Cocaine’s stimulant

and addictive effects

explained.
See page 2.

from the director:

Research Report Series
Cocaine abuse and addiction continue
to plague our Nation. In 2008, almost 15
percent of Americans had tried cocaine,
with 6 percent having tried it by their
senior year of high school. Recent dis-
coveries about the inner workings of the
brain and the harmful effects of cocaine
offer us unprecedented opportunities for
addressing this persistent public health
problem.
Genetic studies continue to provide
critical information about hereditary
influences on the risk of addiction to
psychoactive substances, including
cocaine. But genetic risk is far less
rigid than previously thought. More
recent epigenetic research has begun
to shed light on the power of environ-
mental factors (e.g., nutrition, chronic
stress, parenting style) to influence
gene expression and thus, genetic risk.
Furthermore, sophisticated imaging
technologies have allowed scientists
to visualize the brain changes that
result from chronic drug exposure or
that occur when an addicted person is
exposed to drug-associated “cues” that
can trigger craving and lead to relapse.
By mapping genetic factors, epigenetic
mechanisms, and brain regions respon-
sible for the multiple effects of cocaine,
we are gaining fundamental insights
that can help us identify new targets for
treating cocaine addiction.
What Is Cocaine?
NIDA remains vigilant in its quest for

C
more effective strategies to address
the serious public health issues linked ocaine is a powerfully addictive stimulant that directly
to cocaine abuse. We not only sup-
port a wide range of basic and clinical
affects the brain. Cocaine was labeled the drug of the
research, but also facilitate the transla- 1980s and 1990s because of its extensive popularity
tion of these research findings into
real-world settings. To this end, we strive and use during that period. However, cocaine is not a new
to keep the public informed of the latest
scientific advances in the field of addic- drug. In fact, it is one of the oldest known psychoactive sub-
tion. We hope that this compilation of stances. Coca leaves, the source of cocaine, have been chewed
scientific information on cocaine abuse
will inform readers and bolster our and ingested for thousands of years, and the purified chemical,
efforts to tackle the personal and social
devastation caused by drug abuse and cocaine hydrochloride, has been an abused substance for more
addiction.
than 100 years. In the early 1900s, for example, purified cocaine
Nora D. Volkow, M.D. was the main active ingredient in most of the tonics and elixirs
Director
National Institute on Drug Abuse continued inside

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services | National Institutes of Health

 Research Report Series Cocaine

that were developed to treat a wide chemically related local anesthetic) Cocaine use ranges from occa-
variety of illnesses. or amphetamine (another stimu- sional to repeated or compulsive
Pure cocaine was originally lant). Some users combine cocaine use, with a variety of patterns
extracted from the leaf of the Eryth- with heroin—in what is termed a between these extremes. Other
roxylon coca bush, which grew pri- “speedball.” than medical uses, there is no safe
marily in Peru and Bolivia. After the There are two chemical forms of way to use cocaine. Any route of
1990s, and following crop reduction cocaine that are abused: the water- administration can lead to absorp-
efforts in those countries, Colombia soluble hydrochloride salt and the tion of toxic amounts of cocaine,
became the nation with the largest water-insoluble cocaine base (or possible acute cardiovascular or
cultivated coca crop. Today, cocaine freebase). When abused, the hydro- cerebrovascular emergencies, and
is a Schedule II drug, which means chloride salt, or powdered form of seizures—all of which can result in
that it has high potential for abuse cocaine, can be injected or snorted. sudden death.
but can be administered by a doctor The base form of cocaine has been
for legitimate medical uses, such as processed with ammonia or sodium
local anesthesia for some eye, ear, bicarbonate (baking soda) and
and throat surgeries. water, and then heated to remove the How Does
Cocaine is generally sold on the hydrochloride to produce a smok- Cocaine Produce
street as a fine, white, crystalline able substance. The term “crack,”
powder and is also known as “coke,” which is the street name given to Its Effects?
“C,” “snow,” “flake,” or “blow.” freebase cocaine, refers to the crack- Research has led to a clear under-
Street dealers generally dilute it with ling sound heard when the mixture standing of how cocaine produces
inert substances such as cornstarch, is smoked. its pleasurable effects and why it
talcum powder, or sugar, or with is so addictive. Scientists have dis-
active drugs such as procaine (a covered regions within the brain
that are stimulated by all types of
How Is Cocaine reinforcing stimuli such as food,
Abused? sex, and many drugs of abuse. One
Coca bush neural system that appears to be
The principal routes of cocaine
most affected by cocaine originates
administration are oral, intranasal,
in a region of the midbrain called
intravenous, and inhalation. Snort-
the ventral tegmental area (VTA).
ing, or intranasal administration,
Nerve fibers originating in the
is the process of inhaling cocaine
VTA extend to a region known as
powder through the nostrils, where
the nucleus accumbens, one of the
it is absorbed into the bloodstream
brain’s key areas involved in reward.
through the nasal tissues. The drug
Animal studies show that rewards
also can be rubbed onto mucous
increase levels of the brain chemi-
tissues. Injecting, or intravenous
cal (or neurotransmitter) dopamine,
use, releases the drug directly into
thereby increasing neural activity
the bloodstream and heightens the
in the nucleus accumbens. In the
intensity of its effects. Smoking
normal communication process,
involves inhaling cocaine vapor
dopamine is released by a neuron
or smoke into the lungs, where
into the synapse (the small gap
absorption into the bloodstream is
between two neurons), where it
as rapid as by injection. This rather
binds to specialized proteins (called
immediate and euphoric effect
dopamine receptors) on the neigh-
is one of the reasons that crack
boring neuron and sends a signal
became enormously popular in the
to that neuron. Dopamine is then
mid-1980s.

