steam turbine

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Home > Library > Literature & Language > Dictionary

n.
A turbine operated by highly pressurized steam directed against vanes on a rotor.

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A machine for generating mechanical power in rotary motion from the energy of steam at
temperature and pressure above that of an available sink. By far the most widely used and most
powerful turbines are those driven by steam. Until the 1960s essentially all steam used in turbine
cycles was raised in boilers burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas) or, in minor quantities, certain
waste products. However, modern turbine technology includes nuclear steam plants as well as
production of steam supplies from other sources. See also Nuclear reactor.
The illustration shows a small, simple mechanical-drive turbine of a few horsepower. It
illustrates the essential parts for all steam turbines regardless of rating or complexity: (1) a
casing, or shell, usually divided at the horizontal center line, with the halves bolted together for
ease of assembly and disassembly; it contains the stationary blade system; (2) a rotor carrying
the moving buckets (blades or vanes) either on wheels or drums, with bearing journals on the
ends of the rotor; (3) a set of bearings attached to the casing to support the shaft; (4) a governor
and valve system for regulating the speed and power of the turbine by controlling the steam flow,
and an oil system for lubrication of the bearings and, on all but the smallest machines, for
operating the control valves by a relay system connected with the governor; (5) a coupling to
connect with the driven machine; and (6) pipe connections to the steam supply at the inlet and to
an exhaust system at the outlet of the casing or shell.
 Cutaway of small, single-stage steam turbine. (General Electric Co.)
Steam turbines are ideal prime movers for driving machines requiring rotational mechanical
input power. They can deliver constant or variable speed and are capable of close speed control.
Drive applications include centrifugal pumps, compressors, ship propellers, and, most important,
electric generators.
Steam turbines are classified (1) by mechanical arrangement, as single-casing, cross-compound
(more than one shaft side by side), or tandem-compound (more than one casing with a single
shaft); (2) by steam flow direction (axial for most, but radial for a few); (3) by steam cycle,
whether condensing, noncon-densing, automatic extraction, reheat, fossil fuel, or nuclear; and (4)
by number of exhaust flows of a condensing unit, as single, double, triple flow, and so on. Units
with as many as eight exhaust flows are in use. See also Turbine.

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WordNet: steam turbine
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Home > Library > Literature & Language > WordNet
Note: click on a word meaning below to see its connections and related words.
The noun has one meaning:
Meaning #1: turbine in which steam strikes blades and makes them turn

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Wikipedia: Steam turbine
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challenged and removed. (July 2008)

A rotor of a modern steam turbine, used in a power plant

A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam,
and converts it into rotary motion. Its modern manifestation was invented by Charles Parsons in
1884.
It has almost completely replaced the reciprocating piston steam engine (invented by Thomas
Newcomen and greatly improved by James Watt) primarily because of its greater thermal
efficiency and higher power-to-weight ratio. Because the turbine generates rotary motion, it is
particularly suited to be used to drive an electrical generator – about 80% of all electricity
generation in the world is by use of steam turbines. The steam turbine is a form of heat engine
that derives much of its improvement in thermodynamic efficiency through the use of multiple
stages in the expansion of the steam, which results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible
process.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 History
• 2 Types
○ 2.1 Steam Supply and Exhaust Conditions
○ 2.2 Casing or Shaft Arrangements
• 3 Principle of Operation and Design
○ 3.1 Turbine Efficiency
 3.1.1 Impulse Turbines
 3.1.2 Reaction Turbines
○ 3.2 Operation and Maintenance
○ 3.3 Speed regulation
• 4 Direct drive
• 5 Speed reduction
• 6 References
• 7 Further Reading
• 8 External link

History
The first device that may be classified as a reaction steam turbine was little more than a toy, the
classic Aeolipile, described in the 1st century by Hero of Alexandria in Roman Egypt.[1][2][3] A
thousand years later, the first impact steam turbine with practical applications was invented in
1551 by Taqi al-Din in Ottoman Egypt, who described it as a prime mover for rotating a spit.
Similar smoke jacks were later described by John Wilkins in 1648 and Samuel Pepys in 1660.
Another steam turbine device was created by Italian Giovanni Branca in 1629.[4]
The modern steam turbine was invented in 1884 by the Englishman Charles A. Parsons, whose
first model was connected to a dynamo that generated 7.5 kW of electricity. His patent was
licensed and the turbine scaled-up shortly after by an American, George Westinghouse. A
number of other variations of turbines have been developed that work effectively with steam.
The de Laval turbine (invented by Gustaf de Laval) accelerated the steam to full speed before
running it against a turbine blade. This was good, because the turbine is simpler, less expensive
and does not need to be pressure-proof. It can operate with any pressure of steam. It is also,
however, considerably less efficient. The Parson's turbine also turned out to be relatively easy to
scale-up. Within Parson's lifetime the generating capacity of a unit was scaled-up by about
10,000 times. [5]
Parsons turbine from the Polish destroyer ORP Wicher II
Types
Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes ranging from small 1 hp (0.75 kW) units (rare) used
as mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and other shaft driven equipment, to 2,000,000 hp
(1,500,000 kW) turbines used to generate electricity. There are several classifications for modern
steam turbines.
Steam Supply and Exhaust Conditions
These types include condensing, noncondensing, reheat, extraction and induction.
Noncondensing or backpressure turbines are most widely used for process steam applications.
The exhaust pressure is controlled by a regulating valve to suit the needs of the process steam
pressure. These are commonly found at refineries, district heating units, pulp and paper plants,
and desalination facilities where large amounts of low pressure process steam are available.
Condensing turbines are most commonly found in electrical power plants. These turbines
exhaust steam in a partially condensed state, typically of a quality near 90%, at a pressure well
below atmospheric to a condenser.
Reheat turbines are also used almost exclusively in electrical power plants. In a reheat turbine,
steam flow exits from a high pressure section of the turbine and is returned to the boiler where
additional superheat is added. The steam then goes back into an intermediate pressure section of
the turbine and continues its expansion.
Extracting type turbines are common in all applications. In an extracting type turbine, steam is
released from various stages of the turbine, and used for industrial process needs or sent to boiler
feedwater heaters to improve overall cycle efficiency. Extraction flows may be controlled with a
valve, or left uncontrolled.
Induction turbines introduce low pressure steam at an intermediate stage to produce additional
power.
Casing or Shaft Arrangements
These arrangements include single casing, tandem compound and cross compound turbines.
Single casing units are the most basic style where a single casing and shaft are coupled to a
generator. Tandem compound are used where two or more casings are directly coupled together
to drive a single generator. A cross compound turbine arrangement features two or more shafts
not in line driving two or more generators that often operate at different speeds. A cross
compound turbine is typically used for many large applications.
Principle of Operation and Design
An ideal steam turbine is considered to be an isentropic process, or constant entropy process, in
which the entropy of the steam entering the turbine is equal to the entropy of the steam leaving
the turbine. No steam turbine is truly “isentropic”, however, with typical isentropic efficiencies
ranging from 20%-90% based on the application of the turbine. The interior of a turbine
comprises several sets of blades, or “buckets” as they are more commonly referred to. One set of
stationary blades is connected to the casing and one set of rotating blades is connected to the
shaft. The sets intermesh with certain minimum clearances, with the size and configuration of
sets varying to efficiently exploit the expansion of steam at each stage.
Turbine Efficiency

Schematic diagram outlining the difference between an impulse and a reaction turbine
To maximize turbine efficiency, the steam is expanded, generating work, in a number of stages.
These stages are characterized by how the energy is extracted from them and are known as
impulse or reaction turbines. Most modern steam turbines are a combination of the reaction and
impulse design. Typically, higher pressure sections are impulse type and lower pressure stages
are reaction type.
Impulse Turbines
An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that orient the steam flow into high speed jets. These jets
contain significant kinetic energy, which the rotor blades, shaped like buckets, convert into shaft
rotation as the steam jet changes direction. A pressure drop occurs across only the stationary
blades, with a net increase in steam velocity across the stage.
As the steam flows through the nozzle its pressure falls from steam chest pressure to condenser
pressure (or atmosphere pressure). Due to this relatively higher ratio of expansion of steam in the
nozzle the steam leaves the nozzle with a very high velocity. The steam leaving the moving
blades is a large portion of the maximum velocity of the steam when leaving the nozzle. The loss
of energy due to this higher exit velocity is commonly called the "carry over velocity" or
"leaving loss".
Reaction Turbines
In the reaction turbine, the rotor blades themselves are arranged to form convergent nozzles.
This type of turbine makes use of the reaction force produced as the steam accelerates through
the nozzles formed by the rotor. Steam is directed onto the rotor by the fixed vanes of the stator.
It leaves the stator as a jet that fills the entire circumference of the rotor. The steam then changes
direction and increases its speed relative to the speed of the blades. A pressure drop occurs
across both the stator and the rotor, with steam accelerating through the stator and decelerating
through the rotor, with no net change in steam velocity across the stage but with a decrease in
both pressure and temperature, reflecting the work performed in the driving of the rotor.
Operation and Maintenance
When warming up a steam turbine for use, the main steam stop valves (after the boiler) have a
bypass line to allow superheated steam to slowly bypass the valve and proceed to heat up the
lines in the system along with the steam turbine. Also a turning gear is engaged when there is no
steam to the turbine to slowly rotate the turbine to ensure even heating to prevent uneven
expansion. After first rotating the turbine by the turning gear, allowing time for the rotor to
assume a straight plane (no bowing), then the turning gear is disengaged and steam is admitted to
the turbine, first to the astern blades then to the ahead blades slowly rotating the turbine at 10 to
15 RPM to slowly warm the turbine.
Problems with turbines are now rare and maintenance requirements are relatively small. Any
imbalance of the rotor can lead to vibration, which in extreme cases can lead to a blade letting go
and punching straight through the casing. It is, however, essential that the turbine be turned with
dry steam. If water gets into the steam and is blasted onto the blades (moisture carryover) rapid
impingement and erosion of the blades can occur, possibly leading to imbalance and catastrophic
failure. Also, water entering the blades will likely result in the destruction of the thrust bearing
for the turbine shaft. To prevent this, along with controls and baffles in the boilers to ensure high
quality steam, condensate drains are installed in the steam piping leading to the turbine.
Speed regulation
The control of a turbine with a governor is essential, as turbines need to be run up slowly, to
prevent damage while some applications (such as the generation of alternating current electricity)
require precise speed control. Uncontrolled acceleration of the turbine rotor can lead to an
overspeed trip, which causes the nozzle valves that control the flow of steam to the turbine to
close. If this fails then the turbine may continue accelerating until it breaks apart, often
spectacularly. Turbines are expensive to make, requiring precision manufacture and special
quality materials.
Direct drive
Electrical power stations use large steam turbines driving electric generators to produce most
(about 80%) of the world's electricity. Most of these centralised stations are of two types: fossil
fuel power plants and nuclear power plants. The turbines used for electric power generation are
most often directly coupled to their generators. As the generators must rotate at constant
synchronous speeds according to the frequency of the electric power system, the most common
speeds are 3000 r/min for 50 Hz systems, and 3600 r/min for 60 Hz systems. In installations with
high steam output, as may be found in nuclear power stations, the generator sets may be arranged
to operate at half these speeds, but with four-pole generators.[6]
Speed reduction

The Turbinia - the first steam turbine-powered ship

Another use of steam turbines is in ships; their small size, low maintenance, light weight, and
low vibration are compelling advantages. (Steam turbine locomotives were also tested, but with
limited success.) A steam turbine is only efficient when operating in the thousands of RPM range
while application of the power in propulsion applications may be only in the hundreds of RPM
and so requiring that expensive and precise reduction gears must be used, although several ships,
such as Turbinia, had direct drive from the steam turbine to the propeller shafts. This purchase
cost is offset by much lower fuel and maintenance requirements and the small size of a turbine
when compared to a reciprocating engine having an equivalent power, except for diesel engines
which are capable of higher efficiencies. Steam turbine efficiencies have yet to break 50% yet
diesel engines routinely exceed 50%, especially in marine applications.[7] [8] [9] [10]
References
1. ^ turbine. Encyclopedia Britannica Online
2. ^ A new look at Heron's 'steam engine'" (1992-06-25). Archive for History of Exact
Sciences 44 (2): 107-124.
3. ^ O'Connor, J. J.; E. E. Roberston (1999). Heron of Alexandria. MacTutor
4. ^ Ahmad Y Hassan (1976). Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering, p. 34-35.
Institute for the History of Arabic Science, University of Aleppo.
5. ^ Parsons, Sir Charles A.. "The Steam Turbine".
http://www.history.rochester.edu/steam/parsons/part1.html.
6. ^ Leyzerovich, Alexander (2005). Wet-steam Turbines for Nuclear Power Plants. Tulsa
OK: PennWell Books. pp. p111. ISBN 1593700326.
7. ^ www.ansys.com/assets/testimonials/siemens.pdf
8. ^ http://pepei.pennnet.com/display_article/152601/6/ARTCL/none/none/1/New-
Benchmarks-for-Steam-Turbine-Efficiency/
9. ^ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wärtsilä-Sulzer_RTA96-C
10. ^ https://www.mhi.co.jp/technology/review/pdf/e451/e451021.pdf

Further Reading
 • Cotton, K.C. (1998). Evaluating and Improving Steam Turbine Performance.
• Traupel, W. (1977) (in German). Thermische Turbomaschinen.
• Thurston, R. H. (1878). A History of the Growth of the Steam Engine''. D. Appleton and
Co..
External link
• Steam Turbines: A Book of Instruction for the Adjustment and Operation of the Principal
Types of this Class of Prime Movers by Hubert E. Collins.

