Chapter 7: Process Synchronization

 Background
 The Critical-Section Problem
 Synchronization Hardware
 Semaphores
 Classical Problems of Synchronization
 Critical Regions
 Monitors
 Synchronization in Solaris 2 & Windows 2000

Operating System Concepts 7.1 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Background

 Concurrent access to shared data may result in data

inconsistency.
 Maintaining data consistency requires mechanisms to
ensure the orderly execution of cooperating processes.
 Shared-memory solution to bounded-butter problem
(Chapter 4) allows at most n – 1 items in buffer at the
same time. A solution, where all N buffers are used is not
simple.
 Suppose that we modify the producer-consumer code by
adding a variable counter, initialized to 0 and incremented
each time a new item is added to the buffer

Operating System Concepts 7.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Bounded-Buffer
 Shared data

#define BUFFER_SIZE 10
typedef struct {
...
} item;
item buffer[BUFFER_SIZE];
int in = 0;
int out = 0;
int counter = 0;

Operating System Concepts 7.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Bounded-Buffer

 Producer process

item nextProduced;

while (1) {
while (counter == BUFFER_SIZE)
; /* do nothing */
buffer[in] = nextProduced;
in = (in + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE;
counter++;
}

Operating System Concepts 7.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Bounded-Buffer

 Consumer process

item nextConsumed;

while (1) {
while (counter == 0)
; /* do nothing */
nextConsumed = buffer[out];
out = (out + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE;
counter--;
}

Operating System Concepts 7.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Bounded Buffer

 The statements

counter++;
counter--;

must be performed atomically.

 Atomic operation means an operation that completes in

its entirety without interruption.

Operating System Concepts 7.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Bounded Buffer

 The statement “count++” may be implemented in

machine language as:

register1 = counter
register1 = register1 + 1
counter = register1

 The statement “count—” may be implemented as:

register2 = counter
register2 = register2 – 1
counter = register2

Operating System Concepts 7.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Bounded Buffer

 If both the producer and consumer attempt to update the

buffer concurrently, the assembly language statements
may get interleaved.

 Interleaving depends upon how the producer and

consumer processes are scheduled.

Operating System Concepts 7.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Bounded Buffer

 Assume counter is initially 5. One interleaving of

statements is:

producer: register1 = counter (register1 = 5)

producer: register1 = register1 + 1 (register1 = 6)
consumer: register2 = counter (register2 = 5)
consumer: register2 = register2 – 1 (register2 = 4)
producer: counter = register1 (counter = 6)
consumer: counter = register2 (counter = 4)

 The value of count may be either 4 or 6, where the

correct result should be 5.

Operating System Concepts 7.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Race Condition

 Race condition: The situation where several processes

access – and manipulate shared data concurrently. The
final value of the shared data depends upon which
process finishes last.

 To prevent race conditions, concurrent processes must

be synchronized.

Operating System Concepts 7.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 The Critical-Section Problem

 n processes all competing to use some shared data

 Each process has a code segment, called critical section,
in which the shared data is accessed.
 Problem – ensure that when one process is executing in
its critical section, no other process is allowed to execute
in its critical section.

Operating System Concepts 7.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Solution to Critical-Section Problem
1. Mutual Exclusion. If process Pi is executing in its critical
section, then no other processes can be executing in their
critical sections.
2. Progress. If no process is executing in its critical section and
there exist some processes that wish to enter their critical
section, then the selection of the processes that will enter the
critical section next cannot be postponed indefinitely.
3. Bounded Waiting. A bound must exist on the number of
times that other processes are allowed to enter their critical
sections after a process has made a request to enter its critical
section and before that request is granted.
 Assume that each process executes at a nonzero speed
 No assumption concerning relative speed of the n processes.

Operating System Concepts 7.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Initial Attempts to Solve Problem

 Only 2 processes, P0 and P1

 General structure of process Pi (other process Pj)
do {
entry section
critical section
exit section
reminder section
} while (1);
 Processes may share some common variables to
synchronize their actions.

