GEOGRAPHY

HIGHER SECONDARY - FIRST YEAR

Untouchability is a sin
Untouchability is a crime
Untouchability is in human

TAMILNADU
TEXT BOOK CORPORATION
College Road, Chennai - 600 006.
© Government of Tamilnadu
First Edition - 2004
PREFACE
Chairperson
Geography is a very wide subject and this has caused certain problems
Dr. S. RANI SENTHAMARAI
for both students and teachers. Its character, aims and methods of
Reader - Geography Department
Presidency College approach have altered considerably in the recent past so that a subject
Chennai - 600 005. was once essentially descriptive and qualitative has become more
scientific now. Thus an attempt is made in this textbook, to introduce a
Reviewers
new concept, the Earth System Science, both in content and in structure.
Tmt. T. RUKMANI Tmt. M. MANIMEKALAI
The content closely interweaves environmental problems and issues
Principal DIET Principal DIET
Thirumurthy Nagar Adudhurai with principles of science necessary to their understanding. By presenting
Coimbatore - 642 112 Thanjavur - 612 101. science topics simultaneously with environmental implications, we hope
to have achieved a book that is readily teachable and holds student
Authors interest. At the same time, the text emphasis the key role of geography
Thiru. S. PARASURAMAN Tmt. R. USHA RANI in the understanding of environmental problems and their solutions.
P.G. Teacher - Geography P.G. Teacher - Geography
PCKG Govt. Higher Secondary Govt. Higher Secondary School For the structure of the text we have also adopted a new format : Our
School, Kodambakkam, Chennai. Orathanadu, Thanjavur text contains of a small number of study units each deals with a specific
topic and the main text portions of each unit contain not only science
Tmt. VANITHA VATCHALA Tmt. K. PUVANESWARI principles but also conventional ideas. Organizing the book into short
MONICA P.G. Teacher - Geography units should be easier for students to master.
P.G. Teacher - Geography Govt. Girls Higher Secondary
St. Pauls Higher Secondary School, School, Ashok Nagar, Chennai This textbook is divided into two parts each containing two to three
Veperi, Chennai study units. Part I, Theory covers systematically the essential
geographical background to understand the dynamic nature of the Earth.
Price : Rs.
The three study units emphasize two distinct facets of Earth system
This book has been prepared by The Directorate of School science : 1. The Earth is a system and has components; 2. The
Education on behalf of the Government of Tamilnadu. environmental impact of humans on the Earth systems.
Geography is a way of thinking, of asking questions, of observing
This book has been printed on 60 G.S.M. paper and appreciating the world around us. You can help your students learn
Printed by Web Offset at : by providing interesting activities for them, and by prompting them to ask
Paari’s Printers, Chennai - 600 002.
II III
questions about their surroundings. The activities suggested in this book CONTENTS
are only a few examples of the many ways that students learn geography.
We hope they will stimulate your thinking and that you will develop PART I - THEORY
many more activities on your own.
PAGE NO.
Each lesson is provided with a minimum of two activities. A separate
notebook for activities should be maintained and submitted along with UNIT I : EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE
the practical record. Questions for evaluation should be framed both
from the text (60%) and as well as the activities (40%). 1. Human and their Environment 1
2. Earth System Science 14
Helping every student develop his or her ability to use maps and to
develop mental maps of the world ought to become a priority in our UNIT II : ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
schools. For, as we all know, our lives are becoming an ever tighter
weave of interactions with people around the world. If our businesses 3. Lithosphere and Tectonic Plates 24
are to fare well in tomorrow’s world markets, if our national policies 4. Hydrosphere and Currents 40
are to achieve our aims in the future, and if our relationships with other 5. Atmosphere and Solar Radiation 54
peoples are to grow resilient and mutually enriching, our students must
grow to know what in the world is where. UNIT III : BIOTIC COMPONENTS

With this in our in our mind the Part II Practicals is designed with 6. Nutrient Cycles and Ecosystems 67
two study units. Expose students to lot of maps and let them see you 7. The Biomes : Natural and Agricultural 80
using them. Get a good atlas as well as a dictionary. Atlases help us ask, 8. Ecosystem Management and Conservation 97
and answer, questions about places and their relationships with other
areas. PART II - PRACTICAL

One way to help students see the relationships among specific UNIT IV : MAP MAKING
information (such as the Earth system and its components) is to use
concept maps. Concept maps represent information visually and 9. Basic Cartography 112
encourage the understanding of complex information quickly. Their use 10. Scales and Their Functions 119
should help students develop their powers of critical thinking. With this 11. Contouring and Cross sections 129
book, we hope you, as teachers, will get ideas for activities that will
help your students to learn more geography, the study of the Earth. UNIT V : THEMATIC MAPS
12. Topographic Maps : Informations and Symbols 147
Dr.S.Rani Senthamarai 13. Weather Maps : Informations and Symbols 157
Chair person 14. Fieldwork and Report Writing 164
IV V
 1. HUMANS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT
The interface of air, water and land forms a life supporting layer
known as the biosphere. The biosphere is the broadest Earth ecosystem,
which is the spatial unit for the study of environmental geography. The
prime concern of environmental geography is to study the components
of natural environment separately and together, their linkages at various
levels through physical and biological processes and human responses
to environment relationships. These aspects cannot be studied in isolation.
They are not only linked together but also to the physical environment
in which they are found. Thus to understand the environment you will
need to study each of the Earth system components : lithosphere,
hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere.
The physical and biological components of the Earth are interlinked
with each other, like a tapestry. If we pull a thread from a tapestry at
one end, the whole tapestry can unravel. Similarly even a slight
modification in the Earth’s environment can lead to disasters such as
floods and droughts, extinction of species and so on. In particular, species
extinction is quite common these days. One fourth of the species presently
living on the Earth may become extinct by the end of this century if the
present environmental conditions persist. So, let us understand in this
lesson about, the relationship that exists between the humans and their
environment.
Human and their Environment
In geography, the relationship between humans and environment are
identified as an overall system. In this system, the factors such as humans,
animals, plants, climate, rocks and soils have a functional (Fig. 1-1)
interaction. This functional interaction is under threat always by the
development of science and technology and has adverse effects on our
environment.
1
 The dawn of industrial revolution since eighteenth century initiated the
growth of science and technology. Many technological tools were
discovered. Over the time, human communities acquired the technical
knowhow and developed the skill to handle the technical tools. This in
turn helped the modern human community to improve their standard of

Fig. No. 1.1 Human Relationships with our Environment

lliving and became technological community. These technological humans
recklessly and indiscriminately exploited natural resources for industrial
expansion and urban growth. These events altogether created most of the
present day environmental problems.
So, it is the human technology that has drastically changed the human
environment relationship from the prehistoric period to the present, most
advanced industrial period. Thus a study of changing relationships between
humans and the environment from a historical perspective may help in
demonstrating the increasing adverse impacts of human activities on the
environment. The changing relationships of humans, with the natural
environment from prehistoric to modern periods may be divided into four
stages:
1. Period of Food Gathering and Hunting
2. Period of Animal Domestication and Pastoralism
3. Period of Plant Domestication and Agriculture
4. Period of Science, Technology and Indsutrialization.
1. Period of Food Gathering and Hunting : This period is related to
most primitive humans when they were basically a part of natural
environment and their functions were like other animals. The primitive
human were functionally a physical human because their basic needs
were limited to food only, which they could collect (Fig.No.1.2) from
their surroundings. They used to satisfy their hunger by fruits, which
were easily obtained from the trees and plants; they spent the nights in
the caves and on the trees. So the relationship between human and the
environment was very friendly. The natural environment provided all
requirements of early humans and thus they were totally dependent on
their environment. Hence they are called as Physical Humans.
2 3
 Over a period of time, humans learnt to hunt animals for their food.
So, hunting became the first form of destruction of natural resources.
But yet, such activities on the natural environment did not make any
negative impacts on the environment at a larger scale. This is because of
the limited requirements and a very low population existed at that time.
The discovery of fire (Fig.No.1.3) made a significant change in the
attitude of humans because they learned to cook animal flesh before
eating. This practice required wood, which they got from the forests.
Such a demand made another significant starting point in the technology.
The humans invented some device to cut and chop trees and their branches

Fig. No. 1.2 Food Gatherers and Hunters

to get firewood. They also invented some tools to kill animals. Thus the
discovery of fire and the invention of tools and weapons made the humans
capable of exploiting the natural resources at a faster rate from their
environment. Thus fire became one of the major ecological tools used
by humans and changed the environment for their own benefit.
2. Period of Animal Domestication and Pastoralism : With the march
of the time early humans learnt to domesticate animals for their own
benefits. In the beginning, they domesticated some cattle and other animals
for meat. Slowly and slowly their herd of domesticated animals
substantially increased. This meant humans had to create temporary
habitats, fenced with branches of trees and thorny bushes for domesticated
animals. Thus early humans burnt the forest to create temporary home
for the domesticated animals. They started to exploit the forest resources
to gather fodder for their animals and for their foods. Domestication of
animals initiated the community life among the primitive humans, in
order to protect their animals and themselves from wild animals.
Over the time the primitive communities gathered larger herds of
domesticated animals. But they still stuck to a nomadic way of life, as
they had to move from one place to another place, in search of water and
fooder for their animals and food for themselves. Even then the natural
state of the environment was not disturbed much because their population
and their domesticated animals were still under manageable size. So
the changes brought in by human activities on the environment were
well within the limit of self-regulatory mechanism of the natural
environmental system.
4 5
 3. Period of Plant Domestication and Agriculture : Domestication
of plants for food was a hallmark in the development of human skill of
controlling the biotic component of the natural environmental system.
Domestication of plants initiated primitive types of agriculture and a
sedentary, settled, life for people who previously were nomads and
wanderers. But still many of them were nomads.
The cultivation of main food crops resulted in the formation of social
groups and organization, which gave birth to early human civilization
known as ‘river valley civilization’. Humans settled in the river valleys
due to availability of water and fertile land for cultivation. This meant
the emergence of socially organized human communities. Human
civilization and farming practices changed the cordial relationships
that existed between the humans and their natural environment at that
time. Gradual but continuous improvements in farming practices
resulted in gradual increase in human population and in the number of
domesticated animals. More and more virgin forest land were cleared
through felling of trees with the help of more advanced tools and
weapons. Additionally, through burning of forest they increased the
agricultural land. Humans also moved to other places in search of new
fertile land. This led to the spread of human population all over the
Earth and more destruction of their natural environment. Shifting
cultivation, the most prevalent form of primitive cultivation, was
responsible for the destruction of natural forests. Such farming practices
are still in operation in many of the hilly regions of South and Southeast
Asia.
At one point of time, humans developed their own environment
known as ‘cultural environment’ by building houses and creating
villages and towns and cities. The elements of cultural environment,
such as buildings and roads, were built. Agricultural development
changed the physical human into ‘economic human’ but no serious
damage was done to the natural environment though significant
changes, no doubt, were brought in the environment.
Fig.No.1.3 Discovery of Fire
4. Period of Science, Technology and Industrialization : After the
industrial revolution the science and technology improved the standard
of living but destroyed the harmonious relationship between the humans
and the natural environment. The impacts of science technology and
industrialization on environment fall into two broad catergories.
6 7
 The direct impacts are preplanned because people are aware of
consequences, both positive and negative of any programme which is
launched to change or modify the natural environment for economic
development. Such changes include land use changes, constructions and
excavations, agricultural practices and weather modification programmes.

Fig.No. 1.4 Environmental Degradation : Impact of Industrialization

The indirect impacts are not planned and arise from those human activities
that are directed to accelerate the pace of economic growth, especially
industrial development (Fig.No.1.4). Impacts include the release of toxic
elements and industrial wastes into the environment systems, and the
burning of hydrocarbons. Some of these impacts are listed below.
a) Deforestation
Deforestation either for cropland or for commercial purposes leads
to accelerated rates of soil erosion. This results in gully erosion and loss
of soil fertility on the one hand, and an enormous increase in sediment
load in the river which causes severe floods on the other hand. These
chain effects can be effectively stopped by reforestation of the deforested
areas. Similarly, changes in farm practices, which introduce adverse
changes in the environment, may be changed to suit the environmental
and ecological situations.
b) Weather modifications
The ‘cloud seeding’ technology in meteorological phenomena in turns
modifies the local weather conditions. This technology stimulates clouds
and precipitation through crystalization of super cooled drops through
the application of solid carbon dioxide and certain compounds of iodine.
A few hundred grams of solid carbon dioxide or a few grams of an iodine
compound are enough to crystalize a cubic kilometer of a super cooled
cloud of water drops.
c) Exploitation of ground water : Withdrawal of groundwater for
drinking water and irrigation purposes, construction of dams and reservoirs
to store water upset the equilibrium of the rocks below. In particular,
dams on major rivers increase hydrostatic pressure, which causes
disturbances in underlying rocks and triggered off many seismic evnets.

8 9
d) Release of toxic elements : The release of toxic elements into the Exercises
ecosystem through their uses as insecticides and fertilizers changes the
I. Fill in the blanks
food chains and food webs (e.g. the introduction of D.D.T.) Similarly,
the release of industrial wastes into stagnant water, rivers and seas
contaminates water and causes several diseases and deaths of organisms. 1. The ______ is also considered as the broadest Earth ecosystem.
These toxic substances, through the food chain, are transported across 2. The dawn of _________ since eighteenth century initiated the
the placenta and reach the developing foetuses of women and cause growth of science and technology.
miscarriages and premature labour. Increasing urbanisation and industrial
expansion are responsible for the release of enormous quantities of 3. Domestication of animals initiated the __________ life among the
pollutants into the rivers and lakes, contaminating the water. primitive humans.
e) The burning of hydrocarbon : The burning of hydrocarbon fuels 4. The release of _________ elements into the ecosystem changes
has increased the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) in the the food chains and food webs.
atmosphere. The increase in CO 2 content of the atmosphere may change
the heat balance by increasing the level of sensible heat in the atmosphere. 5. Depletion of the _______ layer means less absorption of ultraviolet
CO2 allows more absorption of incoming solar radiation and out going rays.
terrestrial re-radiation.
f) Depletion of the ozone layer : Deplection of the ozone layer means II. Match the following
less absorption of ultraviolet rays which increases the temperature of the
Earth’s surface. Increases in air temperature and decreases in the 1. Landuse changes - Agriculture
concentration of ozone can cause skin cancer, decrease photosynthesis, 2. Economic humans - Rock equilibrium
and lower crop yields. Ultraviolet radiation also accelerates the
3. Deforestation - Carbon dioxide
photochemical processes that create urban smog. The marine
environment would also suffer drastic damages as the productivity of 4. Seismic event - Direct impact
phyto-plankton would be reduced due to a decrease in photosynthesis. 5. Heat balance - Severe flood
This will also affect the mortality of larvae of zoo-plankton. The species
composition of marine ecosystems may change, as certain species are
more vulnerable to ultra violet radiation. III. Write short notes on

Environmentalists fear that as technology advances, human influence 1. Technological Community

on our environment will also increase, both in intensity and extent. Our 2. Ecological tools
power over our environment will become more dominant. To control
3. Deforestation
our power over our environment, many geographers employ the concept
of a Control System whereby the Earth is viewed as a system. In the next 4. Depletion of ozone
lesson, let us learn how the Control System helps us to understand the 5. Release of toxic elements
functional interactions that make Earth a system.
10 11
V. Explain in detail
1. Illustrate the human-environment relationship.

2. The fire became one of the important ecological tool - Explain.

3. Write about the impacts of science, technology and industrialization

on the Earth’s environment.

Activities

1. Collect pictures that shows a. Land Pollution, b. Water Pollution and c.

Air Pollution and Write a small note on the effects of such pollutions
on environments.

2. See the photo plate 1. and explain the impact of toxic and hazardous
Waste Disposal in few words.

Photo Plate 1. Toxic and Hazardous Waste Disposal

12 13
 2. Global change is much more than climate change. It is real, it is
happening now, and it is accelerating. Human activities are
significantly influencing the functioning of the Earth System in
many ways. Anthropogenic changes are clearly identifiable
2. EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE beyond natural variability and are equal to some of the great
forces of nature in their extent and impact.
In the Solar System, our Earth is a unique planet because of the
life forms that exists on its surface. Somewhat more than a decade 3. Global change cannot be understood in terms of a simple cause/
ago, it was recognized that the Earth is a sub system in which, its effect paradigm. Because, the human inventions and technology
nonliving elements such as oceans, atmosphere, and land and the multiply the interacting effects that cascade through the Earth
living parts are all connected. While accepted by many, this working System in complex ways. Cascading effects of human activities
hypothesis seldom formed the basis for global change research. Little interact with each other and with local, and regional, scale
understanding existed of how the Earth worked as a system, how the changes in multidimensional ways.
parts were connected, or even about the importance of the various So, understanding a changing Earth demands an effective framework
components of the system. Over the intervening years, much has been between the social and natural sciences. One such framework is the
learned. In many respects, former uncertainties about the nature and concept of an Earth System introduced by a Russian mineralogist,
future course of global change have been reduced, in others, the Vladimir Vernadsky, in the year 1920s. According to him, “Earth’s
realization that uncertainty is an inherent part of the system has gained environment is an integrated global system with significant connections
credibility. among its atmosphere, ocean, land and living biota”.
Over the last thirty years, the understanding of how humans are The Earth system :
bringing about global change has undergone a quantum jump. Our Earth’s position is very special in the Solar family. The Earth is
Attempts to separate natural and anthropogenically induced variability placed at a distance from the sun that makes its position very conducive
in the Earth System have proved to be successful in many respects. for the growth of living organisms. The recipe of life is unknown, but
Largely through a significant increase in the ability to unravel the likely ingredients were methane, carbon dioxide, ammonia and water in
past history, our understanding of the natural dynamics of the Earth the atmosphere and seas of the young Earth. The action of ultraviolet
System has advanced greatly. It is now clear that global change is radiation or lightning could have combined these chemicals into amino
one of the paramount environmental issues facing humanity at present. acids, the building blocks of protein and of all living things. Plants were
Due to a decade of global change research, some of the important the first life forms to colonize the early Earth, followed by the proliferation
research findings that have emerged are as follows : of humans and other animals. These lifeforms are the biotic components
of the Earth. Yet another special feature is the shape of the Earth. For
1. Earth functions as a system. This system has components and
several years, people had different views about the shape of the Earth.
controls the system themselves. Living organisms interact
During the twentieth century, many satellites were launched into space.
with land, water and atmosphere and create the planetary
The images sent by space by space shuttles prove that the Earth has a
environment.
spherical shape.
14 15
 The Earth has two motions. It rotates on its axis, inclined at an angle
of 23 ½0 . Due to this rotation, day and night occur. The Earth also on its
inclined axis revolves around the Sun and thus produce seasons. The
seasons are classified based on temperature conditions. In a year, there are
spring, summer, autumn and winter
seasons. So, the knowledge about the
“monistic” nature of the Earth system is
very much needed, rather than only
knowledge about components and
elements.
The systems analysis helps us to
understand the Earth’s structure as a
whole and also the functional interactions
that exist between the components. Let
us understand this with an example.
Assume your school is a system. The Fig. No.2.1 The Earth
students, teachers, and other employees
are important components of this system. These components have
individual functional elements such as learning, teaching and
administration. These functions interrelate all of you so that your school
system works effectively.
Besides, the land on which your school is located is a part of the
lithosphere. Similarly the water you drink and the air you breathe are part
of hydrosphere and atmosphere respectively. The lithosphere, hydrosphere

Fig.No. The Solar System

and atmosphere are the abiotic components of the Earth. These components
interact with each other and create the fourth component of the Earth, the
biosphere. Biosphere interact with the abiotic elements and a number of
ecosystems are created on the surface of the Earth. Thus the Earth is
considered a unique subsystem in the planetary system.
The Planetary System :
Gases and dust surrounded our star, the Sun approximately 5 billion
years ago. Over time they condensed and formed planets. The planetary
system consists of nine planets : Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto and about 90 satellites.
16 17
 All these planets revolve around the Sun on their own axes. Every UNIVERSE
planet has its own elements and mechanisms irrespective of their size.
Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are smaller in size. They have large
amounts of rocks and smaller amounts of gases. Hence, these planets GALAXIES
are called rocky planets. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are bigger SUN
in size. They have small amounts of rocks and large amounts of gases,
and are called Gaseous Planets.The lastly positioned Pluto is the smallest
planet of the planetary system. Pluto is an asteroid, captured by the Sun’s
gravity and brought into the orbital path of the planetary system. The
prevailing temperature (-2100 C)on Pluto freezes the gases into solid. So
Pluto is called, a Snow Ball. This planetary system is maintained by the
Sun. This system is a subsystem of the Solar System (Fig.No.2.2). PLANETS
The Solar System :
The Sun is the main source of energy for the planetary system. The
Sun is a mixture of gases. It consists of 92% hydrogen, 7.8% helium
and 0.2% other gases. The temperature on the surface of the Sun is
6,000 degrees Celsius and the temperature at the center of the Sun is EARTH
more than 15,000,000 degree Celsius. The Sun shines as a consequence
of the fusion of hydrogen into helium, which is constantly taking place in
its core. Hence, astronomers call the Sun a “Big Fire Ball”. BIOLOGICAL
PHYSICAL
Scientists believe that the Sun will cease its function when the hydrogen
is exhausted. If so, how long it can burn? It can burn for another 5,000
million years. It is estimated that the Sun had enough hydrogen to burn LAND WATER AIR PLANTS ANIMALS HUMANS
for 10,000 million years. It has burnt already for 5,000 million years. So,
now it is literally a middle-aged star. The Sun and its components
namely the planets, form the Solar System. This Solar System is a INTERACTION
subsystem of the Universe (Fig No. 2.3). The Universe consists of millions
and millions of galaxies. Our Solar System is part of one such galaxy
known as the Milky Way. Thus Universe is considered as a general BIO SPHERE
system that consists of many subsystems.
So far we learnt that the Earth is a system and has components.
These components interact with each other and create the Earth’s ECO SYSTEMS
environment. But how do we know about the Earth’s components and its
interactions ? Are there any operating manuals / pamphlets like the ones Fig. No.2.3 The Universe and its subsystems

18 19
we get when we buy electrical / electronic goods? These manuals / III. Write short notes on :
pamphlets contain information about how to operate the system and also
1. Earth’s movements
its functions. But for our Earth system, there is no such operating manuals.
2. Planetary System
Only through science and technological research activities, we come to
3. Sun
know about how Earth operates and how its components functions. In
4. General System
the next lesson, let us learn about the lithosphere, a component of the
5. Seasons
Earth.

