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Chapter 21&22

1. The costs of imperial wars and new ideas from the Enlightenment challenged the established authority of monarchs and religion in Europe and America by creating economic and intellectual crises. 2. The American Revolution was directly caused by growing tensions between the British colonies and Parliament over taxation and laws imposed after the French and Indian War. 3. The French Revolution erupted from social, economic, and political crises exacerbated by the Estates-General crisis, and accomplished major reforms but grew increasingly radical, culminating in the Reign of Terror and Napoleon's rise and fall.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
2K views5 pages

Chapter 21&22

1. The costs of imperial wars and new ideas from the Enlightenment challenged the established authority of monarchs and religion in Europe and America by creating economic and intellectual crises. 2. The American Revolution was directly caused by growing tensions between the British colonies and Parliament over taxation and laws imposed after the French and Indian War. 3. The French Revolution erupted from social, economic, and political crises exacerbated by the Estates-General crisis, and accomplished major reforms but grew increasingly radical, culminating in the Reign of Terror and Napoleon's rise and fall.

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dolcevita715
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Chapter 21

1. Enlightenment A philosophical movement in eighteenth-century Europe that fostered the belief that
one could reform society by discovering rational laws that governed social behavior and were just as
scientific as the laws of physics.
2. Franklin, Benjamin (1706-1790) American intellectual, inventor, and politician He helped negotiate
French support for the American Revolution.
3. Washington, George (1732-1799) Military commander of the American Revolution. He was the first
elected president of the United States.
4. Brant, Joseph (1742-1807) Mohawk leader who supported the British during the American
Revolution.
5. Constitutional Convention Meeting in 1787 of the elected representatives of the thirteen original
states to write the Constitution of the United States.
6. Estates General France's traditional national assembly with representatives of the three estates, or
classes, in French society: the clergy, nobility, and commoners. The calling of the Estates General in
1789 led to the French Revolution.
7. National Assembly French Revolutionary assembly (1789-1791). Called first as the Estates General,
the three estates came together and demanded radical change. It passed the Declaration of the Rights of
Man in 1789.
8. Declaration of the Rights of Man (1789) Statement of fundamental political rights adopted by the
French National Assembly at the beginning of the French Revolution.
9. Jacobins Radical republicans during the French Revolution. They were led by Maximilien
Robespierre from 1793 to 1794.
10. Robespierre, Maximilien (1758-1794) Young provincial lawyer who led the most radical phases of
the French Revolution. His execution ended the Reign of Terror.
11. Napoleon Bonaparte (Napoleon I: 1769-1832) Overthrew French Directory in 1799 and became
emperor of the French in 1804. Failed to defeat Great Britain and abdicated in 1814. Returned to
power briefly in 1815 but was defeated and died in exile.
12. gens de couleur Free men and women of color in Haiti. They sought greater political rights and later
supported the Haitian Revolution.
13. L’Ouverture, Francois Dominique Toussaint (1743-1803) Leader of the Haitian Revolution. He
freed the slaves and gained effective independence for Haiti despite military interventions by the
British and French.
14. Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) Meeting of representatives of European monarchs called to
reestablish the old order after the defeat of Napoleon I.
15. Revolutions of 1848 Democratic and nationalist revolutions that swept across Europe. The monarchy
in France was overthrown. In Germany, Austria, Italy, and Hungary the revolutions failed.

