ROUTING & NETWORK ADDRESSING

OVERVIEW OF LAYERING

 OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECT is a set of standards set by ISO and ITU-T for communicating among computers
 the hierarchy was developed to facilitate intercommunication of data processing equipment by separating
network responsibilities into 7 DISTINCT LAYERS
Layer 7:
Layer 6:
Application  PHYSICAL : actual propagation of unstructured bits
Layer 5:
Presentation  DATA LINK : provides error free communications
 NETWORK : provides details that enable data to be routed between devices
Layer
Session4:  TRANSPORT : controls and ensures the integrity of data
 SESSION : responsible for network availability
Layer 3:
Transport  PRESENTATION : provides independence to the application processes
Layer 2: Data
Network  APPLICATION : provides access to the OSI environment

Layer
Link1:
Physical
PATH DETERMINATION

Path Selection
 applying a ROUTING METRIC to multiple routes to select the best route
 in some networks, routing is complicated by the fact that multiple entities are involved in selecting paths or even
parts of a single path

Route Metric
 METRICS consist of any value used by routing algorithms to determine whether one route should perform better
than another
 the route with the lowest metric is the preferred route
 the ROUTING TABLE stores only the best possible routes, while LINK-STATE may store all other information as
well
 Routing Information Protocol uses HOP COUNT to determine the best route
 A Metric can include:
 Measuring link utilization
 Hop count
 Speed of the path
 Packet loss
 Latency
 Path reliability
 Path bandwidth
 Throughput
 Load
 Max Transmission Unit (MTU)
 A Metric can be considered as:
 ADDITIVE : total cost of a path is the sum of the costs of individual links along the path
 CONCAVE : total cost of a path is the minimum of the costs of individual links along the path
 MULTIPLICATIVE : total cost of a path is the product of the costs of individual links along the path

Routing Table
 also called as ROUTING INFORMATION BASE
 a data structure in the form of table-like object stored in a router or networked computer
  lists the routes to particular network destinations / metrics associated with those routes
 contains information about the topology of the network immediately around it
 construction is the primary goal of routing protocols
 used to generate information for a smaller forwarding table

Example of a routing table by typing in the

command prompt NETSTAT -R

Routing Protocol
 specifies how routers communicate with each other
 disseminates information that enables routers to select routes through ROUTING ALGORITHMS then any two
nodes on a computer network
 a routing protocol shares information first among immediate neighbors, and then throughout the network
 3 major classes:
 interior gateway routing via LINK-STATE routing protocols
 interior gateway routing via DISTANCE VECTOR protocols
 exterior gateway routing
 specific characteristics:
 prevents routing loops from forming or break them up if they do
 selects preferred routes using information about hop costs
 time for converging
 how well they scale up

Routing Algorithms
 Distance Vector Algorithm
 uses the Bellman-Ford algorithm
 assigns a number, the cost, to each of the links between each node in the network
 nodes will send information from point A to point B via the path that results in the lowest total cost
  Link-state Algorithm
 each node uses a map of network as its fundamental data
 each node floods the entire network with information about what other nodes it can connect to, each
can assemble this info to a map
 each router determines the least-cost path from itself to every other node using a standard shortest
paths algorithm
 result is a tree rooted at the current node such that the path through the tree from root to any node is
the least-cost path

 Optimized Link-state Routing Algorithm

 optimized for mobile ad-hoc networks
 uses Hello and Topology Control (TC) messages to discover and disseminate link state information
 each node discovers 2-hop neighbor information and elects a set of multipoint relays (MPRs)
 individual nodes use the topology information to compute next hop paths
 Path Vector Algorithm
 somewhat similar to the distance vector algorithm
 networks are advertised as destination addresses and path descriptions to reach those destinations
 a route is defined as a pairing between a destination and the attributes of the path to that destination
 the path is carried in a special path attribute that records the sequence of routing domains through
which the reachability information has passed
IP ADDRESSING
 IP is responsible for addressing and routing in the TCP/IP environment
 IP ADDRESSES are logical addresses which are 4 bytes long
 a decimal number from 0 to 255, separated by periods, represent each byte or octet, for example,
172.16.254.1

 part of the address assigned to a computer designates on the NETWORK ID

 the remainder of the address represents the HOST ID
  IP VERSIONS
• IP VERSION 4 : represented in dot-decimal notation consisting of 4 decimal numbers, ranging from 0 to
255, separated by dots