IV. Explain in Detail :

1. List the important research finding about the dynamics of the Earth’s
Exercises system.

I. Fill in the blanks 2. Earth is a System – explain.

1. Earth is a unique planet because of the ———————— that

exists on its surface. Activities
2. Living organisms interact with land, water and atmosphere and
1. Collect pictures and news about a. Universe, b. Sun, C. Planets and
create the ———————— environment. prepare a table showing the rotation, revolution period of the solar
3. Plants were the first —————————— to colonize the early family.
Earth.
2. Draw a line diagram to show that the Earth is a system.
4. The Earth has a —————— shape. 3. Conduct Solar system quiz using the following questions :
5. Universe is a —————————— system that consists of 1. How many planets are in our Solar System?
many subsystems. 2. Which planet is nearer to the Sun?
3. Which planet is fartherest from the Sun?
4. Which planet is the biggest?
II. Match the following 5. Which planet has the biggest, easily – seen rings orbiting it?
1. Snow ball - Big fire ball 6. What is the name of the group of objects that orbit the Sun between
2. The sun - season Mars and Jupiter?
3. System - Pluto 7. What is at the centre of our Solar system?
4. Revolution - rotation 8. Are inner planets made or rock or gas?
5. Earth axis - interactions 9. What are the icy objects with huge tails that orbit the Sun?
10. Which planet is called the Red Planet?
11. Is the Sun a star, or a planet?
20 21
12. Is the Sun solid, liquid, or gaseous? 43. Does Uranus have rings circling it?
13. What element is most plentiful on the Sun? 44. When was Uranus discovered?
14. How old is the Sun? 45. Is Neptune always the eighth planet from the Sun?
15. Is Mercury composed of rock or gases? 46. Can Neptune be seen from the Earth without using a telescope?
16. Since Mercury is close to the Sun, it gets very hot. Does it ever get 47. How long is a Neptune year?
cold? 48. Is Pluto always the farthest planet from the Sun?
17. Does Mercury have a thick or thin atmosphere?
49. Is Pluto a rocky planet or a gaseous planet?
18. Is Mercury closer to the size of the Earth or our moon?
50. Is Pluto bigger than the Earth, smaller than the Earth, or about the
19. We have four seasons on Earth. Are there any seasons on Mercury?
same size as the Earth?
20. Is Mercury the smallest planet in the Solar System?
21. What is another name for the planet Venus? 51. How long does it take Pluto to revolve around the Sun once?
22. Is Venus much bigger, much smaller, or about the same size as the 52. Is Pluto’s orbit close to being circular or quite eccentric?
Earth? 53. How many degrees is the orbit of Pluto tilted from the plane of the
23. Is Venus the planet nearest the Sun in our Solar System or the second ecliptic?
– nearest? 54. Has a spacecraft from Earth ever visited Pluto?
24. Is Mars bigger, smaller, or the same size as Earth?
4. Label the planets in the Solar System
25. Mars’ surface is mostly water, rock, or magma?
26. Are there polar ice caps on Mars?
27. Does Mars have any rings orbiting it?
28. When did the first spaceship from Earth land on Mars?
29. Is Jupiter composed mostly of solids or gases?
30. Jupiter is about 11-times, 111-times or 1,111-times bigger than the
Earth.
31. How long is a Jovian day ( a day on Jupiter)?
32. How long is a Jovian year?
33. Is Jupiter’s Great Red Spot a deposit of iron-rich soil, a storm, or a
huge crater?
34. Does Jupiter have any rings?
35. Can you ever see Jupiter from Earth without using a telescope?
36. Saturn is notable for its rings What are they made of?
37. Are Saturn’s rings visible from Earth without using a telescope?
38. Is Saturn the largest planet in our Solar System?
39. Uranus is the third-largest planet in the solar System. Is its diameter
4-times, 14-times, or 24-times bigger than the Earth?
40. How long does it take Uranus to revolve around the Sun?
41. Uranus’ axis is very tilted; what does this lead to?
42. Does Uranus have a solid surface? Solar System

22 23
3. LITHOSPHERE AND TECTONIC PLATES
Scientists believe the Earth began its life about 4.6 billion years ago.
The continents probably began forming about 4.2 billion years ago as the
Earth continued to cool. But it was not until the turn of the 20th century
that scientists determined that our planet is made up of four main layers:
the inner core, outer core, mantle, and crust (Fig. No. 3.1). The core

Fig.No. 3.2. Interior of the Earth

is composed mostly of iron and is so hot that the outer core is molten,
with about 10% sulphur. The inner core is under such extreme pressure
that it remains solid.

Fig.No. 3.1 Interior of the Earth

Most of the Earth’s mass is in the mantle, which is composed of iron,
magnesium, aluminium, silicon, and oxygen silicate compounds. At over
1000 degrees C, the mantle is solid but can deform slowly in a plastic
manner. The crust is much thinner than any of the other layers, and is
composed of the least dense calcium and sodium (Na) aluminum-silicate
minerals. Being relatively cold, the crust is rocky and brittle , so it can
fracture in earthquakes.
The crust and the upper layer of the mantle together makeup a zone of

Fig. No.
rigid, brittle rock called the Lithosphere. The layer below the rigid
lithosphere is a zone of about 50-100 km down, is especially soft and
plastic, and is called the asthenosphere. The asthenosphere is the part of
the mantle that flows and moves the plates of the Earth. A heavy load on
the crust, like an ice cap, large glacial lake, or mountain range, can bend
the lithosphere down into the asthenosphere, which can flow out of the
way. The load will sink until it is supported by buoyancy (Fig.No. 3.2).
The crust is composed of two basic rock types granite and basalt. The
continental crust is composed mostly of granite. The oceanic crust consists
of a volcanic lava rock called basalt. Basaltic rocks of the ocean crust is
much denser and heavier than the granitic rock of the continental crust.
Because of this the continents ride on the denser oceanic plates.

24 25
 Even though plate collisions take a long time, lots of interesting things
Asthenosphere happen. For example, in the drawing, an oceanic plate has crashed into
a continental plate. The continental plate “front ends” bends and the
edge of the continental plate as shown, in fig. No.3.3 has folded into a
huge mountain range, while the edge of the oceanic plate has bent
downward and dug deep into the Earth. A trench has formed at the
bend. The folding and bending makes rock in both plates break and slip,
causing earthquakes.
As the edge of the oceanic plate digs into Earth’s hot interior, some of
the rock in it melts. The melted rock rises up through the continental
plate, causing more earthquakes on its way up, and forming volcanic
eruptions where in finally reaches the surface. An example of this
type of collision is found on the west coast of South America where the
oceanic Nazca Plate is crashing into the continent of South America.
The crash formed the Andes Mountains, the long string of volcanoes
Fig.No.3.2 Asthenosphere
along the mountain crest, and the deep trench off the coast in the Pacific
Ocean. Thus when two plates collide with each other mountains,
The Earth’s outermost layer, the lithosphere, is broken into 7 large, volcanoes and earthquakes are formed.
rigid pieces called plates: the African, North American, South American,
Eurasian, Australian, Antarctic, and Pacific plates. Several minor plates Mountains, earthquakes, and volcanoes form where plated collide.
Millions of people live in and visit the beautiful mountain ranges being
also exist, including the Arabian, Nazca, and Philippines plates. These
built by plate collisions. For example, the Rockies in North America, the
plates are all moving in different directions and at different speeds Alps in Europe, the Pontic Mountains in Turkey, the Zagors Mountains
from 2 cm to 10 cm per year. in Iran, and the Himalayas in central Asia were formed by plate collisions.
This theory of Plate tectonics explains “how the earth works” and Each year, thousands of people are killed by earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions in those mountains.
let us continue and learn more about the plates and their movements.
The place where the two plates meet is called a plate boundary. Occasionally, big eruptions or earthquakes kill large numbers of
Boundaries have different names depending on how the two plates are people. In 1883 an eruption of Krakatau volcano in Indonesia killed 37,000
moving in relationship to each other. people. In 1983 an eruption caused mudslide in Columbia killed 25,000
people. In 1976, an earthquake in Tangshan, China killed an astounding
Convergent Boundary : when two plates collide, the edge of one 750,000 people. If we choose to live near convergent plate boundaries,
dives beneath the other and ends up being destroyed in the mantle. Places we can build buildings that can resist earthquakes, and we can evacuate
where plates crash or crunch together are called convergent boundaries. areas around volcanoes when they threaten to erupt. Yes, convergent
Plates only move a few centimeters each year, so collisions are very boundaries are dangerous places to live, but with preparation and
watchfulness, the danger can be lessened somewhat.
slow and last millions of years.
26 27
 Divergent boundary : Places where plates are coming apart are called
divergent boundaries. As shown in figure 3.4, when Earth’s lithosphere
is pulled apart, it breaks along parallel faults. The block between the
faults crack and drops down into the soft, the asthenosphere. The sinking
of the block forms a central valley called a rift. Magma seeps upward
to fill the cracks. In this way, new crust is formed along the boundary.
Earthquakes occur along the faults, and volcanoes form where the
magma reaches the surface.

Divergence can occur on continent and as well as on oceanic floor.

Divergence on the continent causes rift valleys and are 30 to 50
kilometers wide. Examples include the East Africa rift in Kenya and
Ethiopia, and the Rio Grande rift in New Mexico. Divergerce across
the ocean floor causes rift valleys, with only a kilometer or less wide.
Divergence along the Mid Atlantic ridge causes the Atlantic Ocean to
widen at about 2 centimeters per year.

Divergent Plate Boundary

Fig No. 3.4 Divergent Plate boundary

Fig.No.3.3 Convergent Plate Boundaries

28 29
 Most of the world’s active volcanoes are located along or near the the plains formed through the actions of waves are called coastal plains.
boundaries between shifting plates. Such volcanoes are called plate- The eastern coastal plain of India is a good example.
boundary volcanoes. The peripheral areas of the Pacific Ocean Basin,
containing the boundaries of several plates, are dotted with many active Mountains, plateaus and plains are all part of lithosphere and they are
volcanoes that form the so-called Ring of Fire. The Ring provides excellent made up of many types of rocks. Some rocks are white and some others
examples of plate-boundary volcanoes, including Mount St. Helens. are black. A few rocks are brittle and others are hard; some are like
sand, are permeable, others, such as clay, are non-permeable. Rocks
Geographically these tectonic plates are grouped as seven continents are composed of many minerals such as silica, aluminum, iron and
and five oceans. Let us learn more about the continental plates and magnesium. The nature of the rock is determined by the presence of its
their features in this lesson, and oceans in the next lesson. minerals. Rocks can be classified into three types based on their
The Continents and its features: formation.
Igneous rocks :
A continent is defined as a large unbroken land mass completely
surrounded by water, although in some cases continents are connected The earth is about 4,600 million years old. The oldest rocks that have
by land bridges. The seven continents are North America, South America, been found were created by volcanic eruptions over hundreds of millions
Europe, Asia, African, Australia, and Antarctica. The island groups in of years. These rocks are still made every time a volcano erupts. These
the Pacific are often called Oceania. These continents occupies nearly rocks are formed from molten rock that has slowly cooled underground
29% of the Earth’s total area. Mountains, Plateaus and plains are or erupted to the surface of the earth through a volcano. While molten
significant features of those continents. rock is underground, it is called magma. Molten rock that has erupted
from a volcano, by contrast, is called lava. These rocks are usually very
A mountain is a landmass that stands significantly above its surrounding.
hard. Igneous rocks have crystals. The size of these crystals may depend
The majority of mountains are created when tectonic plates collide,
on how quickly the molten rock has cooled. If it cooled slowly, the crystals
causing folding and uplifting of rocks along the plate boundaries. The
uplifted land is then eroded into peaks and valleys. are large; if it cooled quickly, they are small. Today igneous rocks represent
95 per cent of the Earth’s crust.
A plateau is another feature of the Earth’s surface. They are broad
Sedimentary rocks :
uplands that rise abruptly from the surrounding area. The majority of
them are created when tectonic plates pulled, causing faulting and slipping Sedimentary rocks are formed by the accumulation and cementation
down of rocks along the plate boundaries. Tibet, the highest plateau of of mud, silt, or sand derived from weathered igneous rock fragments.
the world, Colorado plateau, Decan Plateau, and East African Plateau Sedimentary rocks represent less than 5 per cent of the Earth’s crust but
are noteworthy. 75 per cent of the Earth’s land surface.
A plain is a vast, low-lying areas of the continents. They are formed Metamorphic rocks :
in different ways. Plains made through the actions of rivers are called
alluvial plains; the Ganges, the Brahmaputra are the largest river plains Metamorphic rocks are igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been
in the world. altered by heat and / or pressure, either because they have been buried
and folded deep in the crust, or because they have come into contact
The plains made through wind sedimentation are called loess. The with molten igneous rock. Metamorphism can result in the formation of
plain formed where the Yellow River flows in China is loess. Similarly, completely new minerals. It can also destroy original structures such as
30 31
sedimentary layering or fossils. Intense pressure causes the realignment
of minerals, forming new layers. About one per cent of rocks in the crust The Rock Cycle
are metamorphic.
The rocks of the Earth’s crust are constantly being created, worn
The above said rocks on the Earth crust are constantly being created, down and redeposited in a slow cycle. The rock cycle beings with
worn down and redeposited in a slow rock cycle. In a Rock Cycle, the weathering of igneous rocks. The Rock Cycle is a group of
weathering is the first step for a number geomorphic and biogeochemical changes. Igneous rock can change into sedimentary rock or into
processes and is fundamental to many other aspects of the hydrosphere, metamorphic rock. Sedimentary rock can change into metamorphic
lithosphere, and biosphere. Let us now examine what is weathering and rock or into igneous rock. Metamorphic rock can change into
what are the products of weathering. igneous or sedimentary rock. Igneous rock forms when magma
Weathering : Weathering is the breakdown and alteration of rocks and cools and makes crystals. Magma is a hot liquid made for melted
minerals at or near the Earth’s surface into products that are more in minerals. The minerals can form crystals when they cool. Igneous
equilibrium with the conditions found in that environment. Most rocks rock can form underground, where the magma cools slowly. Or,
and minerals are formed deep within the Earth’s crust where temperatures igneous rock can form above ground, where the magma cools
and pressures differ greatly from the surface. Because the physical and quickly.
chemical nature of materials formed in the Earth’s interior are Igneous
characteristically in disequilibrium with conditions occurring on the surface.
Because of this disequilibrium, these materails are easily attacked, de-
composed, and eroded by various chemical and physical surface processes.
The products of weathering are a major source of sediments for
erosion and deposition. Many types of sedimentary rocks are composed
of particles that have been weathered, eroded, transported, and terminally
deposited in basins. “Weathering also contributes to the formation
of soil by providing mineral particles like sand, silt, and clay.
Elements and compounds extracted from the rocks and minerals by
weathering processes supply nutrients for plant uptake.
Products of Weathering : The process of weathering can result in the
following three outcomes on rocks and minerals :
(1) The complete loss of particular atoms or compounds from the
weathered surface.
(2) The addition of specific atoms or compounds to the weathered
surface.
Sedimentary
(3) A breakdown of one mass into two or more masses, with no Fig.No.3.5 The Rock Cycle
chemical change in the mineral or rock.
32 33
 Theresidue of weathering consists of chemically altered and unaltered
materials. The most common unaltered residue is quartz. Many of the
chemically altered products of weathering become very simple small
compounds or nutrient ions. These residues can then be dissolved or
transported by water, released to the atmoshpere as a gas, or taken up by
plants for nutrition. Some of the products of weathering, less resistant
alumino-silicate minerals, become clay particles. Other altered materials
are reconstituted by sedimentary or metamorphic processes to become
new rocks and minerals. These rocks may have gone through several
cycles, and may have undergone metamorphism or sedimentation before
they finally became soil (Fig. 3.6). It takes hundred years to form one
centimeter of soil from the weathering of rocks. In a few places, this soil
is only a few centimeters deep; in other places it is 20 to 30 centimeters
in depth.

Fig 3-6. Formation of Soil

Soils are the unconsolidated mineral or organic material on the
immediate surface of the earth that serves as a natural medium for the
growth of land plants. Soil particles are generally classified according to
size; that is, sand as large particles, silt as medium and clay as fine.
Particles larger than sand are classified as gravel and are large enough
to be identified as an individual rock.
Soil is essential for fixing the roots of plants and also provides the
necessary nutrients, suitable temperature, and moisture for its growth.
Soil maintains its fertility with the remains of decayed plants and animals.
The growth of plants depends on the fertility of the soil. all living organisms
depend on these plants. But human interference makes the soil infertile.
If this continues, ultimately it will affect the “soil - plant - organism” links
and create negative impacts in the rock cycle. To enrich the soil, humans
add natural and chemical fertilizers. Chemical fertilizers usually damage
soil, partially because they eradicate the natural micro organisms.
Essentially, all life depends upon the soil. There can be no life without
soil and no soil without life; they have evolved together. But we abuse
soil because we regard it as a commodity belonging to us. When we
consider soil as a community to which we belong, we may begin to use
it with care and conserve it. Similarly, water is also an important natural
resource. Major portion of this water is present in the oceans and sea.
34 35
 The remaining portion of water is in rivers, lakes and ponds. All IV. Explain in detail
these water bodies form the hydrosphere of the Earth. Let us learn 1. Describe lithosphere with illustration
more about hydrosphere, a component of the Earth in the next lesson.
2. How mountains are created? Explain
3. Soil is an important natural resources. Elucidate.

