ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I ABHINAV HANS thank my ELE teacher Mr.RAHUL KUMAR for providing me necessary
information that I used in project which also make it easier for me to do some. It was great
to share the experience of sir.
Sensor
.

A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and

converts it into a signal which can be read by an observer or
by an instrument. For example, a mercury-in-glass
thermometer converts the measured temperature into
expansion and contraction of a liquid which can be read on a calibrated glass tube. A thermocouple
converts temperature to an output voltage which can be read by voltmeter. For accuracy, all sensors
need to be calibrated against known standards.

Use
Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons and lamps which dim
or brighten by touching the base. There are also innumerable applications for sensors of which most
people are never aware. Applications include cars, machines, aerospace, medicine, manufacturing
and robotics.
A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much the sensor's output changes when the measured quantity
changes. For instance, if the mercury in a thermometer moves 1 cm when the temperature changes
by 1 °C, the sensitivity is 1 cm/°C. Sensors that measure very small changes must have very high
sensitivities. Sensors also have an impact on what they measure; for instance, a room temperature
thermometer inserted into a hot cup of liquid cools the liquid while the liquid heats the thermometer.
Sensors need to be designed to have a small effect on what is measured, making the sensor smaller
often improves this and may introduce other advantages. Technological progress allows more and
more sensors to be manufactured on a microscopic scale as micro sensors using MEMS technology.
In most cases, a micro sensor reaches a significantly higher speed and sensitivity compared
with macroscopic approaches.

Classification of measurement errors

A good sensor obeys the following rules:
 Is sensitive to the measured property
 Is insensitive to any other property
 Does not influence the measured property
Ideal sensors are designed to be linear. The output signal of such a sensor is linearly proportional to
the value of the measured property. The sensitivity is then defined as the ratio between output signal
and measured property. For example, if a sensor measures temperature and has a voltage output, the
sensitivity is a constant with the unit [V/K]; this sensor is linear because the ratio is constant at all
points of measurement.

Sensor deviations
If the sensor is not ideal, several types of deviations can be observed:
 The sensitivity may in practice differ from the value specified. This is called a sensitivity error,
but the sensor is still linear.
 Since the range of the output signal is always limited, the output signal will eventually reach a
minimum or maximum when the measured property exceeds the limits. The full scale range defines
the maximum and minimum values of the measured property.
 If the output signal is not zero when the measured property is zero, the sensor has
an offset or bias. This is defined as the output of the sensor at zero input.
 If the sensitivity is not constant over the range of the sensor, this is called nonlinearity. Usually
this is defined by the amount the output differs from ideal behavior over the full range of the sensor,
often noted as a percentage of the full range.
 If the deviation is caused by a rapid change of the measured property over time, there is
a dynamicerror. Often, this behavior is described with a bode plot showing sensitivity error and
phase shift as function of the frequency of a periodic input signal.
 If the output signal slowly changes independent of the measured property, this is defined as drift
(telecommunication).
 Long term drift usually indicates a slow degradation of sensor properties over a long period of
time.
 Noise is a random deviation of the signal that varies in time.
 Hysteresis is an error caused by when the measured property reverses direction, but there is some
finite lag in time for the sensor to respond, creating a different offset error in one direction than in
the other.
 If the sensor has a digital output, the output is essentially an approximation of the measured
property. The approximation error is also called digitization error.
 If the signal is monitored digitally, limitation of the sampling frequency also can cause a dynamic
error.
 The sensor may to some extent be sensitive to properties other than the property being measured.
For example, most sensors are influenced by the temperature of their environment.
All these deviations can be classified as systematic errors or random errors. Systematic errors can
sometimes be compensated for by means of some kind of calibration strategy. Noise is a random
error that can be reduced by signal processing, such as filtering, usually at the expense of the
dynamic behaviour of the sensor.

Resolution
The resolution of a sensor is the smallest change it can detect in the quantity that it is measuring.
Often in a digital display, the least significant digit will fluctuate, indicating that changes of that
magnitude are only just resolved. The resolution is related to the precision with which the
measurement is made. For example, a scanning tunneling probe (a fine tip near a surface collects an
electron tunneling current) can resolve atoms and molecules.

Types
All living organisms contain biological sensors with functions similar to those of the mechanical
devices described. Most of these are specialized cells that are sensitive to:
 Light, motion, temperature, magnetic fields, gravity, humidity, vibration, pressure, electrical
fields,sound, and other physical aspects of the external environment
 Physical aspects of the internal environment, such as stretch, motion of the organism, and
position of appendages (proprioception)
 Environmental molecules, including toxins, nutrients, and pheromones
 Estimation of biomolecules interaction and some kinetics parameters
 Internal metabolic milieu, such as glucose level, oxygen level, or osmolality
 Internal signal molecules, such as hormones, neurotransmitters, and cytokines
 Differences between proteins of the organism itself and of the environment or alien creatures
Artificial sensors that mimic biological sensors by using a biological sensitive component, are called
biosensor

What is a temperature sensor?