This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been
reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)
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wind turbine

Dictionary: wind turbine (wĭnd)

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Home > Library > Literature & Language > Dictionary
n.
A turbine that is powered by the wind.

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How Products are Made: How is a wind turbine made?
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Background
A wind turbine is a machine that converts the wind's kinetic energy into rotary mechanical
energy, which is then used to do work. In more advanced models, the rotational energy is
converted into electricity, the most versatile form of energy, by using a generator.
For thousands of years people have used windmills to pump water or grind grain. Even into the
twentieth century tall, slender, multi-vaned wind turbines made entirely of metal were used in
American homes and ranches to pump water into the house's plumbing system or into the cattle's
watering trough. After World War I, work was begun to develop wind turbines that could
produce electricity. Marcellus Jacobs invented a prototype in 1927 that could provide power for
a radio and a few lamps but little else. When demand for electricity increased later, Jacobs's
small, inadequate wind turbines fell out of use.
The first large-scale wind turbine built in the United States was conceived by Palmer Cosslett
Putnam in 1934; he completed it in 1941. The machine was huge. The tower was 36.6 yards
(33.5 meters) high, and its two stainless steel blades had diameters of 58 yards (53 meters).
Putnam's wind turbine could produce 1,250 kilowatts of electricity, or enough to meet the needs
of a small town. It was, however, abandoned in 1945 because of mechanical failure.
With the 1970s oil embargo, the United States began once more to consider the feasibility of
producing cheap electricity from wind turbines. In 1975 the prototype Mod-O was in operation.
This was a 100 kilowatt turbine with two 21-yard (19-meter) blades. More prototypes followed
(Mod-OA, Mod-1, Mod-2, etc.), each larger and more powerful than the one before. Currently,
the United States Department of Energy is aiming to go beyond 3,200 kilowatts per machine.
Many different models of wind turbines exist, the most striking being the vertical-axis Darrieus,
which is shaped like an egg beater. The model most supported by commercial manufacturers,
however, is a horizontal-axis turbine, with a capacity of around 100 kilowatts and three blades
not more than 33 yards (30 meters) in length. Wind turbines with three blades spin more
smoothly and are easier to balance than those with two blades. Also, while larger wind turbines
produce more energy, the smaller models are less likely to undergo major mechanical failure,
and thus are more economical to maintain.
Wind farms have sprung up all over the United States, most notably in California. Wind farms
are huge arrays of wind turbines set in areas of favorable wind production. The great number of
interconnected wind turbines is necessary in order to produce enough electricity to meet the
needs of a sizable population. Currently, 17,000 wind turbines on wind farms owned by several
wind energy companies produce 3.7 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity annually, enough to
meet the energy needs of 500,000 homes.
Raw Materials
A wind turbine consists of three basic parts: the tower, the nacelle, and the rotor blades. The
tower is either a steel lattice tower similar to electrical towers or a steel tubular tower with an
inside ladder to the nacelle. Most towers do not have guys, which are cables used for support,
and most are made of steel that has been coated with a zinc alloy for protection, though some are
painted instead. The tower of a typical American-made turbine is approximately 80 feet tall and
weighs about 19,000 pounds.
The nacelle is a strong, hollow shell that contains the inner workings of the wind turbine. Usually
made of fiberglass, the nacelle contains the main drive shaft and the gearbox. It also contains the
blade pitch control, a hydraulic system that controls the angle of the blades, and the yaw drive,
which controls the position of the turbine relative to the wind. The generator and electronic
controls are standard equipment whose main components are steel and copper. A typical nacelle
for a current turbine weighs approximately 22,000 pounds.
The most diverse use of materials and the most experimentation with new materials occur with
the blades. Although the most dominant material used for the blades in commercial wind
turbines is fiberglass with a hollow core, other materials in use include lightweight woods and
aluminum. Wooden blades are solid, but most blades consist of a skin surrounding a core that is
either hollow or filled with a lightweight substance such as plastic foam or honeycomb, or balsa
wood. A typical fiberglass blade is about 15 meters in length and weighs approximately 2,500
pounds.
Wind turbines also include a utility box, which converts the wind energy into electricity and
which is located at the base of the tower. Various cables connect the utility box to the nacelle,
while others connect the whole turbine to nearby turbines and to a transformer.
The Manufacturing
Process
Before consideration can be given to the construction of individual wind turbines, manufacturers
must determine a proper area for the siting of wind farms. Winds must be consistent, and their
speed must be regularly over 15.5 miles per hour (25 kilometers per hour). If the winds are
stronger during certain seasons, it is preferred that they be greatest during periods of maximum
electricity use. In California's Altamont Pass, for instance, site of the world's largest wind farm,
wind speed peaks in the summer when demand is high. In some areas of New England where
wind farms are being considered, winds are strongest in the winter, when the need for heating
increases the consumption of electrical power. Wind farms work best in open areas of slightly
rolling land surrounded by mountains. These areas are preferred because the wind turbines can
be placed on ridges and remain unobstructed by trees and buildings, and the mountains
concentrate the air flow, creating a natural wind tunnel of stronger, faster winds. Wind farms
must also be placed near utility lines to facilitate the transfer of the electricity to the local power
plant.
Preparing the site
• Wherever a wind farm is to be built, the roads are cut to make way for transporting parts.
At each wind turbine location, the land is graded and the pad area is leveled. A concrete
foundation is then laid into the ground, followed by the installation of the underground
cables. These cables connect the wind turbines to each other in series, and also connect
all of them to the remote control center, where the wind farm is monitored and the
electricity is sent to the power company.
Erecting the tower
• Although the tower's steel parts are manufactured off site in a factory, they are usually
assembled on site. The parts are bolted together before erection, and the tower is kept
horizontal until placement. A crane lifts the tower into position, all bolts are tightened,
and stability is tested upon completion.
Nacelle
• The fiberglass nacelle, like the tower, is manufactured off site in a factory. Unlike the
tower, however, it is also put together in the factory. Its inner workings—main drive
shaft, gearbox, and blade pitch and yaw controls—are assembled and then mounted onto
a base frame. The nacelle is then bolted around the equipment. At the site, the nacelle is
lifted onto the completed tower and bolted into place.
Rotary blades
• Aluminum blades are created by bolting sheets of aluminum together, while wooden
blades are carved to form an aerodynamic propeller similar in cross-section to an airplane
wing.
• By far the greatest number of blades, however, are formed from fiberglass. The
manufacture of fiberglass is a painstaking operation. First, a mold that is in two halves
like a clam shell, yet shaped like a blade, is prepared. Next, a fiberglass-resin composite
mixture is applied to the inner surfaces of the mold, which is then closed. The fiberglass
mixture must then dry for several hours; while it does, an air-filled bladder within the
mold helps the blade keep its shape. After the fiberglass is dry, the mold is then opened
and the bladder is removed. Final preparation of the blade involves cleaning, sanding,
sealing the two halves, and painting.
• The blades are usually bolted onto the nacelle after it has been placed onto the tower.
Because assembly is easier to accomplish on the ground, occasionally a three-pronged
blade has two blades bolted onto the nacelle before it is lifted, and the third blade is
bolted on after the nacelle is in place.
Installation of control systems
• The utility box for each wind turbine and the electrical communication system for the
wind farm is installed simultaneously with the placement of the nacelle and blades.
Cables run from the nacelle to the utility box and from the utility box to the remote
control center.
Quality Control
Unlike most manufacturing processes, production of wind turbines involves very little concern
with quality control. Because mass production of wind turbines is fairly new, no standards have
been set. Efforts are now being made in this area on the part of both the government and
manufacturers.
While wind turbines on duty are counted on to work 90 percent of the time, many structural
flaws are still encountered, particularly with the blades. Cracks sometimes appear soon after
manufacture. Mechanical failure because of alignment and assembly errors is common.
Electrical sensors frequently fail because of power surges. Non-hydraulic brakes tend to be
reliable, but hydraulic braking systems often cause problems. Plans are being developed to use
existing technology to solve these difficulties.
Wind turbines do have regular maintenance schedules in order to minimize failure. Every three
months they undergo inspection, and every six months a major maintenance checkup is
scheduled. This usually involves lubricating the moving parts and checking the oil level in the
gearbox. It is also possible for a worker to test the electrical system on site and note any
problems with the generator or hookups.
Environmental Benefits
and Drawbacks
A wind turbine that produces electricity from inexhaustible winds creates no pollution. By
comparison, coal, oil, and natural gas produce one to two pounds of carbon dioxide (an emission
that contributes to the greenhouse effect and global warming) per kilowatt-hour produced. When
wind energy is used for electrical needs, dependence on fossil fuels for this purpose is reduced.
The current annual production of electricity by wind turbines (3.7 billion kilowatt-hours) is
equivalent to four million barrels of oil or one million tons of coal.
Wind turbines are not completely free of environmental drawbacks. Many people consider them
to be unaesthetic, especially when huge wind farms are built near pristine wilderness areas. Bird
kills have been documented, and the whirring blades do produce quite a bit of noise. Efforts to
reduce these effects include selecting sites that do not coincide with wilderness areas or bird
migration routes and researching ways to reduce noise.
The Future
The future can only get better for wind turbines. The potential for wind energy is largely
untapped. The United States Department of Energy estimates that ten times the amount of
electricity currently being produced can be achieved by 1995. By 2005, seventy times current
production is possible. If this is accomplished, wind turbines would account for 10 percent of the
United States' electricity production.
Research is now being done to increase the knowledge of wind resources. This involves the
testing of more and more areas for the possibility of placing wind farms where the wind is
reliable and strong. Plans are in effect to increase the life span of the machine from five years to
20 to 30 years, improve the efficiency of the blades, provide better controls, develop drive trains
that last longer, and allow for better surge protection and grounding. The United States
Department of Energy has recently set up a schedule to implement the latest research in order to
build wind turbines with a higher efficiency rating than is now possible. (The efficiency of an
ideal wind turbine is 59.3 percent. That is, 59.3 percent of the wind's energy can be captured.
Turbines in actual use are about 30 percent efficient.) The United States Department of Energy
has also contracted with three corporations to research ways to reduce mechanical failure. This
project began in the spring of 1992 and will extend to the end of the century.
Wind turbines will become more prevalent in upcoming years. The largest manufacturer of wind
turbines in the world, U.S. Windpower, plans to expand from 420 megawatt capacity (4,200
machines) to 800 megawatts (8,000 machines) by 1995. They plan to have 2,000 megawatts
(20,000 machines) by the year 2000. Other wind turbine manufacturers also plan to increase the
numbers produced. International committees composed of several industrialized nations have
formed to discuss the potential of wind turbines. Efforts are also being made to provide
developing countries with small wind turbines similar to those Marcellus Jacobs built in the
1920s. Denmark, which already produces 70 percent to 80 percent of Europe's wind power, is
developing plans to expand manufacture of wind turbines. The turn of the century should see
wind turbines that are properly placed, efficient, durable, and numerous.
Where To Learn More
Books
Assessment of Research Needs for Wind Turbine Rotor Materials Technology. National
Academy Press, 1991.
Eggleston, David M. Wind Turbine Engineering Design. Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1987.
Hunt, Daniel V. Windpower: A Handbook on Wind Energy Conversion Systems. Van Nostrand
Reinhold, 1981.
Kovarik, Tom, Charles Pupher, and John Hurst. Wind Energy. Domus Books, 1979.
Park, Jack. The Wind Power Book. Cheshire Books, 1981.
Putnam, Palmer Cosslett. Power from the Wind. Van Nostrand Company, 1948.
Periodicals
Frank, Deborah. "Blowing in the Wind," Popular Mechanics, August, 1991, pp. 40-43+.
Mohs, Mayo. "Blowin' in the Wind," Discover. June, 1986, pp. 68-74.
Moretti, Peter M. and Louis V. Divone. "Modern Windmills," Scientific American. June, 1986,
pp. 110-118.
Price, Marshall. "Basement-Built Wind Generator," Mother Earth News. July-August, 1986, p.
103.
Stefanides, E. J. "Hydraulic Yaw Control Upgrades Wind Turbine," Design News. March 3,
1986, p. 240.
Vogel, Shawna. "Wind Power," Discover. May, 1989, pp. 46-49.
[Article by: Rose Secrest]

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Wikipedia: Wind turbine
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Home > Library > Miscellaneous > Wikipedia
Wind turbines
History
Design
Manufacturers
Unconventional
Wind farm in the North Sea off Belgium

Wind turbines near Aalborg, Denmark

A wind turbine is a rotating machine which converts the kinetic energy in wind into mechanical
energy. If the mechanical energy is used directly by machinery, such as a pump or grinding
stones, the machine is usually called a windmill. If the mechanical energy is then converted to
electricity, the machine is called a wind generator, wind turbine, wind power unit (WPU),
wind energy converter (WEC), or aerogenerator.
This article discusses electric power generation machinery. The Windmill article discusses
machines used for grain-grinding, water pumping, etc. The article on wind power describes
turbine placement, economics and public concerns. The wind energy section of that article
describes the distribution of wind energy over time, and how that affects wind-turbine design.
See environmental concerns with electricity generation for discussion of environmental problems
with wind-energy production.