Exercises
1. Fill in the blanks Activities
1. The crust and the upper layer of the mantle togetehr make up a
zone called the ___________
1. Conduct Plate techonic quiz using the following questions
2. The Continental crust is composed mostly of ___________ rocks.
3. The lithosphere is broken into large rigid pieces called 1. Do plates move horizontally, vertically, or both?
___________ 2. What do plates float on?
3. What type of rock are oceanic plates made of?
4. The plains made through ___________ sedimentation are called
4. What type of rock are continental plates made of?
loess.
5. What is the name of the zone where the curst sinks into the Earth?
5. Soil is essential for ___________ the roots of plants. 6. What is the process of new crust formation called?
7. When two continental plates collide, what types of mountains are
formed?
II. Match the following :
1. New Mexico - Faulting
2. Igneous rock - Rio Grande 2. Collect news about recent Earthquakes and Volcanic eruptions. Discuss
3. Earth crust - Plant growth about the impact of such natural disorders.
4. Plateau - Brittle
5. Soil fertility - Magma

III. Write short notes on

1. Convergent boundaries
2. Lithosphere
3. Divergent boundaries
4. Igneous rocks
5. Weathering
36 37
38
3. Label the Continents

39
 The Pacific is the largest oceans, being twice the size of the Atlantic.
It covers about a third of the Earth’s surface, and contains more than half
4. HYDROSPHERE AND CURRENTS the water on the planet. A range of underwater mountains form a ridge
that lie 330m. Below the surface and rise to an elevation of about 2000 -
All the Earth’s water is found in Oceans, streams, lakes, the soil, 3000m. from the foor of the oceans. There are hundreds of volcanic
groundwater, and in the air. The largest store of water is in the oceans, islands scattered across the Pacific, many are inhabited. The world’s
which contain over 97% of the Earth’s water. Ice caps that covers largest coral structure, the Great Barrier Reef, is situated in the Pacific,
Antarctica and glaciers that occupy high alpine locations contain a little off the coast of Australia.
less than 2% of all water.But this small amount of water would have a The Second largest ocean, the Atlantic is widening at a rate of 2-4 cm
great impact on the environment if it were to melt. One fear is that global per year along the submarine volcanic mountains that run roughly north
warming will cause the melting and collapse of large ice sheets resulting to South. The ridge is up to 4000m high. The Sargosa Sea is an area of
in a rise in sea levels. Rising sea levels could devastate coastal cities, calm water in the Western North Atlantic. This water surface is covered
displace millions of people, and wreak havoc on fresh water systems by green-brown Sargassum seaweed.
and habitats.
The Indian Ocean comprises about a fifth of the total area covered
Water beneath the ground is the third largest store of water. by seawater. It is the third largest ocean. An ocean ridge stretches from
Groundwarer and soil water together make up about. 5% of all water the Red Sea to the Southern Limit of the Indian Ocean. The Red Sea lies
(by volume). There is a different between groundwater and soil water. over a spreading ridge and has been widening for the last 25 million
Soil water in held in pore spaces between soil particles. Soil pore spaces years.
usually are partially void of water most of the time but fill with water
The Southern Ocean includes all water lying south of latitude 55 degrees
after a rain storm. south, and is the fourth largest ocean. In winter, more than half the
Groundwater, on the other hand, is found in areas that are saturated surface is covered by ice. Information about the remote Southern Ocean
throughtout the year. That is, the pore spaces are always occupied with is incomplete since Antarctic ice extends seawards hundreds of kilometers
water. Both soil and groundwater are very important sources of water. from the continent and observations from the ice-covered regions are
Soil water is available for plants to extract and use. Groundwater is an sparce.
important source of water for irrigation and drinking water supplies. The Arctic Oceans is the smallest and shallowest ocean, containing
Surface water is stored in streams, rivers and lakes. One might expect, just 1% of the Earth’s salt water. A thick sheet of ice covers it for most
given the large rivers that flow across the Earth and the huge numbers of the year.
of lakes, that this store would be rather large. Instead, streams, rivers The Seas : Seas are subdivisions of oceans, especially where oceans
and lakes only comprise 0.02% of all water in the Earth system. In the are partly bounded by land. Seas are always salty. Large landlocked
atmosphere, only about 0.0001% of the water in the hydrosphere is bodies of salt water such as Dead and Caspian Sea are more properly
found. classified as lakes.
The Oceans : The oceans are large, deep, open expanses of water, The Coral Sea is part of the pacific Ocean, lying between Australia
while seas are shallower and partly encircled by land. Both oceans and and New Caledonia. The China Sea is also part of Pacific Ocean. It has
seas are comprised of salt water. two areas: The East China Sea and the South China Sea.
40 41
 The Bering Sea is part of the northern Pacific, lying between Alaska range in the ocean. This range is over 1400 km in length. This ridge has
and Kamchatka. It is often frozen for several months each winter. a deep valley where volcanic and earthquake disturbances are quite
Sea Okhotsk is an extension of the north-west North Pacific, off the common. These volcanoes erupt underwater as they do on land. Islands
eastern coast of Russia. The sea of Japan is part of the north Pacific, like Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean and the Azores in the Atlantic Ocean
between Japan, Korea and Russia. were formed through volcanic activity under the ocean. The floor is
carpeted with sediment formed by the minute remains of creatures and
The Caribbean Sea, part of the Atalntic Ocean, and contains many
islands. The Mediterranean Sea is almost landlocked. In 50 million years, rocks.
if present plate motions continue to force Africa northwards, the 4. The Ocean Deeps : Trenches are formed deep in the oceans. These
Mediterranean will close up altogether. trenches are very narrow and deep in nature. There are numerous trenches
The Andaman Sea is part of the Indian Ocean, lying between the in the Pacific Ocean. The Mariana Trench, 11 033 metres in depth, is the
Andaman Islands and Thailand. deepest part of the world. Even Mount Everest (8848 metres) would be
submerged completely in this trench.
Ocean Floor topography
The topography at the floor of the oceans (Fig.No.4.1) are divided
into four sections : 1. The Continental Shelf 2. The Continental Slope 3.
The Ocean Trough and 4. The Ocean Deeps.
1. The continental Shelf : The Continental Shelf is that part of an
Continental shelf
ocean that lies close to the conteinantal margin. The depths of the shelves
vary from 150 to 200 metres. Similarly, the width varies from place to Continental shelf
place. Broad continental shelves are good fishing grounds because they Continental slope
contain suitable conditions for the growth of platkton. Plankton provides
food for fish. For example, the broad continental shelves of Northwestern Continental Ocean
slopeTrough
Europe and the coastal areas around Japan are the largest fishing grounds
in the world.
Deeps
2. The Continental Slope: The Continental slope lies beyond the
continental shelf, where the ocean floor slopes downwards. The steep
slope connects the continental shelf with the deep ocean floor. The average
depth of the slope varies from 3000 to 6000 metres. The depth Fig.No. 4.1 Ocean Floor Topography
of the ocean floor suddenly increases where the shelf ends.
3. The Ocean Trough : The Continental slope ends at the ocean trough, So far we learnt in detail about the salient features at the bottom of
which is like a deep, underwater plain. It consists of islands, mountain the ocean. The most important characteristic feature in that the ocean
ranges, plateaus, deep valleys and plains. These features cover about waters are always in a state of motion. The different kinds of motions
40% of the oceans’ floors. Mid- Atlantic Ridge is the largest mountain are: waves, tides and currents.
42 43
 Waves are up and down movements, caused by the action of winds on continental margins. Direction of flow within these currents is determined
the water surfaces. Waves move in the direction of winds. When ocean by the direction of the macro-scale wind circulation. Boundary currents
levels rise and fall at regualr intervals during the course of the day. This play a role in redistributing global heat latitudinally. There are two gyres
is referred to as the tide. Tides are caused by the gravitational attraction in the Northern Hemiphere and three in the southern Hemisphere.
between the moon and the Earth. The horizontal and vertical circulation
of ocean waters creates currents. Major causes of ocean currents are Let us take North Atlantic Ocean Gyre as an example and
wind, friction, gravity, and variations in water density in different parts of undertstand the structure of a gyre. As shown in figure 4.2 North Atlantic
the oceans. These currents modify local climates. They distribute the Ocean Gyre consists of 1. North Equatorial Current 2. Gulf Stream 3. North
heat energy form one latitude to another. Let us learn now about the Atlantic Drift and 4) Canaries Current.
circulation of ocean currents.
1. North Equatorial Current : The warm water adjacent to the
The Currents : Equator in the Atlantic Ocean is called the North Equatorial Current.
This current forms mainly because of the easterly winds. These winds
An ocean current can be defined as a horizontal movement of
seawater at the ocean’s surface. Ocean currents are driven by the blow from the sub-tropical high pressure belt to the Equatorial low-
circulation of wind above surface waters. Frictional stress at the interface pressure belt. These winds are also called Tradewinds. Tradewinds
between the ocean and the wind causes the water to move in the direction move the North Equatorial Current towards the west. In the West, the
of the wind. Large ocean currents are a response of the atmosphere and American continents obstruct the current and it is diverted to the North.
ocean currents are responsible for the flow of energy from the tropics to This northwards - flowing current is known as the Gulf Stream.
polar regions. In some cases, currents are transient features and affect
only a small area. Other ocean currents are essentially permanent and
extend over large horizontal distances.
On a global scale, large ocean currents are constrained by the continental North
masses found bordering the three oceanic basins. Continental borders America
cause these currents to develop an almost closed circular pattern called
a gyre. Each ocean basin has a large gyre located at approximately 30°
North and South latitude in the subtropical regions. The currents in these
Africa
gyres are driven by the atmospheric flow produced by the subtropical
high pressure systems. Smaller gyres occur in the North Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans centered at 50° North. Currents in these systems are
propelled by the circulation produced by polar high pressure centers. In
the Southern Hemisphere, these gyre systems do not develop because
of the lack of constraining land masses.
A typical gyre displays four types of currents : Two east - west aligned
currents found respectively at the top and bottom ends of the gyre; and
Fig.No. 4.2 North Atlantic Gyre
two boundary currents oriented north - south and flowing parallel to the

44 45
2. Gulf Stream : The Gulf Stream flows along the eastern coast of male and female child respectively. They are often referred as “Children
Central and North America. It is a warm current as it carries the north of Pacific”. The formation of a warm current in the Pacific Ocean, on
Equatorial warm water. The direction of the warm Gulf Stream is the western side of south America, and near the Equator, is called E1
influenced by the Westerly winds at higher latitude. These winds blow Nino. Whenever E1 Nino forms those years are referred as EI Nino
from sub-tropical high pressure areas to sub-polar low pressure areas. years and the rest as Normal Years. Let us first understand the prevailing
The Westerly winds move the Gulf Stream towards east across the climatic conditions in a normal year.
North Atlantic Ocean. This Eastwards-flowing current is known as the Normal Years:
North Atlantic Drift.
In normal years, Easterly winds (Fig.No.4.3) push the warm surface
3. North Atlantic Drift : In the east, Europe and Africa act as barriers waters westward across equatorial South Pacific, causing warm surface
and the North Atlantic Drift branches off into two: 1. The Canaries water to accumulate near Indonesia. This warm surface water helps in
Current and 2. The Iberian Current Among the two, the Canaries forms the formation of clouds, which give heavy rainfall to Northern Australia
the fourth current in the North Atlantic gyre. and Indonesia. At the same time, the Peru Current, which is a cold
4. Canaries Current : In the east, the African continent obstructs the current, flows northwards along the South American coast, brings the
North Atlantic Drift, so it flows towards the south. This southwards- cold water to the surface. This cold current carries oxygen and nutrients
flowing current follows the west coast of African, and is called the that sustain fish, and hence, a fishing economy flourish along south
Canaries Current. This is a cold current, as it carries cold waters from American coast. Now let us investigate the climatic conditions in an E1
the North Pole. The Canaries Current flows towards the Equator. At Nino year.
the Equator, it flows as equatorial current and easterly winds once again
push the waters towards the west. In the west, it becomes Gulf stream
once again.
Of all the ocean currents the Gulf Current is a very strong warm current L Strong trade winds H
and the temperature is 25°C. This current protects England and Europe Australia
South
from severe cold. Otherwise, both the countries would suffer from a High sea level
Strong America
cold water
much colder climate like that of Canada, which is in the same latitude. upwelling
But because of global warming there is a slight change in the direction of Thermocline
this current that has an impact on the local climates of England and
Europe. But at gobal level, any modification in the circulation of the
currents affects the natural climatic cycle. Let us understand this with
an example of two currents in Pacific ocean as part of climatic cycles. This cross-section of the Pacific ocean, along the equator, illustrates
the pattern of atmospheric circulation typically found at the
The Influence of Currents on Climatic Cycle :
equational Pacific. Note the position of the temperature line.
E1 Nino and La Nina currents formed in the Pacific Ocean are part of
Fig.No.4.3 Normal Conditions
the natural climatic cycle. E1 Nino and La Nina are Spanish words meaning

46 47
E1 Nino years: E1 Nino also influences the climate in Indonesia and Australia. The
During E1 Nino years, Easterly winds (Fig.No.4.4) slacken or even surface water near Australia and Asia becomes very cold and so rain
reverse. Warm surface water flows from west to east, increasing the bearing clouds donot appear, which leads to drought. Monsoon winds
depth of warm water off the South American coast. Heavy rainfall and jet streams are also affected. Vegetation becomes so dry that the
follows the warm water, leading to flooding in Peru. This warm water slightest spark can ignite a fire. This can result in huge bush fires and
suppresses the nutrient-rich Peru Current. Hence, fish and seabirds move in turn affects the nitrogen and carbon cycles. Ecological disturbances
away or die. E1 Nino can cause global climatic disturbances like rain occur. Let us now investigate the climatic conditions when a La Nina
and floods in one part of the world, and drought in another part. Every current event.
year a small E1 Nino occurs in December, usually lasting a few weeks.
But in some years, exceptionally intense and persistent E1 Nino events La Nina Years:
occur. In 1982-1983 and 1997-1998 the E1 Nino was particularly severe.
After an E1 Nino event weather conditions usually return back to normal.
Prior to the 1980s and 1990s, strong E1 Nino events occurred on average
every 10 to 20 years. In the early 1980s, the first of a series of strong However, in some years the trade winds can become extremely strong
events developed. The E1 Nino of 1982-83 brought extreme warming and an abnormal accumulation of cold water can occur in the central and
to the equatorial Pacific. Surface sea temperatures in some regions of eastern Pacific. This event is called a La Nina. A strong La Nina occurred
the Pacific Ocean rose 6° Celsius above normal. The warmer waters in 1988 and scientists believe that it may have been responsible for the
had a devastating effect on marine life existing off the coast of Peru summer drought over central North America.
and Ecuador. Fish catches off the coast of South America were 50%
lower than the previous year. The most recent La Nina began developing in the middle of 1998 and
have been persistent into the winter of 2000. During this period, the
Atlantic ocean has seen very active hurricane seasons in 1998 and 1999.
Rainfall In 1998, ten tropical cyclones developed of which six become full-blown
area hurricanes.One of the hurricances that developed, named Mitch, was the
Cool water suppressed
strongest October hurricane ever to develop in about 100 years of record
H Weak
Sea current tradethe
changes direction and flowsWeak Trade
winds H keeping.
L
Australia
Sea level drops South These cycles reveal that Earth is currently in a period in which a
America natural rise in global temperatures, combined with global warming effect,
will push the planet through an era of rapid global warming. Strong
Thermocline
oceanic tides are the engines behind this warming- cooling cycle. The
current phase in the cycle suggests that a natural warming trend began
a hundred years ago, increased in the 1970s, and should continue over
the next five centuries.
This cross-section of the Pacific ocean, along the equator, illustrates
the pattern of atomspheric circulation that cause the formation of the In the following lesson, let us study how the atmosphere, a component
E1 Nino. Note how position of the temperature line has changed. of the Earth system, creats a complex and delicately
Fig.4.4 EL Nino Conditions balanced system that is crucial to the continuation of present lifeforms
on Earth.
48 49
 Exercises Activities
I. Fill in the blanks
1. The following diagram describes the major pressure systems on
1. Soil water is held in __________ between soil particles. the surface of the Earth. On this diagram sketch in the surface
2. Tides are caused by the __________ attraction between the moon wind directions associated with these pressure systems on an
and the Earth. Earth which is spinning clockwise from the north pole and
3. The largest ocean on the Earth is __________. compare with the currents.
4. The ________ sea is an area of calm water in the western Atlantic.
5. The __________ ridge is the largest mountain range in the ocean.

II. Match the following

1. Gyre - Cold current

2. Mariana Trench - Warm current
3. Continental Shelf - Circular Pattern
4. Canary Current - Pacific Ocean
5. Gulf Stream - Japan

III. Write short notes on

1. Southern Ocean
2. Continental Shelf
3. E1 Nino years
4. La Nino years

IV. Explain in detail Global Pressure System and Wind circulation

1. How are Gyres formed? Describe the North Atlantic Ocean gyre.
2. Write about the influence of ocean currents on local climate.

50 51
52
2. Label the oceans and Write a note on each one.

