9.

2 Production of Materials
1 Fossil fuels provide both energy and raw materials such as ethylene, for the production of
other substances
1.2.1 Construct word and balanced formulae equations of chemical reactions as they are
encountered
o Thermal cracking
e.g. C10H22 (l) → C8H18 (l) + C2H4 (g)
o Catalytic cracking
e.g. C10H22 (l) catalyst
→
C8H18 (l) + C2H4 (g)
o Reactions of alkanes
 Combustion
 Complete combustion – plentiful supply of oxygen; products: water
and carbon dioxide
e.g. 2C8H18 (l) + 25O2 (g) → 16CO2 (g) + 18H2O (l)
 Incomplete combustion – insufficient supply of oxygen; products:
water and carbon monoxide and/or soot
e.g. 2C8H18 (l) + 17O2 (g) → 16CO (g) + 18H2O (l)
2C8H18 (l) + 9O2 (g) → 16C (s) + 18H2O (l)
 Substitution
e.g. CH4 (g) + Cl2 (g) UV
→
CH3Cl () + HCl (aq)
o Reactions of alkenes
 Combustion
 Addition
 Hydrogenation
ethene + hyrodgen → ethane
e.g. C2H4 (g) + H2 (g) catalyst
→
C2H6
catalyst: nickel (Ni), palladium (Pd) or platinum (Pt)
 Halogenation
ethene +halogen → 1,2-dihaloethane
e.g. C2H4 (g) + X2 → C2H4X2
X = Cl, Br, I, F...
 Hydrohalogenation
ethene +hydrogen halide → haloethane
e.g. C2H4 (g) + HX → C2H5X
X = Cl, Br, I, F...
 Hydration
ethene +water dilute H 2 S O 4 ethanol
→

e.g. C2H4 (g) + H2O (g) dilute H 2 S O 4 C2H5OH (g)

→
  Dehydration
ethanol conc . H 2 S O 4 ethene +water
→

e.g C2H5OH (g) conc . H 2 S O 4 C2H4 (g) + H2O (g)

→
 Polymerisation
o Polymer: high molecular weight material formed from
simple molecules called monomers.
o Types of polymers: synthetic (e.g. polyester, nylon) and
natural (e.g. DNA, protein, cellulose)
o Types of polymerisation:
 Addition polymerisation
 Condensation polymerisation
1.2.2 Identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking of some of the fractions from
the refining of petroleum
1. Initiation: Free radicals are produced when the hydrocarbon chains are split into
fragments at high temperatures.
radical: An atom or group of atoms that has an unpaired electron  very reactive
2. Propagation: Free radicals decompose to produce smaller free radicals and release
ethene.
3. Termination: Free radicals react with each other to form hydrocarbon molecules.

The main products in catalytic cracking:

o Lighter hydrocarbon molecules
o Ethene
Hence catalytic cracking of some fractions from the refining of crude oil is the industrial
source of ethene.
The catalyst used are zeolites, which are derived from volcanic rocks and is suitable for
catalytic cracking due to its high thermal stability, large surface area and is non-toxic.
1.2.3 Identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its double bond, is readily
transformed into many useful products
Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes due to its reactive carbon-carbon double bond. They
can undergo many addition reactions to form varying products by opening out the weaker
(pi) carbon-carbon bond for other atoms (or groups of atoms) to add in.
1.2.4 Identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers are made
Monomer: the repeating component in a polymer molecule.
Many monomers chemically joined together make a polymer. Ethylene is a monomer from
which many different polymers are produced. The double bond opens up in the ethylene
molecule which allows more ethylene radicals to add in, forming a long carbon chain.

1.2.5 Identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the meaning of this term
1.2.6 Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an example of a commercially and
industrially important polymer
1. Initiation: An initiator molecule (eg. Peroxide) is added (subjected to heat). The
initiator reacts with one ethylene molecule, creating a monomer radical.
2. Propagation: The ethylene radical reacts with more ethylene monomers to increase
the carbon chain and hence forming the polymer radical.
3. Termination: The polymer radicals collide and react, forming a longer chain. This is a
random process, so the length of polyethylene chains can vary greatly.