1. How did the costs of imperial wars and the Enlightenment challenge the established authority
of monarchs and religion in Europe and the American colonies?
The costs of imperial wars and the Enlightenment challenged the established authority of
monarchs and religion in Europe and the American colonies in many ways. Britain and France
especially faced economic crisis due to the colonial wars. Using taxes and institutions inherited from
the past, they found it increasingly difficult to fund distant wars in the Americas or in Asia. For
British, the costs of the French and Indian War led the government to establish unpopular taxes on its
colonies. As a result of this war, France faced direr crisis such as the American revolutionaries.
Moreover, the refusal of powerful French interests to accept new taxes would eventually lead to the
French Revolution.
Furthermore, the spread of literacy and increased availability of books helped create an
Enlightenment culture more open to reform to the institutions in Europe and in the Americas.
However there were many differences and even opposing ideas in the Enlightenment. For instance, if
the ideas of John Locke and Rousseau led the critics of monarchy toward a new political culture of
elections and representative institutions, these ideas were difficult to resolve. On the other hand, the
intellectual uproar of the time gave educated men and women tools to censure the existing institutions
and the confidence to plan new ones.
2. What were the direct causes of the American Revolution?
The American Revolution developed from the British colonial rule after the French and Indian
War. To avoid new military costs, Britain tried the Quebec Act to limit western settlement and thus
reduce conflict with the Amerindians. British forced new taxes, duties, and commercial regulations on
the colonies such as the Stamp Act to pay its war debt. These acts resulted to violent conflict that
ended with the “Boston Massacre.” Parliament opposed to some of these acts but then gave the British
India Company a tea monopoly frustrating more people. Colonial patriots met in the Continental
Congress, assumed government powers, raised an army, and issued the Declaration of Independence.

3. What were the origins and accomplishments of the French Revolution?


The French Revolution erupted from the crisis provoked by France’s archaic social and tax
system, financial collapse, urban unrest, and division between the monarchy and aristocracy. The
immediate cause was the crisis within the Estates General, during which the Third Estate broke away
and declared itself the National Assembly. Uprisings in Paris and the countryside strengthened the
Assembly’s position, enabling it to press reforms embodied in the Declaration of the Rights of Man.
Further restructured France’s society and economy.
However, foreign involvement pushed the Legislative Assembly to radical extremes that ended
with the execution of Louis XVI and the Reign of Terror. Reaction against the Terror resulted in the
conservative Directory and the even more repressive dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon’s
military adventures eventually led to his fall, and the congress of Vienna sought to establish a
traditional balance of power. Despite this retrenchment, revolutionary struggles continued, especially
in France. In 1848 nationalist and republican revolutions flared throughout Europe. These won few
lasting gains thus in France they resulted in the imperial rule of Napoleon III.

4. How did revolution in one country help incite revolution elsewhere?


Each new revolutionary development served as example and provocation for dissatisfied women
and men elsewhere. French officers who took part in the American Revolution helped ignite the
French Revolution. The constitutions of new American states and the new national constitution were
published across Europe and read by thousands. Free black militiamen from Saint Domingue served
along French units in support of the American Revolution. With the first stage of the French
Revolution black freemen from Haiti traveled to France to seek their
5. What were the goals of the Conference of Vienna? To what extent were those goals achieved?
(612)
The central objective of the Congress of Vienna was to roll back the clock in France. In 1814-
1815 representatives of Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, along with representatives of other
nations, met as the Congress of Vienna to reestablish political order in Europe. Because the
participants believed that a strong and stable France was the best guarantee of future peace, the French
monarchy was reestablished, and France’s 1792 borders were recognized. Most of the continental
European powers received some territorial gains, for Metternich sought to offset French strength with
a balance of power. In addition, Austria, Russia, and Prussia formed a separate alliance to more
actively confront the revolutionary and nationalist energies that the French Revolution had unleashed.
Metternich’s program of conservative retrenchment succeeded in the short term, but powerful ideas
associated with liberalism and nationalism remained a vital part of European political life throughout
the nineteenth century.

