EFFECTIVE DEPTH OF PRECIPITATION

41

3.86

FIGURE 2.5 Precipitation-gage network over a drainage basin. Precipitation amounts are given in inches. Station liocations are at decimal points.

precipitation contour rnap with lines of equal rainfall (isohyets). In drawing the isohyets, such factors as known influence of topography on precipitation can be taken into account. Simple linear interpolation between precipitation stations can also be used. The area bounded by adjacent isohyets is measured with a planimeter, and the average. depth of precipitation over the area is the mean of the bounding isohyets. The effective uniform depth of precipitation is the weighted average based on thb relative size of each isohyetal area (Figure 2.6). The drawback of the isohyetal method is that the isohyets must be redrawn and the areas remeasured for leach analysis.

The Thiessen method to adjust for nonuniform gage distribution uses a weighing factor for each rain gage. The factor is based on the size of the area

FIGURE 2.6 Isohyetal lines for the precipitation-gage network of Figure 2.5. The isohyets show contours of equal rainfall depth with a contour interval of 0.5 in. The contours are based on simple linear interpolation.

F1G~RE 2.7 Thiessen polygons based on the rain-gage network of Figure 2.5. A. The stations are onnected with lines. B. The perpendicular bisector of each line is found. C. The bisectors are extended to form the polygons around each station.

wi hin the drainage basin that is closest to a given rain gage. These areas are irr gular polygons. The method of constructing them can be described rather ea ily; however, it takes a bit of practice to master the technique. The rain-gage ne work is drawn on a map of the drainage basin. Adjacent stations are connected by a network of lines (Figure 2.7A). Should there be doubt as to which stations to co nect, lines should be between the closest stations. A perpendicular line is then dr wn at the midpoint of each line connecting two stations (Figure 2.7B), and ex ensions of the perpendicular bisectors are used to draw polygons around ea h station (Figure 2.7C). It is best to start with a centrally located station and then expand the polygonal network outward. The area of each polygon is measured, and a weighted average for each station's precipitation is used to find the

E~D.

! In mountainous areas, orographic effects can create vastly different

mibroclimates over small distances. Significant precipitation can fall on one side of I-a ridge but little on the other. In such regions the Thiessen method and

42

EVAPORATION AND PRECIPITATION

8

A

3.86

c

43

EFFECTIVE DEPTH OF

contouring by linear ,",Vl'''''Jll can yield erroneous results. Detailed study of

the vegetation can wet and dry slopes. This information, in conjunction

with topographic can be used to make interpreted contour maps with

isohyetallines "111""',1l1~ the presence of wet and dry slopes.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM

Arithmetic Mean Mf!th('(1

Figure 2.5 shows a basin with seven stations in its boundaries. An

additional six stations located outside the drainage divide. In the arithmetic

mean method, only the gages inside the drainage basin boundary are considered.

1. 2. 3. 4.

7

1.75 + 4.81 + 3.45 + 5.76

Isohyetal Method The first step is to basin map. Isohyets 0.5 in., every 1 mm,

lines of equal precipitation (isohyets) on the drainage usually whole numbers or decimals (every 0.1 in., every The following rules apply:

5.

~+"fi',....~. that-does not fall on an isohyet will be between two isohyets will both be equal (either larger or smaller than value) or one will be larger and one smaller.

must be equal or only one contour interval differ-

6.

be scaled between stations using linear interpolation.

Figure 2.6 shows the map of the problem area.

The area adjacent isohyets is determined by use of a planimeter.

The equivalent depth of precipitation between isohyets is usually as-

sumed to be equal to median value of the two isohyets. For example, the EUD

between a l-in. and a 2-in. isohyet is 1.5 in. For areas enclosed by a single

isohyet, judgment be used to estimate the equivalent uniform depth. The

weighted average is based on the equivalent uniform depth of

precipitation between adjacent isohyets and their areas.