208.77.1
88.166
• IP VERSION 6 : address size is increased to 16 octets; addresses are written in groups of 4 hexadecimal
digits separated by colons

2001:db8:1f70:18
a1:999:de8:7648:
6e8
IP Addresses Classes
 there are 5 classes of the IP addresses: A, B, C, D and E
 only 3 classes are used
 CLASS D IP addresses are reserved for the multicast group and cannot be assigned to hosts
 CLASS E IP addresses are the experimental addresses and cannot be assigned to the people
Historical Classful Network Architecture
Class 1st Octet in Range of 1st Network Host # of # of Addresses
Binary octet ID ID Networks
A 0XXXXXXX 0-127 A b.c.d 27 224
B 10XXXXXX 128-191 a.B c.d 214 216
21
C 110XXXXX 192-223 a.b.c D 2 28
 CLASS A
• binary address starts with 0
• range of IP addresses is between 1 to 126
• default subnet mask is 255.0.0.0
• supports 16,772,214 hosts on each of 126 networks
• used for the large networks with many network devices
 CLASS B
• binary address starts with 10
• range of IP address is between 128 to 191
• default subnet mask is 255.255.0.0
• supports 65,532 hosts on each of 16,384 networks
• used for the medium sized networks
 CLASS C
• binary address starts with 110
• range of IP addresses is between 192 to 223
• default subnet mask is 255.255.255
• supports 254 hosts on each of 2,097,152 networks
• used for the small networks
 CLASS D
• binary address starts with 1110
• range of IP address is between 224 to 239
  CLASS E
• binary address starts with 1111
• range of IP address is between 240 to 255

IP Addressing Tips
 a network ID cannot be all 0s
 a host ID cannot be all 1 because this represents a broadcast address for the local network
 each host must have a unique host portion of the IP address
 all hosts on the same network segment should have the same network ID
 a host address cannot be 127 because 127 has been reserved for the loop back functionalities

SUBNETTING

 is to partition a network into SUBNETWORKS each having its own subnet address and subnet mask
 allows a network to recognize IP ADDRESSES into a more efficient and manageable system at both global and
local network levels

Reasons for Creating Subnetting

 improves network performance and reliability by alleviating congestion and separates broadcast and collision
domains
 provides a higher degree of security by allowing departments within an organization to isolate in separate
subnetworks the conveying of sensitive information
 solves connectivity issues when a network is comprised of hosts that are on different floors of a building
 used to connect two or more local area networks that are different media protocols

Network Address Hierarchy

 the original Internet was designed with 5 address classifications
 the 1st 3 classifications (A,B,C) utilized a hierarchy comprised of 2 layers:
• NETWORK LAYER : network address (netid), identifies the network
• HOST LAYER : host address (hostid) , identifies the host
 SUBNET LAYER
• a third layer added by subnetting in the addressing hierarchy
• divides network into smaller groupings called SUBNETWORKS
• embedded between the network and host layers and identifies the subnetwork
• when subnets are used, a host’s IP address must contain 3 identification numbers: NETID, SUBNETID,
and HOSTID
Subnet Masks
 the default mask that separates the netid from the hostid also sets the default configuration for the bits within
an IP address

Class A Address

Class B Address

Class C Address

 SUBNET MASK
 when a mask is changed from its default value to accommodate subnets
 number of 1s must be more than the number of 1s in the corresponding default mask 

 ANDing the default mask with the address 70.64.10.5 reveals the portion of the address (70) and indicates that
there are no subnetid bits, as the remaining 24 bits are converted to logic 0s to produce the network address
70.0.0.0