Contents
[hide]
• 1 History
• 2 Resources
 • 3 Types of wind turbines
○ 3.1 Horizontal axis
 3.1.1 HAWT Subtypes
 3.1.2 HAWT advantages
 3.1.3 HAWT disadvantages
 3.1.4 Cyclic stresses and vibration
○ 3.2 Vertical axis
 3.2.1 VAWT subtypes
 3.2.2 VAWT advantages
 3.2.3 VAWT disadvantages
• 4 Turbine design and construction
• 5 Low temperature
• 6 Unconventional wind turbines
• 7 Small wind turbines
• 8 Record-holding turbines
• 9 Criticisms
• 10 See also
• 11 References
• 12 Further reading
• 13 External links

History
Main article: History of wind power

The world's first automatically operated wind turbine was built in Cleveland in 1888 by Charles
F. Brush. It was 60 feet tall, weighed four tons and had 12kW turbine.[1]
Wind machines were used in Persia as early as 200 B.C.[2] This type of machine was introduced
into the Roman Empire by 250 A.D. However, the first practical windmills were built in Sistan,
Iran, from the 7th century. These were vertical axle windmills, which had long vertical
driveshafts with rectangle shaped blades.[3] Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or
cloth material, these windmills were used to grind corn and draw up water, and were used in the
gristmilling and sugarcane industries.[4]
By the 14th century, Dutch windmills were in use to drain areas of the Rhine River delta. In
Denmark by 1900 there were about 2500 windmills for mechanical loads such as pumps and
mills, producing an estimated combined peak power of about 30 MW. The first known electricity
generating windmill operated was a battery charging machine installed in 1887 by James Blyth
in Scotland, UK[citation needed]. The first windmill for electricity production in the United States was
built in Cleveland, Ohio by Charles F Brush in 1888, and in 1908 there were 72 wind-driven
electric generators from 5 kW to 25 kW. The largest machines were on 24 m (79 ft) towers with
four-bladed 23 m (75 ft) diameter rotors. Around the time of World War I, American windmill
makers were producing 100,000 farm windmills each year, most for water-pumping.[5] By the
1930s windmills for electricity were common on farms, mostly in the United States where
distribution systems had not yet been installed. In this period, high-tensile steel was cheap, and
windmills were placed atop prefabricated open steel lattice towers.
A forerunner of modern horizontal-axis wind generators was in service at Yalta, USSR in 1931.
This was a 100 kW generator on a 30 m (100 ft) tower, connected to the local 6.3 kV distribution
system. It was reported to have an annual capacity factor of 32 per cent, not much different from
current wind machines.[6]
The first utility grid-connected wind turbine operated in the UK was built by the John Brown
Company in 1954 in the Orkney Islands. It had an 18 meter diameter, three-bladed rotor and a
rated output of 100 kW.
Resources
Main article: Wind power
Wind turbines require locations with constantly high wind speeds. With a wind resource
assessment it is possible to estimate the amount of energy the wind turbine will produce.
A yardstick frequently used to determine good locations is referred to as Wind Power Density
(WPD.) It is a calculation relating to the effective force of the wind at a particular location,
frequently expressed in terms of the elevation above ground level over a period of time. It takes
into account wind velocity and mass. Color coded maps are prepared for a particular area
described, for example, as "Mean Annual Power Density at 50 Meters." The results of the above
calculation are included in an index developed by the National Renewable Energy Lab and
referred to as "NREL CLASS." The larger the WPD calculation, the higher it is rated by class.[7]
Types of wind turbines
Wind turbines can be separated into two types based by the axis in which the turbine rotates.
Turbines that rotate around a horizontal axis are more common. Vertical-axis turbines are less
frequently used.
Horizontal axis
Components of a horizontal axis wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft and brake assembly) being
lifted into position
Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the
top of a tower, and must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a simple wind
vane, while large turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a servo motor. Most have a
gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the blades into a quicker rotation that is more suitable
to drive an electrical generator.[8]
Since a tower produces turbulence behind it, the turbine is usually pointed upwind of the tower.
Turbine blades are made stiff to prevent the blades from being pushed into the tower by high
winds. Additionally, the blades are placed a considerable distance in front of the tower and are
sometimes tilted up a small amount.
Downwind machines have been built, despite the problem of turbulence, because they don't need
an additional mechanism for keeping them in line with the wind, and because in high winds, the
blades can be allowed to bend which reduces their swept area and thus their wind resistance.
Since turbulence leads to fatigue failures, and reliability is so important, most HAWTs are
upwind machines.
HAWT Subtypes

Doesburger windmill, Ede, The Netherlands.

12th-century windmills
These squat structures, typically (at least) four bladed, usually with wooden shutters or fabric
sails, were developed in Europe. These windmills were pointed into the wind manually or via a
tail-fan and were typically used to grind grain. In the Netherlands they were also used to pump
water from low-lying land, and were instrumental in keeping its polders dry.
In Schiedam, the Netherlands, a traditional style windmill (the Noletmolen) was built in 2005 to
generate electricity.[9] The mill is one of the tallest Tower mills in the world, being some
42.5 metres (139 ft) tall.
19th-century windmills
The Eclipse windmill factory was set up around 1866 in Beloit, Wisconsin and soon became
successful building mills for pumping water on farms and for filling railroad tanks. Other firms
like Star, Dempster, and Aeromotor also entered the market. Hundreds of thousands of these
mills were produced before rural electrification and small numbers continue to be made.[5] They
typically had many blades, operated at tip speed ratios (defined below) not better than one, and
had good starting torque. Some had small direct-current generators used to charge storage
batteries, to provide power to lights, or to operate a radio receiver. The American rural
electrification connected many farms to centrally-generated power and replaced individual
windmills as a primary source of farm power by the 1950s. They were also produced in other
countries like South Africa and Australia (where an American design was copied in 1876[10]).
Such devices are still used in locations where it is too costly to bring in commercial power.
Modern wind turbines

Three bladed wind turbine

Turbines used in wind farms for commercial production of electric power are usually three-
bladed and pointed into the wind by computer-controlled motors. These have high tip speeds of
up to six times the wind speed, high efficiency, and low torque ripple, which contribute to good
reliability. The blades are usually colored light gray to blend in with the clouds and range in
length from 20 to 40 metres (65 to 130 ft) or more. The tubular steel towers range from 200 to
300 feet (60 to 90 metres) tall. The blades rotate at 10-22 revolutions per minute.[11][12] A gear
box is commonly used to step up the speed of the generator, although designs may also use direct
drive of an annular generator. Some models operate at constant speed, but more energy can be
collected by variable-speed turbines which use a solid-state power converter to interface to the
transmission system. All turbines are equipped with shut-down features to avoid damage at high
wind speeds.
HAWT advantages
• Variable blade pitch, which gives the turbine blades the optimum angle of attack.
Allowing the angle of attack to be remotely adjusted gives greater control, so the turbine
collects the maximum amount of wind energy for the time of day and season.
• The tall tower base allows access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear. In some wind
shear sites, every ten meters up, the wind speed can increase by 20% and the power
output by 34%.
 • High efficiency, since the blades always move perpendicularly to the wind, receiving
power through the whole rotation. In contrast, all vertical axis wind turbines, and most
proposed airborne wind turbine designs, involve various types of reciprocating actions,
requiring airfoil surfaces to backtrack against the wind for part of the cycle. Backtracking
against the wind leads to inherently lower efficiency.
HAWT disadvantages

Turbine blade convoy passing through Edenfield in the UK

• The tall towers and blades up to 90 meters long are difficult to transport. Transportation
can now cost 20% of equipment costs.
• Tall HAWTs are difficult to install, needing very tall and expensive cranes and skilled
operators.
• Massive tower construction is required to support the heavy blades, gearbox, and
generator.
• Reflections from tall HAWTs may affect side lobes of radar installations creating signal
clutter, although filtering can suppress it.
• Their height makes them obtrusively visible across large areas, disrupting the appearance
of the landscape and sometimes creating local opposition.
• Downwind variants suffer from fatigue and structural failure caused by turbulence when
a blade passes through the tower's wind shadow (for this reason, the majority of HAWTs
use an upwind design, with the rotor facing the wind in front of the tower).
• HAWTs require an additional yaw control mechanism to turn the blades toward the wind.
Cyclic stresses and vibration
Cyclic stresses fatigue the blade, axle and bearing; material failures were a major cause of
turbine failure for many years. Because wind velocity often increases at higher altitudes, the
backward force and torque on a horizontal-axis wind turbine (HAWT) blade peaks as it turns
through the highest point in its circle. The tower hinders the airflow at the lowest point in the
circle, which produces a local dip in force and torque. These effects produce a cyclic twist on the
main bearings of a HAWT. The combined twist is worst in machines with an even number of
blades, where one is straight up when another is straight down. To improve reliability, teetering
hubs have been used which allow the main shaft to rock through a few degrees, so that the main
bearings do not have to resist the torque peaks.
When the turbine turns to face the wind, the rotating blades act like a gyroscope. As it pivots,
gyroscopic precession tries to twist the turbine into a forward or backward somersault. For each
blade on a wind generator's turbine, precessive force is at a minimum when the blade is
horizontal and at a maximum when the blade is vertical. This cyclic twisting can quickly fatigue
and crack the blade roots, hub and axle of the turbines.
Vertical axis
Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically. Key
advantages of this arrangement are that the turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind to
be effective. This is an advantage on sites where the wind direction is highly variable. VAWTs
can utilize winds from varying directions.
With a vertical axis, the generator and gearbox can be placed near the ground, so the tower
doesn't need to support it, and it is more accessible for maintenance. Drawbacks are that some
designs produce pulsating torque. Drag may be created when the blade rotates into the wind.
It is difficult to mount vertical-axis turbines on towers, meaning they are often installed nearer to
the base on which they rest, such as the ground or a building rooftop. The wind speed is slower
at a lower altitude, so less wind energy is available for a given size turbine. Air flow near the
ground and other objects can create turbulent flow, which can introduce issues of vibration,
including noise and bearing wear which may increase the maintenance or shorten the service life.
However, when a turbine is mounted on a rooftop, the building generally redirects wind over the
roof and this can double the wind speed at the turbine. If the height of the rooftop mounted
turbine tower is approximately 50% of the building height, this is near the optimum for
maximum wind energy and minimum wind turbulence.
VAWT subtypes

30 m Darrieus wind turbine in the Magdalen Islands

Darrieus wind turbine
"Eggbeater" turbines. They have good efficiency, but produce large torque ripple and
cyclic stress on the tower, which contributes to poor reliability. Also, they generally
require some external power source, or an additional Savonius rotor, to start turning,
because the starting torque is very low. The torque ripple is reduced by using three or
more blades which results in a higher solidity for the rotor. Solidity is measured by blade
area over the rotor area. Newer Darrieus type turbines are not held up by guy-wires but
have an external superstructure connected to the top bearing.
A helical twisted VAWT.
Giromill
A subtype of Darrieus turbine with straight, as opposed to curved, blades. The
cycloturbine variety has variable pitch to reduce the torque pulsation and is self-starting.
[13]
The advantages of variable pitch are: high starting torque; a wide, relatively flat torque
curve; a lower blade speed ratio; a higher coefficient of performance; more efficient
operation in turbulent winds; and a lower blade speed ratio which lowers blade bending
stresses. Straight, V, or curved blades may be used.

12 m Windmill with rotational sails in Osijek, Croatia

Savonius wind turbine
These are drag-type devices with two (or more) scoops that are used in anemometers,
Flettner vents (commonly seen on bus and van roofs), and in some high-reliability low-
efficiency power turbines. They are always self-starting if there are at least three scoops.
They sometimes have long helical scoops to give a smooth torque.
VAWT advantages
• A massive tower structure is less frequently used, as VAWTs are more frequently
mounted with the lower bearing mounted near the ground.
• Designs without yaw mechanisms are possible with fixed pitch rotor designs.
 • A VAWT can be located nearer the ground, making it easier to maintain the moving
parts.
• VAWTs have lower wind startup speeds than HAWTs. Typically, they start creating
electricity at 6 m.p.h. (10 km/h).
• VAWTs may be built at locations where taller structures are prohibited.
• VAWTs situated close to the ground can take advantage of locations where mesas,
hilltops, ridgelines, and passes funnel the wind and increase wind velocity.
• VAWTs may have a lower noise signature.
VAWT disadvantages
• Most VAWTs produce energy at only 50% of the efficiency of HAWTs in large part
because of the additional drag that they have as their blades rotate into the wind. Versions
that reduce drag produce more energy, especially those that funnel wind into the collector
area[citation needed].
• A VAWT that uses guy-wires to hold it in place puts stress on the bottom bearing as all
the weight of the rotor is on the bearing. Guy wires attached to the top bearing increase
downward thrust in wind gusts. Solving this problem requires a superstructure to hold a
top bearing in place to eliminate the downward thrusts of gust events in guy wired
models.
• While VAWTs' parts are located on the ground, they are also located under the weight of
the structure above it, which can make changing out parts nearly impossible without
dismantling the structure if not designed properly.
• Having rotors located close to the ground where wind speeds are lower due to wind shear,
VAWTs may not produce as much energy at a given site as a HAWT with the same
footprint or height.
• Because VAWTs are not commonly deployed due mainly to the serious disadvantages
mentioned above, they appear novel to those not familiar with the wind industry. This has
often made them the subject of wild claims and investment scams over the last 50 years.
[14][15]

