CHALCOGENS

The CHALCOGENS are the chemical elements in group 16 (old-style: VIB or VIA) of the
periodic table. This group is also known as the oxygen family. It consists of the elements oxygen
(O), sulfur (S), selenium (Se), tellurium (Te), the radioactive element polonium (Po), and the
synthetic element ununhexium (Uuh).

Although all group 16 elements of the periodic table, including oxygen are defined as
chalcogens, oxygen and oxides are usually distinguished from chalcogens and chalcogenides.
The term chalcogenide is more commonly reserved for sulfides, selenides, and tellurides, rather
than for oxides. Oxides are usually not indicated as chalcogenides. Binary compounds of the
chalcogens are called chalcogenides (rather than chalcides, which breaks the pattern of
halogen/halide and pnictogen/pnictide).CHALCOGENIDES is a chemical compound consisting
of at least one chalcogen ion and at least one more electropositive element. Although all group
16 elements of the periodic table are defined as chalcogens, the term is more commonly reserved
for sulfides, selenides, and tellurides, rather than oxides.Photoconductive chalcogenide glasses
are used in xerography and television.An optical processing chip using a chalcogenide as a
photodetector has been developed by The University of Sydney with potential to speed up links
between optical fibre networks and computers.

PROPERTIES

Members of this group show similar patterns in their electron configuration, especially the
outermost shells, resulting in similar trends in chemical behaviorOxygen and sulfur are
nonmetals, and selenium, tellurium, and polonium are metalloid semiconductors (that means,
their electrical properties are between those of a metal and an insulator). Nevertheless, tellurium,
as well as selenium, is often referred to as a metal when in elemental form.Metal chalcogenides
are common as minerals. For example, pyrite (FeS2) is an iron ore. The rare mineral calaverite is
the ditelluride AuTe2.The formal oxidation number of the most common chalcogen copounds is
−2. Other values, such as −1 in pyrite, can be attained. The highest formal oxidation number +6
is found in sulfates, selenates and tellurates, such as in sulfuric acid or sodium selenate
(Na2SeO4).

ETYMOLOGY

The name chalcogen comes from the Greek words χαλκος (chalkos, literally "copper"), and γενεσ
(genes, born). Thus the chalcogens give birth to, produce copper. It was first used around 1930
by Wilhelm Biltz's group at the University of Hanover, where it was proposed by a man named
Werner Fischer. Although the literal meanings of the Greek words imply that chalcogen means
"copper-former", this is misleading because the chalcogens have nothing to do with copper in
particular. "Ore-former" has been suggested as a better translation, both because the vast
majority of metal ores are chalcogenides, and because the word χαλκος in ancient Greek was
associated with metals and metal-bearing rock in general (because copper, and its alloy bronze,
was one of the first metals to be used by humans).

HALOGENS

The halogens or halogen elements are a series of nonmetal elements from Group 17 IUPAC
Style (formerly: VII, VIIA) of the periodic table, comprising fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine
(Br), iodine (I), and astatine (At). The artificially created element 117, provisionally referred to
by the systematic name ununseptium, may also be a halogen.The group of halogens is the only
periodic table group which contains elements in all three familiar states of matter at standard
temperature and pressure.

ABUNDANCE

Owing to their high reactivity, the halogens are found in the environment only in compounds or
as ions. Halide ions and oxoanions such as iodate (IO3−) can be found in many minerals and in
seawater. Halogenated organic compounds can also be found as natural products in living
organisms. In their elemental forms, the halogens exist as diatomic molecules, but these only
have a fleeting existence in nature and are much more common in the laboratory and in industry.
At room temperature and pressure, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid and iodine
and astatine are solids; Group 17 is therefore the only periodic table group exhibiting all three
states of matter at room temperature.

ETYMOLOGY

The Swedish chemist Baron Jöns Jakob Berzelius coined the term "halogen" – ἅλς (háls), "salt"
or "sea", and γεν- (gen-), from γίγνομαι (gígnomai), "come to be" – for an element that produces
a salt when it forms a compound with a metal.

PROPERTIES
The Swedish chemist Baron Jöns Jakob Berzelius coined the term "halogen" – ἅλς (háls), "salt"
or "sea", and γεν- (gen-), from γίγνομαι (gígnomai), "come to be" – for an element that produces
a salt when it forms a compound with a metal. The halogens show a series of trends when
moving down the group—for instance, decreasing electronegativity and reactivity, and
increasing melting and boiling point. The elements become less reactive and have higher melting
points as the atomic number increases.