53

3. Draw 4-2 Ocean

Fig the gyres ofCurrents
other oceans and describe
 and the most common scientific demonstration, is the image of a glass
prism splitting up white light into the colors. When raindrops act as
5. ATMOSPHERE AND SOLAR RADIATION prisms, we see a rainbow. While the eye effectively perceives and
distinguishes visible light, infrared is perceived as heat. This is also called
The Earth is surrounded by an atmosphere. It is a blanket of gases and
“heat” radiation, because although we cannot see infrared, we can feel
has no definite outer edge. It gradually becomes thinner and it merges its presence as heat. The skin converts the heat into energy of the
into space. Over 80% of atmospheric gases are held by gravity with in molecules. Infrared plays an important role in the temperature of the
20 kilometers of the Earth’s surface. The physical and chemical structure Earth and its atmosphere, and in turn, the climate of the Earth.
of the atmosphere, the way that the gases interact with solar energy, and
the physical and chemical interactions between the atmosphere, land,
and oceans all combine to make the atmosphere an integral part of the
Earth system.
The Sun: The Sun is a star. It consists primarily of hydrogen at
temperatures high enough to cause nuclear fusion. Some 120 million
tons of matter, mostly hydrogen, are converted into helium on the sun
every minute. The size of the Sun determines its temperature and the
amount of energy radiated. This electromagnetic energy from the Sun
comes to Earth in the form of radiation. The Sun radiates energy equally
in all directions, and the Earth intercepts and receives part of this energy.
The Sun’s energy is the primary source of energy for all surface
phenomena and life on Earth. This energy is the main reason for the Wave length
Short wave radiation Long wave radiation
immense diversity of life forms that are found on the Earth. We will now
study in detail about the solar energy and its interplay with the composition Fig.No.5.1 The Solar Spectrum
of the Earth’s atmosphere. There are interactions occurring constantly in the atmosphere with the
Solar Spectrum: The range of electromagnetic energy emitted by the solar radiation. This results in a complex and delicately balanced system,
which is crucial to the continuation of present life forms on Earth. The
Sun is known as the solar spectrum (Fig.No.5.1), and lies mainly in three following two interactions that is crucial to the maintenance of life on
regions : ultraviolet, visible, and infrared. While the Sun does emit ultraviolet Earth:
radiation, the majority of solar energy comes in the form of “light” and
1. The atmosphere acts as a filter, absorbing and reflecting
“heat”, in the visible and infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. portions of the electro magnetic spectrum, such as the
Light is special to humans and many other animals due to the evolution ultraviolet region, region, that are harmful to humans and other
of the eye, a sensory organ that detects this part of the solar spectrum. life forms.
We are all familiar with the rainbow of colors, the range of different 2. The atmosphere provides a natural “warming effect”,
colors that makes up sunlight. The best way to visualize this concept, maintaining the temperatures and climates in which life forms
on the Earth have evolved to survive.
54 55
 The atmosphere controls the amount of solar radiation reaching the
surface of the Earth, and regulates the amount of radiation from the Earth
escaping into space. Thus a slight change in the concentration of certain
gases could upset the balance of reactions and be detrimental to life on
the Earth, as we all know. So, let us learn first about the composition of
the atmosphere in detail and later discuss its relevance to two major
environmental problems; stratospheric ozone depletion and global climate
change.
Chemical Composition of the Atmosphere

Fig. No.5.2 Chemical composition of the Atmopshere

The major constituents are oxygen (O2 ) and nitrogen (N2). Other gases
such as argon, carbon dioxide, nitric oxide and ozone are produced in
minute quantities in natural processes. Numerous other gases circulate
particularly in the troposphere in small quantities. Apart from these
gases water vapour is also present in the atmosphere. The water fraction
in the atmosphere varies from place-to-place and day-to-day. However,
in the last century industrial and other technological activities have
introduced gases such as carbon monoxide and chlorofluorocarbons into
the atmosphere. CFCs are a family of chemicals that do not occur in
nature. These chemically inert compounds rise into the stratosphere and
cause disruptions in the ozone layer. This disrupts the natural balance of
circulation and radiation absorption in the troposphere. Effects of these
changes range from local atmospheric problems to global climate change.
Layers of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere consists of five layers (Fig.No.5.2): The troposphere,
the stratosphere, the mesosphere, the thermosphere, and the exosphere.
The thickness of these layers is slightly different around the globe, and
also varies according to temperature and season. In this discussion, we
will focus primarily on the troposphere and the stratosphere because
human-made pollutants affect the function of the lower layers.
The Troposphere: The troposphere is the layer closest to the Earth’s
surface. It is a layer of air approximately 10 to 15 kilometers thick. The
conditions in this layer determine practically all of the global weather
patterns. It consists of gases like nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide. In
addition to these gases, water vapour and dust are found in this year.
56 57
Consequently, weather phenomena such as clouds, lightning, thunder, the atmosphere is made up of two oxygen atoms (O2 ). Because of its
storms and rain take place in this layer. chemical formulation, a single atom of oxygen (O) is unstable. That is, it
wants to combine with something else. That is why oxygen is almost
Carbon dioxide is much heavier than the other gases. So the amount
of carbon dioxide is higher in this lower layer of the atmosphere. It tends always found in pairs, in its diatomic form, where it is more stable. O3 is
to decrease as the altitude increases. Therefore the temperature less stable than, because it wants to return to the diatomic state by
decreases with the increasing altitude at the rate of 1°C per 165 metres. giving up an oxygen atom. When enough ozone molecules are present,
This ratio of decrease in temperature with the increase of altitude is it forms a pale blue gas. Ozone has the same chemical structure whether
called the lapse rate . it is found in the stratosphere or the troposphere.
The stratosphere : The stratosphere is the layer just above the In the troposphere, “bad” ozone is an air pollutant (Fig No.5.4). It
troposphere. It is approximately 40 kilometers thick. In contrast to the damages human health and vegetation. It is a key ingredient of urban
troposphere, water vapour is not found in this layer. Therefore weather smog. In the stratosphere, we find the “good” ozone that protects life on
changes do not take place in this layer. Pollutants tend to remain long
earth from the harmful effects of the sun’s ultraviolet rays.
periods of time in the stratosphere. Moreover, the wind blows horizontally
and therefore the conditions are conducive for airplanes to fly with great Ozone is constantly being formed in the earth’s atmosphere by the
speed and a long distance. action of the sun’s ultraviolet radiation on oxygen molecules. Ultraviolet
3. Thermosphere : The mesosphere spreads above the stratosphere from light splits the molecules apart by breaking the bonds between the atoms.
50 kms to 80 kms. The meteors, which fall on the Earth due to the A highly reactive free oxygen atom then collides with another oxygen
gravitational force, burn due to the friction with the wind at this level. molecule to form an ozone molecule. Because ozone is unstable, ultraviolet
This layer protects the Earth from the falling meteors, otherwise these radiation quickly breaks it up, and he process begins again.
meteors will damage the surface of the Earth.
4. Thermosphere : The thermosphere lies above the mesosphere. It
extends approximately from 80 kms to 1600 kms. It contains hydrogen
and helium in large amounts. Below this layer ions are found from 500
kms. We can enjoy radio programs that are broadcast from the radio
station only because of the reflection done by the ions.
5. Exosphere : The exosphere extends from 1600 kms to 10,000 kms.
Winds having very low density are found here. It mingles in the space
and only vacuum is found above this layer.
Among the above said layers of the atmosphere, the stratosphere filters
the ultraviolet rays and protects the Earth. Let us now learn the
significance of ozone layer and its depletion.
Ozone layer and its depletion : Ozone is a form of oxygen. Ozone is
Fig.No. 5.3 Chemical structure of Ozone
made of three oxygen atoms (O 3 ). The oxygen (fig no. 5.3) we find in

58 59
 The cycle of ozone gas :
1. O2 + UV radiation (<175 nm) O + O
2. O + O 2 O3 or O + O O 2
3. O3 + UV radiation (240 - 280 nm) O* + O2 gas
4. O* + O O2 or O* + H2 O 2OH and so on.
This cycle repeats over millions of years and has reached a
state of equilibrium. The net result of the above reactions is that O2
and O3 are constantly changing into each other. Each cycle takes
up energy in the form of ultraviolet radiation, resulting in a large
reduction of the amount of ultraviolet radiation reaching the
troposphere. These reactions result higher concentration of ozone
gas in the lower region of the stratosphere. The largest amount of
O2 is found between 20 and 26 km above the Earth’s surface. This
Fig.No.5.4
Fig. Ozoneininthe
No. 5.4 Ozone the Troposphere
Troposphere area is called the “ozone layer.”
In general ultraviolet radiation damages the skin, and can
About 90% of the zone in the earth’s atmosphere lies in the initiate the process of skin cancer. Thus ozone layer forms a shield,
stratosphere. Ozone forms a very thin layer in the stratosphere, where it protecting us from receiving large amounts of UV
is more concentrated than anywhere else. While both oxygen and ozone
together absorb 95 to 99.9% of the sun’s ultraviolet radiation, only ozone irritant. Chlorofluorocarbons were seen then as the ideal compounds
effectively absorbs the most energetic ultraviolet light, which causes because they were thought to be harmless. They are chemical inert, non-
biological damage. toxic, and insoluble in water.
Ozone - Depleting Substances For the past seventy years, CFCs were used extensively in aerosols,
A family of compounds known as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have refrigerants, and foams. Because of their non-reactive nature. CFSs are
the most significant effect on the ozone layer. CFCs contain different able to rise undisturbed into the atmosphere. When CFSs migrate high
enough and are hit by enough ultraviolet radiation, they are broken down
proportions of three elements. carbon (C), fluorine (F) and chlorine (c1).
and release chlorine atoms. The chlorine atoms react with O3 gas and
CFCs where produced and used extensively as refrigerants starting in the
make ozone molecules unavailable. One chlorine atom can destroy over
early 1930’s after a scientist named Medgley discovered this gas. At that
100,00 molecules of ozone.
time, ammonia and sulfur dioxide were widely used as refrigerants. But
ammonia was undesirable because it is a strong eye and respiratory
60 61
 On our planet, a temperature balance in nature is necessary to sustain
living organisms. This balance occurs due to the absorption of short
wave (visible) solar radiation by surfaces on the earth, and the subsequent
transformation of that radiation into longer-wave infrared. Infrared is
then absorbed and “trapped” by carbon dioxide, causing the troposphere
to maintain a significantly warmer temperature.
Since the Industrial Revolution, there has been a high rate of increase
in the concentration of carbon dioxide. This gas have risen by 30% since
the late 1800s. Furthermore, scientists predict that CO2 concentrations
will continue to rise, likely reaching 2 to 3 times the pre-industrial level by
2100. The carbon dioxide effect can become a problem when the amount
of heat-absorbing gases in the atmosphere rapidly rises far above the
levels at present.
The warming of atmosphere is seen not only at global level but also at
local levels. Local-Urban heat islands are one such example. “Urban
heat islands” are a kind of localized enhanced warming phenomenon.
They are simply built-up areas of a city that are significantly warmer
than the surrounding area of country side.
Urban heat islands : The difference in temperature comes from the
fact that buildings, paved surfaces, and other human-made structures
absorb higher amounts of sunlight than most natural objects. This energy
is re-radiated at longer wavelengths during the night. The atmospheric
pollution in the form of carbon dioxide, a heat-absorbing gas, forms a
Fig.No.5.5 Urban Heat Island
“local” atmosphere, trapping in the heat (Fig. No.5.5).
Meteorologists have noticed that metropolitan areas are creating their
own weather patterns at night due to the collision of cool air from the James Lovelock, author of Gaia, proposes that the atmosphere owes
surrounding area with the warmer city air. It is important to note that its current composition to living systems. He remarks that life on Earth
urban heat islands are a localized effect, whereas the general atmospheric requires a particular atmospheric composition, and this composition is
effect is global in extent. So far we have examined the atmospheric in turn maintained by the interactions between biological systems and
phenomena and found that the current state of the atmosphere is the the atmospheric system. Let us learn more about the biological systems
result of increased industrial activities. In the last century especially, the in the next lesson.
atmospheric system that evolved over billions of years has been subject
to rapid changes.
62 63
 Exercises
Activities
I. Fill in the blanks.
1. Collect informations about global warming and ozone depletion.
1. The _________ energy from the Sun comes to Earth in the form of
radiation. 2. Draw a diagram to show the different layers of the atmosphere and
describe them in your own words.
2. Infra red waves are perceived as _________ when the skin absorbs
them. 3. Notice the picture below and answer the following questions
3. The ratio of decreasing temperature with the increase of altitude is
called as _________.
4. Human activities have introduced gases such as _________ and
_________ into the atmosphere.
5. The _________ layer protects us from receiving large amounts of
ultra violet rays.

II. Match the following

1. Ozone depletion - Sun’s energies

2. Solar spectrum - Weather pattern
3. Troposphere - Local climate
4. CFC - Cataracts
5. Urban heat island - Non toxic

III. Write short notes on

1. The solar spectrum

2. Urban heat island
3. Stratosphere 1. Ozone exists in both the troposphere and the stratosphere and
explain that ozone in the stratosphere is important for filtering
4. Troposphere
out damaging ultraviolet radiation.
5. Chemical composition
2. Explain that ozone in the troposphere is a pollutant and it can
IV. Explain in detail damage respiratory tissue in living organisms.
1. Write about the importance of ozone layer.
2. The Sun’s energy is the primary source of energy. Explain

64 65
4. Exaplain in few

Sun, Earth and its

teractions of the
words about the in-
6. NUTRIENT CYCLES AND ECOSYSTEMS

atmosphere.
Our planet is the only place in the universe that supports life. Life on
Earth requires a variety of organic and inorganic nutrients. These nutrients
continuously recycle through the interactions of organisms and their
environments. Recycling chemicals essential to life involves both
geological and biological processes. These pathways are called
biogeochemical cycles and have three things in common.
1. Reservoirs : These are where the chemical is held in large
quantities for long periods of time.
2. Exchange pools : This is where the chemical is held for only a
short time.
3. Residence time : It is the length of time a chemical is held in an
exchange pool or a reservoir.
For example, the oceans are a reservoir for water cycle, while a cloud
is an exchange pool. Water may reside in an ocean for thousands of
years, but in a cloud for a few days at best. The biotic community also
serves as an exchange pool and also move chemicals from one stage of
the cycle to another. For instance, the trees of the tropical rain forest
bring water up from the forest floor to be evaporated into the atmosphere.
Likewise, coral polyps take carbon from the water and turn it into limestone
rock. The energy for most of the transportation of chemicals from one
place to another is provided either by the sun or by the heat released
from the mantle and core of the Earth.
Earth has a number of cycles. Of which only four are very important
for living organisms. They are: water, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorous.
The water cycle will be discussed in the next year. The other three
cycles are discussed in this lesson.

66 67
The Carbon Cycle
Respiration takes carbohydrates and oxygen, combines them to produce
carbon dioxide, water, and energy. Photosynthesis takes carbon dioxide
and water, produces carbohydrates and oxygen. The outputs of respiration
are the inputs of photosynthesis, and the outputs of photosynthesis are
the inputs of respiration. The reactions are also complementary in the
way they deal with energy. Photosynthesis takes energy from the sun and
stores it as carbohydrates; respiration releases that energy. Both
plants and animals carry on respiration, but only plants can carry on
photosynthesis.
The chief reservoirs for carbon dioxide are the oceans and the rocks.
Carbon dioxide dissolves readily in water. Once there, it may precipitate
as a solid rock known as calcium carbonate. Corals and algae encourage
this reaction and build up limestone reefs in the process. On land and in
the water, plants take up carbon dioxide and convert it into carbohydrates
through photosynthesis. This carbon in the plants now has three possible
fates. It can be liberated to the atmosphere by the plant through respirations;
it can be eaten by an animal, or it can be present in the plant when the
plant dies.
When an animal or a plant dies, two things can happen to the carbon in

Fig.No.6.1 Carbon Cycle

it. It can either be released by decomposers to the atmosphere, or it can
be buried intact and ultimately form coal, oil, or natural gas. The fossil
fuels can be mined and when burned releases carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere. Otherwise, the carbon in limestone or other, sediments can
only be released to the atmosphere when volcanoe erupts, or when
they are pushed to the surface and slowly weathered away.
Humans have a great impact on the carbon cycle because when we
burn fossil fuels we release excess carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
This means that more carbon dioxide goes into the oceans, and more is
present in the atmosphere. This rise in the atmosphere causes global
warning.
68 69
The Nitrogen Cycle
The nitrogen cycle is one of the most difficult of the cycles to learn,
simply because there are so many important forms of nitrogen, and
because organisms are responsible for each of the interconversions.
Nitrogen is critically important in forming the amino portions of the amino
acids which in turn form the proteins of our body. Proteins make up skin
and muscle, among other important structural portions of our body, and
all enzymes are proteins. Since enzymes carry out almost all of the
chemical reactions in our body, it’s easy to see how important nitrogen
is.
The chief reservoir of nitrogen is the atmosphere, which is about 78%
nitrogen. Nitrogen gas in the atmosphere is composed of two nitrogen
atoms bound to each other. It is a pretty non-reactive gas; it takes a lot
of energy to get nitrogen gas to break up and combine with other things,
such as carbon or oxygen.
Nitrogen gas can be taken from the atmosphere in two basic
ways (Fig.No.6.2) First, lightning provides enough energy to “burn” the
nitrogen and fix it in the form of nitrate, which is a nitrogen with three
oxygens attached. This process is duplicated in fertilizer factories to
produce nitrogen fertilizers. The second form of nitrogen fixation is by
nitrogen fixing bacteria, who use special enzymes instead of the extreme
amount of energy found in lighting to fix nitrogen. These nitrogen - fixing
bacteria fix nitrogen either in the form of nitrate or in the form of ammonia.

Fig. No.6.2 Nitrogen Cycle

Most plants can take up nitrate and convert it to amino acids. Animals
acquire all of their amino acids when they eat plants or other animals.
When plants or animals die or release waste the nitrogen is returned to
the soil. The usual form of nitrogen returned to the soil in animal wastes
or in the output of the decomposers, is ammonia. Ammonia is rather
toxic, but, fortunately there are nitrite bacteria in the soil and in the
water which take up ammonia and convert it to nitrite.
Nitrite is also somewhat toxic, but another type of bacteria, nitrate
bacteria, take nitrite and convert it to nitrate, which can be taken up by
plants to continue the cycle. There are denitrifying bacteria which take
the nitrate and combine the nitrogen back into nitrogen gas.
70 71
The Phosphorous Cycle :
The phosphorous is the simplest of all cycles. Phosphorous has only
one form, phosphate, which is a phosphorous atom with 4 oxygen atoms.
This molecule never makes its way into the atmosphere, it is always part
of an organism, dissolved in water, or in the form of rock. When rock
with phosphate is exposed to water especially water with a little acid in
it, the rock is weathered out and goes into solution. Plants take this
phosphorous up through their roots and use it in a variety of ways
(Fig.No.6.3).
It is an important constituent of cell membranes. Animals obtain their
phosphorous from the plants they eat. Animals, by the way, may also
use phosphorous as a component of bones, teeth and shells. When animals
or plants die the phosphate may be returned to the soil or water by the
decomposers. There, it can be taken up by another plant and used again.
This cycle will occur over and over until at last the phosphorous is lost at
the bottom of the deepest parts of the ocean, where it becomes part of
the sedimentary rocks forming there. Ultimately, this phosphorous will
be released if the rock is brought to the surface and weathered.
Two types of animals play a unique role in the phosphorous cycle.

Fig.No.6.3 The Phosphorous Cycle

Humans often mine rock rich in phosphorous. For instance, in Florida,
which was once sea floor, there are extensive Phosphate mines. The
phosphate is then used as fertilizer. This mining of phosphate and use of
the phosphate as fertilizer greatly accelerates the phosphorous cycle
and may cause local overabundance of phosphorous, particularly in coastal
regions, at the mouths of rivers, and any place where there is a lot of
sewage released into the water. Local abundance of phosphate can
cause overgrowth of algae in the water; the algae can use up all the
oxygen in the water and kill other aquatic life. This is called eutrophication.
The other animals that play a unique role in the phosphorous cycle are
marine birds. There birds take phosphorous containing fish out of the
ocean and return to land, where they defecate. Their guano contains
high levels of phosphorous and in this way marine birds return phosphorous
from the ocean to the land. The guano is often mined and may form the
basis of the economy in some areas.

72 73
 In the biosphere, a group of organisms with their total assemblage of
components entering into the interactions through biogeochemical cycles
is known as an ecological system, or more simply an ecosystem. A.G.
SUN
Tansely, a botanist, introduced the ecosystem concept in the year 1935.
(Solar
Major Components of an Ecosystem
Ecosystems are composed of a variety of abiotic and biotic components
and they function in an interrelated fashion. Some of the important
components are (Fig.No.6.4) : Soil, atmosphere, radiation from the sun, Animals
Plants
water, and living organisms.
Soils contain a mixture of weathered rock fragments, highly altered
soil mineral particles, organic matter, and living organisms. Soils provide Atmosphere
SOIL
(O2, CO2 and Water
nutrients, water, a home, and a structural growing medium for organisms. (Nutrients and
water)
The vegetation found growing on top of a soil is closely linked to this water)
component of an ecosystem through nutrient cycling.
Fig.No. 6.4 Components of an Ecosystem
The atmosphere provides organisms found within ecosystems with
carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and oxygen for respiration. The
processes of evaporation, transpiration, and precipitation, cycles water
Ecosystem Types :
between the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface.
The ecological communities in the biosphere, interact with their
Solar radiation is used in ecosystems to heat the atmosphere and to
environment and create a variety of ecosystems. These ecosystems fall
evaporate and transpire water into the atmosphere. Sunlight is also
necessary for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis provides the energy for into two groups : Water and Land.
plant growth and metabolism, and the organic food for other forms of Water ecosystems include life forms of the marine environments and
life. the fresh water environments of the land. Maine ecosystems
Most living tissue is composed of a very high percentage of water, up include open oceans, coastal estuaries and coral reefs. Freshwater
to and even exceeding 90%. The protoplasm of a very few cells can ecosystems include lakes, ponds, streams and marshes. Let us learn
survive if their water content drops below 10%, and most are killed if it about this in detail in the next year.
is less than 30 - 50%. Water is the medium by which mineral nutrients
Land ecosystems consists of land plants, and animals spread widely
enter and are translocated in plants. It is also necessary for the
maintenance of leaf turgidity and is required for photosynthetic chemical over the upland surfaces of the contine nt. Land ecosystems are largely
reactions. Plants and animals receive their water from the Earth’s surface determined by climate and soil and, in this way, closely woven into the
and soil. The original source of this water is precipitation from the fabric of physical geography. The land ecosystems consists of two
atmosphere. basic types such as natural and cultural.