1.2.7 Identify the following as commercially significant monomers:

o Vinyl chloride
o Styrene
by both their systematic and common names
 Systematic name: Polychloroethene; monomer: Chloroethene
Common name: Polyvinyl chloride (PVC); monomer: vinyl chloride
Vinyl chloride is an ethylene molecule with one of its hydrogen atoms
substituted with a chlorine atom.
 Systematic name: Polyphenylethene or Polyethenylbenzene
Common name: Polystyrene; monomer: styrene
 Styrene is an ethylene molecule with one of its hydrogen atoms replaced by a
benzene ring.
1.2.8 Describe the uses of the polymers made from the above monomers in terms of their
properties
o Polychloroethene or Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is used to make objects like toys, rubbish
bins, waste pipes and gutters. PVC is a hard thermoplastic, with a chlorine side chain. As
chlorine is a bigger and heavier atom than hydrogen, it restricts the movement of the
polymer molecules and hence decreasing its flexibility. It also has long chains with little
chain branching, allowing the polymer molecules to align in orderly fashion  high
density crystalline polymer with high melting point and hardness due to stronger
dispersion forces.
o Polystyrene is often used to make thermal cups and CD jewel cases. It is a thermoplastic
with a benzene side chain. Benzene is a heavy side chain and will restrict the movement
of the polymer molecules and hence decreasing its flexibility.
1.3.1 Gather and present information from first-hand or secondary sources to write equations
to represent all chemical reactions encountered in the HSC course
Refer to 1.2.1
1.3.2 Identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to compare the reactivities of
appropriate alkenes with the corresponding alkanes in bromine water
A few drops of cyclohexene were added to 2mL of bromine water in a test tube and shaken.
Decolourisation of bromine water would indicate the presence of double bond and identify
the chemical as an alkene.

C6H10 (l) + Br2 (aq) +H2O (l) → C6H10BrOH (l) + HBr

C6H10 (l) + Br2 (l) → C6H10Br2 (l)

The investigation was repeated with cyclohexane and all variables such as volume and
temperature were held constant so that a fair comparison could be made.
This investigation was carried out in a fume cabinet because bromine water is highly toxic
when inhaled. Cyclohexene and cyclohexane were used because they are liquids and are
easier to handle than gases. Bromine water was used because it reacts readily with a double
bond but not single bonds.
The reactions should be carried out in the shade to avoid the substitution reaction of an
alkane.
1.3.3 Analyse information from secondary sources such as computer simulations, molecular
model kits or multimedia resources to model the polymerisation process
http://www.absorblearning.com/media/attachment.action?quick=zm&att=2553

2 Some scientists research the extraction of materials from biomass to reduce our dependence
on fossil fuels
2.3.1 Discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds presently obtained from the
petrochemical industry
Petroleum is a depleting source of energy and we must find alternative sources to cater for
society’s demands. Ethene is an important starting material obtained from the catalytic
cracking of heavy fractions of alkanes, as many products can be produced from this
 monomer, namely polymers and plastics. Alternative sources to obtain ethene include the
fermentation of starch and the decomposition of cellulose. However in today’s society, the
disadvantages outweigh the advantages. The number processes required to obtain ethene
are long and tedious and aren’t efficient enough to produce an economically sustainable
output.
2.3.2 Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer
A condensation polymer is a polymer which is produced from monomers that chemically join
together by releasing water molecules. Condensation polymers can be both natural e.g.
cellulose and starch, as well as synthetic e.g. polyester and nylon.
2.3.3 Describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is formed
When two functional groups chemically join together from two different monomers, a small
molecule e.g. water, is released.

2.3.4 Describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an example of a condensation polymer
found as a major component of biomass
Cellulose is a natural condensation polymer formed from β-glucose. In the β-glucose
molecule, the OH at C1 and C2 are on opposite sides of the horizontal plane.

