LAN Applications

• Personal computer LANs

– low cost
Local Area Network – limited data rate
• Back end networks
– Interconnecting large systems (mainframes and large
storage devices)
• high data rate
• high speed interface
• distributed access
Contain slides by Stallings (Chapters 15,16) • limited distance
• limited number of devices

LAN Applications Storage Area Networks

• Storage area networks (SANs)
– separate network handling storage needs
– detaches storage tasks from specific servers
– shared storage facility
• eg. hard disks, tape libraries, CD arrays
– accessed using a high-speed network
• eg. Fibre Channel
– improved client-server storage access
– direct storage to storage communication for backup
 LAN Applications LAN Architecture
• High speed office networks • Topologies
– desktop image processing
– high capacity local storage • Transmission medium
• Backbone LANs • Layout
– interconnect low speed local LANs • Medium access control
– reliability
– capacity
– cost

LAN Topologies Bus and Tree

• Used with multipoint medium
• Transmission propagates throughout medium
• Heard by all stations
• Full duplex connection between station and tap
– allows for transmission and reception
• Need to regulate transmission
– to avoid collisions and hogging
• Terminator absorbs frames at end of medium
• Tree is a generalization of bus
• Headend connected to branching cables
 Ring Topology
• A closed loop of repeaters joined by point to
point links
Frame • Receive data on one link & retransmit on
another
Transmission – links unidirectional
on Bus LAN – stations attach to repeaters
• Data in frames
– circulate past all stations
– destination recognizes address and copies frame
– frame circulates back to source where it is removed
• Media access control determines when a station
can insert frame

Star Topology
• Each station connects to central node
– usually via two point to point links
Frame • Either central node can broadcast
Transmission – physical star, logical bus
Ring LAN – only one station can transmit at a time
• Or central node can act as frame switch
 Bus LAN
Choice of Topology
Transmission Media
• Reliability • Twisted pair
• Expandability – early LANs used voice grade cable
• Performance – didn’t scale for fast LANs
– not used in bus LANs now
• Needs considering in context of:
– medium • Baseband coaxial cable
– wiring layout – uses digital signalling
– access control – original Ethernet

Bus LAN
Ring and Star Usage
Transmission Media
• Broadband coaxial cable • Ring
– as in cable TV systems
– analog signals at radio frequencies – very high speed links over long distances
– expensive, hard to install and maintain
– single link or repeater failure disables network
– no longer used in LANs
• Optical fiber • Star
– expensive taps
– better alternatives available
– uses natural layout of wiring in building
– not used in bus LANs – best for short distances
• Less convenient compared to star topology twisted pair – high data rates for small number of devices
• Coaxial baseband still used but not often in new
installations
 Media Available LAN Protocol Architecture
• Voice grade unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
– Cat 3 phone, cheap, low data rates
• Shielded twisted pair / baseband coaxial
– more expensive, higher data rates
• Broadband cable
– even more expensive, higher data rate
• High performance UTP
– Cat 5+, very high data rates, switched star topology
• Optical fibre
– security, high capacity, small size, high cost

IEEE 802 Layers IEEE 802 Layers

• Logical Link Control
• Physical – interface to higher levels
– encoding/decoding of signals – flow and error control
– preamble generation/removal • Media Access Control
– bit transmission/reception – on transmit assemble data into frame
– on receive disassemble frame
– transmission medium and topology
– govern access to transmission medium
– for same LLC, may have several MAC options
 LAN Protocols in Context Logical Link Control
• Transmission of link level PDUs between
stations
• Must support multiaccess, shared medium
• But MAC layer handles link access details
• Addressing involves specifying source and
destination LLC users
– referred to as service access points (SAP)
– typically higher level protocol

LLC Services LLC Protocol

• Based on HDLC • Modeled after HDLC
• Unacknowledged connectionless service • Asynchronous balanced mode
• Connection mode service – connection mode (type 2) LLC service
• Acknowledged connectionless service • Unacknowledged connectionless service
– using unnumbered information PDUs (type 1)
• Acknowledged connectionless service
– using 2 new unnumbered PDUs (type 3)
• Permits multiplexing using LSAPs
 MAC Frame Format MAC Techniques
• Round robin
– each station given turn to transmit data
• Reservation
– divide medium into slots
– good for stream traffic
• Contention (Aloha)
– all stations contend for time
– good for bursty traffic
– simple to implement
– tends to collapse under heavy load