74 75
 The largest recognizable division of the natural ecosystem is the II. Match the following :
“Biome”. Although the biome includes the assemblage of plant and animal 1. Australia - Medium
life interacting within the biosphere, the green plants dominate the biome 2. Guano - Eco system
physically as compared with that of other organisms.
3. Biological Community - Eucalyptus
In geography, the concept of natural vegetation represented by biomes; 4. Interactions - Bird
and the vegetation sustained in a modified state by humanity are like the 5. Water - Ecology
two sides of a coin. Natural vegetation can still be seen over vast areas
of the wet equtorial climate where rainforests are scarcely touched by
humans. Much of the Arctic Tundra and the needle leaf forest of the III. Write short notes on
subarctic zones is in a natural state . In contrast, much of the continental 1. Phosphorus cycle
surface in the middle latitudes is almost totally under human control
2. Carbon cycle
through intensive agriculture, organizing or urbanization.
3. Nitrogen cycle
Humans have influenced vegetation by moving plant species from 4. Eco system
their indigenous habitats to foreign lands and foreign environments. The
5. Habitats
eucalyptus three is a good example. From Australia the various species of
eucalyptus have been transplanted to such far-off lands as North America,
North Africa and India. IV. Explain in detail

Let us study more about the natural biomes and human made 1. What are the basic components of an ecosystem? Describe.
agricultural biomes in the following lesson. 2. Define biogeochemical cycles and describe any one of them.
Exercises
I. Fill in the Blanks Activities
1. Ecosystems are composed of a variety of _________ and _________
1. In your own words, define an ecosystem.
components.
2. Recycling chemicals essential to life involves both _________ and 2. List three examples of ecosystems and explain in complete
_________ processes. sentences the features that make them different from each other:

3. The ecological communities interact with their _________ and create 3. In paragraph form, identify an ecosystem that has been disturbed by
a variety of ecosystems. humans or a natural event.

4. The Chief _________ for carbon dioxide are the oceans and rock.
5. Two types of animals play a unique role in the _________ cycle.

76 77
 5. Describe in your words the illustration given below.
4. Explain the term global ecosystem and name four subsystem

The sun is the original source of energy,

SUN in the form of light, for the food chain,
(100,000 units of energy)

Herbivores consume approximately 10%

of the plant biomass produced in a typical
food chain. (100 units of energy)

Plants capture approximately 1% of the

available light energy from the sun for
biomass production by way of
photosynthesis (1,000 units of energy)

Carnivores capture and consume about

10% of the energy stored by the
herbivores (10 units of energy)

Model of the grazing food chain showing the

movement of energy through an ecosystem.

78 79
 Similarly, these plant communities have an optimum temperature
7. THE BIOMES: NATURAL AND associated with each of its functions, such as photosynthesis, flowering,
AGRICULTURAL fruiting, or seeding germination. A plant’s growth depends on overall
optimum yearly temperature conditions. In general, the colder the climate,
In the last 10,000 years, our ancestors have altered the natural the fewer are the species that are capable of surviving. A large number
ecosystems only slightly. However, scientific and technological of plant species cannot survive below freezing temperatures. In the
development have paved the way to drastic changes in contemporary severely cold Arctic and alpine environments of high latitudes and high
ecosystems. As a result, much land has been converted into agricultural altitudes, only a few species can survive. This explains why a forest in
and cattle farms. Vegetation that was originally propagated only by falling the equatorial has many species of trees, where as forest of the subarctic
seeds is now cultivated by humans as crops in agricultural fields. zone may be dominated by just a few.

In this lesson we continue to investigate the biosphere, but with our Based on the dominant plant species, the following are the principal
focus on natural vegetation and agricultural crops of the lands. biomes, listed in order of availability of soil water and heat. 1. Forests
(ample soil, water and heat), 2. Grasslands (moderate soil and water,
1. Natural Biomes adequate heat) 3. Deserts (extreme shortage of soil, water and adequate
heat) and 4. Tundra (insufficient heat).
The plants are stationary on the Earth’s surface, as the other abotic
components such as landforms, soils, streams, and lakes. Plants are also 1. Forests:
consumable and renewable sources of food, medicines, fuels, clothing,
shelter, and a host of other life essentials. There are many persistent themes About 420 million years ago, ancient plants began to occupy the land.
Over the millions of years that followed, these plants developed and
in the writings of geographers about the ways that humans
adapted to their new habitat. They were the first forests. In these forests,
have used plant sources to their advantage, or have been hindered by
giant horsetails, club mosses, and ferns that stood up to 12 meters tall
the plants in their progress. A plant geographer classifies plants in terms dominated. Later, gymnosperms developed and the first flowering plants
of its lifeform, which is the physical structure, size, and the shape of the appeared 144-165 million year ago. They evolved together with insects,
plant. These lifeforms are principally trees, shrubs, lianas and herbs. Most birds, and mammals and flourished. Today, forests occupy approximately
of them have life spans of many years. one-third of Earth’s land area. There are three major types of forests,
classified according to climatic conditions such as equatorial forests
As we travel through a hilly area, we observe that the vegetation is
deciduous forests and tundra forests.
strongly influenced by landforms and soil. Landforms refers to the
configuration of the land surface, including features such as hills, valleys, a. Equatorial forests: These are found around the Equator. This region
ridges, or cliffs. Vegetation on an upland, relatively high ground with has lots of sunshine and heavy rainfall. So the plants grow in large
thick soil and good drainage is quite different from that on an adjacent numbers, both quickly and densely. There are no seasons here, and so
valley floor. It is because of the water that lies near the surface much of the trees remain green all through the year. Hundreds of species of
the time. Vegetation is often different in form on rocky ridges and on trees and plants are found in evergreen forests. Some species include
steep cliff, where water drains away rapidly and soil is thin or largely orchids, thorny plants, and creepers. Each tree has several roots and is
broad-based, with an average height of 25-35 meters (Fig.No.7.1). Herbs,
absent.
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 bushes, and other kinds of plants also thrive in these forests. The forests
are densely packed and do not let much sunlight through the foliage.
b. Decidous forests: These are located in subtropical and temperate
areas. Hot summers and cold winters exist in these areas. There is
rainfall during some months of the year in both of these zones. Therefore
these trees shed their leaves during summer in subtropical zones, and
during winter in temperate zones. In countries like India, trees shed their
leaves during the long, dry summer season. These subtropical forests are
sometimes called monsoon forests.
c. Taiga forests: These are largest biome (Fig.No.7.3) located
between 50 and 60 degrees north latitudes. Such forests can be found in
the broad belt of Eurasia and North America: two-thirds are in Siberia
with the rest in Scandinavia, Alaska, and Canada. Seasons are divided
into short, moist, and moderately warm summers and long, cold, and dry
winters. The length of the growing season in these forests is 130 days.
These regions receive snow in the winter, and depending on their latitude,
may have some in the summer. The trees of these forests have
needle shaped leaves. More than 1700 species of trees are found in
these forests. These species all have the ability to withstand severe
cold.
2. Grasslands
Grasslands are big open spaces. About one quarter of the Earth’s land
is grasslands. There are not many bushes in the grasslands. We usually
find trees only where there are rivers or streams. The grassland seems
like an endless ocean of grass. Grasslands receive about 20 to 65
centimeter of rain per year. If they received more rain, the grasslands
would become a forest. If they received less, they would become a desert.
Grasslands are often located between deserts and forests. Grassland
soil tends to be deep and fertile. The roots of perennial grasses usually
penetrate far into the soil. In South America, grasslands are called
“pampas”, in Europe, “steppes”, in Africa, “savannas” and “prairies” in
Canada and the USA. The grass lands are divided into two types. They
Fig.No.7.1 Eqatorial forests are: Savanna Grasslands and Temperate Grasslands.
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a. Savanna Grasslands: Savanna is a grassland (Fig.No.7.2.) with
scattered individual trees. Savannas of one sort or another cover almost
half the surface of Africa and large areas of Australia, South America,
and India. Climate is the most important factor in creating a savanna.
Savannas are always found in warm or hot climates where the annual
rainfall is from about 50 to 127 cm per year. It is crucial that the rainfall
is concentrated in six or eight months of the year, followed by a long
period of drought when fires can occur. If the rains were well distributed
throughout the year, many such areas would become tropical forest.
Savanna has both a dry and a rainy season. Seasonal Fires play a vital

Fig.No.7.2 Savana Grass Land Biome

role in the savanna’s biodiversity. In October, a series of violent
thunderstorms, followed by a strong drying wind, signals the beginning
of the dry season. Fire is prevalent around January, at the height of the
dry, season. Poachers who want to clear away dead grass to make it
easier to see their prey often cause fires in savannas. The fires do not
devastate the community. Most of the animals killed by the fires are
insects with short life spans.
A fire is a feast for some animals, such as birds that come to sites of
fires to eat grasshoppers, stick insects, beetles, mice, and lizards that are
killed or driven out by the fire. Underground holes and crevices provide
a safe refuge for small creatures. Larger animals are usually able to run
fast enough to escape the fire. Although the dry stems and leaves of
grasses are consumed by fire, the grasses’ deep roots remain unharmed.
These roots, with all their starch reserves, are ready to send up new
growth when the soil becomes more moist. The scattered shrubs can
also subsist on food reserves in their roots while they await the time to
venture above the soil again.
A fire leaves scorched earth covered with a fine layer of powdery
black ash in its wake. During March, violent thunderstorms occur again,
this time heralding the rainy season. When the rains come, savanna bunch
grasses grow vigorously. Some of the larger grasses grow an inch or
more in 24 hours. The savannas experiences a surge of new life at this
time.
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b. Temperate Grasslands: Temperate grasslands are characterized
as having grasses as the dominant vegetation. Trees and large shrubs
are absent. Temperatures vary more from summer to winter, and the
amount of rainfall is less in temperate grasslands than in savannas. The
major temperate grasslands are the veldts of South Africa, the puszta of
Hungary, the pampas of Argentina and Uruguay, the steppes of the former
Soviet Union, and the plains and prairies of central North America.
Temperate grasslands have hot summers and cold winters. Rainfall is
moderate. The amount of annual rainfall influences the height of grassland
vegetation, with taller grasses in wetter regions.
As in the savanna, seasonal drought and occasional fires are very
important to biodiversity. However, their effects aren’t as dramatic in
temperate grasslands as they are in savannas. The soil of the temperate
grasslands is deep and dark, with fertile upper layers. It is nutrient-rich
from the growth and decay of deep, many-branched grass roots. The
rotted roots hold the soil together and provide a food source for living
plants. Fig.No.7.3 Taiga Biome
3. Deserts
Deserts cover (Fig. No.7.4) about the fifth of Earth’s surface and
occur where rainfalls in less than 50 cm/year. Most deserts, such as the
Sahara of North Africa and the deserts of the southwestern U.S., Mexico,
and Australia, occur at low latitudes. Cold deserts, occur in the basin and
range area of Utah and Nevada, and parts of western Asia.
The seasons are generally warm throughout the year and very hot in
the summer. The winters usually bring little rainfall. Temperatures exhibit
daily extremes because the atmosphere contains little humidity to block
the Sun’s rays. Desert surfaces receive a little more than twice the solar
radiation received by humid regions and lose almost twice as much heat
at night. Rainfall is usually very low and/or concentrated in short bursts
between long rainless periods. Evaporation rates regularly exceed rainfall
rates. Rainfall is lowest on the Atacama Desert of Chile, where it averages
less than 1.5 cm. Some years are even rainless. Inland Sahara also
receives than 1.5 cm a year. Rainfall in American deserts is higher, Fig.No. 7.4 Desert Biome
almost 28 cm a year.
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 Most deserts have a considerable amount of specialized vegetation. Water is the common link among the five biomes and it makes up the
Soils often have abundant nutrients because they need only water to largest part of the biosphere. Aquatic regions house numerous species
become very productive and have little or no organic matter. Soils are of plants and animals, both large and small. In fact, this is where life
course-textured, shallow, rocky or gravely with good drainage and have began billions of years ago, when amino acids first started to come
no subsurface water. They are coarse because there is less chemical together. Without water, most lifeforms would be unable to sustain
weathering. The finer dust and sand particles are blown elsewhere, leaving themselves and the Earth would be a barren, desert-like place.
heavier pieces behind.
II. Agricultural Biome
4. Tundra
Large areas of the Earth’s land surface have been strongly impacted
The Tundra is the coldest of all biomes. “Tundra” comes from the by humans through intensive agriculture, grazing and timber cutting.
Finnish word tunturia, meaning treeless plain. This biome has extremely Current extensive logging in forest biomes and the conversion of natural
cold climate, low biotic diversity, simple vegetation structures, a short grasslands resulted in the destruction of natural habitats of numerous
season of growth and reproduction. Energy and nutrients are found in species. Grassland teaches us about the impacts of human activities more
the form of dead organic material. than any other biome. The majority of the original grasslands have been
The Arctic tundra is located in the Northern Hemisphere, encircling converted into agricultural farmlands. These farmlands have become
the North Pole and extending south to the coniferous forests of the taiga. the “granaries of the world”. Widespread agricultural and industrial
The Arctic is known for its cold, desert-like conditions. The growing development are depleting natural resources and also modifying natural
season ranges from 50 to 60 days. The average winter temperature is ecosystems.
34°C but the average summer temperature is 3-12°C which enables In the biosphere, among human made ecosystems, the largest
this biome to sustain life. Rainfall may vary in different regions of the recognizable units are the agricultural biomes. In terms of structure and
Arctic. Yearly precipitation, including melting snow, is 15 to 25 centimeters. function, agricultural biomes are very simple. They usually consist of one
Soil is formed slowly. A layer of permanently frozen subsoil called genetic strain of one species. Agricultural crops are short and group
permafrost exists, consisting mostly of gravel and finer material. When together to resist the cold temperatures and are protected by the snow
water saturates the upper surface, bogs and ponds may form, providing during the winter. They can also carry out photosynthesis at low
moisture for plants. There are no deep root systems in the vegetation of temperatures and low light intensities.
the Arctic tundra, however, seasons are short and most plants reproduce
Agricultural biomes are overly sensitive to attack by one or two well-
by budding and division rather than sexually by flowering. The fauna in
adapted insects that can multiply very rapidly to take advantage of an
the Arctic is also diverse. Still a wide variety of plants that are able to
abundant food source. Thus pesticides are constantly needed to reduce
resist the cold climate. There are about 1,700 kinds of plants in the Arctic
insect populations. Weeds, too, are a problem and they can divert much
and sub arctic region.
of the productivity to undesirable forms. Herbicides are often the
Alpine tundra is located on mountains throughout the world at high immediate solution to these problems. Application of agricultural chemicals
altitude where trees cannot grow. The growing season is approximately is one of the ways that humans use energy inputs to increase net primary
180 days. The nighttime temperature is usually below freezing. Unlike productivity. Large increases in productivity are achieved by application
the Arctic tundra, the soil in the alpine is well drained. The plants are of nutrient elements and compounds, usually of nitrogen and phosphorus
very similar to those of the Arctic. that are in short supply in most soils.
88 89
 In a natural ecosystem, these elements return to the soil following
the death of the plants that store them. In agricultural ecosystems, this
recycling is interrupted by harvesting the crop for consumption. Therefore
nutrients are added each year in the form of fertilizers, and these are
mined from fossil fuels. The input energy humans add to the managed
ecosystems in the form of agricultural chemicals and fertilizers, as well
as farm mechanization, boost greatly the net primary productivity of the
land. The net productivity of a particular crop increases more than five
times over through two types of energy inputs (Fig. No.7.5.).
a. Natural Energy Inputs: Sunlight serves as the main source of
natural energy in all ecosystems. In agricultural ecosystems photosynthesis
from the sun’s energy, carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and rainfall are
“free” inputs. But, in order to be delivered to humans or animals for
consumption, the raw food or feed product of this system requires fossil
fuel energy.
b. Cultural energy: Excluding the solar energy of photosynthesis,
the energy inputs expended upon production of food crops are referred
to as Cultural Energy. They are:
1. Nutrients : Plant nutrients are necessary for crops to flourish. Nitrogen,
potassium, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium and sulphur are the essential
plant nutrients. Soil possesses excessive calcium, but crop production is
dependent on nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus. These fertilizers are
cultural inputs ad they increase production. Since the 1950s, the use of
these fertilisers have increased at a global level and crop production also
increased tremendously.
2. Seeds: In the human-made agricultural ecosystem, paddy, maize
vegetables, oilseeds and so on do not germinate themselves. These crops
grow only if the land is ploughed and the seeds are sown. Thus the crops
and seeds need protection.
Let us examine this with an example. The research undertaken by
Dr.Norman Borlaug and his co-workers has succeeded in bringing a
dwarf wheat variety with strong stems. The new wheat moved Mexico
90 91
into the ranks of a wheat exporting country. Tried out in Pakistan and Water conservation techniques can greatly reduce the problems arising
India, the new wheat increased the yield per acre. Dr.Norman Borlaug, from excess water use. The most efficient way to water crop is drip
leader of green revolution was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. The irrigation (Fig.No. 7.6). In drip irrigation, a series of small perforated tubes
green revolution spread next into improvement of rice yields, carried out are laid across the field at or just under the surface of the soil. The tubes
at the International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines. Drawing deliver the amount of water that each plant needs, directly onto its roots
more than 20,000 varieties of rice, new highly productive strains were where the water will do the most good, and with a minimum of evaporative
developed and passed onto rice farmers. loss or over soaking of the soil.
3. Water: All plants need water to grow. Agriculture accounts for the 4. Agricultural Chemical Products : In our homes we use insecticides
largest single share of global water use. Some 73 percent of freshwater to control mosquitoes, cockroaches and other insects. Likewise, in an
drawn from rivers, lakes, and ground water supplies is used for irrigation. agricultural field, we use chemical products such as pesticides, herbicides
Although estimates vary widely, about 18 percent of all crop lands and insecticides to control non-crop elements. These are agricultural
worldwide are irrigated. Some countires are water-rich and can readily chemical products. Certain pesticides not only destroy the harmful elements,
afford to irrigate farmland. Some are water-poor and must use water but also harm other living organisms in the area. For example, pesticides
very carefully. The efficiency of irrigation is rather very low in most like DDT diffuse into the food chain and reach humans also. The extensive
countries. High evaporative and seepage losses from underlined and use of pesticides is linked with cancer, birth defects, hereditary diseases
undercovered canals often mean that as much as 80% of water withdrawn and other prolonged physical illnesses.
for irrigation never reaches its destination. Farmers tend to over irrigate
So, crop productivity is determined by the amount of input energy
because they lack the technology to meter water and distribute just the
supplied to an agricultural ecosystem. In an agricultural ecosystem a variety
amount needed.
of crops are cultivated and harvested for consumption at a distant location.
These crops are consumed as food products such as grains, flours or as
processed food items. The solid, abiotic part of this system provides the
raw materials and the supporting surface on which many of the processes
of life depend.
By now you recognize the Earth and its biosphere make up complex,
interactive system. The Earth system is sometimes compared to the human
body. We are interested in how well our heart/lungs/muscles/nerves work,
but we are most keenly interested in how well the components work
together. So that we can improve our overall health. Similarly, the Earth
has lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere as its component.
Our health depends on how well our body interacts with its components.
Likewise, the earth depends on its components and their interactions with
Fig.No.7.6 Drip Irrigation each other. In the next lesson, let us investigate how to manage this
interactive system and as well as planning for a sustainable future.
92 93
 Exercises Activities

I. Fill in the blanks 1. Biome quiz : Using the four biomes listed below, answer the following :
1. Plants are also consumable and ________ sources of food. Forest, Grass land, Desert, Tundra
2. Evergreen forests are found around ________ . a. Where would you want to go for a vacation ?
3. Deciduous forests are located in ________ and ________ areas. b. Where would you travel to see a polar bear ?
4. The largest terrestrial biome between 50 degrees and 60 degrees north
latitude is the ________. c. If you wanted to collect needle shaped leaves, where would you find
them ?
5. Seasonal fires play a vital role in the ________ biodiversity.
d. You want to live where there are all four seasons, which biome is right
for you ?
II. Match the following
e. You are going on Safari in Africa. What biome has the most exotic
1. Prairies - Europe animals ?
2. Pampas - Canada f. If you are a farmer planting crops, which biome is best for you?
3. Steppe - Treeless plain g. You want to ride a camel in Egypt, what biome is that ?
4. Savanna - USA
h. You want to see a zebra, you travel to which biome ? It’s summer and
5. Tundra - Africa
you want to see the leaves change color, where would you go ?