REACTIVITY

Halogens are highly reactive, and as such can be harmful or lethal to biological organisms in
sufficient quantities. This high reactivity is due to the atoms being highly electronegative due to
their high effective nuclear charge. They can gain an electron by reacting with atoms of other
elements. Fluorine is one of the most reactive elements in existence, attacking otherwise inert
materials such as glass, and forming compounds with the heavier noble gases. It is a corrosive
and highly toxic gas. The reactivity of fluorine is such that if used or stored in laboratory
glassware, it can react with glass in the presence of small amounts of water to form silicon
tetrafluoride (SiF4). Thus fluorine must be handled with substances such as Teflon (which is
itself an organofluorine compound), extremely dry glass, or metals such as copper or steel which
form a protective layer of fluoride on their surface.The high reactivity of fluorine means that
once it does react with something, it bonds with it so strongly that the resulting molecule is very
inert and non-reactive to anything else. For example, Teflon is fluorine bonded with carbon.Both
chlorine and bromine are used as disinfectants for drinking water, swimming pools, fresh
wounds, spas, dishes, and surfaces. They kill bacteria and other potentially harmful
microorganisms through a process known as sterilization. Their reactivity is also put to use in
bleaching. Sodium hypochlorite, which is produced from chlorine, is the active ingredient of
most fabric bleaches and chlorine-derived bleaches are used in the production of some paper
products.

HYDROGEN HALIDES

The halogens all form binary compounds with hydrogen known as the hydrogen halides (HF,
HCl, HBr, HI, and HAt), a series of particularly strong acids. When in aqueous solution, the
hydrogen halides are known as hydrohalic acids. HAt, or "hydroastatic acid", should also qualify,
but it is not typically included in discussions of hydrohalic acid due to astatine's extreme
instability toward alpha decay.

INTERHALOGEN COMPOUNDS

The halogens react with each other to form interhalogen compounds. Diatomic interhalogen
compounds such as BrF, ICl, and ClF bear resemblance to the pure halogens in some respects.
The properties and behaviour of a diatomic interhalogen compound tend to be intermediate
between those of its parent halogens. Some properties, however, are found in neither parent
halogen. For example, Cl2 and I2 are soluble in CCl4, but ICl is not since it is a polar molecule due
to the relatively large electronegativity difference between I and Cl.

ORGANOHALOGEN COMPOUNDS

Many synthetic organic compounds such as plastic polymers, and a few natural ones, contain
halogen atoms; these are known as halogenated compounds or organic halides. Chlorine is by far
the most abundant of the halogens, and the only one needed in relatively large amounts (as
chloride ions) by humans. For example, chloride ions play a key role in brain function by
mediating the action of the inhibitory transmitter GABA and are also used by the body to
produce stomach acid. Iodine is needed in trace amounts for the production of thyroid hormones
such as thyroxine. On the other hand, neither fluorine nor bromine are believed to be essential for
humans.

POLYHALOGENATED COMPOUNDS

Polyhalogenated compounds are industrially created compounds substituted with multiple

DRUG DISCOVERY
In drug discovery, the incorporation of halogen atoms into a lead drug candidate results in
analogues that are usually more lipophilic and less water soluble.[2] Consequently, halogen atoms
are used to improve penetration through lipid membranes and tissues. Consequently, there is a
tendency for some halogenated drugs to accumulate in adipose tissue.

The chemical reactivity of halogen atoms depends on both their point of attachment to the lead
and the nature of the halogen. Aromatic halogen groups are far less reactive than aliphatic
halogen groups, which can exhibit considerable chemical reactivity. For aliphatic carbon-halogen
bonds the C-F bond is the strongest and usually less chemically reactive than aliphatic C-H
bonds. The other aliphatic-halogen bonds are weaker, their reactivity increasing down the
periodic table. They are usually more chemically reactive than aliphatic C-H bonds.
Consequently, the most common halogen substitutions are the less reactive aromatic fluorine and
chlorine groups.

REACTIVITY WITH WATER

Fluorine reacts vigorously with water to produce oxygen (O2) and hydrogen fluoride (HF):[3]

2 F2(g) + 2 H2O(l) → O2(g) + 4 HF(aq)

Chlorine has minimal solubility of 0.7g Cl2 per kg of water at ambient temperature (21oC).[4]
Dissolved chlorine reacts to form hydrochloric acid (HCl) and hypochlorous acid, a solution that
can be used as a disinfectant or bleach:

Cl2(g) + H2O(l) → HCl(aq) + HClO(aq)

Bromine has a solubility of 3.41 g per 100 g of water,[5] but it slowly reacts to form hydrogen
bromide (HBr) and hypobromous acid (HBrO):

Br2(g) + H2O(l) → HBr(aq) + HBrO(aq)