Operating System Concepts 7.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Algorithm 1

 Shared variables:
 int turn;
initially turn = 0
 turn - i  Pi can enter its critical section
 Process Pi
do {
while (turn != i) ;
critical section
turn = j;
reminder section
} while (1);
 Satisfies mutual exclusion, but not progress

Operating System Concepts 7.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Algorithm 2

 Shared variables
 boolean flag[2];
initially flag [0] = flag [1] = false.
 flag [i] = true  Pi ready to enter its critical section
 Process Pi
do {
flag[i] := true;
while (flag[j]) ; critical section
flag [i] = false;
remainder section
} while (1);
 Satisfies mutual exclusion, but not progress requirement.

Operating System Concepts 7.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Algorithm 3

 Combined shared variables of algorithms 1 and 2.

 Process Pi
do {
flag [i]:= true;
turn = j;
while (flag [j] and turn = j) ;
critical section
flag [i] = false;
remainder section
} while (1);
 Meets all three requirements; solves the critical-section
problem for two processes.

Operating System Concepts 7.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Bakery Algorithm

Critical section for n processes

 Before entering its critical section, process receives a
number. Holder of the smallest number enters the critical
section.
 If processes Pi and Pj receive the same number, if i < j,
then Pi is served first; else Pj is served first.
 The numbering scheme always generates numbers in
increasing order of enumeration; i.e., 1,2,3,3,3,3,4,5...

Operating System Concepts 7.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Bakery Algorithm

 Notation < lexicographical order (ticket #, process id #)

 (a,b) < c,d) if a < c or if a = c and b < d
 max (a0,…, an-1) is a number, k, such that k  ai for i - 0,
…, n – 1
 Shared data
boolean choosing[n];
int number[n];
Data structures are initialized to false and 0 respectively

Operating System Concepts 7.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Bakery Algorithm

do {
choosing[i] = true;
number[i] = max(number[0], number[1], …, number [n – 1])+1;
choosing[i] = false;
for (j = 0; j < n; j++) {
while (choosing[j]) ;
while ((number[j] != 0) && (number[j,j] < number[i,i])) ;
}
critical section
number[i] = 0;
remainder section
} while (1);

Operating System Concepts 7.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Synchronization Hardware

 Test and modify the content of a word atomically

.
boolean TestAndSet(boolean &target) {
boolean rv = target;
tqrget = true;

return rv;
}

Operating System Concepts 7.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Mutual Exclusion with Test-and-Set

 Shared data:
boolean lock = false;

 Process Pi
do {
while (TestAndSet(lock)) ;
critical section
lock = false;
remainder section
}

Operating System Concepts 7.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Synchronization Hardware

 Atomically swap two variables.

void Swap(boolean &a, boolean &b) {

boolean temp = a;
a = b;
b = temp;
}

Operating System Concepts 7.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Mutual Exclusion with Swap

 Shared data (initialized to false):

boolean lock;
boolean waiting[n];

 Process Pi
do {
key = true;
while (key == true)
Swap(lock,key);
critical section
lock = false;
remainder section
}

Operating System Concepts 7.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Semaphores

 Synchronization tool that does not require busy waiting.

 Semaphore S – integer variable
 can only be accessed via two indivisible (atomic)
operations
wait (S):
while S 0 do no-op;
S--;

signal (S):
S++;

Operating System Concepts 7.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Critical Section of n Processes

 Shared data:
semaphore mutex; //initially mutex = 1

 Process Pi:

do {
wait(mutex);
critical section
signal(mutex);
remainder section
} while (1);

Operating System Concepts 7.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Semaphore Implementation

 Define a semaphore as a record

typedef struct {
int value;
struct process *L;
} semaphore;

 Assume two simple operations:

 block suspends the process that invokes it.
 wakeup(P) resumes the execution of a blocked process P.

Operating System Concepts 7.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Implementation

 Semaphore operations now defined as

wait(S):
S.value--;
if (S.value < 0) {
add this process to S.L;
block;
}

signal(S):
S.value++;
if (S.value <= 0) {
remove a process P from S.L;
wakeup(P);
}

Operating System Concepts 7.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Semaphore as a General Synchronization Tool

 Execute B in Pj only after A executed in Pi

 Use semaphore flag initialized to 0
 Code:
Pi Pj
 
A wait(flag)
signal(flag) B

Operating System Concepts 7.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Deadlock and Starvation

 Deadlock – two or more processes are waiting indefinitely for

an event that can be caused by only one of the waiting
processes.
 Let S and Q be two semaphores initialized to 1
P0 P1
wait(S); wait(Q);
wait(Q); wait(S);
 
signal(S); signal(Q);
signal(Q) signal(S);
 Starvation – indefinite blocking. A process may never be
removed from the semaphore queue in which it is suspended.