MAC Frame Handling Bridges

• MAC layer receives data from LLC layer • Connects similar LANs
• Fields • Identical physical / link layer protocols
– MAC control • Minimal processing
– destination MAC address • Can map between MAC formats
– source MAC address
• Reasons for use
– LLC
– reliability
– CRC
– performance
• MAC layer detects errors and discards frames – security
• LLC optionally retransmits unsuccessful frames – geography
 Bridge Function Bridge Design Aspects
• No modification to frame content or format
• No encapsulation
• Exact bitwise copy of frame
• Minimal buffering to meet peak demand
• Contains routing and address intelligence
• May connect more than two LANs
• Bridging is transparent to stations

Bridge Protocol Architecture Connection of Two LANs

• IEEE 802.1D
• MAC level
• Bridge does not need LLC layer
• Can pass frame over external comms system
– capture frame
– encapsulate it
– forward it across link
– remove encapsulation and forward over LAN link
– e.g. WAN link
 Fixed Routing
• Complex large LANs need alternative routes
– for load balancing and fault tolerance
Bridges and • Bridge must decide whether to forward frame
• Bridge must decide which LAN to forward frame
LANs with to
Alternative • Can use fixed routing for each source-
destination pair of LANs
Routes –
–
done in configuration
usually least hop route
– only changed when topology changes
– widely used but limited flexibility

Spanning Tree Frame Forwarding

• Bridge automatically develops routing • Maintain forwarding database for each port
table – lists station addresses reached through each port

• Automatically updates routing table in • For a frame arriving on port X:

– search forwarding database to see if MAC address is
response to changes listed for any port except X
• Three mechanisms: – if address not found, forward to all ports except X
– frame forwarding – if address listed for port Y, check port Y for blocking
or forwarding state
– address learning
– if not blocked, transmit frame through port Y
– loop resolution
 Address Learning Loop of Bridges
• Can preload forwarding database
• When frame arrives at port X, it has come form
the LAN attached to port X
• Use source address to update forwarding
database for port X to include that address
• Have a timer on each entry in database
• If timer expires, entry is removed
• Each time frame arrives, source address
checked against forwarding database
– if present timer is reset and direction recorded
– if not present entry is created and timer set

Spanning Tree Algorithm Interconnecting LANs - Hubs

• Address learning works for tree layout • Active central element of star layout
• In general graph have loops • Each station connected to hub by two UTP lines
• For any connected graph there is a spanning • Hub acts as a repeater
tree maintaining connectivity with no closed • Limited to about 100 m by UTP properties
loops
• Optical fiber may be used out to 500m
• IEEE 802.1 Spanning Tree Algorithm finds this
• Physically star, logically bus
– each bridge assigned unique identifier
– exchange info between bridges to find spanning tree • Transmission from a station seen by all others
– automatically updated whenever topology changes • If two stations transmit at the same time have a
collision
 Two Level Hub Topology Buses, Hubs and Switches
• Bus configuration
– all stations share capacity of bus (e.g. 10Mbps)
– only one station transmitting at a time
• Hub uses star wiring to attach stations
– transmission from any station received by hub and
retransmitted on all outgoing lines
– only one station can transmit at a time
– total capacity of LAN is 10 Mbps
• Can improve performance using a layer 2 switch
– can switch multiple frames between separate ports
– multiplying capacity of LAN