2.3.5 Identify that cellulose contains the basic carbon-chain structures needed to build
petrochemicals and discuss its potential as a raw material
o Cellulose is a carbon-containing condensation polymer, comprised of β-glucose
monomers. (refer to diagram above)
 o Petroleum fractions have been the most convenient raw material, however, resources
are finite and demand is increasing.
o Cellulose is renewable; is a major component of biomass.
o Use of cellulose can be achieved in two ways:
o Modify existing biopolymer chains to meet specific application, e.g. rayon.
o Break down biopolymers into smaller molecules which can be used to make new
synthetic polymers.
o Cellulose can be decomposed to glucose which can be used to produce ethanol via
fermentation.
o Ethanol can be used as an alternate fuel or starting material for plastics production.
o From ethanol, ethene can be obtained via dehydration.
o However, there is no efficient method of cellulose decomposition just yet, apart from
costly thermal decomposition.
2.3.1 Use available evidence to gather and present data from secondary sources and analyse
progress in the recent development and use of a named biopolymer. This analysis should
name the specific enzyme(s) used or organism used to synthesise the material and an
evaluation of the use or potential use of the polymer produced related to its properties
Biopol – A commercially produced biopolymer
o Biopol is a trade name for polyhydroxyalkanoate.
o Is made totally/majority by living organisms.
o Is the co-polymer of Poly-3-hydroxybutanoate (Polyhydroxybutyrate – PHB) and
Poly-3-hydroxypentanoate (Polyhydroxventrate – PHV).
o Can be produced by a number of different bacteria e.g. Alcaligenes eutrophus, as an
energy storage material.
o A culture of bacteria is placed in a tank with appropriate nutrients (e.g. carbon-
based food source) so that it multiplies rapidly.
o Once a large enough culture of bacteria is produced, a specific nutrient (e.g.
nitrogen) is restricted.
o The bacteria stops to reproduce and instead produces the polymer as a source of
energy for later use.
o This polymer is then isolated and purified
o Properties include: insoluble in water, non-toxic, resistant to UV light, biocompatible
and biodegradable.
o Biopol has a great potential for use where biodegradability is a major factor. E.g.
disposable nappies, plates, fast food utensils, shampoo bottles.
o Also due its biocompatibility, biopol is used in medicine to make non-toxic and
decomposable sutures and staples.
o However, biopol is more expensive to produce than petroleum based polymers.
o In 1980, E coli were genetically modified to produce this polymer, which has
advantages of faster growth, higher yield and easier recovery.
o The uses of transgenic plants are expected to further lower the production costs of
biopolymers.
o Transgenic plants are genetically engineered plants that can be made to produce
biodegradable plastics rather than starch.
3 Other resources, such as ethanol, are readily available from renewable resources such as
plants
3.2.1 Describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify the need for a catalyst in this
process and the catalyst used

Catalyst: concentrated sulfuric acid H 2SO4 (aq)

3.2.2 Describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the production of ethanol and
identify the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst use

Catalyst: dilute sulfuric acid H2SO4 (aq)

3.2.3 Describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent for polar and non-polar
substances
Ethanol can dissolve both polar and non-polar substances. Its polar end (hydrophilic end,
containing the OH- group) is stabilised with polar molecules via dipole-dipole, ion-dipole or
hydrogen bonds. The ethyl group (hydrophobic end) of ethanol establishes the dispersion
force with the non-polar molecules.
3.2.4 Outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can be called a renewable resource
80% of the world’s demand for transportation fuels are petroleum derived. However, as the
price of petroleum continues to rise, the concept of other fuels as alternatives becomes
more attractive. Ethanol produces heat energy on combustion and therefore is regarded as a
potential fuel. Ethanol is considered to a renewable resource as it can be produced via the
fermentation of starches in crops, which can be regrown at a reasonably fast rate.
3.2.5 Describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is promoted
The conditions under which fermentation is promoted are:
o Presence of suitable grain or fruit mashed up with water
o Presence of yeast
o The exclusion of air (anaerobic environment)
o The temperature is kept at about 37°C
3.2.6 Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process
o Yeast is added to mashed up grain and water.
o The yeast breaks down the large carbohydrates (e.g. starch or sucrose C 12H22O11 (aq)) into
simple sugars (glucose C6H12O6 (aq)).
 o In an oxygen-free atmosphere, the yeast use their enzymes to break down the sugars,
forming ethanol and CO2 as products.
3.2.7 Define the molar heat of combustion of a compound and calculate the value for ethanol
from first-hand data
Molar heat of combustion is the amount of energy lost when a mole of a compound is
combusted. The theoretical molar heat of combustion value for ethanol is 1367 kJ/mol while
the experimental value is 281 kJ/mol.
3.2.8 Assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of its use
o As a solvent (industrial, pharmaceuticals…)
 Can dissolve polar and non-polar substances.
 Polar end is stabilised with polar molecules via dipole-dipole, ion-dipole or
hydrogen bonds.
 Ethyl group establishes dispersion forces with non-polar molecules.
o As a potential fuel
 Ethanol produces heat energy on combustion and therefore is regarded as a
fuel.
o Advantages:
 Renewable
 “Greenhouse neutral” – net amount of CO 2 released into atmosphere is
zero.
 Ethanol undergoes complete combustion more readily than octane due to
shorter carbon chain and contains oxygen in its structure  cleaner fuel
o Disadvantages:
 Engines must be modified to run on fuel containing more than 20% ethanol
 Large areas of land required to grow crops that will be harvested for ethanol
production via fermentation.
 Soil erosion
 Land can be used for other purposes
 Greenhouse unfriendly energy input for mechanical planting, harvesting and
distillation of ethanol
 Disposal of fermentation wastes presents major environmental issues.
3.2.9 Identify the IUPAC nomenclature for straight-chained alkanols from C1 to C8