 ANDing the first octet of the subnet mask 255.24.0.0 with the address 70.64.10.5 reveals the network portion of
the address (70)
  the 2nd dotted-decimal number in the subnet mask 224 (11100000) contains three leading 1s, which indicates
that there are subnetid bits in the address

 network address is the netid followed by all 0s (70.0.0.0)

 subnet address is the network address plus the subnetid followed by all 0s ( 70.64.0.0)
 number of bits included in the subnetid depends on the number of contiguous logic 1s in the subnet mask
 default mask determines the netid
 subnet mask identifies how many of the address bits are subnetid bits used to determine the subnet address
 
Examples:
Determine which of the following binary-coded octets are valid subnet masks and which are not and give the
dotted-decimal equivalent of the valid masks:
 
11101000 – invalid, noncontagious 1s
11100000 – valid, 224
10000001 – invalid, noncontagious 1s
11111000 – valid, 248

Anatomy of IP Address
 an IP address is combination of 3 separate portions: NETWORK PORTION, SUBNET PORTION, and HOST
PORTION
 when a subnet mask is applied, the following are revealed: NETID, SUBNETID, and HOSTID
EXAMPLE:
If the subnet mask 255.255.224.0 is logically ANDed with the class B address 130.46.93.5, the following

information is revealed
Subnet Possibilities
 number of subnet addresses possible depends on SUBNET MASK and how many SUBNETID BITS are included in
the address
Formula: the number of subnets = 2n addresses possible,
where n is the number of subnetid bits
 In classful IP addressing:
• subnet addresses containing 0s or 1s cannot be used for subnet addresses
• an address with all 0s is disallowed because it is the address of the subnet itself
• an address with all 1s is disallowed because this is the subnet broadcast address
• the number of usable subnet addresses with n subnetid bits is expressed as:
Formula: number of usable subnet addresses = 2n -2,
where n is the number of subnetid bits

Subnet Addresses
 with subnet addresses, the number of hosts allowed on a subnet and the range of host addresses are
determined from the NETWORK ADDRESSES and the SUBNET MASK
 EXAMPLE: In a Class C network, the address 200.40.14.0 and the subnet mask 255.255.255.192 is determined as
follows:

For example, in a Class C network, with the address 200.40.14.0 and the subnet mask 255.255.255.192 is
determined as follows. The first three octets of the subnet mask (255.255.255) identify the network address
(200.40.14.0). So, in the last octet (See image)
With two subnetid bits, there are 22 = 4 subnet address possibilities: 00, 01, 10, 11.
There are six hostid bits: thus, there are 2 6 = 64 host addresses possible for each subnet address. The 64 host
addresses range from all 0s(000000) to all 1s(111111) in each of the four subnet addresses. With classful IP
addressing, the first (all 0s) and last (all 1s) host addresses are not allowed.
 

Class A Subnet Masks

 8 bits for the netid
 24 bits can be divided between subnetid and
hostid bits depending on the subnet mask used
 with classful IP addressing, class A subnet masks
must have at least two logic 1s but not more
than 22
 1 subnet bit is not allowed because it would
produce only two subnets where one is all 0s
and the other are all 1s
 if there were 23 subnet bits, there is only one
hostid bit and thus only two host addresses, one
with all 0s and one with all 1s
number of subnets is proportional to number of
subnetid bits
number of hosts on subnet is inversely
proportional to number of subnets
Class B Subnet Masks

 16 bits for the netid

 16 bits can be divided between subnetid and hostid bits depending on the subnet mask used
 with classful IP addressing, class B subnet masks must have at least two logic 1s but not more than 14

Class C Subnet Masks

 24 bits for the netid
 8 bits can be divided between subnetid and hostid bits depending on the subnet mask used
 with classful IP addressing, class C subnet masks must have at least two logic 1s but not more than six

Problem Solving
For the IP address 192.168.40.112 and the Class C subnet mask 255.255.255.192, determine the following:
 
a. IP address in binary
b. Subnet addresses in binary
c. Which bits are netids, subnetids, and hostids
d. Network address
e. Subnetwork address
f. Host address