2 NIDA Research Report Series

 to the receiving neurons (see image small amounts, cocaine usually
on page 4, “Cocaine in the brain”). makes the user feel euphoric,
This is what causes the initial eupho- energetic, talkative, and mentally
ria commonly reported by cocaine alert, especially to the sensations
abusers. of sight, sound, and touch. It
can also temporarily decrease the
Powdered cocaine Freebase cocaine need for food and sleep. Some
What Are the users find that the drug helps
removed from the synapse to be them perform simple physical and
recycled for further use. Drugs of Short-Term intellectual tasks more quickly,
abuse can interfere with this normal Effects of although others experience the
communication process. For exam- opposite effect.
ple, scientists have discovered that Cocaine Use? The duration of cocaine’s
cocaine acts by blocking the removal Cocaine’s effects appear almost euphoric effects depend upon the
of dopamine from the synapse, immediately after a single dose route of administration. The fast-
which results in an accumulation of and disappear within a few er the drug is absorbed, the more
dopamine and an amplified signal minutes to an hour. Taken in intense the resulting high, but also

What Is the Scope Trends in 30-Day Prevalence of Cocaine Abuse

of Cocaine Use in 3.0 Among 8th-, 10th-, and 12th-Graders, 1998–2009

the United States?

The National Survey on Drug Use 2.5
and Health (NSDUH) estimates
that in 2008 there were 1.9 mil-
Percent Reporting Use

lion current (past month) cocaine

users, of which approximately 2.0
12th-graders
359,000 were current crack users.
Adults aged 18 to 25 years have a
higher rate of current cocaine use 1.5
than any other age group, with 1.5
percent of young adults reporting
10th-graders
past-month cocaine use. Overall,
men report higher rates of current 1.0

cocaine use than women.

8th-graders
The 2009 Monitoring the Future
survey, which annually surveys 0.5
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
teen attitudes and drug use,
Source: University of Michigan, 2009 Monitoring the Future Survey.
reports a significant decline in
30-day prevalence of powder
cocaine use among 8th-, 10th-, and
to the NSDUH, about 1.4 million in 482,188 of the nearly 2 million
12th-graders from peak use in the
Americans met the Diagnostic visits to emergency departments
late 1990s, as well as significant
and Statistical Manual of Mental for drug misuse or abuse. This
declines in past-month use among
Disorders criteria for dependence translates to almost one in four
10th- and 12th-graders from 2008
or abuse of cocaine (in any form) drug misuse or abuse emergency
to 2009.
in the past 12 months. Further, department visits (24 percent) that
Repeated cocaine use can produce data from the 2008 Drug Abuse involved cocaine.
addiction and other adverse health Warning Network (DAWN) report
consequences. In 2008, according showed that cocaine was involved