Number of Structure Name of alkanol

carbons
1 methanol

2 ethanol

3 propan-1-ol

4 butan-1-ol
 5 pentan-1-ol

6 hexan-1-ol

7 heptan-1-ol

8 octan-1-ol

3.3.1 Process information from secondary sources such as molecular model kits, digital
technologies or computer simulations to model:
o The addition of water to ethylene
o The dehydration of ethanol
Refer to 3.2.1 and 3.2.2
3.3.2 Process information from secondary sources to summarise the processes involved in the
industrial production of ethanol from sugar cane

3.3.3 Process information from secondary sources to summarise the use of ethanol as an
alternative car fuel, evaluating the success of current usage
Refer to 3.2.8
3.3.4 Solve problems, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to carry out the fermentation
of glucose and monitor mass changes
Refer to prac book report
3.3.5 Present information from secondary sources by writing a balanced equation for the
fermentation of glucose to ethanol
C6H12O6 (aq) yeast
→
2C2H5OH (aq) + 2CO2 (g)
3.3.6 Identify data sources, choose resources and perform a first-hand investigation to
determine and compare heats of combustion of at least three liquid alkanols per gram and
per mole
Refer to prac book report

4 Oxidation-reduction reactions are increasingly important as a source of energy

4.2.1 Explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer of electrons
The more reactive metal will displace the ions of a less reactive metal in solution. Effectively,
the more reactive metal is losing electrons, while the ion is gaining electrons.
4.2.2 Identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in solution by other metals
to the relative activity of metals
Metals that have higher oxidising potential or is a stronger reductant will displace the ions of
a weaker metal in solution. Hence more active metals will displace the ions of less active
metals.
4.2.3 Account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of their loss or gain of
electrons
o Oxidation: loss of electrons
o Reduction: gain of electrons
o Oxidation state: a measure of a chemical species’ degree of oxidation.
o Uncombined elements have an oxidation state of zero.
o During displacement reactions, the oxidation states of the two metal species involved
change:
 Metal elements increase their oxidation state, as they lose electrons.
 Metal ions decrease their oxidation state, as they gain electrons.
o Oxidation states can be used to describe electron transfer in oxidation-reduction
reactions:
 Oxidation involves an increase in oxidation state.
 Reduction involves a decrease in oxidation state.
4.2.4 Describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of oxidation/reduction reactions
Galvanic cells are devices that utilises the chemical energy released by spontaneous Redox
reactions to perform electrical work.
Oxidation occurs at the anode (ANOX)
Reduction occurs at the cathode (REDCAT)
4.2.5 Outline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the direction of electron flow
A galvanic cell is comprised of two half cells, an anode half cell and cathode half cell. This
arrangement ensures that electrons do not transfer directly from oxidant to reductant but
rather through an external circuit. This flow of electrons can be utilised to power an electric
motor or light up a light bulb. Electrons will flow from the anode to the cathode.
4.2.6 Define the terms anode, cathode, electrode and electrolyte to describe galvanic cells
o Anode: where oxidation occurs; liberates electrons; negative electrode
o Cathode: where reduction occurs; electron entering; positive electrode
o Electrode: a conductor used to make electrical contact in a circuit
o Electrolyte: solution containing free moving ions that is capable of conducting electricity.