Layer 2 Switch Benefits

• No change to attached devices to convert bus
Shared LAN or hub LAN to switched LAN
– e.g. Ethernet LANs use Ethernet MAC protocol
Medium • Have dedicated capacity equal to original LAN
Bus and – assuming switch has sufficient capacity to keep up
with all devices
Hub • Scales easily
– additional devices attached to switch by increasing
capacity of layer 2
 Types of Layer 2 Switch Layer 2 Switch vs Bridge
• Store-and-forward switch • Layer 2 switch can be viewed as full-duplex hub
– accepts frame on input line, buffers briefly, routes to • Incorporates logic to function as multiport bridge
destination port
• Differences between switches & bridges:
– see delay between sender and receiver
– bridge frame handling done in software
– better integrity
– switch performs frame forwarding in hardware
• Cut-through switch – bridge analyzes and forwards one frame at a time
– use destination address at beginning of frame – switch can handle multiple frames at a time
– switch begins repeating frame onto output line as – bridge uses store-and-forward operation
soon as destination address recognized
– switch can have cut-through operation
– highest possible throughput
– risk of propagating bad frames • Hence bridge have suffered commercially

Layer 2 Switch Problems Router Problems

• Broadcast overload • Typically use subnetworks connected by routers
– limits broadcasts to single subnet
– users share common MAC broadcast address
– supports multiple paths between subnet
– broadcast frames are delivered to all devices
• Routers do all IP-level processing in software
connected by layer 2 switches and/or bridges
– high-speed LANs and high-performance layer 2
– broadcast frames can create big overhead switches pump millions of packets per second
– broadcast storm from malfunctioning devices – software-based router only able to handle well under
a million packets per second
• Lack of multiple links
– limits performance & reliability
 Packet by Packet or
Layer 3 Switches
Flow Based
• Solution: layer 3 switches • Packet by packet
– implement packet-forwarding logic of router in
hardware – operates like a traditional router
• Two categories – order of magnitude increase in performance
– packet by packet
compared to software-based router
– flow based • Flow-based switch
– enhances performance by identifying flows of
IP packets with same source and destination
– by observing ongoing traffic or using a special
flow label in packet header (IPv6)
– a predefined route is used for identified flows

Summary
Typical • LAN topologies and media
Large • LAN protocol architecture
LAN • Bridges, hubs, layer 2 & 3 switches
Organization
Diagram
 Beyond Ethernet Why High Speed LANs?
• Range of technologies • Speed and power of PCs has risen
– Fast and Gigabit Ethernet – Graphics-intensive applications and GUIs

– Fibre Channel • See LANs as essential to organizations

– for client/server computing
– High Speed Wireless LANs
• Now have requirements for
– centralized server farms
– power workgroups
– high-speed local backbone

Ethernet (CSMA/CD) CSMA/CD Description

• With CSMA, collision occupies medium
• Most widely used LAN standard for duration of transmission
• Better if stations listen whilst transmitting
• Developed by
• CSMA/CD rules:
– Xerox - original Ethernet
1. if medium idle, transmit
– IEEE 802.3
2. if busy, listen for idle, then transmit
• Carrier Sense Multiple Access with 3. if collision detected, jam and then cease
Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) transmission
– random / contention access to media 4. after jam, wait random time then retry
 Which Persistence Algorithm?
• IEEE 802.3 uses 1-persistent
CSMA/CD • Both nonpersistent and p-persistent have
Operation performance problems
– Capacity is wasted for light load
• 1-persistent seems more unstable than p-
persistent
– because of greed of the stations
– but wasted time due to collisions is short
– with random backoff unlikely to collide on next
attempt to send

Binary Exponential Backoff Collision Detection

• For backoff stability, IEEE 802.3 and Ethernet • On baseband bus
both use binary exponential backoff – collision produces higher signal voltage
• Stations repeatedly resend when collide – collision detected if cable signal greater than
– on first 10 attempts, mean random delay doubled single station signal
– value then remains same for 6 further attempts – signal is attenuated over distance
– after 16 unsuccessful attempts, station gives up and – limit to 500m (10Base5) or 200m (10Base2)
reports error • On twisted pair (star-topology)
• 1-persistent algorithm with binary exponential – activity on more than one port is collision
backoff efficient over wide range of loads – use special collision presence signal
• but backoff algorithm has last-in, first-out effect
 IEEE 802.3 Frame Format 10Mbps Specification (Ethernet)