Turbine design and construction

Components of a horizontal-axis wind turbine

Main article: Wind turbine design
Wind turbines are designed to exploit the wind energy that exists at a location. Aerodynamic
modeling is used to determine the optimum tower height, control systems, number of blades, and
blade shape.
Wind turbines convert wind energy to electricity for distribution. The turbine can be divided into
three components. The rotor component, which is approximately 20% of the wind turbine cost,
includes the blades for converting wind energy to low speed rotational energy. The generator
component, which is approximately 34% of the wind turbine cost, includes the electrical
generator, the control electronics, and most likely a gearbox component for converting the low
speed incoming rotation to high speed rotation suitable for generating electricity. The structural
support component, which is approximately 15% of the wind turbine cost, includes the tower and
rotor pointing mechanism.[16]
Low temperature
Utility-scale wind turbine generators have minimum temperature operating limits which apply in
areas that experience temperatures below –20 °C. Wind turbines must be protected from ice
accumulation, which can make anemometer readings inaccurate and which can cause high
structure loads and damage. Some turbine manufacturers offer low-temperature packages at a
few percent extra cost, which include internal heaters, different lubricants, and different alloys
for structural elements. If the low-temperature interval is combined with a low-wind condition,
the wind turbine will require an external supply of power, equivalent to a few percent of its rated
power, for internal heating. For example, the St. Leon, Manitoba project has a total rating of
99 MW and is estimated to need up to 3 MW (around 3% of capacity) of station service power a
few days a year for temperatures down to –30 °C. This factor affects the economics of wind
turbine operation in cold climates.
Unconventional wind turbines
Main article: Unconventional wind turbines
One E-66 wind turbine at Windpark Holtriem, Germany, carries an observation deck, open for
visitors. Another turbine of the same type, with an observation deck, is located in Swaffham,
England.
A series of lighter-than-air wind turbines are in development in Canada by Magenn Power. They
deliver power to the ground by a tether system.[17]
Wind turbines may also be used in conjunction with a large vertical solar updraft tower to extract
the energy due to air heated by the sun. Or as part of wave powered generators where air
displaced by waves drives turbines.[18]
Small wind turbines
A small wind turbine being used at the Riverina Environmental Education Centre near Wagga
Wagga, New South Wales, Australia
Main article: Small wind turbine
Small wind turbines may be as small as a fifty-watt generator for boat or caravan use. Small units
often have direct drive generators, direct current output, aeroelastic blades, lifetime bearings and
use a vane to point into the wind. Larger, more costly turbines generally have geared power
trains, alternating current output, flaps and are actively pointed into the wind. Direct drive
generators and aeroelastic blades for large wind turbines are being researched.
Record-holding turbines
The world's largest turbines are manufactured by the Northern German companies Enercon and
REpower. The Enercon E-126 delivers up to 6 MW, has an overall height of 198 m (650 ft) and
a diameter of 126 meters (413 ft). The Repower 5M delivers up to 5 MW, has an overall height
of 183 m (600 ft) and has a diameter of 126 m (413 ft).
The turbine closest to the North Pole is a Nordex N-80 in Havøygavlen near Hammerfest,
Norway. The turbines currently operating closest to the South Pole are two Enercon E-30 in
Antarctica, used to power the Australian Research Division's Mawson Station,[19] although a
modified HR3 turbine from Northern Power Systems operated at the Amundsen-Scott South Pole
Station in 1997 and 1998.[20]
Matilda was a wind turbine located on Gotland, Sweden. It produced a total of 61.4 GW·h in the
15 years it was active. That is more renewable energy than any other single wind power turbine
had ever produced to that date. It was demolished on June 6, 2008.
The world's highest wind turbine of company DeWind is located in the Andes/Argentina to
4,100 metres (13,000 ft) above sea level. Turbine type D8.2 - 2000 kW / 50 Hz was used for that
site. This turbine has a new drive train concept with a special torque converter (WinDrive) of the
company Voith and a synchronous generator. The WKA was put into operation in December
2007 and has supplied the local gold mine with electricity since then.[21][22]
Criticisms
Main article: Environmental effects of wind power
While wind turbines in operation can generate electricity without the emission of greenhouse
gases or the consumption of fuel, they have significant disadvantages over conventional
generation.
One disadvantage is that wind power is an intermittent power source. The production from a
wind turbine may increase or decrease dramatically over a short period of time with little or no
warning. In the absence of large scale energy storage, the balance of the grid must be able to
quickly compensate for this change.
The economics of wind turbines can be challenging as well. With high quality wind resources
often located in areas inhospitable to people, logistics and transmission capacity can introduce
significant obstacles to new installations.
The impact of wind turbines on wildlife has often been cited as a disadvantage of wind
installations. Wind turbines can pose a danger to birds and bats, though the magnitude and
gravity of this danger is much less than more ubiquitous threats such as house cats or plate glass.
In fact, less than one bird is killed per 10,000 wind turbines annually.[23]
Wind turbines are certainly not without critics, but may have much more favorable life cycle
impacts than conventional generation technologies.
See also
Sustainable development portal

• Airborne wind turbine • List of wind turbine manufacturers

• American Wind Energy Association • Microgeneration
• Atmospheric icing • Renewable energy
• Darrieus wind turbine • Savonius wind turbine
• Electrical generator • Thomas O. Perry
• Éolienne Bollée • Wind power
• Floating wind turbine • Wind turbines (UK domestic)
• Green energy • Windmill
• Hybrid power source

References
1. ^ A Wind Energy Pioneer: Charles F. Brush, Danish Wind Industry Association,
http://www.windpower.org/en/pictures/brush.htm, retrieved on 2008-12-28
2. ^ "Part 1 — Early History Through 1875". http://www.telosnet.com/wind/early.html.
Retrieved on 2008-07-31.
3. ^ Ahmad Y Hassan, Donald Routledge Hill (1986). Islamic Technology: An illustrated
history, p. 54. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42239-6.
4. ^ Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East",
Scientific American, May 1991, p. 64-69. (cf. Donald Routledge Hill, Mechanical
Engineering)
5. ^ a b Quirky old-style contraptions make water from wind on the mesas of West Texas
6. ^ Alan Wyatt: Electric Power: Challenges and Choices. Book Press Ltd., Toronto 1986,
ISBN 0-920650-00-7
 7. ^ Kansas Wind Energy Project, Affiliated Atlantic & Western Group Inc, 5250 W 94th
Terrace, Prairie Village, Kansas 66207
8. ^ http://www.windpower.org/en/tour/wtrb/comp/index.htm Wind turbine components
retrieved November 8, 2008
9. ^ Molendatabase Dutch text
10. ^ Extract from Triumph of the Griffiths Family,
http://au.geocities.com/ozwindmills/SouthernCross.htm, Bruce Millett, 1984, accessed
January 26, 2008
11. ^ 1.5 MW Wind Turbine Technical Specifications
12. ^ Size specifications of common industrial wind turbines
13. ^ http://www.awea.org/faq/vawt.html
14. ^ http://www.rebelwolf.com/essn/ESSN-Aug2005.pdf
15. ^ http://www.motherearthnews.com/Renewable-Energy/2008-02-01/Wind-Power-
Horizontal-and-Vertical-Axis-Wind-Turbines.aspx
16. ^ "Wind Turbine Design Cost and Scaling Model," Technical Report NREL/TP-500-
40566, December, 2006, page 35,36. http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy07osti/40566.pdf
17. ^ Magenn Power Inc. - Technology
18. ^ see http://www.bwea.com/marine/devices.html and scroll down to SPERBOY™,
19. ^ Mawson Station Electrical Energy - Australian Antarctic Division
20. ^ Bill Spindler, The first Pole wind turbine.
21. ^ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VxYm2bWUdjo
22. ^ http://www.voithturbo.com/vt_en_pua_windrive_project-report_2008.htm
23. ^ www.awea.org/pubs/factsheets/MythsvsFacts-FactSheet.pdf

Further reading
• BBC News,"Wind farms 'must take root in UK",
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4560139.stm, BBC News, Copyright 2007
• Tony Burton, David Sharpe, Nick Jenkins, Ervin Bossanyi: Wind Energy Handbook,
John Wiley & Sons, 1st edition (2001), ISBN 0-471-48997-2
• Darrell, Dodge, Early History Through 1875, TeloNet Web Development,
http://telosnet.com/wind/early.html, Copyright 1996-2001
• David, Macaulay, New Way Things Work, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston,
Copyright 1994-1999, pg.41-42
• www.awea.org/pubs/factsheets/MythsvsFacts-FactSheet.pdf
External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Wind turbine

 • Photo journal and tutorial for 1.5kw residential wind turbine
• Domestic Wind Turbine installation and videos
• Wind Projects
• Guided tour on wind energy
• Wind Energy Technology World Wind Energy Association
• Wind turbine simulation, National Geographic
• Domestic and Commercial wind turbine directory and information wiki,
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An internal-combustion engine consisting essentially of an air compressor, combustion tur
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One of a class of heat engines which use fuel energy to produce mechanical output power, either
as torque through a rotating shaft (industrial gas turbines) or as jet power in the form of velocity
through an exhaust nozzle (aircraft jet engines). The fuel energy is added to the working
substance, which is gaseous in form and most often air, either by direct internal combustion or
indirectly through a heat exchanger. The heated working substance, air co-mixed with
combustion products in the usual case of internal combustion, acts on a continuously rotating
turbine to produce power. The gas turbine is thus distinguished from heat engine types where the
working substance produces mechanical power by acting intermittently on an enclosed piston,
and from steam turbine engines where the working substance is water in liquid and vapor form.
See also Internal combustion engine; Steam turbine.
Gas turbine engines depend on the principle of the air cycle, where, ambient air is first
compressed to a maximum pressure level, at which point fuel heat energy is added to raise its
temperature, also to a maximum level. The air is then expanded from high to low pressure
through a turbine. The expansion process through the turbine extracts energy from the air, while
the compression process requires energy input.
As the air moves through the engine, the turbine continuously provides energy sufficient to drive
the compressor. In addition, because the turbine expansion process starts from a high
temperature that comes from the fuel energy released by combustion, surplus energy beyond that
required for compression can be extracted from the air by further expansion. At the point where
the turbine has provided sufficient energy to power the compressor, the air pressure remains
higher than the outside ambient level. This higher pressure represents available energy in the air
that can be turned into useful output power by a final expansion process that returns the air
pressure to ambient. The exhaust air leaves the engine with pressure equal to the outside, but at a
higher temperature. As with any heat engine, the high exhaust temperature represents wasted
energy that will dissipate into the outside atmosphere. See also Compressor.
From an energy accounting standpoint, the sequence of processes acting on the air from front to
rear constitutes a full cycle. It starts with the outside air entering at its initial state, and is
completed when the air returns again to both ambient pressure and temperature levels. The series
of cycle processes includes the final outside dissipation of the wasted exhaust energy, inevitable
for every heat engine according to Carnot's principle. The ideal version of the gas turbine cycle is
known as the Brayton cycle. See also Brayton cycle; Carnot cycle.
For any completed cycle, the total energy added from the fuel sources will always be equal to the
sum of the useful output energy and the wasted exhaust energy. The thermal efficiency, which is
the ratio of net output energy to fuel input energy for the cycle, measures the engine's ability to
minimize wasted energy. A thermal efficiency of 60% means that for every 100 units of added
energy 60 units will be available as useful output while 40 units will leave the engine as high-
temperature exhaust.
Another performance measure is the specific power, which is the ratio of output power to
quantity of working substance mass flow rate. Gas turbine engines, in comparison with other
types of heat engines, are characterized not only by high levels of efficiency but also by very
high levels of specific power. They are especially useful for applications that need compact
power.
By far the most common mechanical arrangement for the gas turbine is an in-line axial flow
positioning of all components (see illustration). In the ground-based engine, the inlet at the front
guides the incoming air into the compressor, which in turn delivers high-pressure air into the
combustor section. The combustor burns the injected fuel at a high reaction temperature, using
some of the air itself as an oxygen source. The combustion products in the combustor mix with
the remaining unused air to reach a uniform equilibrium temperature, still high but diluted down
from the reaction temperature. The hot, high-pressure combustor exit air enters the compressor
drive turbine, where it expands down in pressure toward, but stays higher than, ambient level.
This expansion process results in output shaft power that can be delivered directly to the
compressor through a connecting rotating shaft. Starting from the exit of the compressor drive
turbine, net output power remains available. This power can be realized through the process of
further pressure expansion completely down to the ambient level. For ground-based applications,
the final expansion takes place through a power turbine whose output shaft is connected to the
external load. In the single-spool arrangement the power turbine and compressor drive turbine
are indistinguishably combined into one unit which, together with the compressor and the output
load, is connected to a common shaft. For aircraft applications, either a power turbine extracts
useful power to drive a propeller through a separate shaft (turboprop), or the expansion process
takes place through a nozzle which acts to convert some of the thermal energy into velocity
energy to be used for jet propulsion. See also Aircraft engine; Jet propulsion.

Simple gas turbine component arrangements.

Gas turbines characteristically produce smooth and linear throttle response over their entire
operating range. Rotor speeds normally vary continuously over this range without the need for
the gear shifting and clutch mechanisms found in piston engines. The governing fuel control
senses rotor speeds, pressures, and temperatures to maintain stable, steady power or thrust output
and, when needed, ensure rapid accelerations and decelerations. The control is programmed,
normally by electronic input, to guard against harming the engine during throttle changes by
governing the appropriate fuel input rate. Most important, during throttle transients the control
functions to prevent turbine overheating, burner blowout, and compressor surge.

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WordNet: gas turbine
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Home > Library > Literature & Language > WordNet
Note: click on a word meaning below to see its connections and related words.
The noun has one meaning:
Meaning #1: turbine that converts the chemical energy of a liquid fuel into mechanical energy by
internal combustion; gaseous products of the fuel (which is burned in compressed air) are
expanded through a turbine

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Wikipedia: Gas turbine
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Home > Library > Miscellaneous > Wikipedia
"Microturbine" redirects here. For other uses, see small wind turbine.