Operating System Concepts 7.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Two Types of Semaphores

 Counting semaphore – integer value can range over

an unrestricted domain.
 Binary semaphore – integer value can range only
between 0 and 1; can be simpler to implement.
 Can implement a counting semaphore S as a binary
semaphore.

Operating System Concepts 7.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Implementing S as a Binary Semaphore

 Data structures:
binary-semaphore S1, S2;
int C:
 Initialization:
S1 = 1
S2 = 0
C = initial value of semaphore S

Operating System Concepts 7.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Implementing S
 wait operation
wait(S1);
C--;
if (C < 0) {
signal(S1);
wait(S2);
}
signal(S1);

 signal operation
wait(S1);
C ++;
if (C <= 0)
signal(S2);
else
signal(S1);

Operating System Concepts 7.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Classical Problems of Synchronization

 Bounded-Buffer Problem

 Readers and Writers Problem

 Dining-Philosophers Problem

Operating System Concepts 7.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Bounded-Buffer Problem

 Shared data

semaphore full, empty, mutex;

Initially:

full = 0, empty = n, mutex = 1

Operating System Concepts 7.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Bounded-Buffer Problem Producer Process

do {
…
produce an item in nextp
…
wait(empty);
wait(mutex);
…
add nextp to buffer
…
signal(mutex);
signal(full);
} while (1);

Operating System Concepts 7.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Bounded-Buffer Problem Consumer Process

do {
wait(full)
wait(mutex);
…
remove an item from buffer to nextc
…
signal(mutex);
signal(empty);
…
consume the item in nextc
…
} while (1);

Operating System Concepts 7.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Readers-Writers Problem

 Shared data

semaphore mutex, wrt;

Initially

mutex = 1, wrt = 1, readcount = 0

Operating System Concepts 7.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Readers-Writers Problem Writer Process

wait(wrt);
…
writing is performed
…
signal(wrt);

Operating System Concepts 7.38 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Readers-Writers Problem Reader Process

wait(mutex);
readcount++;
if (readcount == 1)
wait(rt);
signal(mutex);
…
reading is performed
…
wait(mutex);
readcount--;
if (readcount == 0)
signal(wrt);
signal(mutex):

Operating System Concepts 7.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Dining-Philosophers Problem

 Shared data
semaphore chopstick[5];
Initially all values are 1

Operating System Concepts 7.40 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Dining-Philosophers Problem

 Philosopher i:
do {
wait(chopstick[i])
wait(chopstick[(i+1) % 5])
…
eat
…
signal(chopstick[i]);
signal(chopstick[(i+1) % 5]);
…
think
…
} while (1);

Operating System Concepts 7.41 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Critical Regions

 High-level synchronization construct

 A shared variable v of type T, is declared as:
v: shared T
 Variable v accessed only inside statement
region v when B do S

where B is a boolean expression.

 While statement S is being executed, no other process

can access variable v.

Operating System Concepts 7.42 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Critical Regions

 Regions referring to the same shared variable exclude

each other in time.

 When a process tries to execute the region statement,

the Boolean expression B is evaluated. If B is true,
statement S is executed. If it is false, the process is
delayed until B becomes true and no other process is in
the region associated with v.

Operating System Concepts 7.43 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Example – Bounded Buffer

 Shared data:

struct buffer {
int pool[n];
int count, in, out;
}

Operating System Concepts 7.44 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Bounded Buffer Producer Process

 Producer process inserts nextp into the shared buffer

region buffer when( count < n) {

pool[in] = nextp;
in:= (in+1) % n;
count++;
}

Operating System Concepts 7.45 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Bounded Buffer Consumer Process

 Consumer process removes an item from the shared

buffer and puts it in nextc

region buffer when (count > 0) {

nextc = pool[out];
out = (out+1) % n;
count--;
}

Operating System Concepts 7.46 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Implementation region x when B do S

 Associate with the shared variable x, the following

variables:
semaphore mutex, first-delay, second-delay;
int first-count, second-count;

 Mutually exclusive access to the critical section is

provided by mutex.

 If a process cannot enter the critical section because the

Boolean expression B is false, it initially waits on the
first-delay semaphore; moved to the second-delay
semaphore before it is allowed to reevaluate B.