An analog temperature sensor is pretty easy to explain, it's a chip that tells you what the ambient
temperature is!

These sensors use a solid-state technique to determine the temperature. That is to say, they don't use
mercury (like old thermometers), bimetallic strips (like in some home thermometers or stoves), nor
do they use thermistors (temperature sensitive resistors). Instead, they use the fact as temperature
increases, the voltage across a diode increases at a known rate. (Technically, this is actually the
voltage drop between the base and emitter - the Vbe - of a transistor. By precisely amplifying the
voltage change, it is easy to generate an analog signal that is directly proportional to temperature.
There have been some improvements on the technique but, essentially that is how temperature is
measured.

Because these sensors have no moving parts, they are precise, never wear out, don't need calibration,
work under many environmental conditions, and are consistent between sensors and readings.
Moreover they are very inexpensive and quite easy to use.
Some basic stats
these stats are for the temperature in the Adafruit shop, the Analog Devices TMP36 (-40 to 150C).
Its very similar to the LM35/TMP35 (Celsius output) and LM34/TMP34 (Fahrenheit output). The
reason we went with the '36 instead of the '35 or '34 is that this sensor has a very wide range and
doesn't require a negative voltage to read sub-zero temperatures. Otherwise, the functionality is
basically the same.

• Size: TO-92 package (about 0.2" x 0.2" x 0.2") with three leads
• Price: $2.00 at the Adafruit shop
• Temperature range: -40 degrees C to 150 degrees C / -40 degrees F to 302
degrees F
• Output range: 0.1V (-40 degrees C) to 2.0V (150 degrees C) but accuracy
decreases after 125 degrees C
• Power supply: 2.7V to 5.5V only, 0.05 mA current draw
• Datasheet

Thermometer
)

A thermometer (from the Greek θερμός (thermo) meaning

"warm" and meter, "to measure") is a device that
measures temperature ortemperature gradient using a variety of different
principles. A thermometer has two important elements: the temperature
sensor (e.g. the bulb on a mercury thermometer) in which some physical change occurs with
temperature, plus some means of converting this physical change into a value (e.g. the scale on a
mercury thermometer). Thermometers increasingly use electronic means to provide a digital display
or input to a computer.
Thermometers can be divided into two separate groups according to the level of knowledge about
the physical basis of the underlying thermodynamic laws and quantities. For primary
thermometers the measured property of matter is known so well that temperature can be calculated
without any unknown quantities. Examples of these are thermometers based on the equation of state
of a gas, on the velocity of sound in a gas, on the thermal noise (see Johnson–Nyquist
noise) voltage or current of an electrical resistor, and on the angular anisotropy of gamma
ray emission of certain radioactive nuclei in a magnetic field. Primary thermometers are relatively
complex.
Secondary thermometers are most widely used because of their convenience. Also, they are often
much more sensitive than primary ones. For secondary thermometers knowledge of the measured
property is not sufficient to allow direct calculation of temperature. They have to be calibrated
against a primary thermometer at least at one temperature or at a number of fixed temperatures. Such
fixed points, for example, triple points and superconducting transitions, occur reproducibly at the
same temperature.
There is an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale. Internationally agreed temperature scales are
designed to approximate this closely, based on fixed points and interpolating thermometers. The
most recent official temperature scale is the International Temperature Scale of 1990. It extends
from 0.65 K (−272.5 °C; −458.5 °F) to approximately 1,358 K (1,085 °C; 1,985 °F).
The EMC needs to
adjust a variety of
systems based on the
temperatures. it
is critical for the
proper operations of
these systems that the
engine reach the
operating
temperature and
the temperature
accurately
signaled to EMC.for
example,for the
proper amount of fuel
to be injected the EMC must know the correct engine temperature. Temperature sensors measure engine coolant
temperature (ECT), intake air temperature (IAT) and exaust recirculation gases (EGR), etc.

Engine Coolant Temperature (ECT) Sensor

The ECT responds to change in Engine Coolant Temperature. By measuring engine coolant
Temperature, the ECM knows the average temperature of the engine. The ECT is usually
Located in a coolant passage just before the thermostat. The ECT is connected to the THW
Terminal on the ECM.
The ECT sensor is critical to many ECM functions such as fuel injection, ignition timing, variable
Valve timing,
transmission
shifting, etc.
Always check
to see if the
engine is at
operating
Temperature
and that the ECT
is accurately
reporting the
temperature to
the ECM.
Intake Air
Temperature
(IAT) Sensor
The IAT detects the temperature of the incoming air stream. On vehicles equipped with a MAP
Sensor, the IAT is located in an intake air passage. On Mass Air Flow sensor equipped
Vehicles, the IAT are part of the MAF sensor. The IAT is connected to the THA terminal on the
ECM. The IAT is used for detecting ambient temperature on a cold start and intake air
temperature as the engine heats up the incoming air.
NOTE: One strategy the ECM uses to determine a cold engine start is by comparing the ECT
and IAT signals. If both are within 8'C (15'F) of each other, the ECM assumes it is a cold start.
This strategy is important because some diagnostic monitors, such as the EVAP monitor, are
based on a cold start.

