IP Basics

Unix/IP Preparation Course

June 29, 2010
Pago Pago, American Samoa

nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
 Layers
Complex problems can be solved using the
common divide and conquer principle. In this
case the internals of the Internet are divided
into separate layers.
• Makes it easier to understand
• Developments in one layer need not require changes in
another layer
• Easy formation (and quick testing of conformation to)
standards

Two main models of layers are used:

• OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
• TCP/IP

nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
OSI Model

nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
 OSI
Conceptual model composed of seven layers,
developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984.

Layer 7 – Application (servers and clients etc web browsers, httpd)

Layer 6 – Presentation (file formats e.g pdf, ASCII, jpeg etc)
Layer 5 – Session (conversation initialisation, termination, )
Layer 4 – Transport (inter host comm – error correction, QOS)
Layer 3 – Network (routing – path determination, IP[x] addresses etc)
Layer 2 – Data link (switching – media acces, MAC addresses etc)
Layer 1 – Physical (signalling – representation of binary digits)

Acronym: All People Seem To Need Data

Processing
nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
 TCP/IP
Generally, TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol) is described using
three to five functional layers. We have chosen
the common DoD reference model, which is
also known as the Internet reference model.
• Process/Application Layer consists of applications and processes that
use the network.
• Host-to-host transport layer provides end-to-end data delivery services.
• Internetwork layer defines the datagram and handles the routing of data.
• Network access layer consists of routines for accessing physical
networks.

nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
TCP/IP model – the “hourglass”
Video
Browser MUA PING Player

HTTP SMTP DNS RTSP

TCP ICMP UDP

IP

802.11
Ethernet PPP
WiFi

Air :) Copper Fiber Pigeons

nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
TCP/IP model – IPv4 and IPv6
Video
Browser MUA PING Player

HTTP SMTP DNS RTSP

TCP ICMP UDP

IPv4 IPv6

802.11
Ethernet PPP
WiFi

Air :) Copper Fiber Pigeons

nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
OSI and TCP/IP

nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
TCP/IP Protocol Suite

nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
 Encapsulation & Decapsulation
Lower layers add headers (and sometimes
trailers) to upper layers packets
Application Data

Transport Header Data

Header Transport Packet

Network
Header Header Data

Header Network Packet Trailer

Data Link
Header Header Header Data Trailer

nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
Frame, Datagram, Segment, Packet

Different names for packets at different layers

• Ethernet (link layer) frame
• IP (network layer) datagram
• TCP (transport layer) segment

Terminology is not strictly followed

• we often just use the term “packet” at any layer

nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
 Summary

Networking is a problem approached in layers.

• OSI Layers
• TCP/IP Layers

Each layer adds headers to the packet of the

previous layer as the data leaves the
machine (encapsulation) and the reverse
occurs on the receiving host (decapsulation)

nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
So what is an IPv4 address anyway?

32 bit number (4 octet number) can be

represented in lots of ways:
133 27 162 125

10000101 00011011 10100010 01111101

85 1B A2 7D

nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
 More to the structure

Hierarchical Division in IP Address:

Network Part (Prefix)
describes which network
Host Part (Host Address)
describes which host on that network
205 . 154 . 8 1
11001101 10011010 00001000 00000001
Networ Mask Host
k
Boundary can be anywhere
used to be a multiple of 8 (/8, /16/, /24), but not usual today
nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
 Network Masks

Network Masks help define which bits are used to

describe the Network Part and which for hosts
Different Representations:
• decimal dot notation: 255.255.224.0 (128+64+32 in byte 3)
• binary: 11111111 11111111 111 00000 00000000
• hexadecimal: 0xFFFFE000
• number of network bits: /19 (8 + 8 + 3)
Binary AND of 32 bit IP address with 32 bit netmask
yields network part of address

nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
 Sample Netmasks

137.158.128.0/17 (netmask 255.255.128.0)

1111 1111 1111 1111 1 000 0000 0000 0000
1000 1001 1001 1110 1 000 0000 0000 0000

198.134.0.0/16 (netmask 255.255.0.0)