III. Write short notes on 2. Which biome do you fell is the most important to India ? why ?Discuss
this in the class and see if you can come up with a consensus.
1. Taiga forest 3. Complete the given agricultural biome chart
2. Temperate grass land
3. Desert Name of the crop Natural Energy Cultural Energy Region
4. Deciduous forest Temp. R.F. Soil Nutrients, water
and Chemicals
IV. Explain in detail Paddy
Wheat
1. Name the cultural energy inputs in an agricultural biome and
explain them. Cereals

2. Write in detail about the grassland biome. Planation crops

Cotton

94 95
 8. ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT AND
4. A tropical Grassland biome - The drought zone of
Sahel - Natural or Man - made? Debate CONSERVATION
From the most arid desert to the dripping rain forest, from the highest
mountain peak to the deepest ocean trench, life occurs. Scientists estimate
that between 3 and 30 million different species inhabit Earth. They vary
in sizes, colors, shapes, life cycles, and inter – relationships. Even obscure
organisms contribute to essential ecological processes of the biosphere.
Think, for a moment, how remarkable, varied, abundant, and important
the other living creatures are with whom we share Earth.
In recent times, humans have become a serious threat to all other
life-forms. Rapidly expanding human population and activities, amplified
by the power of technology, threaten to eliminate much of the diversity
of the biosphere. Humans have become a natural force, levelling
mountains, diverting rivers into new channels, and causing soil erosion on

Famine in Sahel
the order of 25 billion metric tons worldwide per year. Humans destroy
wildlife directly by over harvesting animals and plants for food and
commerce. These impacts initiate species extinction and unique and
complex characteristics of the biosphere may be permanently lost. Let
us learn in this lesson, about extinction in general, how to manage and
preserve the biosphere.
Extinction: Extinction is neither a new phenomenon nor a process caused
only by humans. Studies of the fossil record suggest that more than 99
percent of all species that ever existed on the Earth are now extinct.
Most of those species disappeared long before humans came on the
scene. The geological record shows that a number of widespread
biological catastrophes have caused mass extinctions from the Earth.
The best known of these occurred 65 million years ago when dinosaurs
disappeared, along with at least 50 percent of existing genera and 15
percent of marine animal families. An even greater disaster occurred at
about 250 million years ago when two-thirds of all marine species and
nearly half of all plant and animal families died out over a period of about
10,000 years.

96 97
Photo Plate No.8.1 Passenger Pigeon Photo Plate No.8.2 African violet and Green Pitcher Plant

98 99
 8.3.1 Siberian Tiger 8.3.3 Chimpanzee Extinct Species

8.1 Passenger Pigeon : The last member of this species died

in cincinnati zoo in 1947. Over hunting and habitat disruption
caused their extinction.

8.2 Green pitcher Plant – Insectivorous plants :

Only about 1000 plants remain because of habitat
destruction.
8.3.4 Aya-Aye
8.2 African violet these familiar house plant have almost
totally disappeared from their native habitat in South Africa

Endangered Species :

8.3.1 Siberian Tiger This Siberian large cats are endangered

in the world

8.3.2 Black rhinoceros Originally there were about one

million rhinoceros in Africa and now there are fewer than
4000 Poachers kill them for their horns.

Wonders of nature :

8.3.4 Leonards 8.3.2 Black Rhinoceros 8.3.3 Chimpanzee This Chimpanzee is using a strict to trick
tasty termites out of their nest. If it used its fingers instead,
the termites would bite them.

8.3.4 Aya – Aye During the day, the rare aya – aye sleeps in a
nest in the trees. It spends the night digging insects out of tree
bark with its long third finger. To find out where the insects
are, it has to listen carefully with its big ears.

8.3.4 Leopards They are covered with black spots, which

Photo Plate No.8.3 Endangered Species and Wonders of Nature
help to hide them when they sit up in the shady jungle trees.

100 101
Current Extinction Rates
The rate at which species have been lost appears to have in-creased
dramatically over the last one hundred years. Before humans became a

Fig.No.8.1 Human Population Growth - Agricultural Industrial and Technological

major factor, extinction rates from natural causes appear to have been
one species lost every five to ten years. Between 1600 and 1900 A.D.,

10
human activities seem to have been responsible for the extermination of
about one species per year. During this century, especially since World
War II, the rate of extinction appears to have accelerated to dozens or
even hundreds of species per year. We cannot be absolutely sure of

100
these rates because many parts of the world haven’t been thoroughly

revolution
industrial
Scientific
explored and many species may have disappeared before they were


studied and classified by biologists.
The main reason for the current increase in extinctions is habitat loss.

1,000
Destruction of tropical forests; coral reefs, estuaries, marshes, and other

Years ago
biologically rich ecosystems threaten to eliminate millions of species in a
human-caused mass extinction that could rival those of geologic history.

Agricultural
revolution

10,000
By destroying habitat, humans eliminate not only prominent species, but


also many not even be aware. It has been suggested that millions of
species could be lost in the next few years if this destruction continues.
Let us now discuss, about how the growth of population and

10,00,000 1,00,000
technological progress were responsible for the destruction of biological

Discovery of
fire and tools
resources and extinction of very many species from the Earth.
As shown in the figure no. 8.1. the first population increase was about


a million years ago, and the discovery of fire and the invention of tools
that enabled our ancestors to be a more effective society. The second

10,000,000
10,000,000,000

10,000
population increase corresponds to the domestication of plants and animals
about ten thousand years ago. The third expansion of growth, of which
we are a part, was stimulated by the scientific and industrial revolution.
If the present trend continues, the world in 2100 will be more crowded, Population
more polluted, less stable ecologically and more vulnerable to disruption.
So the choices we make now determine what our lives and those of our
children will be like in future.

102 103
 There are three points worth making about the capacity which is system and its components. One way to help you to understand the
fundamental to our understanding of current dilemmas in managing the relationships of our Earth system and its components, is to use concept
Earth system. maps.

1. We are animals, with the same basic biological limitations Concept Maps :
of birth, growth, reproduction and death of other animals, Concept mapping is a visual representation of information that includes
and with the same basic competitive drives towards the concepts and the relationship between concepts. The exercise can
acquisition of material resources. In the natural animal encourage overviews or systemic thinking. Such concept maps reveal
world, co–operative behaviour occurs and is generally the inescapable fact that humans are dependent upon the workings of
interpreted as behaviour most appropriate for individual the global ecosystem, or the biosphere. It is also obvious that the humans
survival. have developed a capacity to change the dynamics of ecosystems. There
are certain specific task to be carried out before understanding the Earth
2. In the human world, the competitive instinct, both at the systems through “concept mapping”.
individual level and at community and national levels, Specific Tasks :
emphasizes short – term gain, threatening long – term
survival. The consequences of over sue and abuse may 1. Rank the concepts by placing the basic theme at the
be overcome through technological development and top of the map and add more specific concepts.
better management and levels of co – operative 2. Connect the concepts by lines. Label the lines with
behaviour in relation to the use of natural resources. linking words that define the relationship between the
two concepts so that it reads as a statement.
3. Human consciousness and achievements, apparently
freeing us from the controls that the environment exerts 3. Look for cross links between concepts in different
over wild animals, seem to have endowed us with the sections of the map, and label these. Specific examples
idea that we are free to exploit the environment. The of concepts can be attached to the concept labels.
consequences of overuse and abuse may be over come 4. The same set of concepts may be represented by many
through technological development and better different map forms.
management.
In this lesson, two concepts maps are drawn as examples. These
Recognizing these three points and raising awareness of the implications maps are drawn with the following concepts.
for each of us and our children’s children are essential prerequisites for 1. Photographs from space show Earth dominated by
enabling us to initiate the necessary action that will generate sustainable water and shielded by a thin layer of atmosphere.
development. Unlimited growth of population in an environment of finite Observations from space support a systematic approach
resources is impossible because growth will eventually deplete the to Earth science. The systematic approach will help us
available resources and the population will collapse. To save the Earth to understand how local activities might produce global
from such an event, one should understand the relationships of our Earth effects.
104 105
 2. The Earth system is composed of four interacting
components : atmosphere, biosphere, lithosphere, and
hydrosphere. Thus, features on the surface of the Earth
modifies and evolves continuously.
3. Global studies utilize new and evolving technology such
as satellites and remote sensing instruments.
Example 1 : Earth System Science
This is the science of Earth as system composed of interacting
components. This approach emphasizes the interactive nature of the
components. These components are : lithosphere, hydrosphere,
atmosphere and biosphere. They are described as follows :
Lithosphere : This includes physical elements of the Earth’s surface,
crust, and interior. Processes in the lithosphere include continental drift,
volcanic eruptions, and earthquakes.
Hydrosphere : This includes liquid, solid and gaseous form of water on
or near the surface of the Earth. They are : water vapour in clouds; ice
caps and glaciers; and water in the oceans, river, lakes, and aquifers.
Processes in the hydrosphere include the currents. Flow of rivers,
evaporation, condensation and precipitation.
Atmosphere : It includes thin layer of gas or air that surrounds the
Earth. Processes in the atmosphere include winds, weather, and the
exchange of gases with living organisms. The Concept Mapl:
Biosphere : It includes the wealth and diversity of living organisms
The Earth and its interacting Components
on the Earth. Processes in the biosphere include life and death, evolution,
and extinction.
The concept map 2 explains that in the biosphere, humans developed
an industrialized, technology-supported society on the abiotic environment. In the biosphere, humans are able to exercise their choice. So, the choices
Economic development with a motive proved to be the link that allowed we make now determine what our lives and those of our children will be
trade to take place. Trade is a part of the economic life of humans. This
like in the future. For the future, you have to feel that you are capable of
is because no two ecosystems are exactly alike. Every ecosystem,
doing something, changing something. We must mobilize now to achieve
located on the Earth’s surface is very unique, having its own climate,
the global possible. If we do, the future can be bright.
relief, products, culture, technology, transport facilities, and needs.
106 107
Example 2. Mapping Food We have sufficient knowledge, skill and resources. The well known
phrase, “think globally, act locally” might be now be reframed to
This concept map is drawn to trace a food from the “act globally, act locally”. We all have to act locally because that is
consumer back to its origins. Just think a while “What would all, most of us can do. In essence, it will only be through local initiative
happen if one of these connections was altered?”. that the international and intergovernmental efforts to manage
ecosystems in a sustainable way, can be made to work.

Exercises

I. Fill in the blanks

è¬ì è¬ì
ô£K 1. By destroying _________ we eliminate not only prominent
species, but also many not even be aware.
2. The third expansion of growth was stimulated by the _________
and _________ revolution.
3. Concept maps reveal the fact that humans are dependent upon
the working of the _________ ecosystem, or the biosphere.
4. Global studies utilize new and evolving technology such as
_________ and _________ instructions.
5. For the future, you have to feel that you are capable of _________
something, _________ something.

II. Match the following

1. Discovery of fire - Global ecosystem
2. Population increase - Human activities
3. Concept maps - Depletion of resources
4. Extinction - the domestication of plants

Fig 8-2 Maping food

5. Economic growth - Effective society

108 109
III. Write short notes on c. If you live in a rural area, try to visit a field and try to
1. Population Growth know about how farmers use natural resources – soil,
2. Mass extinction water, and sun – to grow crops and raise food crops.
3. Earth system science d. Make a note about how do they keep livestock from
4. Concept maps wandering off? How do they prevent crops from being
eaten by birds or destroyed by disease?
IV. Explain in detail
e. If you live in an urban area, try to visit an industrial area
1. What are concept maps ? Illustrate with an example. and try to know about how the industry use natural
2. Ecosystem Management – Explain. resources, raw materials, water, and sun to manufacture
goods.

f. Make a note about, how the waste generated is disposed

Activities ? How do they transport the raw materials from the source
and market the goods from the factory?

g. List the management strategies you feel is needed to improve

1. In paragraph form, give at least two reasons why concept map is an
your school environment
important learning skill, and two reasons why this skill is particularly
important to students.
2. Walk around you school or a neighborhood and make note of the
litter and describe in your own words how they affect the
environment. Discuss with your classmates about how to manage
the waste disposal.
3. Draw concept maps for the following :
How do You Control Your Surroundings ?
a. Select two ecosystem and label them. Mark the links
between the futures.
b. Identify an ecosystem that has been disturbed by humans
or a natural event.

110 111
 The ultimate purpose of cartography is to communicate facts and
ideas clearly and forcefully through a combination of drawings, word
PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY and symbols. So maps are made to communicate facts and ideas in
9. CARTOGRAPHY which people are interested. Viewed in this way map becomes a medium
of communication and cartography a communication science. In general
The world is full of strange, and wonderful places that we want to any communication system has five functional elements : source,
know more about. Do you remember thumbing through an atlas or transmitter, channel, receiver, and destination. Cartography is also
encyclopedia as a student, imagining yourself as a world traveller on a considered to be a communication system and thus have functional
safari in Africa, or boating up the Mississippi River, climbing the peaks of elements (Table No. 9.1).
the Himalayas, or even visiting seven wonders of the world? Yes, we all What is a map?
do. Turning to such maps and atlases frequently lead students to design,
their own “concept maps” of the world. This serves not only, to organize The word map is derived from the Latin word mapper. Mapper
in their mind about the people, places, and things they see and hear in the means tablecloth or handkerchief. The infinite nature of our universe
news, but also to suggest why certain events unfold in particular places. makes it impossible to capture all of the complexity found in the real
world. Therefore a map is a graphic representation of a portion of the
Students who grow up around maps and atlases are more likely to get the
earth’s surface drawn to scale, as seen from above.
“map habit” than students who do not.
There are innumerable things which can be shown on maps. But
All these maps must have certain basic ingredients like outline, relative
everything that exists on the Earth is not represented on all maps. Some
location and important natural and cultural details of the Earth. The art of
maps do represent a variety of things about which people are more
such map construction is called cartography and people who work in this
intimately concerned in their day-to-day life. These maps are called the
field are called cartographers. There is no doubt that each map produced
general or reference maps. Most other maps give specialized information
by cartographers is always a new product and incorporates new data.
only. Such maps are called thematic maps. In these maps only a few
So, maps are one of the most important sources of cartographic details are given visual prominence. The other details are either not
information. shown at all or are shown merely to produce a background effect. The
map uses symbols, colors and labels to represent different features found
on the Earth.
Components of a Map :
Source Transmitter Channel Receiver Destination A map consists of several components. Each symbol on a map is a
component by itself. Every component of a map is a symbol. Symbols
are like words. As the words giving same meaning differ from language
to language, so also the symbols differ from map to map. When several
Fig.No.9.1 A Communication System
words are put together in a definite order, we get a sentence.

112 113
 Similarly when several symbols are put together in a definite order, we
Table No.9.1 Cartography and its functional elements. get a map. These orderly arranged symbols give a meaning which
individual symbols fail to give. Symbolization and the arrangement of the
1. Information Source : All the natural and social science symbols in a map are, therefore, crucial processes in map design. No
concerned with the study of earth book can be popular if the choice of words is bad. So also no map can be
and its surface features popular if the choice of symbols is bad.

2. Message : Ideas and facts about the earth and All maps must show a few common components. These are title, legend,
direction, scale, and source and in some cases insets. The title of a map
its surface features; also about the
may be placed anywhere within the neat line. Most appropriate place is
space and universe. the top right of the frame. It can also be placed at the top left or bottom
left or bottom right. The title should include the name of the area
3. Transmitter : Cartographer who converts these
represented, and the nature of the data shown. If the data pertain to a
ideas and facts into words, given year this should also be given. The title should always be given in
drawings and symbols. The signals bold and simple letters. If necessary, it can be enclosed in a box
of the transmitter are the words, (Fig. No. 9.2)
drawings and symbols and their The legend of a map is usually placed in a corner within the neat line.
mutual arrangement. The position of the legend is so selected that it does not interfere with
other details. Every symbol and abbreviation used in a map should be
4. Channel : Maps and other cartographic
explained in the legend.
products. Poor design or drawing,
Direction is shown in one of the corners by an arrow pointing to the
cluttering of the symbols,
north. Scales can be expressed as words or as graphics. The scale of a
incorporation of unnecessary facts map should be placed at a prominent place. It can be placed just below
to the detriment of the relevant ones, the title or somewhere at the bottom.
poor printing, and so on are
Every map must give the source of the data used. Most of the maps
considered as noise source. we use, do not mention the source. The source should normally be given
outside the frame of the map on bottom right. On the bottom left should
5. Received signals : Symbols, etc., as perceived by the
be given the name of the author, publisher, etc.
map used.
So, a map provides information on the existence, the location of, and
6. Destination : Map users the world over. the distance between ground features, such as populated places and
routes of travel and communication. It also indicates variations in terrain,
heights of natural features, and the extent of vegetation cover.
114 115
Lat Lat The individual components get their meaning only with reference to
long long the map as a whole. Map design involves the development of this integrated
plan and style of the map and its individual components, and lay out
TITLE involves the arrangement of these individual components on the paper.

Scale Maps are documents printed on paper and require protection from
water, mud, and tearing. Whenever possible, a map should be carried in
a waterproof case, in a pocket, or in some other place where it is handy
for use but still protected. Care must also be taken when using a map
since it may have to last a long time. Special care should be taken of a
map that is being used in a tactical mission, especially in small units; the
mission may depend on that map. Much of the military plannings are
done by using maps. So, it is necessary that the maps are to be transported,
stored, and placed into operation all the proper time and place. Maps are
certainly of great use to us. We should, therefore, know as such about
maps as we can. But knowing maps involves knowing more about
cartography – the science and art of making maps.
Main Map

Practical Exercises

LEGEND 1. What are maps? And name the functional elements of cartography?
2. Format the following maps using Atlas of India / Tamilnadu
a. Political map of India
b. Physical map of Tamilnadu
c. Population map of India
Lat Lat
long Fig.No.9.2 Format of a Map long d. Population map of Tamilnadu

Author & Publisher Source

116 117
3. Format the given map. The scale of the map is 1:6,0000,000

10. SCALES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Earth has an average radius of 6,371 kilometers and an area
510,900,000 sq.km. This size and the shape of the Earth creates two
basic problems for cartographers. One of them is how to shrink and
draw such a large Earth into a suitable small size maps and to convert
the spherical Earth in to a flat surface. Scales are used to reduce the
whole or part of the Earth’s surface.
A map is a scaled graphic representation of a portion or whole of the
earth’s surface. The scale of the map permits the user to convert distance
on the map to distance on the ground or vice versa. The ability to
determine distance on a map, as well as on the earth’s surface, is an
important factor in planning and executing military missions.
The Map Scale :
The scale is defined as the ratio between the distance of two points
on the map and their corresponding distance on the ground. There are
three ways of indicating scales on a map.
1. Simple Statement : Scale can also be described on a map by a verbal
statement. In good old maps, scales were marked in miles in the British
style. At present the maps are prepared using the metric system only.
So most map scales are marked in meters.