10BASE5 10BASE2 10BASE-T 10BASE-FP

Transmission Coaxial cable (50 Coaxial cable (50 Unshielded twisted 850-nm optical fiber
medium ohm) ohm) pair pair
Signaling Baseband Baseband Baseband Manchester/on-off
technique (Manchester) (Manchester) (Manchester)
Topology Bus Bus Star Star
Maximum segment 500 185 100 500
length (m)
Nodes per segment 100 30 — 33
Cable diameter 10 5 0.4 to 0.6 62.5/125 ⼘
(mm)

100Mbps Fast Ethernet 100BASE-X

• Uses a unidirectional data rate 100 Mbps over
100BASE-TX 100BASE-FX 100BASE-T4
single twisted pair or optical fiber link
Transmission 2 pair, STP 2 pair, Category 2 optical fibers 4 pair, Category • Encoding scheme same as FDDI
medium 5 UTP 3, 4, or 5 UTP
– 4B/5B-NRZI
Signaling MLT-3 MLT-3 4B5B, NRZI 8B6T, NRZ
technique • Two physical medium specifications
Data rate 100 Mbps 100 Mbps 100 Mbps 100 Mbps – 100BASE-TX
Maximum 100 m 100 m 100 m 100 m • uses two pairs of twisted-pair cable for tx & rx
segment length
• STP and Category 5 UTP allowed
Network span 200 m 200 m 400 m 200 m
• MTL-3 signaling scheme is used
– 100BASE-FX
STP: shielded twisted pair
• uses two optical fiber cables for tx & rx
• convert 4B/5B-NRZI code group into optical signals
 100BASE-T4 100BASE-T Options
• 100-Mbps over lower-quality Cat 3 UTP
– takes advantage of large installed base
– does not transmit continuous signal between packets
– useful in battery-powered applications
• Cannot get 100 Mbps on single twisted pair
– so data stream split into three separate streams
– four twisted pairs used
– data transmitted and received using three pairs
– two pairs configured for bidirectional transmission
• Use ternary signaling scheme (8B6T)

Full Duplex Operation Mixed Configurations

• Traditional Ethernet half duplex • Fast Ethernet supports mixture of existing 10-
• Using full-duplex, station can transmit and Mbps LANs and newer 100-Mbps LANs
receive simultaneously • Supporting older and newer technologies
• 100-Mbps Ethernet in full-duplex mode, giving a – e.g. 100-Mbps backbone LAN supports 10-Mbps hubs
theoretical transfer rate of 200 Mbps • stations attach to 10-Mbps hubs using 10BASE-T
• Stations must have full-duplex adapter cards • hubs connected to switching hubs using 100BASE-T
• And must use switching hub • high-capacity workstations and servers attach directly to
10/100 switches
– each station constitutes separate collision domain • switches connected to 100-Mbps hubs use 100-Mbps links
– CSMA/CD algorithm no longer needed • 100-Mbps hubs provide building backbone
– 802.3 MAC frame format used • connected to router providing connection to WAN
Gigabit Ethernet Configuration Gigabit Ethernet - Differences
• Carrier extension
– at least 4096 bit-times long (512 for 10/100)
• Frame bursting
– for multiple short frames to be transmitted
consecutively, without relinquishing control for
CSMA/CD between frames
• Not needed if using a switched hub to
provide dedicated media access

Gigabit Ethernet – Physical 10Gbps Ethernet

• Growing interest in 10Gbps Ethernet
– for high-speed backbone use
– with future wider deployment
• Alternative to ATM and other WAN technologies
• Uniform technology for LAN, MAN, or WAN
• Advantages of 10Gbps Ethernet
– no expensive, bandwidth-consuming conversion
between Ethernet packets and ATM cells
– IP and Ethernet together offers QoS and traffic
policing approach ATM
– have a variety of standard optical interfaces
10Gbps Ethernet Configurations 10Gbps Ethernet Options

Summary
• High speed LANs emergence
• Ethernet technologies
– CSMA/CD media access
– 10Mbps ethernet
– 100Mbps ethernet
– 1Gbps ethernet
– 10Gbps ethernet