1111 1111 1111 1111 0000 0000 0000 0000
1100 0110 1000 0110 0000 0000 0000 0000

205.37.193.128/26 (netmask 255.255.255.192)

1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 11 00 0000
1100 1101 0010 0101 1100 0001 10 00 0000

nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
 Allocating IP addresses

The subnet mask is used to define size of a

network
E.g a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 or /24
implies 32-24=8 host bits
2^8 minus 2 = 254 possible hosts

Similarly a subnet mask of 255.255.255.224

or /27 implies 32-27=5 host bits
2^5 minus 2 = 30 possible hosts

nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
 Special IP Addresses
All 0’s in host part: Represents Network
e.g. 193.0.0.0/24
e.g. 138.37.128.0/17
e.g. 192.168.2.128/25 (WHY ?)

All 1’s in host part: Broadcast (all hosts on net)

e.g. 137.156.255.255 (137.156.0.0/16)
e.g. 134.132.100.255 (134.132.100.0/24)
e.g. 192.168.2.127/25 (192.168.2.0/25) (WHY ?)

127.0.0.0/8: Loopback address (127.0.0.1)

0.0.0.0: Various special purposes (DHCP, etc.)
nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
Networks – super- and subnetting
By adding one bit to the netmask,
we subdivide the network into two
/27 smaller networks. This is subnetting.
/26
/27 i.e.: If one has a /26 network (32 – 26 =
/25 6 => 2^6 => 64 addresses), that network
/27
/26 can be subdivided into two subnets, using
a /27 netmask, where the state of the last
/24 /27 ....
bit will determine which network we are
/27 addressing (32 – 27 = 5 => 2^5 => 32
/26
/25 /27 addresses). This can be done recursively
(/27 => 2 x /28 or 4 x /29, etc...).
/26 /27
Example: 192.168.10.0/25 (.0 - .127) can
/27 be subnetted into 192.168.10.0 / 26 and
192.168.10.64 / 26
nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
Networks – super- and subnetting
Inversely, if two networks can be
“joined” together under the same netmask,
which encompasses both networks, then
/26 we are supernetting.
/25 Example:
/26 Networks 10.254.4.0/24 and 10.254.5.0/24
/24 can be “joined” together into one network
/26 expressed: 10.254.4.0/23.
/25
Note: for this to be possible, the networks
/26 must be contiguous, i.e. it is not possible
to supernet 10.254.5.0/24 and 10.254.6.0/24

nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
 Numbering Rules

Private IP address ranges (RFC 1918)

• 10/8 (10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255)
• 192.168/16 (192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255)
• 172.16/12 (172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255)
• Public Address space available from AfriNIC
• Choose a small block from whatever range you
have, and subnet your networks (to avoid
problems with broadcasts, and implement
segmentation policies – DMZ, internal, etc...)

nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
 Network related settings

Files

/etc/rc.conf
/etc/netstart
/etc/hosts
/etc/resolv.conf

Commands

ifconfig eth0 196.200.218.x/24

route add default 192.200.218.254
hostname bcIP.ws.afnog.org
nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
 Routing

Every host on the internet needs a way to get

packets to other hosts outside its local
network.

This requires special hosts called routers that

can move packets between networks.

Packets may pass through many routers

before they reach their destinations.

nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
 The route table
All hosts (including routers) have a route table
that specifies which networks it is connected
to, and how to forward packets to a gateway
router that can talk to other networks.
FreeBSD routing table from “netstat –anr”
Routing tables

Internet:
Destination Gateway Flags Refs Use Netif Expire
default 196.200.218.254 UGS 4 1068 bge0
127.0.0.1 link#3 UH 0 12 lo0
196.200.218.0/24 link#1 U 0 0 bge0
196.200.218.253 link#1 UHS 0 0 lo0

Internet6:
Destination Gateway Flags Netif Expire
::1 ::1 UH lo0
fe80::%lo0/64 link#3 U lo0
fe80::1%lo0 link#3 UHS lo0
ff01:3::/32 fe80::1%lo0 U lo0
ff02::%lo0/32 fe80::1%lo0 U lo0
nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
What do route table entries mean?
Destination Gateway Flags Refs Use Netif Expire
default 196.200.218.254 UGS 4 1068 bge0
127.0.0.1 link#3 UH 0 12 lo0
196.200.218.0/24 link#1 U 0 0 bge0
196.200.218.253 link#1 UHS 0 0 lo0

• The destination is a network address.