NIDA Research Report Series 3

 the shorter the duration. The high There also can be severe
from snorting is relatively slow to medical complications associated What Are the
arrive, but it may last from 15 to with cocaine abuse. Some of the
30 minutes; in contrast, the effects most frequent are cardiovascular
Long-Term Effects
from smoking are more immediate effects, including disturbances in of Cocaine Use?
but may last only 5 to 10 minutes. heart rhythm and heart attacks;
The short-term physiological neurological effects, including Cocaine is a powerfully addictive
effects of cocaine use include strokes, seizures, headaches, drug. Thus, it is unlikely that an
constricted blood vessels; dilated and coma; and gastrointestinal individual will be able to reliably
pupils; and increased body complications, including predict or control the extent to
temperature, heart rate, and abdominal pain and nausea. In which he or she will continue to
blood pressure. Large amounts of rare instances, sudden death can want or use the drug. And, if addic-
cocaine may intensify the user’s occur on the first use of cocaine or tion takes hold, the risk for relapse
high but can also lead to bizarre, unexpectedly thereafter. Cocaine- is high even following long periods
erratic, and violent behavior. related deaths are often a result of of abstinence. Recent studies have
Some cocaine users report feelings cardiac arrest or seizures followed shown that during periods of absti-
of restlessness, irritability, anxiety, by respiratory arrest. nence, the memory of the cocaine
panic, and paranoia. Users may In addition, research has also experience or exposure to cues
also experience tremors, vertigo, revealed a potentially dangerous associated with drug use can trigger
and muscle twitches. interaction between cocaine and tremendous craving and relapse to
alcohol. This mixture is the most drug use.
common two-drug combination With repeated exposure to
that results in drug-related death. cocaine, the brain starts to adapt,
and the reward pathway becomes
less sensitive to natural reinforcers
and to the drug itself. Tolerance
may develop—this means that high-
er doses and/or more frequent use
of cocaine is needed to register the
same level of pleasure experienced
during initial use. At the same
time, users can also become more
sensitive (sensitization) to cocaine’s
anxiety-producing, convulsant, and
other toxic effects.
Users take cocaine in “binges,”
during which the cocaine is used
repeatedly and at increasingly high-
er doses. This can lead to increased
irritability, restlessness, panic
attacks, and paranoia—even a full-
blown psychosis, in which the indi-
vidual loses touch with reality and
experiences auditory hallucinations.
With increasing dosages or frequen-
cy of use, the risk of adverse psy-
chological or physiological effects
increases.
Different routes of cocaine
Cocaine in the brain—In the normal communication process, dopamine is released
by a neuron into the synapse, where it can bind to dopamine receptors on neighboring
administration can produce dif-
neurons. Normally, dopamine is then recycled back into the transmitting neuron by a ferent adverse effects. Regularly
specialized protein called the dopamine transporter. If cocaine is present, it attaches to snorting cocaine, for example, can
the dopamine transporter and blocks the normal recycling process, resulting in a buildup lead to loss of sense of smell; nose-
of dopamine in the synapse, which contributes to the pleasurable effects of cocaine. bleeds; problems with swallowing;

4 NIDA Research Report Series

 Brain images showing decreased The majority of individuals (72
dopamine (D2) receptors in the brain percent in 2007) who seek treatment
of a person addicted to cocaine for cocaine abuse smoke crack and
versus a nondrug user. The dopamine are likely to be polydrug abusers, or
system is important for conditioning users of more than one substance.
and motivation, and alterations such
The widespread abuse of cocaine
as this are likely responsible, in part,
has stimulated extensive efforts to
for the diminished sensitivity to
natural rewards that develops with
develop treatment programs for
addiction. cocaine. As with any drug addic-
tion, this is a complex disease that
involves biological changes in the
brain as well as myriad social,
familial, and other environmental
hoarseness; and an overall irritation and potentially lead to risky sexual problems. Therefore, treatment of
of the nasal septum, which could encounters, needle sharing, and cocaine addiction must be compre-
result in a chronically inflamed, trading sex for drugs—by both men hensive, and strategies need to assess
runny nose. Ingested cocaine can and women. In fact, some studies the neurobiological, social, and
cause severe bowel gangrene due are showing that among drug medical aspects of the patient’s drug
to reduced blood flow. Persons abusers, those who do not inject abuse. Moreover, patients who have
who inject cocaine have puncture drugs are contracting HIV at rates a variety of addictions often have
marks called “tracks,” most com- equal to those who do inject drugs, other co-occurring mental disorders
monly in their forearms, and may further highlighting the role of that require additional behavioral or
experience allergic reactions, either sexual transmission of HIV in this pharmacological interventions.
to the drug or to some additive in population.
street cocaine, which in severe cases Additionally, hepatitis C (HCV) Pharmacological Approaches
can result in death. Many chronic has spread rapidly among injecting Presently, there are no FDA-
cocaine users lose their appetite and drug users. Risk begins with the first approved medications to treat
experience significant weight loss injection, and within 2 years, nearly cocaine addiction. Consequently,
and malnourishment. 40 percent of injection drug users NIDA is working aggressively to
(IDUs) are exposed to HCV. By identify and test new medications
the time IDUs have been injecting to treat cocaine addiction safely
for 5 years, their chances of being and effectively. Several medications
Are Cocaine infected with HCV are between 50 marketed for other diseases (e.g.,
Abusers at Risk and 80 percent. Although treatment vigabatrin, modafinil, tiagabine,
for HCV is not effective for everyone disulfiram, and topiramate) show
for Contracting and can have significant side effects, promise and have been reported
HIV/AIDS and medical followup is essential for to reduce cocaine use in controlled
all those who are infected. There clinical trials. Among these,
Hepatitis? is no vaccine for the hepatitis C disulfiram (used to treat alcoholism)
Yes, cocaine abusers are at virus, and it is highly transmissible has produced the most consistent
increased risk for contracting via injection; thus, HCV testing is reductions in cocaine abuse. On the
such infectious diseases as human recommended for any individual other hand, new knowledge of how
immunodeficiency virus/acquired who has ever injected drugs. the brain is changed by cocaine is
immune deficiency syndrome directing attention to novel targets
(HIV/AIDS) and viral hepatitis. for medications development.
This risk stems not only from Compounds that are currently
sharing contaminated needles and What Treatments being tested for addiction treatment
drug paraphernalia but also from Are Effective for take advantage of underlying
engaging in risky behaviors as a cocaine-induced adaptations in
result of intoxication. Research Cocaine Abusers? the brain that disturb the balance
has shown that drug intoxication In 2007, cocaine accounted for between excitatory (glutamate) and
and addiction can compromise about 13 percent of all admissions inhibitory (gamma-aminobutyric
judgment and decisionmaking, to drug abuse treatment programs. acid) neurotransmission. Also,

