ROM(Read Only Memory)

 Acronym for read-only memory, computer memory on which data has been
prerecorded. Once data has been written onto a ROM chip, it cannot be removed and
can only be read.
 Unlike main memory (RAM), ROM retains its contents even when the computer is
turned off. ROM is referred to as being nonvolatile, whereas RAM is volatile.
 Most personal computers contain a small amount of ROM that stores critical programs
such as the program that boots the computer. In addition, ROMs are used extensively
in calculators and peripheral devices such as laser printers, whose fonts are often
stored in ROMs.
 A variation of a ROM is a PROM (programmable read-only memory). PROMs are
manufactured as blank chips on which data can be written with a special device called
a PROM programmer .

 Read-only memory (ROM), also known as firmware, is an integrated circuit

programmed with specific data when it is manufactured. ROM chips are used not only
in computers, but in most other electronic items as well.

ROM Types
There are five basic ROM types:

 ROM
 PROM
 EPROM
 EEPROM
 Flash memory

Each type has unique characteristics, which you'll learn about in this article, but they are all
types of memory with two things in common:

 Data stored in these chips is nonvolatile -- it is not lost when power is removed.
 Data stored in these chips is either unchangeable or requires a special operation to
change (unlike RAM, which can be changed as easily as it is read).
This means that removing the power source from the chip will not cause it to lose any data.

How ROM Works

 Similar to RAM, ROM chips contain a grid of columns and rows. But where the
columns and rows intersect, ROM chips are fundamentally different from RAM chips.
While RAM uses transistors to turn on or off access to a capacitor at each intersection,
ROM uses a diode to connect the lines if the value is 1. If the value is 0, then the lines
are not connected at all.

 A diode normally allows current to flow in only one direction and has a certain
threshold, known as the forward breakover, that determines how much current is
required before the diode will pass it on. In silicon-based items such as processors and
memory chips, the forward breakover voltage is approximately 0.6 volts. By taking
advantage of the unique properties of a diode, a ROM chip can send a charge that is
above the forward breakover down the appropriate column with the selected row
grounded to connect at a specific cell. If a diode is present at that cell, the charge will
be conducted through to the ground, and, under the binary system, the cell will be
read as being "on" (a value of 1). The neat part of ROM is that if the cell's value is 0,
there is no diode at that intersection to connect the column and row. So the charge on
the column does not get transferred to the row.

 As you can see, the way a ROM chip works necessitates the programming of perfect
and complete data when the chip is created. You cannot reprogram or rewrite a
standard ROM chip. If it is incorrect, or the data needs to be updated, you have to
throw it away and start over. Creating the original template for a ROM chip is often a
laborious process full of trial and error. But the benefits of ROM chips outweigh the
drawbacks. Once the template is completed, the actual chips can cost as little as a few
cents each. They use very little power, are extremely reliable and, in the case of most
small electronic devices, contain all the necessary programming to control the device.
A great example is the small chip in the singing fish toy. This chip, about the size of
your fingernail, contains the 30-second song clips in ROM and the control codes to
synchronize the motors to the music.
 PROM
(Programmable Read only Memory)
Creating ROM chips totally from scratch is time-consuming and very expensive in small
quantities. For this reason, mainly, developers created a type of ROM known as
programmable read-only memory (PROM). Blank PROM chips can be bought inexpensively
and coded by anyone with a special tool called a programmer.

PROM chips (Figure 2) have a grid of columns and rows just as ordinary ROMs do. The
difference is that every intersection of a column and row in a PROM chip has a fuse
connecting them. A charge sent through a column will pass through the fuse in a cell to a
grounded row indicating a value of 1. Since all the cells have a fuse, the initial (blank) state of
a PROM chip is all 1s. To change the value of a cell to 0, you use a programmer to send a
specific amount of current to the cell. The higher voltage breaks the connection between the
column and row by burning out the fuse. This process is known as burning the PROM.

Figure 2

PROMs can only be programmed once. They are more fragile than ROMs. A jolt of static
electricity can easily cause fuses in the PROM to burn out, changing essential bits from 1 to 0.
But blank PROMs are inexpensive and are great for prototyping the data for a ROM before
committing to the costly ROM fabrication process.
 EPROM
(Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
Working with ROMs and PROMs can be a wasteful business. Even though they are
inexpensive per chip, the cost can add up over time. Erasable programmable read-only
memory (EPROM) addresses this issue. EPROM chips can be rewritten many times. Erasing an
EPROM requires a special tool that emits a certain frequency of ultraviolet (UV) light.
EPROMs are configured using an EPROM programmer that provides voltage at specified levels
depending on the type of EPROM used.

Once again we have a grid of columns and rows. In an EPROM, the cell at each intersection
has two transistors. The two transistors are separated from each other by a thin oxide layer.
One of the transistors is known as the floating gate and the other as the control gate. The
floating gate's only link to the row (wordline) is through the control gate. As long as this link
is in place, the cell has a value of 1. To change the value to 0 requires a curious process called
Fowler-Nordheim tunneling. Tunneling is used to alter the placement of electrons in the
floating gate. An electrical charge, usually 10 to 13 volts, is applied to the floating gate. The
charge comes from the column (bitline), enters the floating gate and drains to a ground.

This charge causes the floating-gate transistor to act like an electron gun. The excited
electrons are pushed through and trapped on the other side of the thin oxide layer, giving it a
negative charge. These negatively charged electrons act as a barrier between the control gate
and the floating gate. A device called a cell sensor monitors the level of the charge passing
through the floating gate. If the flow through the gate is greater than 50 percent of the
charge, it has a value of 1. When the charge passing through drops below the 50-percent
threshold, the value changes to 0. A blank EPROM has all of the gates fully open, giving each
cell a value of 1.

To rewrite an EPROM, you must erase it first. To erase it, you must supply a level of energy
strong enough to break through the negative electrons blocking the floating gate. In a
standard EPROM, this is best accomplished with UV light at a frequency of 253.7. Because this
particular frequency will not penetrate most plastics or glasses, each EPROM chip has a
quartz window on top of it. The EPROM must be very close to the eraser's light source, within
an inch or two, to work properly.

An EPROM eraser is not selective, it will erase the entire EPROM. The EPROM must be
removed from the device it is in and placed under the UV light of the EPROM eraser for
several minutes. An EPROM that is left under too long can become over-erased. In such a
case, the EPROM's floating gates are charged to the point that they are unable to hold the
electrons at all.

EEPROMs and Flash Memory

Though EPROMs are a big step up from PROMs in terms of reusability, they still require
dedicated equipment and a labor-intensive process to remove and reinstall them each time a
change is necessary. Also, changes cannot be made incrementally to an EPROM; the whole
chip must be erased. Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) chips
remove the biggest drawbacks of EPROMs.

In EEPROMs:

 The chip does not have to removed to be rewritten.

 The entire chip does not have to be completely erased to change a specific portion of
it.
 Changing the contents does not require additional dedicated equipment.

Instead of using UV light, you can return the electrons in the cells of an EEPROM to normal
with the localized application of an electric field to each cell. This erases the targeted cells of
the EEPROM, which can then be rewritten. EEPROMs are changed 1 byte at a time, which
makes them versatile but slow. In fact, EEPROM chips are too slow to use in many products
that make quick changes to the data stored on the chip.

Manufacturers responded to this limitation with Flash memory, a type of EEPROM that uses
in-circuit wiring to erase by applying an electrical field to the entire chip or to predetermined
sections of the chip called blocks. Flash memory works much faster than traditional EEPROMs
because it writes data in chunks, usually 512 bytes in size, instead of 1 byte at a time.