Chapter 1: everything’s an argument

an argument can be any text (whether written, spoken, or visual) that expresses
a point of view
-Arguments:
Inform
Convince
Explore
Make Decisions
Meditate/Pray
Presenting specific information to inform readers
Focus is on the information

-Focuses on readers –
trying to satisfy or convince them that you have thoroughly examined and present
ed information that merits attention.
Problem does exist – writer or reader needs to solve it.
.
Purpose:
Writer is hoping to transform something within to reach a peace of mind.
Past
Future
Present
Forensic arguments: debates about what has happened in the past.
Present evidence from past to justify conclusions.
Rely heavily on precedents – actions or decisions in past that influence policies
or decisions in the present.
Often rely on forensic arguments because what happened in the past usually decid
es what will happen in the future.
Make some kind of decision (proposals)
try to establish policies or project future outcomes
Epideictic or Ceremonial Arguments

-Ethical premises/assumptions widely held within a society:

Arguments of Fact
Arguments of Definition
Arguments of Evaluation
Proposal Arguments
Common type of argument:
Argument of quality
Makes some kind of judgment about topic
Present evidence to show there is a problem; then, propose a solution.
Recommend most viable course of action.
Argument of Fact
Argument of Definition
Argument of Evaluation
Proposal Argument
Making a Connection to Reader:
Writers do not write in a cultural vacuum.
Writers’ works are influenced by who they are.
Race
Religion
Gender
Ethnicity
Class
Intelligence
Readers’ perceptions of writer influence their reception of what has been written.
Must think about readers’ perceptions, values, possible prejudices.
Establish some connection with readers.
Familiarity
Presenting yourself as authority

-Aristotle identified 3 key ways writers can appeal to their audiences in argume
nts:
Pathos
-Emotional appeals or appeals to the heart
Ethos
-Ethical appeals or appeals based on the writer’s authority and credibilit
y
Logos
-Logical appeals or appeals to reason
evidence of character in arguments:
Who is the author?
Is writer an authority on topic/knowledgeable about topic?
Is evidence presented full/complete, not slanted to writer’s agenda?
Does writer acknowledge and address opposition?
Are sources documented?
Chapter 2: Arguments from the heart—Pathos
Emotional appeals influence what people think and believe
Understanding how arguments works:
Words, images, and sound evoke emotions
When writers and speakers cannot use words or images to evoke emotion they can m
ove the audience to sympathize with ideas and connect to those feelings.
Arguments from the heart count more when your persuading or arguing
You can embarrassing readers into doing something
You can evoke emotion by telling a moving story
Using Emotions to Build Hopes
You can use emotions to connect to readers
A way to build emotional tie is to help the reader identify with you experiences
You can convince people of your view point with an appeal to emotions
Using Emotion to sustain an argument
You can use emotional appeal to make logical claims stronger or more memorable
Photographs and images add power to arguments
If you lay out too much emotion; rage, pity, or shame people may become uncomfor
table
Sometimes strong emotion like anger adds energy to the passage
Writers generate emotion by presenting logical arguments in stark terms
Using humor
You can put humor into at argument to put readers at ease
Humor might not work at all in more sober writing
A writer or reader can use humor to deal with especially sensitive issues
Politicians use humor to admit problems or mistakes
The most powerful form of emotional argument is ridicule
Humor the expresses bad taste discredit’s a writer
Using arguments from the heart
You shouldn’t play puppet master with peoples emotion when writing arguments
You should think about what emotions you want readers to feel before writing.
Chapter 3: Arguments based on character—Ethos
Establishing persuasive ethos is not just a matter of seeming honest or likable,
you need to affirm an identity and sharing values with your intended audience.
Writers create ethos by: they shape themselves at the very moment they make an a
rgument or they way they portray themselves to the audience physically (gestures
, eye contact)
Writers bring their previous lives, reputations, and work into their arguments
Understanding how arguments based on character work
To answer serious questions people turn to professionals
An expert can be anyone with knowledge and experience
Appeals or arguments about character often turn on claims such as the following:
a persson does not have authority to speak on the issue, a person is not trust
worthy or credible on this issue, and a person does not have good motives for ad
dressing the subject.
Claiming authority
When you read an aggressive argument you have the right to wonder about the auth
ors claim
Writers and readers are often skeptical of your claims
When you write for readers who trust you and your works, you may not have make a
n open claim to authority.
Sometimes style of writing can present confidence
Establishing Credibility
Credibility speaks to a writers honesty and respect for audience
To establish credibility make reasonable claims and back them up
You have to present yourself as person
You can establish credibility by connecting to your own beliefs and values to pr
inciples that are widely respected
You can use language that shows respect for your readers
Establishing creditably makes you seems trust worthy

Chapter 4: Arguments based on facts and reason—Logos

Logos arguments are based on facts
Aristotle was the first to write about persuasion
Providing hard evidence
The types of hard evidence you use depends on your argument
Aristotle all arguments consist of Statement + proof
Facts
Facts make strong arguments
People believe facts when they come from honest sources
Facts are respected above thinking in political thinking or ideology
Compelling facts can stand on their own in low stake arguments

Statistics
Figures lie and liars figure
Its is possible to lie with figures
Numbers rarely speak for themselves
Surveys and Polls
Surveys and polls are one of the most influential forms of statistics
They are persuasive because on democracy majority opinion offers a compelling wa
rrant
They provide reason for action and inervention
The meanings of polls and surveys are affected by the way questions are asked
Testimonies narratives and interviews
Reliable witness accounts make a course for action change or sympathetic underst
anding
Using reason and common sense
Without hard facts, you can support your argument with compelling reason
Aristotle found that most people argue very well using informal logic

Cultural assumptions
Some assumptions are based on shared values in culture in history

Providing Logical Structure for argument

Logical arguments are ones your reader will understand without much explanation
Degree
The most common argument
People don’t pay much attention to them
Analogies
People understand comparisons intuitively
People habitually think in comparative terms
Precedent:
These are related to arguments of analogy
They both involve comparisons