This machine has a single-stage radial compressor and turbine, a recuperator, and foil bearings.
A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a rotary engine that extracts energy from a
flow of combustion gas. It has an upstream compressor coupled to a downstream turbine, and a
combustion chamber in-between. (Gas turbine may also refer to just the turbine element.)
Energy is added to the gas stream in the combustor, where air is mixed with fuel and ignited.
Combustion increases the temperature, velocity and volume of the gas flow. This is directed
through a nozzle over the turbine's blades, spinning the turbine and powering the compressor.
Energy is extracted in the form of shaft power, compressed air and thrust, in any combination,
and used to power aircraft, trains, ships, generators, and even tanks.

Contents
[hide]
• 1 History
• 2 Theory of operation
• 3 Types of gas turbines
○ 3.1 Aeroderivatives and jet engines
 ○ 3.2 Amateur gas turbines
○ 3.3 Auxiliary power units
○ 3.4 Industrial gas turbines for electrical generation
 3.4.1 Compressed air energy storage
○ 3.5 Turboshaft engines
○ 3.6 Radial gas turbines
○ 3.7 Scale jet engines
○ 3.8 Microturbines
• 4 External combustion
• 5 Gas turbines in vehicles
○ 5.1 Tank use
○ 5.2 Naval use
○ 5.3 Commercial use
• 6 Advances in technology
• 7 Advantages and disadvantages of gas turbine engines
○ 7.1 Advantages of gas turbine engines
○ 7.2 Disadvantages of gas turbine engines
• 8 See also
• 9 References
• 10 Further reading
• 11 External links

History
This article may contain an inappropriate mixture of prose and timeline. Please help
convert this timeline into prose or, if necessary, a list.

• 150: Hero's Engine (aeolipile) - apparently Hero's steam engine was taken to be no more
than a toy, and thus its full potential not realized for centuries.
• 1500: The "Chimney Jack" was drawn by Leonardo da Vinci which was turning a
roasting spit. Hot air from a fire rose through a series of fans which connect and turn the
roasting spit.
• 1551: Taqi al-Din invented a steam turbine, which he used to power a self-rotating spit.[1]
• 1629: Jets of steam rotated a turbine that then rotated driven machinery allowed a
stamping mill to be developed by Giovanni Branca.
• 1678: Ferdinand Verbeist built a model carriage relying on a steam jet for power.
 • 1791: A patent was given to John Barber, an Englishman, for the first true gas turbine.
His invention had most of the elements present in the modern day gas turbines. The
turbine was designed to power a horseless carriage.
• 1872: The first true gas turbine engine was designed by Dr Franz Stolze, but the engine
never ran under its own power.
• 1894: Sir Charles Parsons patented the idea of propelling a ship with a steam turbine, and
built a demonstration vessel (the Turbinia). This principle of propulsion is still of some
use.
• 1895: Three 4-ton 100 kW Parsons radial flow generators were installed in Cambridge
Power Station, and used to power the first electric street lighting scheme in the city.
• 1903: A Norwegian, Ægidius Elling, was able to build the first gas turbine that was able
to produce more power than needed to run its own components, which was considered an
achievement in a time when knowledge about aerodynamics was limited. Using rotary
compressors and turbines it produced 11 hp (massive for those days). His work was later
used by Sir Frank Whittle.
• 1913: Nikola Tesla patents the Tesla turbine based on the Boundary layer effect.
• 1914: Application for a gas turbine engine filed by Charles Curtis.
• 1918: One of the leading gas turbine manufacturers of today, General Electric, started
their gas turbine division.
• 1920: The practical theory of gas flow through passages was developed into the more
formal (and applicable to turbines) theory of gas flow past airfoils by Dr A. A. Griffith.
• 1930: Sir Frank Whittle patented the design for a gas turbine for jet propulsion. His work
on gas propulsion relied on the work from all those who had previously worked in the
same field and he has himself stated that his invention would be hard to achieve without
the works of Ægidius Elling. The first successful use of his engine was in April 1937.
• 1934: Raúl Pateras de Pescara patented the free-piston engine as a gas generator for gas
turbines.
• 1936: Hans von Ohain and Max Hahn in Germany developed their own patented engine
design at the same time that Sir Frank Whittle was developing his design in England.
Theory of operation
Gas turbines are described thermodynamically by the Brayton cycle, in which air is compressed
isentropically, combustion occurs at constant pressure, and expansion over the turbine occurs
isentropically back to the starting pressure.
In practice, friction, and turbulence cause:
1. non-isentropic compression: for a given overall pressure ratio, the compressor delivery
temperature is higher than ideal.
2. non-isentropic expansion: although the turbine temperature drop necessary to drive the
compressor is unaffected, the associated pressure ratio is greater, which decreases the
expansion available to provide useful work.
3. pressure losses in the air intake, combustor and exhaust: reduces the expansion available
to provide useful work.
Brayton cycle
As with all cyclic heat engines, higher combustion temperature means greater efficiency. The
limiting factor is the ability of the steel, nickel, ceramic, or other materials that make up the
engine to withstand heat and pressure. Considerable engineering goes into keeping the turbine
parts cool. Most turbines also try to recover exhaust heat, which otherwise is wasted energy.
Recuperators are heat exchangers that pass exhaust heat to the compressed air, prior to
combustion. Combined cycle designs pass waste heat to steam turbine systems. And combined
heat and power (co-generation) uses waste heat for hot water production.
Mechanically, gas turbines can be considerably less complex than internal combustion piston
engines. Simple turbines might have one moving part: the shaft/compressor/turbine/alternative-
rotor assembly (see image above), not counting the fuel system.
More sophisticated turbines (such as those found in modern jet engines) may have multiple
shafts (spools), hundreds of turbine blades, movable stator blades, and a vast system of complex
piping, combustors and heat exchangers.
As a general rule, the smaller the engine the higher the rotation rate of the shaft(s) needs to be to
maintain top speed. Turbine blade top speed determines the maximum pressure that can be
gained,this produces the maximum power possible independent of the size of the engine. Jet
engines operate around 10,000 rpm and micro turbines around 100,000 rpm.
Thrust bearings and journal bearings are a critical part of design. Traditionally, they have been
hydrodynamic oil bearings, or oil-cooled ball bearings. These bearings are being surpassed by
foil bearings, which have been successfully used in micro turbines and auxiliary power units.
Types of gas turbines
Aeroderivatives and jet engines

Diagram of a gas turbine jet engine

Airbreathing jet engines are gas turbines optimized to produce thrust from the exhaust gases, or
from ducted fans connected to the gas turbines. Jet engines that produce thrust primarily from the
direct impulse of exhaust gases are often called turbojets, whereas those that generate most of
their thrust from the action of a ducted fan are often called turbofans or (rarely) fan-jets.
Gas turbines are also used in many liquid propellant rockets, the gas turbines are used to power a
turbopump to permit the use of lightweight, low pressure tanks, which saves considerable dry
mass.
Diagram of a high-pressure turbine blade
Aeroderivatives are also used in electrical power generation due to their ability to startup, shut
down, and handle load changes more quickly than industrial machines. They are also used in the
marine industry to reduce weight. The GE LM2500 and LM6000 are two common models of this
type of machine.
Amateur gas turbines
Increasing numbers of gas turbines are being used or even constructed by amateurs.
In its most straightforward form, these are commercial turbines acquired through military surplus
or scrapyard sales, then operated for display as part of the hobby of engine collecting.[2][3] In its
most extreme form, amateurs have even rebuilt engines beyond professional repair and then used
them to compete for the Land Speed Record.
The simplest form of self-constructed gas turbine recycles the turbine wheel and compressor
from an automotive turbocharger. A single separate combustion chamber is fabricated and
plumbed between the compressor and turbine.[4]
More sophisticated turbojets are also built, where their thrust and light weight are sufficient to
power large model aircraft.[5] The Schreckling design[5] constructs the entire engine from raw
materials, including the fabrication of a centrifugal compressor wheel from plywood, epoxy and
wrapped carbon fibre strands.
Like many technology based hobbies, they tend to give rise to manufacturing businesses over
time. Several small companies now manufacture small turbines and parts for the amateur. Most
turbojet-powered model aircraft are now using these commercial and semi-commercial
microturbines, rather than a Schreckling-like home-build.[6]
Auxiliary power units
Auxiliary power units (APUs) are small gas turbines designed for auxiliary power of larger
machines, such as those inside an aircraft. They supply compressed air for aircraft ventilation
(with an appropriate compressor design), start-up power for larger jet engines, and electrical and
hydraulic power.
Industrial gas turbines for electrical generation
GE H series power generation gas turbine. This 480-megawatt unit has a rated thermal efficiency
of 60% in combined cycle configurations.
Industrial gas turbines differ from aeroderivatave in that the frames, bearings, and blading is of
heavier construction. Industrial gas turbines range in size from truck-mounted mobile plants to
enormous, complex systems. They can be particularly efficient—up to 60%—when waste heat
from the gas turbine is recovered by a heat recovery steam generator to power a conventional
steam turbine in a combined cycle configuration. They can also be run in a cogeneration
configuration: the exhaust is used for space or water heating, or drives an absorption chiller for
cooling or refrigeration. A cogeneration configuration can be over 90% efficient. The power
turbines in the largest industrial gas turbines operate at 3,000 or 3,600 rpm to match the AC
power grid frequency and to avoid the need for a reduction gearbox. Such engines require a
dedicated enclosure, both to protect the engine from the elements and the operators from the
noise.
Simple cycle gas turbines in the power industry require smaller capital investment than either
coal or nuclear power plants and can be scaled to generate small or large amounts of power.
Also, the actual construction process can take as little as several weeks to a few months,
compared to years for base load power plants. Their other main advantage is the ability to be
turned on and off within minutes, supplying power during peak demand. Because they are less
efficient than combined cycle plants, they are usually used as peaking power plants, which
operate anywhere from several hours per day to a couple dozen hours per year, depending on the
electricity demand and the generating capacity of the region. In areas with a shortage of base
load and load following power plant capacity, a gas turbine power plant may regularly operate
during most hours of the day and even into the evening. A typical large simple cycle gas turbine
may produce 100 to 300 megawatts of power and have 35–40% thermal efficiency. The most
efficient turbines have reached 46% efficiency.[7]
Compressed air energy storage
Main article: Compressed air energy storage
One modern development seeks to improve efficiency in another way, by separating the
compressor and the turbine with a compressed air store. In a conventional turbine, up to half the
generated power is used driving the compressor. In a compressed air energy storage
configuration, power, perhaps from a wind farm or bought on the open market at a time of low
demand and low price, is used to drive the compressor, and the compressed air released to
operate the turbine when required.
Turboshaft engines
Turboshaft engines are often used to drive compression trains (for example in gas pumping
stations or natural gas liquefaction plants) and are used to power almost all modern helicopters.
The first shaft bears the compressor and the high speed turbine (often referred to as "Gas
Generator" or "N1"), while the second shaft bears the low speed turbine (or "Power Turbine" or
"N2"). This arrangement is used to increase speed and power output flexibility.
Radial gas turbines
Main article: Radial turbine
1963, Norway, Jan Mowill initiated the development at Kongsberg Våpenfabrikk. Various
successors have made good progress in the refinement of this mechanism. Owing to a
configuration that keeps heat away from certain bearings the durability of the machine is
improved while the radial turbine is well matched in speed requirement
Scale jet engines

Scale jet engines are scaled down versions of this early full scale engine
Also known as miniature gas turbines or micro-jets.
Many model engineers relish the challenge of re-creating the grand engineering feats of today as
tiny working models. Naturally, the idea of re-creating a powerful engine such as the jet,
fascinated hobbyists since the very first full size engines were powered up by Hans von Ohain
and Frank Whittle back in the 1930s.
Recreating machines such as engines to a different scale is not easy. Because of the square-cube
law, the behaviour of many machines does not always scale up or down at the same rate as the
machine's size (and often not even in a linear way), usually at best causing a dramatic loss of
power or efficiency, and at worst causing them not to work at all. An automobile engine, for
example, will not work if reproduced in the same shape at the size of a human hand.
With this in mind the pioneer of modern Micro-Jets, Kurt Schreckling, produced one of the
world's first Micro-Turbines, the FD3/67.[8] This engine can produce up to 22 newtons of thrust,
and can be built by most mechanically minded people with basic engineering tools, such as a
metal lathe. Its radial compressor, which is cold, is small and the hot axial turbine is large
experiencing more centrifugal forces, meaning that this design is limited by Mach number.
Guiding vanes are used to hold the starter, after the compressor impeller and before the turbine.
No bypass within the engine is used.
Microturbines