Operating System Concepts 7.47 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Implementation

 Keep track of the number of processes waiting on first-

delay and second-delay, with first-count and second-
count respectively.

 The algorithm assumes a FIFO ordering in the queuing of

processes for a semaphore.

 For an arbitrary queuing discipline, a more complicated

implementation is required.

Operating System Concepts 7.48 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Monitors
 High-level synchronization construct that allows the safe sharing of an abstract data
type among concurrent processes.

monitor monitor-name
{
shared variable declarations
procedure body P1 (…) {
...
}
procedure body P2 (…) {
...
}
procedure body Pn (…) {
...
}
{
initialization code
}
}

Operating System Concepts 7.49 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Monitors

 To allow a process to wait within the monitor, a

condition variable must be declared, as
condition x, y;
 Condition variable can only be used with the
operations wait and signal.
 The operation
x.wait();
means that the process invoking this operation is
suspended until another process invokes
x.signal();
 The x.signal operation resumes exactly one suspended
process. If no process is suspended, then the signal
operation has no effect.

Operating System Concepts 7.50 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Schematic View of a Monitor

Operating System Concepts 7.51 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Monitor With Condition Variables

Operating System Concepts 7.52 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Dining Philosophers Example
monitor dp
{
enum {thinking, hungry, eating} state[5];
condition self[5];
void pickup(int i) // following slides
void putdown(int i) // following slides
void test(int i) // following slides
void init() {
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++)
state[i] = thinking;
}
}

Operating System Concepts 7.53 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Dining Philosophers
void pickup(int i) {
state[i] = hungry;
test[i];
if (state[i] != eating)
self[i].wait();
}

void putdown(int i) {
state[i] = thinking;
// test left and right neighbors
test((i+4) % 5);
test((i+1) % 5);
}

Operating System Concepts 7.54 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Dining Philosophers
void test(int i) {
if ( (state[(I + 4) % 5] != eating) &&
(state[i] == hungry) &&
(state[(i + 1) % 5] != eating)) {
state[i] = eating;
self[i].signal();
}
}

Operating System Concepts 7.55 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Monitor Implementation Using Semaphores
 Variables
semaphore mutex; // (initially = 1)
semaphore next; // (initially = 0)
int next-count = 0;

 Each external procedure F will be replaced by

wait(mutex);
…
body of F;
…
if (next-count > 0)
signal(next)
else
signal(mutex);

 Mutual exclusion within a monitor is ensured.

Operating System Concepts 7.56 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Monitor Implementation

 For each condition variable x, we have:

semaphore x-sem; // (initially = 0)
int x-count = 0;

 The operation x.wait can be implemented as:

x-count++;
if (next-count > 0)
signal(next);
else
signal(mutex);
wait(x-sem);
x-count--;

Operating System Concepts 7.57 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Monitor Implementation

 The operation x.signal can be implemented as:

if (x-count > 0) {
next-count++;
signal(x-sem);
wait(next);
next-count--;
}

Operating System Concepts 7.58 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Monitor Implementation
 Conditional-wait construct: x.wait(c);
 c – integer expression evaluated when the wait operation is
executed.
 value of c (a priority number) stored with the name of the
process that is suspended.
 when x.signal is executed, process with smallest
associated priority number is resumed next.
 Check two conditions to establish correctness of system:
 User processes must always make their calls on the monitor
in a correct sequence.
 Must ensure that an uncooperative process does not ignore
the mutual-exclusion gateway provided by the monitor, and
try to access the shared resource directly, without using the
access protocols.

Operating System Concepts 7.59 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Solaris 2 Synchronization

 Implements a variety of locks to support multitasking,

multithreading (including real-time threads), and
multiprocessing.

 Uses adaptive mutexes for efficiency when protecting

data from short code segments.

 Uses condition variables and readers-writers locks when

longer sections of code need access to data.

 Uses turnstiles to order the list of threads waiting to

acquire either an adaptive mutex or reader-writer lock.

Operating System Concepts 7.60 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002

 Windows 2000 Synchronization

 Uses interrupt masks to protect access to global

resources on uniprocessor systems.

 Uses spinlocks on multiprocessor systems.

 Also provides dispatcher objects which may act as wither

mutexes and semaphores.

 Dispatcher objects may also provide events. An event

acts much like a condition variable.

Operating System Concepts 7.61 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2002