· A 8 C D
Station Net Percent of Weighted
I
Predipitation Area Total Precipitation (in.)
l(in.) (sq mil Area (A x C)
~.76 16.9 11.9 0.686
14.81 16.1 11.4 0.546
14.11 3.4 2.4 0.099
3.86 1.6 1.1 0.044
3.45 19.3 13.6 0.470
1.89 2.5 1.8 0.033
11.75 12.0 8.5 0.148
11.46 19.8 14.0 0.204
11.03 18.0 12.7 0.131
p.65 17.0 12.0 0.078
'0.46 6.0 4.2 0.019
.21 7.2 5.1 0.011
0.09 2.0 1.4 0.001
TO AL 141.8 sq mi 2.47 in. NET EUD 44 EVA~ORATION AND PRECIPITATION
¥\ 8 C D E
Net Percent of Weighted
lsohyet Estimated Area Total Precipitation (in.)
(ir·) EUD (sq mil Area (8 x D)
5.5:t 5.6 1.1 0.8 0.045
S.OrS.S 5.25 7.6 5.3 0.278
4.Sf--S.0 4.75 10.6 7.4 0.352
4.0f--4.S 4.25 9.5 6.7 0.285
3.Sf-4.0 3.75 8.6 6.0 0.225
3.0f-3.S 3.25 8.3 5.8 0.189
2.5~3.0 2.75 10.7 7.5 0.206
2.0 2.5 2.25 12.3 8.6 0.194
1.5f--2.0 1.75 15.1 10.6 0.186
1.01-1.5 1.25 '23,8 16.7 0.209
0.5;-1.0 0.75 31.2 21.8 0.164
<0.5 0.3 4.0 2.8 0.008
TOtAL 142.8 sq mi 2.34 in. NET EUD Thie~sen Method

I

The I Thiessen method provides for the nonuniform distribution of gages by

detetmining a weighting factor for each gage. A weighted mean of the precipitation values can then be computed. Thiessen polygons for the example problem are shown in Figure 2.7C. The area of each polygon is determined by a planimeter.

A w ighted mean of the EUD is found, based on the depth of precipitation and the area of the polygon within the basin boundary.

RULES FOR CONTOUR LINES

1. Every point on a contour line ,is of the exactsame elevationj. that is, contour Hoes con neal points iof equal elevation" The contour Hnes are constructed by $urveylng tine elevation of points, then connecling points ot, ectual elevation.

120 .122 .127
•
120 ·'120
120
110· • .... - -117
115 2. Interpo!ation 'is used to estimate theelevatiQtI of <I point B located in line between points.A and. C orknown elevation, To estimate the elevation of point B:

ABC

?

300

7. Contour lines never cross each other except for one rare case: iNhere an overhanging cliff is present. In such a case, the hidden contours are dashed.

.- Overhanging cliff

100

Interpolate B '" 200 from 100

halfway to 300

Interpolate from 300 halfway to 1 00

a. Conlour 'lines can merge to form a single contour line ,only where there is a vertical cliff or wall.

__--

-

3. Extrapolation is used to estimate the elevations of a poLnt C located in line beyond points. A and,s of ,kllOltln elevation.

To estimate the elevauon 01 point C" use 'the distance between A and B as a ruler or graphic bar scale to estimate in line. to eleva!1onC,.

A laO

C ?

~_:'~l cUff -

9. Evenly spaced contour lines of different elevation represent a uniform slope.

//////

10. The closer the contour lines are to each other the steeper the slope, In other words, the, steeper the slope the closer the contour lines.

Steep ; W / / Less steep

, I

11. A. concentric series of closed contours represents a hill:

1,2., Depression contO(J[s have hachure marks on the do,wnhill side and represent a closed depression:

See Figure 9.8

' .......... -=.- ..,_ .. --- --=-- -.- --.. - •

•

13. Con!our lines form a V pattern when crosslngstreams.

The apex of the V always points upstream (uphifJ); , ,

.A ... x ~;pl r;;;~ ~ ! / dOW"''''''''' ...

allhe V -~::~ _;~ (oovmhlll}

14. Contour ,lines that occur on opposite sides of.;,l;, va.lley or ridge always occur In pairs. See Figure 9.9,

FIGURE 9.6 Rules for constructing and interpreting contour lines on topographic maps.

Imagine graphic bar scale

between A and B. Extend .~---- .. ,...

scale in line to estimate C. C =<. 500

4. Contour lines always separate points of higher elevation (uphill) from points of lower elevation (downhill), You must determine which direction on the map is higher and which is lower, relative to the contour iinein question, by checking adjacent elevations,

5. Contour lines always close to form an irregular circle, But sometimes part a! a contour line extends beyond the mapped area so that you cannot see the entire circle formed,

6. The elevation between any two adjacent contour lines of different elevation on a topographic map is thel contour interval. Often every fifth contour line Is heavier so that you can count by five· times the contour interval. These heavier contour lines are known as Index contours, because they generally have elevations printed on them.