
ing liquid, the vacuum that is created must be counter-bal- sure, overflow, boil-over, over-temperature, water ingress,
anced by the infusion of an inert gas, such as nitrogen, floating-roof failure, unexpected phase separation, light-
through a breathing valve. ning, static-charge buildup, steam coil failure and fires.
Vapor “surplus” or “deficit” can also occur in an idle Adequate monitoring can help to ensure safety during
tank as a result of ambient temperature changes or chemi- upsets and other incidents. Control and prevention of such
cal reactions taking place within the liquid inventory. The situations include the use of: sprays, deluge or foam sys-
venting of excess vapor or the infusion of an inert gas for tems; pressure-, temperature-, level- and fire-monitoring
all normal operating conditions is carried out automatical- devices; pressure-relief systems; and ensuring proper
ly, typically through self-regulating valves. preventative maintenance. CEP

Level control — Level-measuring devices are based on

differential pressure, or sonic, capacitance, displacer velocity
or liquid-conductivity measurements. Sonar or radar level YACINE AMROUCHE is a process engineer at KBR (601 Jefferson Ave.,
measurements have recently gained popularity. These de- Houston, TX 77002; Phone: (713) 753-7028; Fax: (713) 753-6097; E-mail:
vices are usually mounted on the roof of a tank. They send [email protected]). He is a junior-level engineer with two
years of experience in process engineering and is a member of KBR’s
out a signal, which is reflected off the liquid level. The time
young professional network, IMPACT. Amrouche holds a BS in chemical
it takes for the reflected signal to be received is used to mea- engineering from the Univ. of Sussex, U.K., with a specialization in
sure the liquid height. A major advantage of these instru- polymer science.
ments is that they can be used with corrosive liquids.
CHAITALI DAVE` is an environmental engineer at KBR (Phone: (713) 753-
3572; Fax: (713) 753-3123; E-mail: [email protected]). She is
a junior-level engineer with four years of experience in environmental
engineering and is a member of KBR’s young professional network,
Literature Cited IMPACT. Dave’ holds a BS in chemical engineering from the Univ. of South
Florida and is a member of the Environmental Div. of AIChE.
1. Mead, J., “The Encyclopedia of Chemical Process Equipment,”
Reinhold Publishing, New York, pp. 941–956 (1964).
KAMAL GURSAHANI is a process engineer at KBR (Phone: (281) 492-5787;
2. Burk, H. S., et. al., “Conceptual Design of Refinery Tankage,” Fax: (281) 492-5832; E-mail: [email protected]). He is a
Chem. Eng., 88 (17), pp. 107–110 (Aug. 24, 1981). junior-level engineer with one year of experience and is a member of
3. Newton, P., et al., “Liquid Storage in the CPI,” Chem. Eng. (Desk- KBR’s young professional network, IMPACT. Gursahani holds a BS in
book), 85 (8), pp. 9–15 (April 3, 1978). chemical engineering from Bombay Univ. and an MS in chemical
4. “Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage,” 10th ed., Standard 650, engineering from the Univ. of Wisconsin – Madison.
American Petroleum Institute (API), Washington, DC (1998).
5. “Technical Guidance Package for Chemical Sources: Storage ROSABELLA LEE is a process engineer at KBR (Phone: (713) 753-2238; Fax:
(713) 753-5353; E-mail: [email protected]). She is a junior-
Tanks,” Texas Natural Resources Conservation Commission
level engineer with four years of experience and is a member of KBR’s
(TNRCC), Air Permits Div. (Feb. 2001). Available at
young professional network, IMPACT. Lee holds a BS degree in chemical
http://www.tnrcc.state.tx.us/. engineering and mathematics from the Univ. of Houston.

LISA MONTEMAYOR is a civil engineer at KBR (Phone: (713) 753-5355;

Acknowledgment Fax: (713) 753-5897; E-mail: [email protected]).
She is a junior level engineer with four years of experience in civil
The authors would like to thank Ahmed Allawi, Benson Pair and the engineering and is a member of KBR’s young professional network,
KBR Publications Committee for their guidance and support in IMPACT. Montemayor holds a BS in civil engineering from Texas A&M Univ.
writing this article.

58 www.cepmagazine.org December 2002 CEP