4.3.1 Perform a first-hand investigation to identify the conditions under which a galvanic cell is
produced
Refer to prac book report
4.3.2 Perform a first-hand investigation and gather first-hand information to measure the
difference in potential of different combinations of metals in an electrolyte solution
Refer to prac book report
4.3.3 Gather and present information on the structure and chemistry of a dry cell or lead-acid
cell and evaluate it in comparison to one of the following:
o Button cell
o Fuel cell
o Vanadium redox cell
o Lithium cell
 o Liquid junction photovoltaic device (eg. The Gratzel cell)
in terms of:
o Chemistry
o Cost and practicality
o Impact on society
o Environment impact

Lead-acid cell Lithium cell

Chemistry A resilient container, usually polyethylene, A metal case holds a long

holds a lead-dioxide cathode, a lead anode spiral comprising of three thin
and a sulfuric acid electrolyte. sheets pressed together:
As power is discharged from the battery, positive electrode, negative
both the anode and cathode undergo a electrode and a separator.
chemical reaction that progressively These sheets are submerged
changes them into lead sulfate. in an organic solvent (e.g.
The characteristic voltage is about 2 volts ether) that acts as the
per cell, so by combining six cells you get a electrolyte. The separator is a
12-volt battery. very thin sheet of micro-
perforated plastic. It
separates the anode and the
cathode while allowing ions
to pass through. The cathode
is made of Lithium cobalt
oxide (LiCoO2). The anode is
made of carbon.
When charging, lithium ions
move through electrolyte
from cathode to anode.
During discharge, lithium ions
move back to the LiCoO2 from
the carbon.
Each cell produces 3.7 V.
Note: Lithium cell is cannot be
recharged while lithium ion
(Li-ion) cells can be recharged.
Cost and Low cost Higher voltage than normal
practicality Reliable AA alkaline battery and more
Robust compact.
Can deliver very high currents Rechargeable (only lithium-
Recyclable ion batteries)
Very heavy and bulky Slower discharge rate 
 Used in vehicles, back-up power supply longer battery life
Compact
More expensive than alkaline
batteries
Used in phones, cameras,
laptops, etc.
Impact on Lead acid batteries are important in With the ability to be
society today’s society to maintain smooth recharged, consumers are
running operation of electricity in order to able to minimise waste and
handle rapid fluctuations in the demand money by essentially reusing
for electricity. They deliver large amounts their lithium ion batteries. It
of electricity to power vehicles and also has a longer battery life
machinery. due to a slower discharge
rate. This allows consumers to
use their lithium battery
device for longer.
Environment Lead is a heavy metal (toxic) and improper Classified as non-hazardous
impact disposal can be hazardous to the and can be recycled.
environment. However, Lithium can react
with water or air to cause a
fire/an explosion.

4.3.4 Solve problems and analyse information to calculate the potential requirement using
tables of standard potentials and half-equations
Refer to examples in chemistry book

5 Nuclear chemistry provides a range of materials

5.2.1 Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the conditions under
which a nucleus is unstable
Stable isotopes do not readily decay while radioactive isotopes are unstable and emit
radiation as they spontaneously release energy and decay. The conditions under which a
nucleus is unstable are:
o Z>83: isotopes with too many protons are unstable
n to p ratio is outside the stability zone
o When the proton to neutron ratio is out of the stable range.
5.2.2 Describe how transuranic elements are produced
Transuranic elements with atomic numbers 93 to 95 are produced in a nuclear reactor.
Neutrons are bombarded at the target nuclei to make a new element.
238
92 U + 10n → 239
92 U
239
U → 239 0
92 93Np + −1 e

Transuranic elements with atomic numbers 96 and above are produced using particle
accelerators. Small charge atomic particles (usually nuclei of He, B or C) are accelerated to
very high speeds by using electrical attraction and repulsion. The small particles with high
kinetic energy then hit a target of large atoms.
239
Pu + 42 He → 242 1
94 96 Cm + 0n
242
Cm + 42 He → 245 1
96 98 Cf + 0 n