Example : 1 centimeter = 10 kilometers

Simple statement has the following characteristics :

1. The numerator refers to map distance and the denominator
refers to ground distance.
2. If the numerator is in centimeters, then the denominator is in
meters and kilometers.
118 119
2. Representative Fraction : The numerical scale of a map indicates
the relationship of distance measured on a map and the corresponding
distance on the ground. This scale is usually written as a fraction and is
called the representative fraction. The RF is always written with the
map distance as 1 and is independent of any unit of measure. It could be
yards, meters, inches, and so forth.

Fig.No. 10.2 Classification by scale

Example : RF : 1/50,000 or 1:50,000

3. Graphic (Bar) Scales : A graphic scale is a ruler printed on the map

and is used to convert distances on the map to actual ground distances.
In figure – 10.1, the graphic scale is divided into two parts. To the right of
the zero, the scale is marked in full units of measure and is called the
primary scale. To the left of the zero, the scale is divided into secondary
scale and is called the extension scale. This is one to enable the map
reader to measure distance in fractions also. If we want to measure full
units we will begin with zero and use the right side or the primary scale.
But if the distance we are trying to measure does not equal primary
units, we will place the line to be measured with the right end on the last
full unit that is applicable and read the remaining fraction on the extension
to the left of zero.

Extension
scale Primary scale

1000m. 500m. 0 1 2 3 4km.

Fig 10.1 Graphical scale

120 121
 Cartographers classify maps are scales and maps are rarely drawn at Determining the Scale of a map :
the same scale as the real world. Most maps are made at a scale that is To determine the scale of a map first of all find out the ground distance
much smaller than the area of the actual surface being depicted. The between any two points shown on the map. Find out the map distance
amount of reduction that has taken place is normally identified somewhere between the same points and compare the two. If the ground distance is
on the map. two kilometers and the map distance is two centimeters, then 2 centimeters
on the map represent 200,000 centimeters on the ground. Since, the scale
Generally maps are classified by scale into three categories. They are ratios are always expressed with one as the base, we divide both, 2 and
small, medium, and large – scale maps (Figure – 10.2). The terms “small 200,000 to obtain the R.F. 1 : 100,000.
scale,” “medium scale,” and “large scale” may be confusing when Reduction and Enlargement of scales
read in conjunction with the number. However, if the number is viewed
In the process of compiling maps cartographers are often required to
as a fraction, it quickly becomes apparent that 1 : 6000,000 of something is reduce or enlarge maps. Reduction or enlargement involves change in the
smaller than 1 : 75,000 of the same thing. Therefore, the larger the number size. One simple way of illustrate what happens to the size of a map
after 1 : the smaller the scale of the map. when it is reduced or enlarged is to fold a sheet of paper. Take a sheet
of ordinary note book and assume it to be a map of a given scale. To
Small Scale : show the same area reduced to 1/2 the original scale, fold the paper in
Those maps with scales of 1:1,000,000 and smaller are used for general half each way since any reduction is proportional in each dimension.
Now we have one fourth of the paper area of the original, while the
planning and for strategic studies. The standard small – scale map is
scale is 1/2 that of the original. Fold the paper once again in each direction
1:1,000,000. This map covers a very large land are at the expense of to illustrate four times reduction which gives a paper having 1/16 the size
detail. of the original.
Medium Scale : This paper folding can also be depicted mathematically. The ratio
between the area of a map on one scale and its area to another scale is
Those maps with scales larger than 1:1,000,000 but smaller than 1:75,000 equal to the square of the ratios between the scales of the original and
are used for operational planning. They contain a moderate amount of enlarged / reduced maps.
detail, but terrain analysis is best done with the large-scale maps described
below. The standard medium-scale map is 1:250,000. Medium scale maps Example: 1. Reduce RF. 1 : 10,000 to RF. 1 : 50,000
of 1:100,000 are also frequently encountered. (Original scale / Reduced scale )
Large Scale : 1 / 10000 10000
=
Those maps with scales of 1:75,000 and larger are used for 1 / 50000 50000
administrative, and logistical planning. These are the maps that you as a = 5 times the original scale
soldier or junior leader are most likely to encounter. The standard large (5) 2
= 25 times of the original area
scale map is 1:50,000; however, many areas have been mapped at a
(Ans ) Reduce the area 25 times the original
scale of 1:25,000.
122 123
 Example: 2. Enlarge RF. 1 : 10,000 to RF. 1 : 20,000 Example: 4. Reduce the given scale 1 : 10,000 to 5 times
(Original scale / Enlarged scale )
1 1
1 / 100,000 20,000 =
= 10000 X (5)
1 / 20,000 100,000
10,000 X 5
= 1/5 times the original scale X =
50, 000
(1/5) 2 = 1/25 times of the original area
X = 10,000
(Ans ) Reduce the area 1/25 times the original
(Ans ) Reduced scale is 1 : 50,000
If we know the original scale of a map and want to find out the new
scale of a reduced or enlarged version of it, we should use the principle Let us now examine how to use the scales and to find the ground
or ratios. distances between any to points from the maps.
Example 1: To determine straight-line distance between two points
on a map.
Example: 3. Enlarge the given scale RF. 1 : 10,000 to 10 times
Step 1: Lay a straight-edged piece of paper on the map so that the
1 1 edge of the paper touches both points and extends past them. Make a
= tick mark on the edge of the paper at each point (Fig 10.3).
100,000 X (10)
Step 2: To convert the map distance to ground distance, move the
10X = 100,000 paper down to the graphic bar scale, and align the right tick mark
(b) with a printed number in the primary scale so that the left tick
100,000
X = mark (a) is in the extension scale (Fig 10.4)
10
Step 3: The right tick mark (b) is aligned with the 3,000-meter mark in
X = 10,000 the primary scale, thus the distance is at least 3,000 meters and the left
(Ans ) Enlarged scale is 1 : 10,000 tick mark (a) is aligned with the 950-meter mark. Adding the distance
of 3,000 meters determined in the primary scale to the 950 meters you
determined by using the extension scale, we find that the total distance
between points (a) and (b) is 3,950 meters.
124 125
 A

B
a

Fig.No. 10.3 Transferring map distance to paper strip

Scale 1:50,000 C
Scale 1,00,000

Distance 3 kilometers and nine hundred and fifty

3950 meters Distance from (a) to (b) is 4,250

Fig 10-4 Measuring straight-line map distance

Fig.No. 10.5 Measuring a curved line.

126 127
Example 2 To determine curved – line distance between two points
on a map.
11. CONTOURING AND CROSS SECTIONS
Step 1: To measure distance along a road, stream, or other curved
line, the straight edge of a piece of paper is used. Place a tick mark on Contours on a map convey the shape of that part of the surface of the
the paper and map at the beginning point from which the curved line is to earth: its topography. Topography is made up of an assemblage of
landforms. Landforms are the shapes of the individual and groups of
be measured. Align the edge of the paper along a straight portion and
natural features of the earth’s surface. Common landforms are hills and
make a tick mark on both map and paper when the edge of the paper
valleys, plains and plateaus, continents and mountains ranges. Taken
leaves the straight portion of the line being measured (fig 10.5a). together, the landforms that are present in a region are the foundation of
Step 2: Keeping both tick marks together (on paper and map), place its landscape.
the point of the pencil close to the edge of the paper on the tick mark to An important skill is the ability to transform the contours you see on a
hold it in place and pivot the paper until another straight portion of the topographic map into a mental picture of the landscape they represent
curved line is aligned with the edge of the paper. Continue in this manner and then to turn that image into a written or verbal description so that
until the measurement is completed (fig 10.5b). you can convey your ideas to other people.

Step 3: When you have completed measuring the distance, move the There are no ‘formulas’ for writing landscape descriptions; there are
paper to the graphic scale to determine the ground distance as said in no unique ‘correct’ descriptions. How successful you are will depend
the previous example. upon your ability to ‘read’ contours, your powers of observation and
your facility with languages..
A useful first step in gaining such ability is to observe and learn how to
describe a single, common type of landform, such as a hill. When you
have mastered that skill, you will be able to transfer what you have
Practical Exercises
learned to other landforms and to landscape in general.
1. What are scales ? Describe small, medium and large scale maps.
The cartographers use several methods to depict relief of the terrain.
2. Calculate the following They are a. Layer tinting b. Form lines, c. Shaded relief, d. Hachures
a. Reduce R.F. 1 : 50,000 to RF. 1 : 75,000 and e. Contours.
b. Enlarge R.F. 1 : 25,000 to R.F. 1 : 10,000 a. Layer Tinting. Layer tinting is a method of showing relief by color.
c. Reduce R.F. 1 : 50,000 to 5 times A different color is used for each band of elevation. Each shade of
d. Enlarge R.F. 1 : 10,000 to 10 times color, or band, represents a definite elevation range. A legend is printed
on the map margin to indicate the elevation range represented by each
3. Find out the straight line and curved line distance between any color. However, this method does not allow the map user to determine
two points using atlas maps (Minimum of three exercises) the exact elevation of a specific point, only the range.

128 129
b. Form Lines. Form lines are not measured from any datum plane.
Form lines have no standard elevation and give only a general idea of
relief. Form lines are represented on a map as dashed lines and are
never labelled with representative elevations.
c. Shaded Relief. Relief shading indicates relief by a shadow effect
achieved by tone and color that results in the darkening of one side of
terrain features, such as hills and ridges. The darker the shading the
steeper the slope. Shaded relief is sometimes used in conjunction with
contour lines to emphasize these features.
d. Hachures. Hachures are short, broken lines used to show relief. Fig.No.11.2 Contour Lines
Hachures are sometimes used with contour lines. They do not represent
exact elevations, but are mainly used to show large, rocky outcrop areas.
Hachures are used extensively on small- scale maps to show mountain (1) Index. Starting at zero elevation or mean sea level, every fifth
ranges, plateaus, and mountain peaks. contour line is a heavier line. These are known as index contour lines.
Normally, each index contour line is numbered at some point. This number
is the elevation of that line.
Ridgeline (2) Intermediate. The contour lines falling between the index contour
lines are called intermediate contour lines. These lines are finer and do
not have their elevations given. There are normally four intermediate
contour lines between index contour lines.
(3) Supplementary. These contour lines resemble dashes. They show
changes in elevation of at least one-half the contour interval. These
lines are normally found where there is very little change in elevation,
such as on fairly level terrain.
Fig.No.11.1 Ridgeline
Contour Map : Look at the maps from 1 to 3 How come there are two
e. Contour Lines. Contour lines are the most common method of roads in between (S1 and S2) settlements? Why would anyone bother to
showing relief and elevation on a standard topographic map. A contour build a curvy, indirect route when a straight road is so much shorter?
line represents an imaginary line on the ground, above or below sea level. The maps drawn have their good points but is doesn’t tell us how high or
All points on the contour line are at the same elevation. The elevation steep the mountains are and we can’t see what’s going on the sides
represented by contour lines is the vertical distance above or below sea of the mountains facing away from us. Where as in a contour map
level. The three types of contour lines (Fig – 11.1) used on a standard (Fig.No.11.2) we’re in a position to ‘see’ the shape of topographic
topographic map are as follows: features and their elevation and the nature of the slope.
130 131
 MAP 11
MAP B A The heights above sea
C level that is, the elevation
Map 1 of the three peaks are 1400
S1 A straight road and a curved road meters for Mount “A”,
connecting two settlements. 1800 meters for Mount
“B”, and 1000 meters for
RIVER Mount “C”.
S2
An Island with three peaks
What do you call those lines drawn in the picture below.
Those lines are called contour lines! They’re lines of equal
elevation above sea level. All the points on the lowest line are
Map 2 MAP 2
zero meters above sea level. All the points on the next higher
contour line are 200 meters above sea level and so on.
Curved road goes around
all the hills. The straight 1800M
S2 1600M
road goes up, over and 1400M
1200M
through the mountains. 1000M
800M
500m
S1 600M
400M..

MAP 3 If looked straight down

Contour interval
200m. Map 3 from way up high, and this
is what we see like a contour
S1 and S2 with reference to
S1 map. Now we’re in a
relief of the region. The
position to ‘see’ the shape
elevation is depicted by
of the island and the
contours.
elevation of any place on
S2
its surface!

Fig.No.11.3 Contour map and its importance

132 133
Gradient : Gradient tells you how steep your route is ! Gradient can be
GRADIENT
expressed numerically in many ways. One common way to describe 176 cm./m.
the average steepness or gradient between two points is to state the
difference in elevation (ED) divided by the horizontal distance (HD):
GRADIENT = ED / HD
Take a look at this example 83.3cm./m.
- The vertical distance (here, the difference in elevation
between points ‘A’ and ‘B’) = 5000cms.
- The horizontal distance from ‘A’ to ‘B’ = 50 kms. 33.3cm./m.
13.3cm./m.
- Gradient = vertical distance (elevation difference (ED)) 0cm./m.
divided by horizontal distance (HD)
- The GRADIENT is 100 centimeters per kilometers (5000 cms Let’s look at an example like a small restaurant. When you enter into
divided by 50 kms.) the dining hall using the steps, how steep these steps are? The gradients
can help you to find how steep is the steps. Here’s a photo of the steps.
“And here’s a sketch of the steps! If you look carefully, you’ll see that to
5000cms / 50km. get from the ground to the level of the doors to the building (Platform 2),
100cms/km you have to go up nine ‘risers’, and across seven treads and Platform
1. The risers are 15 cms high, the treads are 30 cms across, and platform 1
is 2 mts across. Now let us calculate the vertical distance and horizontal
distance.

5000 cms
50 kms

Elevation difference may also be expressed in inches, meters or some

other convenient unit; similarly, horizontal distance may be expressed in
feet, kilometers, etc. Thus, the gradient may be stated as inches / foot,
feet/mile, meters/kilometer, etc. The diagram in the following page shows
A restaurant’s foot steps
some slopes and their approximate gradients in cms/kms.
134 135
 Let us now learn about measuring a gradient from a contour map.
Map 1 : Calculate the gradient of the slope from point A to Point B,
‘A’ falls on the 2500 m. contour; ‘B’ falls on the 1250m. contour. So the
vertical distance is 1250 m..
The horizontal distance from ‘A’ to ‘B’ can be taken from the scale that
is one centimeter is equivalent to 5 kilometers on the ground.
So, the gradient is 1250m./ 5 kilometers. The gradient is 250 meters per
kilometers.

Map1: Calculate the gradient of the slope from point A to Point B.

1cm=5kms. C.I. 250mts

Vertical Distance
One riser 15 cms. X 9 raisers = 135 cms. A 250cm
Horizontal Distance
One tread 30 cms X 7 treads = 210 cms. Or 2 meters
Horizontal distance = 2.1 + 2 mts. (Platform 1)
B 1250cm
Total horizontal distance = 4.1 mts. Or 4 mts.

The gradient
Vertical / horizontal = 135 / 4
= 33.75m cms / mt.
Map 2 : Calculate the gradient of the river, from ‘D’ to ‘C’. Point.
So, for every one meter there is a rise of 33.75 cms.
‘C’ lies half way between the 1750 mts. and 2000 mts. contours,
so we can estimate its elevation as midway between the two contours;
1875 mts. The elevation of ‘D’ is ‘0’, because it lies at sea level.
136 137
 So, the elevation difference between C and D is 1875m minus 0’ = Contour Spacing and Steepness:
1875 mts. The horizontal distance along the river is about twice the
length of the scale bar. Mount B
Mount A
Map2: Calculate the gradient of the river, from ‘D’ to ‘C’. Point ntle
Ge Ste
ep

Take a look at the picture above and notice how the slope from the
top of Mount A down to the sea is much steeper than the slope from the
top of Mount B down to the sea. Now look at the contour map below,
where the slopes are steeper, the contour lines are closer together and
where the slopes are gentler, the contours lines are further apart.

Mount B
Mount A

Steepest

Since the scale bar is 5 kilometers, twice its length is ten kilometers.
So, the gradient along the river is 1875m. / 10 kilometers is about Gentle
188m. per kilometer. Steep

The gradient you get this way is only the average gradient. Also,
there’s no way of knowing what the gradient is between contours. The
Gentlest
contour interval is 250’, so there could be a hundred meters waterfall
and then a fairly level stretch between two of the contours and they
wouldn’t show on the map! But it gives you a general idea of what
you’ll encounter.
138 139
Some examples of the common landforms represented by contours and
their cross sections are given below.

1. Conical Hill 2. Plateau

100 M 500 M
1000M
200 M 1500M

300 M 2000M

400 M

400M

300M 2000 M
1500 M
200M
1000 M
100M
500M

140 141
 3. Saddle 4. Escarpment

500M
1000M
1500M
2000M
2500M
2500M 2500M 2000M
1500 M
500 M 1000M

2500 M

2000 M
Saddle 2500M
2000M 1500 M
1500M
1000 M
1000M

500M 500 M

142 143
 6. Volcanoe
5. Waterfall

500 M
1000M
1500M
2000M
2500M
3000M
1500M
3500M

2000M
1500M
1000M
500 M

3500M
3000M
2500M
2000M 2000M
1500M 1500M
1000M 1000M
500 M 500 M

144 145
 Practical Exercises

1. Find out the gradient of the steps in any one of the building at 12. TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS: INFORMATIONS
your school campus. AND SYMBOLS
2. Draw cross sections along the given line and briefly describe the Whether on paper or on a computer screen, a map is the best tool
terrain features. available to catalog and view the arrangement of things on the Earth’s
surface. Maps of various kinds such as road maps, political maps, land
use maps, and maps of the world, serve many different purposes. One
of the most widely used of all maps is the topographic map. The feature
that most distinguishes topographic maps from maps of other types is
the use of contour lines to portray the shape and elevation of the land.
Topographic maps render the three dimensional ups and downs of the
terrain on a two dimensional surface.
Topographic maps usually portray both natural and manmade features.
They show and name works of nature, including mountains, valleys,
plains, lakes, rivers, and vegetation. They also identify the principal works
of man, such as maps, boundaries, transmission lines, and major buildings.
The wide range of information provided by topographic maps make
them extremely useful to professional and recreational map users alike.
Topographic maps are used for engineering, energy exploration, natural
resource conservation, environmental management, public-works design,
commercial and residential planning and outdoor activities like hiking,
camping, and fishing.
Topographic Map Symbols
In cartography, symbols are everything. The very nature of a map
as an abstracted representation of the Earth requires symbols to perform
the abstraction. To not have symbols is to not have maps. When we first
think of symbols, we tend to think of graphics representing elements
that appear points, like bridges and houses. Symbols can also be linear,
representing such features as roads, railways and rivers. However, we
also need to include representations of area, in the case of forested land
or cleared land, this is done through the use of colour.
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Conventional Signs and Symbols ; Every component of a map is a represented either by bars or circles or spheres depending upon the type
symbol (Fig No.12.1) Map itself is nothing but a symbol. It is a symbol of data to be represented. Representation by bars indicates the length or
of symbols. Symbols are like words. As the words giving same meaning height; by circle or squares, the size and by cubes or sphere, the volume.
differ from language to language, so also the symbols differ from map In this connection it may be noted that the cubes and spheres are three
to map. Except for a few conventionalized symbols, a cartographer has far dimensional and hence, they take less space than squares and circles.
greater freedom to develope the symbols for the users. Symbols take
their meaning given by the cartographers. 2. Line Symbols : Like point symbols the lines symbols are also used to
indicate both qualitative and quantitative nature of the data. In the first
When several words are put together in a definite order, we get a category fall the latitudes, longitudes, boundaries, lines of transport and
sentence. Similarly when several symbols are put together in a definite symbols is not dependent on quantitative measurement of the object
order , we get a map. Many sentences make a paragraphs. Orderly represented on the ground. In fact certain objects like geographic
arranged symbols give a meaning which individual symbols fail to give. coordinates and coastlines do not exist in reality. The width of the transport
Symbolization and the arrangement of the symbols in a map are, therefore, and communication lines as well as of the streams and boundaries are
crucial processes in map design. No book can be popular if the choice of highly exaggerated. They are not drawn to scale.
words is bad. So also no map can be popular if the choice of symbols is We do have, however, line symbols which represent quantitative values.
bad. For most purposes we can classify symbols into three types: 1. Point The iso-lines of various types used to represented the physical or social
symbols, 2. Line Symbols and 3. Area Symbols. data do represent quantitative values. Similarly the flow lines show the
amount of the object represented moving from one place to another.
1. Point Symbols : Point symbols are those which give the location of
an object or the quantitative value represented by it exactly at the point 3. Area Symbols : Area symbols used the point and line symbols to give
of its location. Point symbols are of two type (a) qualitative and (b) combined effect of areal spread of the object represented. These symbols
quantitative. indicate the areal distribution of a given phenomenon without showing its
density. The swamps, forests, deserts, political units or soil types given
a) Qualitative symbols : They are used to suggest the existence of an on a map are mostly qualitative in nature. When symbols are used to give
object. For Example, a dot is put for a town and a cross for a hospital. the relative density of the occurrence of a phenomenon whether by
Such symbols do not represent any quantitative data. For example administrative units or by isolines, they acquire quantitative values.
everything on a road map is a word, a number or a symbol. The usual
symbol for a city is a circle. If there is a star inside the circle, the city is The purpose of a map is to permit one to visualize an area of the
a capital. Some symbols are small pictures. An airplane, for example, earth’s surface with pertinent features properly positioned. Every map
may stand for an airport. Even the lines are symbols. Some line symbols has its own legend. The map’s legend contains the symbols most
show the kind of road surface. Others represent canals railways, or commonly used on that map. A legend on the topographic map contains
the symbols used to depict the details (Fig No. 12.2) of that map area.
boundaries. Colour also have a meaning. All maps do not use exactly the
Therefore, the legend should be referred to each time when topographic
same symbols. On every road map you will find a key that explains what
map is used. Every effort is made to design standard symbols that resemble
each symbol means. the features they represent. If this is not possible, symbols are selected
b) Quantitative symbols : They can be used to indicate the presence that logically imply the features they portray. Ideally all the features
the length, the size or the volume. Uniform dot symbols can be used to within an area would appear on a map in their true proportion, position,
represent the existence of a certain phenomenon in partially quantitative and shape these are grouped as marginal information on a topographic
terms. The amount by which an object or idea is characterised can be map.
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Fig.No.12.1 Conventional Signs and Symbols Fig.No.12.2 A Section of the Indian Topographic Map