NIDA Research Report Series 5

 What Are Some may recall that “crack babies,”
or babies born to mothers who
the Effects abused crack cocaine while preg-
nant, were at one time written off as
of Maternal a lost generation. They were pre-
Cocaine Use? dicted to suffer from severe, irre-
versible damage, including reduced
The full extent of the effects of pre- intelligence and social skills. It was
natal cocaine exposure on a child is later found that this was a gross
not completely known, but many sci- exaggeration. However, the fact
entific studies have documented that that most of these children appear
babies born to mothers who abuse normal should not be overinterpreted
cocaine during pregnancy are often to indicate that there is no cause for
prematurely delivered, have low birth concern. Using sophisticated tech-
weights and smaller head circumfer- nologies, scientists are now finding
ences, and are shorter in length than such as the amount and number of
that exposure to cocaine during fetal
babies born to mothers who do not all drugs abused, including nicotine;
development may lead to subtle,
abuse cocaine. extent of prenatal care; possible
yet significant, later deficits in some
neglect or abuse of the child; expo-
children, including deficits in some
Nevertheless, it is difficult to esti- sure to violence in the environment;
aspects of cognitive performance,
mate the full extent of the conse- socioeconomic conditions; maternal
information processing, and attention
quences of maternal drug abuse and nutrition; other health conditions;
to tasks—abilities that are important
to determine the specific hazard of and exposure to sexually transmitted
for the realization of a child’s full
a particular drug to the unborn child. diseases—can all interact to impact
potential.
This is because multiple factors— maternal, fetal, and child outcomes.

dopamine D3 receptors (a subtype restaurant. This approach has

Presently, there
of dopamine receptor) constitute recently been shown to be practical
a novel molecular target of high are no proven and effective in community
interest. Medications that act at medications to treat treatment programs.
these receptors are now being tested cocaine addiction. Cognitive-behavioral therapy
for safety in humans. Finally, a Consequently, (CBT) is an effective approach
cocaine vaccine that prevents entry NIDA is working for preventing relapse. CBT is
of cocaine into the brain holds great aggressively to focused on helping cocaine-
promise for reducing the risk of identify and test addicted individuals abstain—
relapse. In addition to treatments for new medications. and remain abstinent—from
addiction, medical treatments are cocaine and other substances.
being developed to address the acute The underlying assumption is
emergencies that result from cocaine One form of behavioral therapy that learning processes play an
overdose each year. that is showing positive results important role in the development
in cocaine-addicted populations and continuation of cocaine abuse
Behavioral Interventions is contingency management, or and addiction. These same learning
Many behavioral treatments motivational incentives (MI). MI processes can be harnessed to help
for cocaine addiction have proven may be particularly useful for individuals reduce drug use and
to be effective in both residential helping patients achieve initial successfully prevent relapse. This
and outpatient settings. Indeed, abstinence from cocaine and for approach attempts to help patients
behavioral therapies are often helping patients stay in treatment. recognize, avoid, and cope; that
the only available and effective Programs use a voucher or prize- is, they recognize the situations
treatments for many drug problems, based system that rewards patients in which they are most likely to
including stimulant addictions. who abstain from cocaine and other use cocaine, avoid these situations
However, the integration of drug use. On the basis of drug-free when appropriate, and cope
behavioral and pharmacological urine tests, the patients earn points, more effectively with a range of
treatments may ultimately prove to or chips, which can be exchanged problems and problematic behaviors
be the most effective approach. for items that encourage healthy associated with drug abuse. This
living, such as a gym membership, therapy is also noteworthy because
movie tickets, or dinner at a local of its compatibility with a range