5.2.3 Describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced

A particle accelerator is used to make neutron rich radioisotopes. A neutron rich isotope
contains more neutrons than other atoms of the same element. Refer to 5.2.2 for the
process.
A cyclotron is used to make neutron deficient radioisotopes. Cyclotrons use the same
acceleration of positive particles as a linear accelerator but have electromagnets so that the
charge particles follow a spiral path. This makes the cyclotron compact enough to fit in a
hospital basement.
5.2.4 Identify instruments and processes that can be used to detect radiation
Geiger-Muller counters are used for high energy ionising radiation (strong radioactive
emissions). The radiation ionises argon gas in a sealed metal tube and produces electrons
and positive ions which move to oppositely charged electrodes. The small pulse of electricity
produced is amplified and counted by attached electronic circuits. Ionising radiation can also
be detected by changes in silver halide crystals in photographic film, discharge of
electroscopes and condensation of vapour to liquid in cloud chambers.
 Scintillation counters are used for low energy non-ionising radiation (weak radioactive
emissions). Energy is transferred to an atom by raising an electron to an outer energy level
further from the nucleus. When this excited electron drops back to a level closer to the
nucleus, light is emitted. A photocell produces a pulse of electric current when hit by the
light. This process is often preferred in investigating biological systems as higher energy
ionising radiation would form ions which can interfere with the normal chemical reactions in
cells.

5.2.6 Identify one use of a named radioisotope:

o In industry
Cobalt-60 is used for detection of cracks and flaws in metal such as a in castings and
welds
o In medicine
Technetium-99m is used for investigating changes in human body organs or tissues
5.2.7 Describe the way in which the above named industrial and medical radioisotopes are used
and explain their use in terms of their properties
o In industry
 Cobalt-60 is used in industrial radiography to inspect metal parts and welds
for defects. Beams of radiation are directed at the object to be checked from
a sealed source of Co-60. Radiographic film on the opposite side of the
source is exposed when it is struck by radiation passing through the objects
being tested. More radiation will pass through if there are cracks, breaks, or
 other flaws in the metal parts and will be recorded on the film. By studying
the film, structural problems can be detected.
 Co-60 is used because it is an emitter of gamma rays which will penetrate
metal parts. Co-60 has a half-life of 5.3 years and can be used in a chemically
inert form held inside a sealed container. This enables the equipment to
have a long lifetime and not require regular maintenance.
o In medicine
 Technetium-99m (Tc-99m) is used in over half of the current nuclear
medicine procedures, such as pinpointing brain tumours. Tc-99m can be
changed to a number of oxidation states. This enables production of a wide
range of biologically active chemicals. The Tc-99m is attached to a biological
molecule that concentrates in the organ to be investigated.
 Tc-99m is used because:
 It has a very short half-life of 6 hours
 It emits low energy gamma radiation that minimises damage to
tissues but can still be detected in a person's body by a gamma ray
sensitive camera
 It is quickly eliminated from the body
 Technetium is reasonably reactive; it can be reacted to form a
compound with chemical properties that leads to concentration in
the organ of interest such as the heart, liver, lungs or thyroid.
5.3.1 Process information from secondary sources to describe recent discoveries of elements
Transuranic elements with atomic numbers above 95 require high-energy particle
accelerators to be produced. They began to be discovered in the 1940’s. They continued to
be discovered in the next few decades. The most recent discovery is of elements 118 and
116. They were discovered by accelerating a beam of krypton-86 ions into lead-208.
5.3.2 Use available evidence to analyse benefits and problems associated with the use of
radioactive isotopes in identified industries and medicine
o Benefits: Commercial radioisotopes can be used for various purposes in medicines
and industry.
 Irradiation of foods and γ radiation from Co-60 kills bacteria and prevents
decay. The same technique is used to sterilise medical equipment e.g.
bandages.
 Radiation is used in medical applications to assess the functioning of the
heart, brain, kidneys, thyroid and other organs of the body.
o Problems:
 Possible dangers of regular exposure to ionising radiation. Ionising radiation
(particularly the highly charged α) nay disrupt cellular processes, by ionising
biological molecules such as DNA and proteins, forming radicals and ions,
which may lead to cancer development.
 Radioisotopes which become incorporated into the body are particularly
dangerous, like strontium-90 which replaces calcium in bones and causes
leukaemia.
 As such, people who are exposed more than average, usually those who
work with radioisotopes in research, medicine and industry, need a radiation
badge and protective clothing which can intercept the radiation and reduces
harmful nature.