A micro turbine designed for DARPA by M-Dot

Also known as:
• Turbo alternators
• MicroTurbine (registered trademark of Capstone Turbine Corporation)
 • Turbogenerator (registered tradename of Honeywell Power Systems, Inc.)
Microturbines are becoming widespread for distributed power and combined heat and power
applications. They are one of the most promising technologies for powering hybrid electric
vehicles. They range from hand held units producing less than a kilowatt, to commercial sized
systems that produce tens or hundreds of kilowatts.
Part of their success is due to advances in electronics, which allows unattended operation and
interfacing with the commercial power grid. Electronic power switching technology eliminates
the need for the generator to be synchronized with the power grid. This allows the generator to
be integrated with the turbine shaft, and to double as the starter motor.
Microturbine systems have many advantages over reciprocating engine generators, such as
higher power density (with respect to footprint and weight), extremely low emissions and few, or
just one, moving part. Those designed with foil bearings and air-cooling operate without oil,
coolants or other hazardous materials. Microturbines also have the advantage of having the
majority of their waste heat contained in their relatively high temperature exhaust, whereas the
waste heat of recriprocating engines is split between its exhaust and cooling system.[9] However,
reciprocating engine generators are quicker to respond to changes in output power requirement
and are usually slightly more efficient, although the efficiency of microturbines is increasing.
Microturbines also lose more efficiency at low power levels than reciprocating engines.
They accept most commercial fuels, such as gasoline, natural gas, propane, diesel, and kerosene
as well as renewable fuels such as E85, biodiesel and biogas.
Microturbine designs usually consist of a single stage radial compressor, a single stage radial
turbine and a recuperator. Recuperators are difficult to design and manufacture because they
operate under high pressure and temperature differentials. Exhaust heat can be used for water
heating, space heating, drying processes or absorption chillers, which create cold for air
conditioning from heat energy instead of electric energy.
Typical microturbine efficiencies are 25 to 35%. When in a combined heat and power
cogeneration system, efficiencies of greater than 80% are commonly achieved.
MIT started its millimeter size turbine engine project in the middle of the 1990s when Professor
of Aeronautics and Astronautics Alan H. Epstein considered the possibility of creating a personal
turbine which will be able to meet all the demands of a modern person's electrical needs, just like
a large turbine can meet the electricity demands of a small city. Problems have occurred with
heat dissipation in these new microturbines. According to Professor Epstein current commercial
Li-ion rechargeable batteries deliver about 120-150 Wh/kg. MIT's millimeter size turbine will
deliver 500-700 Wh/kg in the near term, rising to 1200-1500 Wh/kg in the longer term.[10]
External combustion
Most gas turbines are internal combustion engines but it is also possible to build an external
combustion gas turbine which is, effectively, a turbine version of a hot air engine.
External combustion has been used for the purpose of using pulverized coal or finely ground
biomass (such as sawdust) as a fuel. External combustion gas has been used both directly and
indirectly. In the direct system, the combustion products travel through the power turbine. In the
indirect system, a heat exchanger is used and clean air travels through the power turbine. The
thermal efficiency is lower in the indirect type of external combustion, however the blades are
not subjected to combustion products.
Gas turbines in vehicles

The 1950 Rover JET1

The 1967 STP Oil Treatment Special on display at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Hall of
Fame Museum, with the Pratt & Whitney gas turbine shown.

A 1968 Howmet TX, the only turbine-powered race car to have achieved victory.
Gas turbines are used on ships, locomotives, helicopters, and in tanks. A number of experiments
have been conducted with gas turbine powered automobiles.
In 1950, designer F.R. Bell and Chief Engineer Maurice Wilks from British car manufacturers
Rover unveiled the first car powered with a gas turbine engine. The two-seater JET1 had the
engine positioned behind the seats, air intake grilles on either side of the car, and exhaust outlets
on the top of the tail. During tests, the car reached top speeds of 140 km/h, at a turbine speed of
50,000 rpm. The car ran on petrol, paraffin or diesel oil, but fuel consumption problems proved
insurmountable for a production car. It is currently on display at the London Science Museum.
Rover and the British Racing Motors (BRM) Formula One team joined forces to produce the
Rover-BRM, a gas turbine powered coupe, which entered the 1963 24 Hours of Le Mans, driven
by Graham Hill and Richie Ginther. It averaged 107.8 mph (173 km/h) and had a top speed of
142 mph (229 km/h). American Ray Heppenstall joined Howmet Corporation and McKee
Engineering together to develop their own gas turbine sports car in 1968, the Howmet TX, which
ran several American and European events, including two wins, and also participated in the 1968
24 Hours of Le Mans. The cars used Continental gas turbines, which eventually set six FIA land
speed records for turbine-powered cars.[11]
For open wheel racing, 1967's revolutionary STP Oil Treatment Special four-wheel drive
turbine-powered special fielded by racing and entrepreneurial legend Andy Granatelli and driven
by Parnelli Jones nearly won the Indianapolis 500; the STP Pratt & Whitney powered turbine car
was almost a lap ahead of the second place car when a gearbox bearing failed just three laps from
the finish line. In 1971 Lotus principal Colin Chapman introduced the Lotus 56B F1 car,
powered by a Pratt & Whitney gas turbine. Chapman had a reputation of building radical
championship-winning cars, but had to abandon the project because there were too many
problems with turbo lag.
The original General Motors Firebird was a series of concept cars developed for the 1953, 1956
and 1959 Motorama auto shows, powered by gas turbines.
American car manufacturer Chrysler demonstrated several prototype gas turbine-powered cars
from the early 1950s through the early 1980s. Chrysler built fifty Chrysler Turbine Cars in 1963
and conducted the only consumer trial of gas turbine-powered cars.[12] Their turbines employed
unique rotating recuperator that significantly increased efficiency.
Japanese car manufacturer Toyota demonstrated several gas turbine powered prototype vehicles
such as the Century gas turbine hybrid in 1975, the Sports 800 Gas Turbine Hybrid in 1977 and
the GTV in 1985. No production vehicles were made.
The fictional Batmobile is often said to be powered by a gas turbine or a jet engine. In fact, in
1989s filmed Batman, the production department built a working turbine vehicle for the
Batmobile prop.[13] Its fuel capacity, however, was reportedly only enough for 15 seconds of use
at a time.
In 1993 General Motors introduced the first commercial gas turbine powered hybrid vehicle—as
a limited production run of the EV-1 series hybrid. A Williams International 40 kW turbine
drove an alternator which powered the battery-electric powertrain. The turbine design included a
recuperator. Later on in 2006 GM went into the EcoJet concept car project with Jay Leno.
The arrival of the Capstone Microturbine has led to several hybrid bus designs, starting with
HEV-1 by AVS of Chattanooga, Tennessee in 1999, and closely followed by Ebus and ISE
Research in California, and Designline in New Zealand. AVS turbine hybrids were plagued with
reliability and quality control problems, resulting in liquidation of AVS in 2003. The most
successful design by Designline is now operated in 5 cities in 6 countries, with over 30 buses in
operation worldwide.
A key advantage of jets and turboprops for aeroplane propulsion - their superior performance at
high altitude compared to piston engines, particularly naturally-aspirated ones - is irrelevant in
automobile applications. Their power-to-weight advantage is far less important.
Gas turbines offer a high-powered engine in a very small and light package. However, they are
not as responsive and efficient as small piston engines over the wide range of RPMs and powers
needed in vehicle applications. In hybrids, gas turbines reduce the responsiveness problem, and
the emergence of the continuously variable transmission may also help alleviate this.
Turbines have historically been more expensive to produce than piston engines, though this is
partly because piston engines have been mass-produced in huge quantities for decades, while
small gas turbine engines are rarities; but turbines are mass produced in the closely related form
of the turbocharger.
The MTT Turbine SUPERBIKE appeared in 2000 (hence the designation of Y2K Superbike by
MTT) and is the first production motorcycle powered by a turbine engine - specifically, a Rolls-
Royce Allison model 250 turboshaft engine, producing about 283 kW (380 bhp). Speed-tested to
365 km/h or 227 mph (according to some stories, the testing team ran out of road during the test),
it holds the Guinness World Records for most powerful production motorcycle and most
expensive production motorcycle, with a price tag of US$185,000.
Several locomotive classes have been powered by gas turbines, the most recent incarnation being
Bombardier's JetTrain. See gas turbine-electric locomotive for more information.
Tank use
The first use of a gas turbine in an armoured fighting vehicle was in 1954 when a unit, PU2979,
specifically developed for tanks by C. A. Parsons & Co., was installed and trialled in a British
Conqueror tank.[14] Since then, gas turbine engines have been used as auxiliary power units
(APUs) in some tanks and as main powerplants in Soviet/Russian T-80s and U.S. M1 Abrams
tanks, among others. They are lighter and smaller than diesels at the same sustained power
output but the models installed to date are less fuel efficient than the equivalent diesel, especially
at idle, requiring more fuel to achieve the same combat range. Successive models of M1 have
addressed this problem with battery packs or secondary generators to power the tank's systems
while stationary, saving fuel by reducing the need to idle the main turbine. T-80s can mount
three large external fuel drums to extend their range. Russia has stopped production of the T-80
in favour of the diesel-powered T-90 (based on the T-72), while Ukraine has developed the
diesel-powered T-80UD and T-84 with nearly the power of the gas-turbine tank.
A turbine is theoretically more reliable and easier to maintain than a piston engine, since it has a
simpler construction with fewer moving parts but in practice turbine parts experience a higher
wear rate due to their higher working speeds. The turbine blades are highly sensitive to dust and
fine sand, so that in desert operations air filters have to be fitted and changed several times daily.
An improperly fitted filter, or a bullet or shell fragment that punctures the filter can damage the
engine. Piston engines also need well-maintained filters, but they are more resilient if the filter
does fail.
Like most modern diesel engines used in tanks, gas turbines are usually multi-fuel engines.
Naval use
Gas turbines are used in many naval vessels, where they are valued for their high power-to-
weight ratio and their ships' resulting acceleration and ability to get underway quickly.
The first gas-turbine-powered naval vessel was the Royal Navy's Motor Gun Boat MGB 2009
(formerly MGB 509) converted in 1947. Metrovick developed the "Beryl" engine equipping an
existing F2/3 jet engine with a power turbine. As the test was successful, the Fast Patrol Boats
Bold Pioneer and Bold Pathfinder built in 1953 were the first ships created specifically for gas
turbine propulsion.[15]
The first large, gas-turbine powered ships, were the Royal Navy's Type 81 (Tribal class) frigates,
the first of which (HMS Ashanti) was commissioned in 1961.
The Germany Navy launched the first Köln class frigate in 1961 with 2 GTs from BBC in the
worlds first combined diesel and gas propulsion system.
The Swedish Navy produced 6 Spica class torpedoboats between 1966 and 1967 powered by 3
Bristol Siddeley Proteus 1282, each delivering 4300 hp. They were later joined by 12 upgraded
Norrköping class ships, still with the same engines. With their aft torpedo tubes replaced by
antishipping missiles they served as missile boats until the last was retired in 2005.[16]
The Finnish Navy issued two Turunmaa class corvettes, Turunmaa and Karjala, in 1968. They
were equipped with one 16 000 shp Rolls-Royce Olympus TMB3 gas turbine and two Wärtsilä
marine diesels for slower speeds. Before the waterjet-propulsion Helsinki class missile boats,
they were the fastest vessels in the Finnish Navy; they regularly achieved 37 knot speeds, but
they are known to have achieved 45 knots when the restriction mechanism of the turbine was
geared off. The Turunmaas were paid off in 2002. Karjala is today a museum ship in Turku, and
Turunmaa serves as a flotating machine shop and training ship for Satakunta Polytechnical
College.
The next series of major naval vessels were the four Canadian Iroquois class helicopter carrying
destroyers first commissioned in 1972. They used 2 ft-4 main propulsion engines, 2 ft-12 cruise
engines and 3 Solar Saturn 750 kW generators.
The first U.S. gas-turbine powered ships were the U.S. Coast Guard's Hamilton-class High
Endurance Cutters the first of which (USCGC Hamilton) commissioned in 1967. Since then,
they have powered the U.S. Navy's Perry-class frigates, Spruance-class and Arleigh Burke-class
destroyers, and Ticonderoga-class guided missile cruisers. USS Makin Island, a modified Wasp-
class amphibious assault ship, is to be the Navy's first amphib powered by gas turbines. The
marine gas turbine operates in a more corrosive atmosphere due to presence of sea salt in air and
fuel and use of cheaper fuels.
Commercial use
There have been a number of experiments in which gas turbines were used to power seagoing
commercial vessels. The earliest of these experiments may have been the oil tanker "Auris"
(Anglo Saxon Petroleum) - circa 1949.
The United States Maritime Commission were looking for options to update WWII Liberty ships
and heavy duty gas turbines were one of those selected. In 1956 The "John Sergeant" was
lenghened and installed with a General Electric 6600 SHP HD gas turbine, reduction gearing and
a variable pitch propeller. It operated for 9700 hours using residual fuel for 7000 hours. The
success of this trial opened the way for more development by GE on the use of HD gas turbines
for marine use with heavy fuels. The "John Sergeant" was scrapped in 1972 at Portsmouth PA.
Between 1970 and 1982, Seatrain Container Lines operated a scheduled container service across
the North Atlantic with four 26,000 tonne dwt. container ships. Those ships were powered by
twin Pratt & Whitney gas turbines of the FT 4 series. The four ships in the class were named
"Euroliner", "Eurofreighter", "Asialiner" and "Asiafreighter". They operated a transatlantic
container service between ports on the eastern seaboard of the United States and ports in north
west Europe. Following the dramatic OPEC price increases of the mid-nineteen seventies,
operations were constrained by rising fuel costs. Some modification of the engine systems on
those ships was undertaken to permit the burning of a lower grade of fuel (i.e. marine diesel).
The modifications were partially successful. It was proved that particular fuel could be used in a
marine gas turbine but, savings made were less than anticipated due to increased maintenance
requirements. After 1982 the ships were sold, then re-engined with more economical diesel
engines. Because the new engines were much larger, there was a consequential loss of some
cargo space.
The first passenger ferry to use a gas turbine was the GTS Finnjet, built in 1977 and powered
with two Pratt & Whitney FT 4C-1 DLF turbines, generating 55000 kW and propelling the ship
to a speed of 31 knots. However, the Finnjet also illustrated the shortcomings of gas turbine
propulsion in commercial craft, as high fuel prices made operating her unprofitable. After just
four years of service additional diesel engines were installed on the ship to allow less costly
operations during off-season. Another example of commercial usage of gas turbines in a
passenger ship are Stena Line's HSS class fastcraft ferries. HSS 1500-class Stena Explorer,
Stena Voyager and Stena Discovery vessels use combined gas and gas (COGAG) setups of twin
GE LM2500 plus GE LM1600 power for a total of 68,000 kW. The slightly smaller HSS 900-
class Stena Charisma, uses twin ABB–STAL GT35 turbines rated at 34,000 kW gross. The
Stena Discovery was withdrawn from service in 2007, another victim of too high fuel costs.
In July 2000, the Millennium became the first cruise ship to be propelled by gas turbines, in a
Combined Gas and Steam Turbine configuration. The RMS Queen Mary 2 uses a Combined
Diesel and Gas Turbine configuration.[17]
Advances in technology
Gas turbine technology has steadily advanced since its inception and continues to evolve;
research is active in producing ever smaller gas turbines. Computer design, specifically CFD and
finite element analysis along with material advances, has allowed higher compression ratios and
temperatures, more efficient combustion and better cooling of engine parts. On the emissions
side, the challenge in technology is increasing turbine inlet temperature while reducing peak
flame temperature to achieve lower NOx emissions to cope with the latest regulations.
Additionally, compliant foil bearings were commercially introduced to gas turbines in the 1990s.
They can withstand over a hundred thousand start/stop cycles and eliminated the need for an oil
system.
On another front, microelectronics and power switching technology have enabled commercially
viable micro turbines for distributed and vehicle power.
Advantages and disadvantages of gas turbine engines
Advantages of gas turbine engines
[18]