6 NIDA Research Report Series

of other treatments patients may services and focus on successful It is important that patients
receive. re-integration of the individual into receive services that match all of
Therapeutic communities society. their treatment needs. For example,
(TCs), or residential programs, Community-based recovery if a patient is unemployed, it may
offer another alternative to persons groups—such as Cocaine be helpful to provide vocational
in need of treatment for cocaine Anonymous—that use a 12-step rehabilitation or career counseling
addiction. TCs usually require a program can also be helpful to along with addiction treatment. If
6- or 12-month stay and use the people trying to sustain abstinence. a patient has marital problems, it
program’s entire “community” as Participants may benefit from the may be important to offer couples
active components of treatment. supportive fellowship and from counseling.
They can include onsite vocational sharing with those experiencing
rehabilitation and other supportive common problems and issues.

Glossary
Addiction: A chronic, relapsing Freebase: A solid, water- Glutamate: An excitatory Rush: A surge of pleasure
disease characterized by insoluble, and smokable form neurotransmitter found (euphoria) that rapidly follows
compulsive drug seeking and of cocaine that is produced throughout the brain that the administration of some
use and by long-lasting changes when its hydrochloride influences the reward system drugs.
in the brain. salt form is processed and is involved in learning
with ammonia or sodium and memory, among other Stimulant: A class of drugs
Anesthetic: An agent that bicarbonate and water, functions. that enhances the activity of
causes insensitivity to pain and then heated to remove the monamines (such as dopamine)
is used for surgeries and other hydrochloride. (Also, see Hydrochloride salt: A in the brain, increasing arousal,
medical procedures. “crack.”) powdered, water-soluble form heart rate, blood pressure, and
of cocaine that can be injected respiration, and decreasing
Coca: The plant, Erythroxylon, Frontal cortex: The front or snorted. appetite; includes some
from which cocaine is derived. part of the brain involved medications used to treat
Also refers to the leaves of this with reasoning, planning, Neuron: A nerve cell. attention-deficit hyperactivity
plant. problemsolving, and other disorder (e.g., methylphenidate
higher cognitive functions. Nucleus accumbens: A and amphetamines),
Crack: The slang term for a brain region involved in as well as cocaine and
smokable form of cocaine. Gamma-aminobutyric acid motivation and reward. Nearly methamphetamine.
(GABA): The main inhibitory all drugs of abuse directly or
Craving: A powerful, often neurotransmitter in the indirectly increase dopamine Tolerance: A condition in which
uncontrollable, desire for drugs. central nervous system. in the nucleus accumbens, higher doses of a drug are
GABA provides the needed contributing to their addictive required to produce the same
Dopamine: A brain chemical, counterbalance to the actions properties. effect achieved during initial
classified as a neurotransmitter, of other systems, particularly use.
found in regions of the brain the excitatory neurotransmitter Polydrug user: An individual
that regulate movement, glutamate. who uses more than one drug. Vertigo: The sensation of
emotion, motivation, and dizziness.
pleasure.

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NIDA Research Report Series 7

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Where Can I Get More Scientific Information

About Cocaine Abuse and Addiction?
To learn more about cocaine and What’s New on the NIDA Web Site NIDA Web Sites
other drugs of abuse, or to order • Information on drugs of abuse drugabuse.gov
materials on these topics free of • Publications and communications backtoschool.drugabuse.gov
charge in English or Spanish, (including NIDA Notes and
visit the NIDA Web site at teens.drugabuse.gov
Addiction Science & Clinical
www.drugabuse.gov or contact Practice journal) For Physician Information
the DrugPubs Research
Dissemination Center at • Calendar of events
• Links to NIDA organizational www.drugabuse.gov/nidamed
877-NIDA-NIH (877-643-2644;
TTY/TDD: 240-645-0228). units
Other Web Sites
• Funding information (including Information on cocaine abuse and
program announcements and addiction is also available through
deadlines) the following Web site:
• International activities • Substance Abuse and Mental
• Links to related Web sites (access Health Services Administration
to Web sites of many other Health Information Network:
organizations in the field) www.samhsa.gov/shin

NIH Publication Number 10-4166

Printed May 1999, Revised November 2004, Revised June 2009, Revised September 2010
Feel free to reprint this publication.