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Marginal Information : Edition Number (4) : The edition number is found in bold print in the
Marginal Information (Fig,No,12,3) on a topographic map shows upper right area of the top margin. Editions are numbered consecutively,
information that the map user needs to know. Marginal informations are therefore, if you have more than one edition, the highest numbered sheet
classified into: 1. Extra marginal 2. Intra marginal, 3. Inter marginal. is the most recent. Below the edition number, the magnetic variation
Extra marginal information describes the serial number, name of the from true north in a particular year is given.
state and district and other general information. The intra marginal
information consists of the grid information, contour values and names
of the next place and the distance in kilometers. The Inter marginal Edition Number And Magnetic Variation
information depicts the topography by using the various sings and symbols.
Let us learn about the inter marginal next year in detail. Extra marginal
information in explained in detail and the numbers indicate the items of Sheet Number (5) : The sheet number is found in bold print in the
the marginal information that the map user needs to know.
upper right comer area of the margin, which indicates the series number.
1. Extra Marginal Information : It is used as a reference number for the map series.
Sheet Name (1) : The sheet name is found in bold print in the upper left
corner o the margin. The name given to the series is generally that of a
major political subdivision, such as a district of a state designed to cover REFERENCE NUMBER
a particular geographic area.

NAME OF THE DISTRICT Legend (6) : The legend depicts physical features, is located in the
lower left (6) and depict cultural features is located in the right
Sheet Year (2) : The sheet year is found next to the sheet name in Top margin (6b). It illustrates and identifies the topographic symbols used to
and the left area of the map margin. The surveyed year is printed in small depict some of the more prominent features on the map. The symbols
letter.
are not always the same on every map. Always refer to the legend to
avoid errors when reading a map.
YEAR OF SURVEY

Series Name (3) : The series name is found in bold print at the center of
the top of the map margin. A map is generally named by the political
boundary within which the area found at the time the map was drawn. LEGEND LEGEND

NAME OF THE STATE

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 Index to sheet (7) : The index to boundaries diagram appears in the
1 2 3 4 5 lower, left margin indicates the map index (7a) and right margin indicates
the administrative index (7b) of adjoining sheets. This diagram, which is
a miniature of the map, shows the boundaries that occur within the map
area, such as district lines and state boundaries.

3
Index Index

Control Note (8) : This note is located in the centre of the lower margin.
It indicates the special agencies involved in the control of the technical
aspects of all the information that is disseminated on the map.
2
Control note

Scale (9) : The scale is found below control note, in the center of the
lower margin. The scale note is a representative fraction and graphical
that gives the ratio of a map distance to the corresponding distance on
1 the earth’s surface. For example, the scale note. 1,50,000 indicates that
one unit of measure on the map equals 50,000 units of the same measure
on the ground.

A B C
Scale
8
6a 7a 7b 6b
9 Colours used on a Map : Profile drawings of mountains and hills were
shown in brown, rivers and lakes in blue, vegetation in green roads in
yellow, and special information in red. A look at the legend of a modern
map confirms that the use of colours has not changed much over the past
several hundred years. To facilitate the identification of features on a
Fig.No.12.3 Marginal Informations
map, the topographical and cultural information is usually printed in
different colors. These colors may vary from map to map.
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 Practical Exercises
13. WEATHER INFORMATION
1. Classify the symbols used in a In the modern world there is an ever-increasing demand for more
Tourist map of Tamilnadu/India accurate weather forecasts. From factories to farms, from satellite
Physical map of Tamilnadu / India launching stations to commerce and industries, and even from general
Political map of Tamilnadu / India public there is a persistent demand for more reliable weather information.
Natural vegetation map of Tamilnadu / India In the field of agricultural planning the importance of weather prediction
Indian Topographical map cannot be over emphasized. It is undoubtedly true that all human
activities are directly or indirectly affected by the vagaries of weather
2. Using conventional signs and symbols chart published by survey elements. In most cases, accurate weather forecasting happens to be the
of India classify the symbols. ultimate target of atmospheric research.
3. Illustrate the extra marginal informations and symbols using Indian Weather forecaster’s job is highly technical and involves numerous
topographical sheet. steps. Collecting, transmitting, and compiling weather data of the entire
world are the most essential steps in weather forecasting. Let us know
about this aspect next year. In this lesson, how to map weather and
climatic data is discussed in detail.
Mapping the weather data
The day-to-day weather observations are used to prepare synoptic
charts and a variety of other diagrams. Synoptic charts give a composite
picture of the weather conditions as observed at a particular time.
Synoptic means “seen together”.
Synoptic charts : In order to have an average view of the changing
pattern of weather, a modern meteorological center prepares a series of
synoptic charts every day. Such a synoptic charts form the very basis
of weather forecasts. In the synoptic weather forecasting there was
no scientific basis and there was little quantification. The data received
from various weather stations are so much that they all cannot be
incorporated in a single chart unless they resort to coding. These codes
are called meteorological symbols.
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Weather symbols : A meteorologist must convey a lot of information The reason for this is that forecasts need to be accurate. But, they also
without using a lot of words. When looking at a weather map, a need to be timely. If too much time is spent making the forecast, it will be
meteorologist needs to know where the cold air is, where the warm air late. Not many people want to know what the weather was doing twenty
is, where it is raining, what type of clouds are in the area, and many more minutes ago. Most people want to know what the weather is going to do
things. in the near future. Because of this, weather symbols were invented so
that weather maps could be looked at in a short amount of time.
There are a large number of weather symbols is existence. Some are
used for weather like rain, snow, and lightning. There are also symbols
WINDS CLOUD COVERAGE
representing the speed of the wind, types of clouds, air temperature, and
Clam Clear air pressure. All of these symbols (Fig No.13.2 & 13.3) help meteorologists
forecast the weather in a timely manner.
1/8 ths
< 3 knots
At present, according to the world meteorological organization (WMO)
Scattered there are at least 9,525 land-based observatories, 7, 424 ships sending
3-7 knots
weather date from over the seas, 664 radar stations and 2306 upper-air
3/8 ths observing stations which are engaged in collecting weather data and
8-12 knots transmitting the same to their respective Centers. After the information
4/8 ths is collected, it is transmitted to three World Meteorological Centers located
13-17 knots in Melbourne (Australia), Moscow (former U.S.S.R), and Washington,
5/8 ths D.C. Besides, there is a continuous flow of 15 million weather data by
18-22 knots telecommunication system. It may be noted that weather data are shared
28-32 knots 5/8 ths internationally through the World Weather Watch (WWW) system. This
was inaugurated by the World Meteorological Organization in 1965.
Broken
48-52 knots In India the National meteorological Center is located in
Overcast Pune (Maharashtra). India Meteorological Department was established
58-62 knots in 1875. It is the National Meteorological Service in India and is the
Obscured principal government agency in all matters relating to Meteorology,
98-102 knots
Seismology and allied subjects. For administrative convenience and
Missing technical control, six Regional Meteorological Centers (RMCs) function
Barb points in direction wind is
with their headquarters at Calcutta, Chennai, Guwahati, Mumbai, Nagpur
coming from
and New Delhi.
Fig.No.13.2 Weather Symbols 1 Regional Meteorological Centre at Chennai was started on April 1945
to supervise and coordinate meteorological services in the Southern
Region. It covers the states of Tamilnadu, Andra Pradesh, Karnataka,
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 Pilot Balloon Observatory. Until then Madras observatory was supplying
Drizzle Freezing Rain Miscellaneous the time signal through out the Indian Telegraph system and issuing the
Madras Daily Weather Report which had commenced in October 1893.
Light Light Ice Pallets
Remember that all the weather stations, whether located on land or on
Moderate Moderate ships, report the atmospheric conditions 4 times each day at 0, 06, 12 and
Ice Crystals
18 hrs Greenwich Mean Time. Then the surface weather charts are
Freezing Drizzle Snow Grains produced by first plotting the data procured from selected weather charts
Heavy
are produced by first plotting the data procured from selected weather stations.
Light By international agreement the data must be plotted by using the symbols
Rain Blowing Snow
illustrated in figure 13.4 Generally the plotted data include the following
Moderate
Light weather elements: temperature, dew – point, pressure and its tendency
Fog (whether falling or rising), cloudiness (height, type and amount), wind speed
Moderate Thunder Strom and direction, and both current and past weather. It is worth while to
Haze note that the data are always plotted in the same position around the
Light
Heavy station model (Fig.No.13.4) so that their reading may be easier.
Smoke
Rain Showers Heavy
Light D Dust

Lightning
32 027
Moderate
Snow Tropical
xx Light
9
9 Hurricane
x xx Moderate 9 26
x xx Heavy 9 Strom
x
Snow Showers
x Light
x Fig.No.13.4 Station Model
Moderate
Fig.No.13.3 Weather Symbols 2

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 Interpreting Surface Observation Symbols
Practical Exercises
32 Temperature : The value highlighted located in the
upper left corner is the temperature in degrees Celsius.
In this example, the reported temperature is 32 degrees. 1. Fill in the blanks of the diagram to indicate what type of
meteorological data is represented by each position. Then circle the
Weather Symbols : The weather symbols indicates the
position of the weather symbols.
type of weather occurring at the time the observation is
taken. In this case, fog was reported. If there were
thunderstorms occurring when the observation was
taken, then the symbol for thunderstorms would have
appeared instead.

Dew Point Temperature : The value highlighted

located in the lower left corner is the dew point
temperature in degrees Celsius. In this example, the
26 reported dew point temperature is 26 degrees.

Cloud Cover : The symbol highlighted indicates the

amount of cloud cover observed at the time the
observation is taken, in this case, broken clouds were 2. Collect meteorological data and draw station models for the following
reported. stations.
a. Delhi, b. Kolkotha, c. Mumbai and d. Chennai

027 Sea level Pressure : The value highlighted in yellow

located in the upper right corner represents the last three
digits of the sea level pressure reading in millibars (mb).

Wind Barb : The symbol highlighted is known as a

Wind Barb. The wind barb indicates wind direction and
wind speed.

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 favorably for using secondary data in geography, the dependence on
fieldwork decline. In the midst of some geographers, fieldwork was
14. FIELD WORK AND REPORT WRITING being treated as a method of teaching only. This is primarily because of
Geography is a study of earth’s surface where humans live. There are the fact that during the 1950s and the 1960s, the secondary statistics began
several phenomena on the surface of the earth. There are several to be used in a large measure. But there are still a number of geographers
attributes, too. Although the human beings are the first and foremost of who carry out field study, believing in the efficacy of the method in research
the characteristics, the nature, landscapes and others of relative and teaching. Its importance is increasing day by day. It is being used in
importance have their own roles, too. The changes that occur in (notably, social surveys, while remaining the most important in the primary
wind, land and water) are all learned as the physical geography / Humans, surveys. Through this method, the day-to-day life is keenly observed both
their lives, industries, growth, development, welfare, ideas and perceptions directly and through participatory observation, and the primary data are
are learned in human geography. Hence, physical and human geography thus collected.
are considered as the two broad divisions of geography and the two are Fieldworkers are now engaged in data collection for gathering
also considered as the fields of human educational endeavor, its realities information on the human behaviour and the events and activities as
and behaviors. We should keep in mind three features as the most important they occur. Their complete understanding is possible through observation,
geographical characteristics. interviewing and statistical evidences. But, mostly, the fieldwork methods/
1. The first characteristic is ‘location’. How are the physical and techniques would depend very much on the purpose of the study and the
human factor changes depending on the locations? kind of questions are researcher is expected to answer.

2. The second characteristic is that of society – land relations. The In and field work, there are some precautionary steps. They must be
interdependencies between the earth phenomena and the nature taken keeping in view the following:
of physical and human environments are made explicit. 1. Purpose and nature of conduct of field work
3. The third characteristic is that of integration of the two above 2. Welfare and health of the participants in the fieldwork.
Here, region is much more closely studied and learned using 3. Intimation and information to parents, school or administrative
spatial and ecological approaches. authorities.
For those who are geographers, ‘areal differentiation’ is the basic idea 4. Conservation of fieldwork sites.
of geography. On the basis, there are means to learn both physical and 5. Rapport with the people towards gaining their confidence and
human geography. cooperation.
Field work in geography Learning from fieldwork may be considered as a ‘Classroom without
It is, in general, a collective of methods/techniques adopted by way of walls’. In the briefing of boys and girls to be involved in fieldwork, how
gathering primary data. These methods include mapping, sketching, the classrooms without walls can be fun and can create a happy occasion
observation, measurements in terms of land used and urban morphologies for learning must be elaborated. There are three major activities in
and interviewing concerned individuals. But when the conditions arose fieldwork. They are :

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 1. Planning the Fieldwork Field work exercises using interview as the basic method of data
2. Conducting the Fieldwork collection can help with the interpretation of collected materials. It is
possible to collect information through interviews without having to follow
3. Documenting what is gathered for Fieldwork participatory methods. The data collected through participatory methods
In geography, environment plays a vital role. We can differentiate may be textual or verbal data rather than statistical data. As textual or
verbal data cannot be subjected to quantitative analysis, they are amenable
environments in different ways. They can be physical, social, economic
to direct use in interpretations. There are professional who take the
and task environments. None of these can act independently of each
essence of such materials for analysis and interpretation. In all field work,
other. But we can do research on each of them. Physical environment is interpretation/explanation is the final activity. Every students participating
researched in various ways in geography. We learn about the physical in a field work learns some general explanations to the phenomena
environment in geography through land; water and air. They provide observed.
opportunities for doing field work. The following six steps may be taken
Report Preparation : Research investigation and information has limited
in the completion of field work :
value unless it is collected and published in a usable form and presented
1. Making a list activities to be carried out, depending on the purpose to those who may apply it. It is also our responsibility as a researcher or
of the field work. as an investigator to show promptly that the results are worthwhile and
the only way to convey these thoughts is by writing a good report. There
2. Pre – planning of the field work. are three major stages of report preparation. They outlining the report,
writing the rough draft and revising the rough draft.
3. Making arrangements for travel and stay at the field work.
Outlining the Report :
4. Collecting materials and instruments in respect of fieldwork.
Outlining is a necessary preliminary step to report writing. It involves
5. Choosing correct methods of analysis of data, if primary data the planning needed to prepare a clear report that is logically organized
are to be collected from the field work. concise, and easy to read. Without an outline most inexperienced authors
write reports that are confusing and difficult to follow. The outlining stage
6. Travel to field work site and conduct of field work.
is a natural progression from the analysis and sorting stage. In the sorting
In some field work exercises, there is no need for analytical methods. stage concentration is on what results should be presented in a report. In
It is because such field work may be carried out following mainly the the outlining stage attention is directed to how these results should be
first of the following activities. presented.

1. Observation, 2. Interview, 3. Participation, 4. Data processing, Several methods can be used to arrange the subject matter that will be
represented in an outline. One of the best ways to start is to write down
5. Interpretation.
all the points that you want to include without regard to their order. You
There is no hard rule for the field work to follow the activities above. can then more easily arrange them in a logical order. Some authors use
In fact, all the field work relevant to the students in the school may be an index card system in which each separate item of the proposed report
conducted with any one of above as the most basis activity, depending is tabulated together with a paragraph describing the material that must
on the time available. be treated under that item.

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 Other authors follow a similar method but use full sheets of paper for
each subject and give a much fuller description of the material under the
subject headings. The latter method puts you in a good position to Practical Exercises
complete the report in a short time : Each subject has been so fully
expanded that the problem remaining is one of combining and rewriting
1. Under take a field visit for a day and prepare a report.
the information contained on the separate sheets of paper. Others choose
to do their outlining on a computer. Any of these methods permit you to The following themes can be considered for conducting a field
note thoughts that occur during the course of writing one report section work.
but that should be treated in other sections. Cultivate the habit of going
a. Tourist spot b. Wild life Sancturies
to the original outline to record thoughts for later consideration.
c. Hilly area d. Industrial visit
Writing the Rough Draft :
e. River banks f. Market Place
With a logically organized outline and the necessary illustrations already
prepared, writing the rough draft should be much easier than you thought. g. Meteorological stations h. Agricultural biome
But do not expect to write the final version in the first attempt. Try to
i. Forest biome
start writing the first version of the draft immediately after completing
the outline while the ideas developed there are still fresh in your mind.
Write this first version as rapidly as possible. Concentrate on what you
want to say rather than how to say it. Keep writing down the thoughts as
they flow into your mind, following your outline. Avoid going back over
what you have written until you are through writing.
Revising the Draft :
Revising a draft is comparable to painting a house : the appearance is
improved without influencing the structure. But a report’s “appearance”
(readability) may determine whether or not it is read. Before you can
revise your rough draft, you must recognize that it is not perfect. Approach
it with a critical attitude. This can best be done by setting the draft aside
for a few days, or at least overnight. This time lag should give you a
fresh viewpoint and allow you to change to the role of a reader. This
change in roles is most important because you must try to see what is
actually written rather than what you think you wrote.

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