• Very high power-to-weight ratio, compared to reciprocating engines;

• Smaller than most reciprocating engines of the same power rating.
• Moves in one direction only, with far less vibration than a reciprocating engine.
• Fewer moving parts than reciprocating engines.
• Low operating pressures.
• High operation speeds.
• Low lubricating oil cost and consumption.
Disadvantages of gas turbine engines
• Cost is much greater than for a similar-sized reciprocating engine since the materials
must be stronger and more heat resistant. Machining operations are also more complex;
• Usually less efficient than reciprocating engines, especially at idle.
• Delayed response to changes in power settings.
These disadvantages explain why road vehicles, which are smaller, cheaper and follow a less
regular pattern of use than tanks, helicopters, large boats and so on, do not use gas turbine
engines, regardless of the size and power advantages imminently available.
See also
• Gas turbine locomotive
• Gas turbine-electric locomotive
• Gas turbine modular helium reactor
• Distributed Energy Resources
References
1. ^ Hassan, Ahmad Y. "Taqi al-Din and the First Steam Turbine". History of Science and
Technology in Islam. http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%201.htm.
Retrieved on 2008-03-29.
2. ^ "Vulcan APU startup" (video). http://www.vb.n00bunlimited.net/vBTube.php?
do=view&vidid=5iQRdBE3IS0.
3. ^ "Bristol Siddeley Proteus". Internal Fire Museum of Power. 1999.
http://www.internalfire.com/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=136.
4. ^ "UK TV series, "Scrapheap Challenge", "Jet Racer" episode". 2003.
http://www.channel4.com/science/microsites/S/scrapheap2003/challenges/jet_racer/.
5. ^ a b Schreckling, Kurt (1994). Gas Turbines for Model Aircraft. ISBN 0951058916.
6. ^ Kamps, Thomas (2005). Model Jet Engines. Traplet Publications. ISBN 190037191X.
7. ^ Mechanical Engineering "Power & Energy," June 2004 - "A Year of Turbulence,"
Feature Article
8. ^ Gas Turbine Engines for Model Aircraft by Kurt Schreckling, ISBN 0-9510589-1-6
Traplet Publications
9. ^ Prime Movers in CHP - Steam Turbines, Gas Turbines, Reciprocating Engines, Spark
Ignition
10. ^ Engine on a Chip - TFOT
11. ^ "The history of the Howmet TX turbine car of 1968, still the world's only turbine
powered race winner". Pete Stowe Motorsport History. June 2006.
http://website.lineone.net/~pete.stowe/pete_howmet.htm. Retrieved on 2008-01-31.
12. ^ Chrysler turbine information
13. ^ 1989 Batmobile Turbine
14. ^ Richard M Ogorkiewicz, Jane's - The Technology of Tanks, Jane's Information Group,
p.259
15. ^ The first marine gas turbine, 1947
16. ^ Fast missile boat
17. ^ GE - Aviation: GE Goes from Installation to Optimized Reliability for Cruise Ship Gas
Turbine Installations
18. ^ how stuff works

Further reading
 • "Aircraft Gas Turbine Technology" by Irwin E. Treager, Professor Emeritus Purdue
University, McGraw-Hill, Glencoe Division, 1979, ISBN 0070651582.
• "Gas Turbine Theory" by H.I.H. Saravanamuttoo, G.F.C. Rogers and H. Cohen, Pearson
Education, 2001, 5th ed., ISBN 0-13-015847-X.
• R. M. "Fred" Klaass and Christopher DellaCorte, "The Quest for Oil-Free Gas Turbine
Engines," SAE Technical Papers, No. 2006-01-3055, available at:
http://www.sae.org/technical/papers/2006-01-3055.
• "Model Jet Engines" by Thomas Kamps ISBN 0 9510589 9 1 Traplet Publications
• Aircraft Engines and Gas Turbines, Second Edition" by Jack L. Kerrebrock, The MIT
Press, 1992, ISBN 0262111624.
External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Gas turbine

• Gas turbine at the Open Directory Project

• Technology Speed of Civil Jet Engines
• MIT Gas Turbine Laboratory
• MIT Microturbine research
• California Distributed Energy Resource guide - Microturbine generators
• First Marine Gas Turbine 1947
• Introduction to how a gas turbine works from "how stuff works.com"
• Aircraft gas turbine simulator for interactive learning"

This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been
reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)
Donate to Wikimedia

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turbine

Dictionary: tur·bine (tûr'bĭn, -bīn')

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Home > Library > Literature & Language > Dictionary (C
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Any of various machines in which the kinetic energy of a moving fluid is converted to to
mechanical power by the impulse or reaction of the fluid with a series of buckets, paddles, enl
or blades arrayed about the circumference of a wheel or cylinder. ar
[French, from Latin turbō, turbin-, spinning top, perhaps from Greek turbē, turmoil.] ge
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Britannica Concise Encyclopedia: turbine
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Home > Library > Miscellaneous > Britannica Concise Encyclopedia

Any of various devices that convert the energy in a stream of fluid into mechanical energy by
passing the stream through a system of fixed and moving fanlike blades and causing the latter to
rotate. A turbine looks like a large wheel with many small radiating blades around its rim. There
are four broad classes of turbine: water (hydraulic), steam, wind, and gas. The most important
application of the first three is the generation of electricity; gas turbines are most often used in
aircraft.
For more information on turbine, visit Britannica.com.
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Columbia Encyclopedia: turbine
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Home > Library > Miscellaneous > Columbia Encyclopedia
turbine, rotary engine that uses a continuous stream of fluid (gas or liquid) to turn a shaft that can
drive machinery.
A water, or hydraulic, turbine is used to drive electric generators in hydroelectric power stations.
The first such station was built in Wisconsin in 1882. In a hydraulic turbine falling water strikes
a series of blades or buckets attached around a shaft, causing the shaft to rotate, this motion in
turn being used to drive the rotor of an electric generator. The three most common types of
hydraulic turbine are the Pelton wheel, the Francis turbine, and the Kaplan turbine. Toward the
end of the 19th cent. two engineers, Sir Charles A. Parsons of Great Britain and Carl G. P. de
Laval of Sweden, were pioneers in the building of steam turbines. Continual improvements of
their basic machines have caused steam turbines to become the principal power sources used to
drive most large electric generators and the propellers of most large ships.
A steam turbine typically consists of a roughly conical, steel shell enclosing a central shaft along
which a series of bladed disks are spaced like washers. The blades are curved and extend radially
outward from the rim of each disk. In some steam turbines the shaft is surrounded by a drum to
which the rows of blades are attached. Between each pair of disks is a row of stationary vanes
attached to the steel shell and extending radially inward. Each set of stationary vanes and the
bladed disk immediately next to it constitutes a stage of the turbine; most steam turbines are
multistage engines.
At the inlet end of the turbine high-pressure steam enters from a boiler and moves through the
turbine parallel to the shaft, first striking a row of stationary vanes that directs the steam against
the first bladed disk at an optimum speed and angle. The steam then passes through the
remaining stages, forcing the disks and the shaft to rotate. At one end of the turbine the shaft
sticks out and can be attached to machinery. A large steam turbine unit may actually be
composed of several turbines that are all using the same shaft and steam. Such a unit might
consist of a small, high-pressure turbine, connected to a larger, intermediate-pressure turbine,
connected to a still larger, low-pressure turbine. After the steam leaves the turbine, it is sent to a
condenser where it is converted back into water before being returned to the boiler.
Gas turbines are used mainly as aircraft engines. Some are used to drive electric generators, as in
a gas turbine–electric locomotive, and high-speed tools. The term gas turbine is usually applied
to a unit whose essential components are a compressor, a combustion chamber, and a turbine that
resembles a steam turbine. The turbine drives the compressor, which feeds high-pressure air into
the combustion chamber; there it is mixed with a fuel and burned, providing high-pressure gases
to drive the turbine, the gases expanding until their pressure drops to atmospheric pressure. In a
turboprop engine the turbine is used to turn a propeller as well as the compressor. In a turbojet
engine only a small pressure drop is used to drive the turbine, the majority of the pressure drop
occurring as the gases are expelled directly out of the engine. A variation of the turbojet is
known as the turbofan engine.

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Turbines are devices that spin in the presence of a moving fluid. The difference between water
wheels or windmills and turbines is largely one of emphasis and degree. During the 18th and
19th centuries, much progress was made toward extracting the kinetic energy of flowing water
by devising water turbines. Leonhard Euler, applying fluid mechanics, developed a water turbine
as early as 1750. During the 18th century several engineers, such as Benôit Fourneyron,
succeeded in building water turbines that by far outstripped conventional water wheels by giving
the blades special shapes. The term "turbine" was coined by Fourneyron's professor Claude
Burdin; he derived the term from turbo, a spinning object.
The most useful turbines for many purposes are those that can be propelled with energy from
heat. A typical turbine based on heat is the steam turbine. The idea of a steam turbine is much
older than the steam engine itself. Around 60 BCE the Alexandrian Greek Heron (a.k.a. Hero)
used jets of steam to turn a kettle. In 1629 the Italian engineer Giovanni Branca depicted in his
machine book Le Machine a steam turbine in which a jet of steam is directed at the vanes of the
same sort of apparatus as a water wheel. No doubt others observed that escaping steam is like the
rushing wind and could be used to push mills just as the wind powers windmills.
When practical steam engines were built at the start of the 18th century, however, they moved a
cylinder back and forth (reciprocating motion) instead of pushing a wheel around, although they
could be made to turn wheels with various ingenious mechanisms. Reciprocating steam engines
were bulky, had slow rotation speeds, and wasted much energy in the machine itself to move the
heavy pistons back and forth. When first used to drive electric generators, reciprocating steam
engines proved difficult to maintain at a fixed rotation speed as the load on the generator
changed.
Turbines are as simple as reciprocating engines are complex. Because they have essentially only
one moving part, they are sometimes called the perfect engines, almost directly turning heat into
rotary motion.
The first to build a steam turbine was the British engineer Charles Algernon Parsons. In 1884 he
completed a small turbine that rotated at 18,000 revolutions per minute and that delivered 10
horsepower. The Swedish engineer Carl Gustav de Laval, experimenting with steam turbines,
achieved greater power and higher rotation rates. In 1890 he built a turbine consisting of a 30-cm
(12-in.) disk with 200 blades mounted on a flexible axis. The steam was admitted to the blades
by special nozzles (Laval nozzles) that accelerated the steam to very high velocities, thus
transferring the energy of the steam in the form of kinetic energy to the blades.
The design of steam turbines developed into a science near the end of the 19th century. Better
materials allowed the construction of turbine blades that are resistant to corrosion. Charles Curtis
developed the multistage turbine in which the blades and disks become progressively larger
when the steam expands. Parsons developed in 1894 the ship turbine engine. The slow-revolving
turbine consisted of several sections of increasing diameter. High-pressure steam is admitted to
the turbine and pressure differences in each section drive the turbine blades. The first ship to be
equipped with such a steam turbine, the Turbinia, immediately established a speed record with
31 knots (57.5 km or 35.7 mi per hour). During the early years of the 20th century, most
reciprocating steam engines were replaced by steam turbines (or by diesels). Steam turbines can
deliver much more power than reciprocating engines and need less maintenance. Steam turbines
also supplanted marine steam engines on ships.
A similar evolution took place for large internal combustion engines, mainly driven by the need
for lightweight and powerful airplane engines. Most large modern airplanes are now powered by
either turboprop or turbojet engines. These turbines are spun by the expansion of jet fuel instead
of by the expansion of water into steam.
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Word Tutor: turbine
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IN BRIEF: Rotaryengine in which the kinetic energy of a moving fluid is converted into
mechanical energy by causing a bladed rotor to rotate.

A turbine generator provides both heat and power.