• The gateway is an IP address of a router that can forward packets
(or 0.0.0.0, if the packet doesn't need to be forwarded).
• Flags indicate various attributes for each route:
- U Up: The route is active.
- H Host: The route destination is a single host.
- G Gateway: Send anything for this destination on to this remote system, which will figure out from there where to send it.
- S Static: This route was configured manually, not automatically generated by the system.
- C Clone: Generates a new route based on this route for hosts we connect to. This type of route normally used for local networks.
- W WasCloned: Indicated a route that was auto-configured based upon a local area network (Clone) route.
- L Link: Route involves references to Ethernet hardware.
• Refs is the number of active references to this route.
• Use is the count of number of packets sent using this route interface
• The Netif is the network interface that is connected to that network
• Expire is the seconds the ARP entry is valid
nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
 How the route table is used

A packet that needs to be sent has a destination

IP address.

For each entry in the route table (starting with the

first):
1. Compute the logical AND of the destination IP and the genmask entry.
2. Compare that with the destination entry.
3. If those match, send the packet out the interface, and we're done.
4. If not, move on to the next entry in the table.

nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
 Reaching the local network

Suppose we want to send a packet to

128.223.143.42 using this route table.
Destination Gateway Genmask Flags Interface
128.223.142.0 0.0.0.0 255.255.254.0 U bge0
0.0.0.0 128.223.142.1 0.0.0.0 UG bge0

• In the first entry 128.223.143.42 AND 255.255.254.0 = 128.223.142.0

• This matches the destination of the first routing table entry, so
send the packet out interface bge0.
• That first entry is called a network route.

Do you notice anything different about this routing table?

nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
 Reaching other networks

Suppose we want to send a packet to

72.14.213.99 using this route table.
Destination Gateway Genmask Flags Interface
128.223.142.0 0.0.0.0 255.255.254.0 U eth0
0.0.0.0 128.223.142.1 0.0.0.0 UG eth0

1. 72.14.213.99 AND 255.255.254.0 = 72.14.212.0

2. This does not match the first entry, so move on to the next
entry.
3. 72.14.213.99 AND 0.0.0.0 = 0.0.0.0
4. This does match the second entry, so forward the packet to
128.223.142.1 via bge0.
nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
 The default route

Note that this route table entry:

Destination Gateway Genmask Flags Interface
0.0.0.0 128.223.142.1 0.0.0.0 UG eth0

matches every possible destination IP address.

This is called the default route. The
gateway has to be a router capable of
forwarding traffic.

nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
 More complex routing

Consider this route table:

Destination Gateway Genmask Flags Interface
192.168.0.0 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.0 U eth0
192.168.1.0 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.0 U eth1
192.168.2.0 0.0.0.0 255.255.254.0 U eth2
192.168.4.0 0.0.0.0 255.255.252.0 U eth3
0.0.0.0 192.168.1.1 0.0.0.0 UG eth0

This is what a router's routing table might look

like. Note that there are multiple interfaces for
multiple local networks, and a gateway that
can reach other networks.
nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
 Forwarding packets

Any UNIX-like (and other) operating system can function as a

gateway:

 In Ubuntu /etc/sysctl.conf set:

# Uncomment the next line to enable

# packet forwarding for IPv4
#net/ipv4/ip_forward=1

# Uncomment the next line to enable

# packet forwarding for IPv6
#net/ipv6/ip_forward=1

nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa
 Forwarding packets

Important

Without forwarding enabled, the box will not

forward packets from one interface to
another: it is simply a host with multiple
interfaces.

nsrc@pacnog 2010
Pago Pago, American
Samoa