6. Why were the movements towards democracy and national self-determination successful in
the U.S., Britain , Greece and the Ottoman Empire as well as the revolution of the middle and
working classes in France in 1848, while reform and revolutions in Hungary, Italy, Bohemia,
Austria, and Germany failed? (612-614)
Despite the power of the conservative monarchs, popular support for national self-determination
and democratic reform grew throughout Europe. Greece had been under Ottoman control since the
fifteenth century and In 1821 Greek patriots launched an independence movement. Metternich and
other conservatives opposed Greek independence, but European artists and writers captivated with the
cultural legacy of ancient Greece rallied political support for the involvement.
At the same time, the democratic reform movements appeared in both the United States and
Great Britain. In the United States after 1790 the original thirteen states were joined by new states
with constitutions granting voting rights to most free males. After the War of 1812 the right to vote
was expanded in older states as well. However, revolutionary violence in France made the British
aristocracy and the conservative Tory Party fearful of expanded democracy and mass movements of
any kind. Despite the achievement of Greek independence and limited political reform in France and
Great Britain, conservatives continued to hold the upper hand in Europe. Finally in 1848 the desire for
democratic reform and national self-determination and the frustrations of urban workers led to
upheavals across Europe.
Reformers in Hungary, Italy, Bohemia, Austria, and in Germany pressed for greater national
self-determination in 1848. However the revolutionaries of 1848 failed to gain either their nationalist
or their republican objectives. Monarchs retained the support not only of aristocrats but also of
professional militaries, largely engaged from among peasants who had little sympathy for urban
workers. Revolutionary coalitions, in contrast, were fragile and lacked clear objectives. Workers’
demands for higher wages, lower prices, and labor reform often drove their middle-class allies into the
arms of the reactionaries.

Chapter 22
1. Industrial Revolution The transformation of the economy, the environment, and living
conditions, occurring first in England in the eighteenth century, that resulted from the use of
steam engines, the mechanization of manufacturing in factories, and innovations in
transportation and communication.
2. Agricultural revolution The transformation of farming that resulted in the eighteenth
century from the spread of new crops, improvements in cultivation techniques and livestock
breeding, and the consolidation of small holdings into large farms from which tenants and
sharecroppers were forcibly expelled.
3. mass production The manufacture of many identical products by the division of labor into
many small repetitive tasks. This method was introduced into the manufacture of pottery by
Josiah Wedgwood and into the spinning of cotton thread by Richard Arkwright.
4. Wedgwood, Josiah (1730-1795) English industrialist whose pottery works was the first to
produce fine-quality pottery by industrial methods.
5. division of labor A manufacturing technique that breaks down a craft into many simple and
repetitive tasks that can be performed by unskilled workers. Pioneered in the pottery works of
Josiah Wedgwood and in other eighteenth-century factories, it greatly increased the
productivity of labor and lowered the cost of manufactured goods.
6. mechanization The application of machinery to manufacturing and other activities. Among
the first processes to be mechanized were the spinning of cotton thread and the weaving of
cloth in late-eighteenth- and early-nineteenth-century England.
7. Arkwright, Richard (1732-1792) English inventor and entrepreneur who became the
wealthiest and most successful textile manufacturer of the early Industrial Revolution. He
invented the water frame, a machine that, with minimal human supervision, could spin many
strong cotton threads at once.
8. Crystal Palace Building erected in Hyde Park, London, for the Great Exhibition of 1851.
Made of iron and glass, like a gigantic greenhouse, it was a symbol of the industrial age.
9. steam engine A machine that turns the energy released by burning fuel into motion. Thomas
Newcomen built the first crude but workable steam engine in 1712. James Watt vastly
improved his device in the 1760s and 1770s. Steam power was later applied to moving
machinery in factories and to powering ships and locomotives.
10. Watt, James (1736-1819) Scot who invented the condenser and other improvements that
made the steam engine a practical source of power for industry and transportation. The watt,
an electrical measurement, is named after him.
11. electric telegraph A device for rapid, long-distance transmission of information over an
electric wire. It was introduced in England and North America in the 1830s and 1840s and
replaced telegraph systems that utilized visual signals such as semaphores.
12. business cycles Recurrent swings from economic hard times to recovery and growth, then
back to hard times and a repetition of the sequence.
13. laissez faire The idea that government should refrain from interfering in economic affairs.
The classic exposition of laissez-faire principles is Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations (1776).
14. mercantilism European government policies of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth
centuries designed to promote overseas trade between a country and its colonies and
accumulate precious metals by requiring colonies to trade only with their motherland country.
The British system was defined by the Navigation Acts, the French system by laws known as
the Exclusif. (p. 627)
15. positivism A philosophy developed by the French count of Saint-Simon. Positivists believed
that social and economic problems could be solved by the application of the scientific
method, leading to continuous progress. Their ideas became popular in France and Latin
America in the nineteenth century.
16. utopian socialism A philosophy introduced by the Frenchman Charles Fourier in the early
nineteenth century. Utopian socialists hoped to create humane alternatives to industrial
capitalism by building self-sustaining communities whose inhabitants would work
cooperatively.
Chapter 22