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Wikipedia: Turbine
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A Siemens steam turbine with the case opened.
For other uses, see Turbine (disambiguation).
A turbine is a rotary engine that extracts energy from a fluid flow. Claude Burdin (1788-1873)
coined the term from the Latin turbo, or vortex, during an 1828 engineering competition. Benoit
Fourneyron (1802-1867), a student of Claude Burdin, built the first practical water turbine.
The simplest turbines have one moving part, a rotor assembly, which is a shaft with blades
attached. Moving fluid acts on the blades, or the blades react to the flow, so that they rotate and
impart energy to the rotor. Early turbine examples are windmills and water wheels.
Gas, steam, and water turbines usually have a casing around the blades that contains and controls
the working fluid. Credit for invention of the modern steam turbine is given to British Engineer
Sir Charles Parsons (1854 - 1931).
A device similar to a turbine but operating in reverse is a compressor or pump. The axial
compressor in many gas turbine engines is a common example.

Contents
[hide]
• 1 Theory of operation
• 2 Types of turbines
○ 2.1 Other
• 3 Uses of turbines
• 4 Shrouded tidal turbines
• 5 See also
• 6 Notes
• 7 External links

Theory of operation
A working fluid contains potential energy (pressure head) and kinetic energy (velocity head).
The fluid may be compressible or incompressible. Several physical principles are employed by
turbines to collect this energy:
Impulse turbines
These turbines change the direction of flow of a high velocity fluid jet. The resulting
impulse spins the turbine and leaves the fluid flow with diminished kinetic energy. There
is no pressure change of the fluid in the turbine rotor blades. Before reaching the turbine
the fluid's pressure head is changed to velocity head by accelerating the fluid with a
nozzle. Pelton wheels and de Laval turbines use this process exclusively. Impulse
turbines do not require a pressure casement around the runner since the fluid jet is
prepared by a nozzle prior to reaching turbine. Newton's second law describes the
transfer of energy for impulse turbines.
Reaction turbines
These turbines develop torque by reacting to the fluid's pressure or weight. The pressure
of the fluid changes as it passes through the turbine rotor blades. A pressure casement is
needed to contain the working fluid as it acts on the turbine stage(s) or the turbine must
be fully immersed in the fluid flow (wind turbines). The casing contains and directs the
working fluid and, for water turbines, maintains the suction imparted by the draft tube.
Francis turbines and most steam turbines use this concept. For compressible working
fluids, multiple turbine stages may be used to harness the expanding gas efficiently.
Newton's third law describes the transfer of energy for reaction turbines.
Turbine designs will use both these concepts to varying degrees whenever possible. Wind
turbines use an airfoil to generate lift from the moving fluid and impart it to the rotor (this is a
form of reaction). Wind turbines also gain some energy from the impulse of the wind, by
deflecting it at an angle. Crossflow turbines are designed as an impulse machine, with a nozzle,
but in low head applications maintain some efficiency through reaction, like a traditional water
wheel. Turbines with multiple stages may utilize either reaction or impulse blading at high
pressure. Steam Turbines were traditionally more impulse but continue to move towards reaction
designs similar to those used in Gas Turbines. At low pressure the operating fluid medium
expands in volume for small reductions in pressure. Under these conditions (termed Low
Pressure Turbines) blading becomes strictly a reaction type design with the base of the blade
solely impulse. The reason is due to the effect of the rotation speed for each blade. As the
volume increases, the blade height increases, and the base of the blade spins at a slower speed
relative to the tip. This change in speed forces a designer to change from impulse at the base, to a
high reaction style tip.
Classical turbine design methods were developed in the mid 19th century. Vector analysis related
the fluid flow with turbine shape and rotation. Graphical calculation methods were used at first.
Formulae for the basic dimensions of turbine parts are well documented and a highly efficient
machine can be reliably designed for any fluid flow condition. Some of the calculations are
empirical or 'rule of thumb' formulae, and others are based on classical mechanics. As with most
engineering calculations, simplifying assumptions were made.
Velocity triangles can be used to calculate the basic performance of a turbine stage. Gas exits the
stationary turbine nozzle guide vanes at absolute velocity Va1. The rotor rotates at velocity U.
Relative to the rotor, the velocity of the gas as it impinges on the rotor entrance is Vr1. The gas is
turned by the rotor and exits, relative to the rotor, at velocity Vr2. However, in absolute terms the
rotor exit velocity is Va2. The velocity triangles are constructed using these various velocity
vectors. Velocity triangles can be constructed at any section through the blading (for example:
hub , tip, midsection and so on) but are usually shown at the mean stage radius. Mean
performance for the stage can be calculated from the velocity triangles, at this radius, using the
Euler equation:
Typical velocity triangles for a single turbine stage

Whence:

where:

specific enthalpy drop across stage

turbine entry total (or stagnation) temperature
turbine rotor peripheral velocity

change in whirl velocity

The turbine pressure ratio is a function of and the turbine efficiency.

Modern turbine design carries the calculations further. Computational fluid dynamics dispenses
with many of the simplifying assumptions used to derive classical formulas and computer
software facilitates optimization. These tools have led to steady improvements in turbine design
over the last forty years.
The primary numerical classification of a turbine is its specific speed. This number describes the
speed of the turbine at its maximum efficiency with respect to the power and flow rate. The
specific speed is derived to be independent of turbine size. Given the fluid flow conditions and
the desired shaft output speed, the specific speed can be calculated and an appropriate turbine
design selected.
The specific speed, along with some fundamental formulas can be used to reliably scale an
existing design of known performance to a new size with corresponding performance.
Off-design performance is normally displayed as a turbine map or characteristic.
Types of turbines
• Steam turbines are used for the generation of electricity in thermal power plants, such as
plants using coal or fuel oil or nuclear power. They were once used to directly drive
mechanical devices such as ship's propellors (eg the Turbinia), but most such applications
now use reduction gears or an intermediate electrical step, where the turbine is used to
generate electricity, which then powers an electric motor connected to the mechanical
load.
• Gas turbines are sometimes referred to as turbine engines. Such engines usually feature
an inlet, fan, compressor, combustor and nozzle (possibly other assemblies) in addition to
one or more turbines.
• Transonic turbine. The gasflow in most turbines employed in gas turbine engines remains
subsonic throughout the expansion process. In a transonic turbine the gasflow becomes
supersonic as it exits the nozzle guide vanes, although the downstream velocities
normally become subsonic. Transonic turbines operate at a higher pressure ratio than
normal but are usually less efficient and uncommon. This turbine works well in creating
power from water.
• Contra-rotating turbines. Some efficiency advantage can be obtained if a downstream
turbine rotates in the opposite direction to an upstream unit. However, the complication
may be counter-productive.
• Statorless turbine. Multi-stage turbines have a set of static (meaning stationary) inlet
guide vanes that direct the gasflow onto the rotating rotor blades. In a statorless turbine
the gasflow exiting an upstream rotor impinges onto a downstream rotor without an
intermediate set of stator vanes (that rearrange the pressure/velocity energy levels of the
flow) being encountered.
• Ceramic turbine. Conventional high-pressure turbine blades (and vanes) are made from
nickel-steel alloys and often utilise intricate internal air-cooling passages to prevent the
metal from melting. In recent years, experimental ceramic blades have been
manufactured and tested in gas turbines, with a view to increasing Rotor Inlet
Temperatures and/or, possibly, eliminating aircooling. Ceramic blades are more brittle
than their metallic counterparts, and carry a greater risk of catastrophic blade failure.
• Shrouded turbine. Many turbine rotor blades have a shroud at the top, which interlocks
with that of adjacent blades, to increase damping and thereby reduce blade flutter.
 • Shroudless turbine. Modern practise is, where possible, to eliminate the rotor shroud, thus
reducing the centrifugal load on the blade and the cooling requirements.
• Bladeless turbine uses the boundary layer effect and not a fluid impinging upon the
blades as in a conventional turbine.
• Water turbines
○ Pelton turbine, a type of impulse water turbine.
○ Francis turbine, a type of widely used water turbine.
○ Kaplan turbine, a variation of the Francis Turbine.
○ Voith, water turbine.
• Wind turbine. These normally operate as a single stage without nozzle and interstage
guide vanes. An exception is the Éolienne Bollée, which has a stator and a rotor, thus
being a true turbine.
Tide Turbine
Other
• Velocity compound "Curtis". Curtis combined the de Laval and Parsons turbine by using
a set of fixed nozzles on the first stage or stator and then a rank of fixed and rotating
stators as in the Parsons, typically up to ten compared with up to a hundred stages,
however the efficiency of the turbine was less than that of the Parsons but it operated at
much lower speeds and at lower pressures which made it ideal for ships. Note that the use
of a small section of a Curtis, typically one nozzle section and two rotors is termed a
"Curtis Wheel"
• Pressure Compund Multistage Impulse or Rateau. The Rateau employs simple Impulse
rotors separated by a nozzle diaphragm. The diaphragm is essentially a partition wall in
the turbine with a series of tunnels cut into it, funnel shaped with the broad end facing the
previous stage and the narrow the next they are also angled to direct the steam jets onto
the impulse rotor.
Uses of turbines
Almost all electrical power on Earth is produced with a turbine of some type. Very high
efficiency turbines harness about 40% of the thermal energy, with the rest exhausted as waste
heat.
Most jet engines rely on turbines to supply mechanical work from their working fluid and fuel as
do all nuclear ships and power plants.
Turbines are often part of a larger machine. A gas turbine, for example, may refer to an internal
combustion machine that contains a turbine, ducts, compressor, combustor, heat-exchanger, fan
and (in the case of one designed to produce electricity) an alternator. However, it must be noted
that the collective machine referred to as the turbine in these cases is designed to transfer energy
from a fuel to the fluid passing through such an internal combustion device as a means of
propulsion, and not to transfer energy from the fluid passing through the turbine to the turbine as
is the case in turbines used for electricity provision etc.
Reciprocating piston engines such as aircraft engines can use a turbine powered by their exhaust
to drive an intake-air compressor, a configuration known as a turbocharger (turbine
supercharger) or, colloquially, a "turbo".
Turbines can have very high power density (ie the ratio of power to weight, or power to volume).
This is because of their ability to operate at very high speeds. The Space Shuttle's main engines
use turbopumps (machines consisting of a pump driven by a turbine engine) to feed the
propellants (liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen) into the engine's combustion chamber. The
liquid hydrogen turbopump is slightly larger than an automobile engine (weighing approximately
700 lb) and produces nearly 70,000 hp (52.2 MW).
Turboexpanders are widely used as sources of refrigeration in industrial processes.

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Turbines could also be used as powering system for a remote controlled plane that creates thrust
and lifts the plane of the ground. They come in different sizes and could be as small as soda can,
still be strong enough to move objects with a weight of 100kg.
Shrouded tidal turbines
An emerging renewable energy technology is the shrouded tidal turbine enclosed in a venturi
shaped shroud or duct producing a sub atmosphere of low pressure behind the turbine. It is often
claimed that this allows the turbine to operate at higher efficiency (than the Betz limit[1] of
59.3%) because the turbine can typically produce 3 times more power [2] than a turbine of the
same size in free stream. This, however, is something of a misconception becase the area
presented to the flow is that of the largest duct cross-section. If this area is used for the
calculation, it will be seen that the turbine still cannot exceed the Betz limit. Further, due to
frictional losses in the duct, it is unlikely that the turbine will be able to produce as much power
as a free-stream turbine with the same radius as the duct.
Although situating the rotor in the throat of the duct allows the blades to be supported at their
tips (thus reducing bending stress from hydrodynamic thrust) the financial impact of the large
amount of steel in the duct must not be omitted from any energy cost calculations.
Asymmetric airfoil
As shown in the CFD generated figure[3], it can be seen that a down stream low pressure (shown
by the gradient lines) draws upstream flow into the inlet of the shroud from well outside the inlet
of the shroud. This flow is drawn into the shroud and concentrated (as seen by the red coloured
zone). This augmentation of flow velocity corresponds to a 3-4 times increase in energy
available to the turbine. Therefore a turbine located in the throat of the shroud is then able to
achieve higher efficiency, and an output 3-4 times the energy the turbine would be capable of if
it were in open or free stream. However, as mentioned above, it is not correct to conclude that
this circumvents the Betz limit. The figure shows only the near-field flow, which is accelerated
through the duct. A far-field image would show a more complete picture of how the free-stream
flow is affected by the obstruction.
Considerable commercial interest has been shown in recent times in shrouded tidal turbines as it
allows a smaller turbine to be used at sites where large turbines are restricted. Arrayed across a
seaway or in fast flowing rivers shrouded tidal turbines are easily cabled to a terrestrial base and
connected to a grid or remote community. Alternatively the property of the shroud that produces
an accelerated flow velocity across the turbine allows tidal flows formerly too slow for
commercial use to be utilised for commercial energy production.
While the shroud may not be practical in wind, as a tidal turbine it is gaining more popularity
and commercial use. A non-symmetrical shrouded tidal turbine (the type discussed above) is
mono directional and constantly needs to face upstream in order to operate. It can be floated
under a pontoon on a swing mooring, fixed to the seabed on a mono pile and yawed like a wind
sock to continually face upstream. A shroud can also be built into a tidal fence increasing the
performance of the turbines. Several companies (for example, Lunar Energy [4]) are proposing bi-
directional ducts that would not be required to turn to face the oncoming tide every six hours.
Cabled to the mainland they can be grid connected or can be scaled down to provide energy to
remote communities where large civil infrastructures are not viable. Similarly to tidal stream
open turbines they have little if any environmental or visual amenity impact.
See also
 • Balancing machine
• RMS Lusitania
• Rotordynamics
• Secondary flow in turbines
• Turbinia
• Turbo-alternator
• Turboshaft
• Vibration of Rotating Structures
Notes
1. ^ Betz Limit
2. ^ Paper by Brian Kirke
3. ^ Tidal Energy
4. ^ [1]

External links
• Turbine introductory math
• Turbines jet powered 1/16 scale Airbus A330
• Turbine working process

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