1. What caused the Industrial Revolution, and why did it begin in England in the late eighteenth
century?
The industrial Revolution arose from a combination of factors in European society in the
eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. The population grew, but so did the food supply, thanks to
improvements in agriculture. Among upper and middle class Europeans, practical subjects like
business, science, and technology became fashionable. Great Britain had a particularly fluid society
open to talents and enterprise. On the European continent, the revolutions of 1789-1815 swept away
the restrictions of the old aristocratic regimes.
2. What were the key innovations that increased productivity and drove industrialization?
There were many key innovations that increased the productivity and drove industrialization. A
series of technological and organizational innovations transformed the manufacture of many products,
reducing their costs. New machines, assembled in mills, mass-produced cotton yarn and cloth. Work
formerly done by skilled craftsmen was divided into many simple tasks assigned to workers in
factories. New techniques made iron cheap and abundant. Steam engines provided power to factories,
ships, and railroads. Moreover, electricity found its first application in telegraphy.
3. What was the impact of these changes on the society and environment of the industrializing
countries?
The Industrial Revolution changed people’s lives and the environments in which they lived.
Cities grew huge and most of their inhabitants grew unhealthy. While middle class women were
consigned to caring for the home and children, working class women and children as well as men
were obliged to earn their living in mines and factories. In the industrial cities, social problems such
as unemployment, alcoholism, and the abandonment of children became sharp. Rural environments
were also transformed as roads, canals, and railroads crisscrossed open land.
4. How did the Industrial Revolution influence the rise of the new economic and political ideas?
Some thinkers defended the growing disparities between rich and poor in the name of laissez
faire. Governments and businesspeople eagerly adopted many of the free-market capitalist views of
Adam Smith. Others, such as positivists and utopian socialists, censured the injustices caused by
industrialization and offered a new vision of just communities. Workers created labor unions, leading
political leaders to reexamine the working conditions of factories and mines, especially as they
concerned women and children. However, not until the mid nineteenth century did industrialization
begin to raise living standards in the industrialized countries.
5. How did industrialization transform urban environments?
Industrialization transformed the urban environments in many ways. Industrialization brought
about the rapid growth of towns and the developments of megalopolises such as Greater London. The
wealthy built fine homes, churches, and public buildings; the poor crowded into cheap, shoddy row
houses. Sudden population growth, crowding, and lack of municipal services made urban problems
more serious than they had been in the past. Inadequate facilities for sewage disposal, air and water
pollution, and diseases made urban life unhealthy and contributed to high infant mortality and short
life expectancy which was mainly for the poor.
6. How did the Industrial Revolution affect the relations between the industrialized and the
nonindustrialized parts of the world and global trade systems?
The Industrial Revolution changed life not only in the industrializing nations but also around the
world because it gave the newly industrial nations of the West new powers to coerce non-Western
societies. In particular, Britain snuffed out the incipient industrialization of Egypt and India and
turned those countries into producers of raw materials, and British steam-powered gunboats forced
China to open its doors to unequal trade.

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