Intake Air Temperature (IAT) Sensor

The IAT detects the temperature of the incoming air stream. On vehicles equipped with a MAP
sensor, the IAT is
located in an intake air
passage. On Mass Air
Flow sensor equipped
vehicles, the
IAT is part of the MAF
sensor. The IAT is
connected to the
THA terminal on the
ECM. The IAT is used
for detecting
ambient temperature on
a cold start and intake
air
temperature as
the engine heats up
the incoming air.
NOTE: One strategy the
ECM uses to determine a cold engine start is by comparing the ECT
and IAT signals. If both are within 8'C (15'F) of each other, the ECM assumes it is a cold start.
This strategy is important because some diagnostic monitors, such as the EVAP monitor, are
based on a cold start
 Exhaust
Gas

Recirculation (EGR) Temperature Sensor

The EGR Temperature Sensor is located in the EGR passage and measures the temperature
of the exhaust gases. The EGR Temp sensor is connected to the THG terminal on the ECM.
When the EGR valve opens, temperature increases. From the increase in temperature, the
ECM knows the EGR valve is open and that exhaust gases are flowing.

ECT, IAT, & EGR Temperature Sensor Operation

Though these sensors are measuring different things, they all operate in the same way. From
the voltage signal of the temperature sensor, the ECM knows the temperature. As the
temperature of the sensor heats up, the voltage signal decreases. The decrease in the voltage
signal is caused by the decrease in resistance. The change in resistance causes the voltage
signal to drop.
The temperature sensor is connected in series to a fixed value resistor. The ECM supplies 5
volts to the circuit and measures the change in voltage between the fixed value resistor and the
temperature sensor.
When the sensor is cold, the resistance of the sensor is high, and the voltage signal is high. As
the sensor warms up, the resistance drops and voltage signal decreases. From the voltage
signal, the ECM can determine the temperature of the coolant, intake air, or exhaust gas
temperature.
The ground wire of the temperature sensors is always at the ECU usually terminal E2. These
sensors are classified as thermistors.

Temperature Sensor Diagnostics

Temperature sensor circuits are tested for:
• opens.
• shorts.
• available voltage.
• Sensor resistance.
The Diagnostic Tester data list can reveal the type of problem. An open circuit (high resistance)
will read the coldest temperature possible. A shorted circuit (low resistance) will read the
highest temperature possible. The diagnostic procedure purpose is to isolate and identify the
temperature sensor from the circuit and ECM.
High resistance in the temperature circuit will cause the ECM to think that the temperature is
colder than it really is. For example, as the engine warms up, ECT resistance decreases, but
unwanted extra resistance in the circuit will produce a higher voltage drop signal. This will most
likely be noticed when the engine has reached operating temperatures. Note that at the upper
end of the temperature/resistance scale, ECT resistance changes very little. Extra resistance in
the higher temperature can cause the ECM to think the engine is approximately 20'F = 30'F
colder than actual temperature. This will cause poor engine performance, fuel economy, and
possibly engine overheating
Solving Open Circuit Problems
A jumper wire and Diagnostic Tester are used to locate the problem in an open
circuit.
 Solving Shorted Circuit Problems
Creating an open circuit at different points in the temperature circuit will isolate the short. The
Temperature reading should go extremely low (cold) when an open is created

TEMPERATURE SENSORS:
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
The Perfect Temperature Sensor:
Has no effect on the medium it measures
Is precisely accurate
Responds instantly (in most cases)
Has an easily conditioned output
Regardless of the sensor type, the above concerns affect all temperature sensors.
The biggest concern when measuring anything is to ensure the measuring device itself
does not influence the
media it is measuring. With contact temperature measurement, this is especially
important. Choosing proper
sensor size, encapsulation and lead configuration are key design concerns to reduce
“stem-effect” and other
measurement errors.
Once minimal effect of the measurement media is accomplished, how accurately you can
measure the media
becomes important. Accuracy incorporates basis sensor characteristics, measurement
accuracy, etc. The most
accurate sensor is useless if design concerns around stem-effect are not addressed.
Response time is driven by mass of the sensor element, with some influence by leads. The
smaller the sensor, the
faster the response time. With micro-bead technology, Measurement Specialties (MEAS)
manufactures some of
the fastest responding thermistors commercially available.
While purchasing agents are looking for the least expensive part possible, engineers
recognize the importance of
the value the sensors offer for the sensor dollar spent. MEAS thermistors offer superior value to an
overall design.

Sensor outputs vary by type. Thermistors change resistance inversely proportionally with
temperature, thus the
name negative temperature coefficient (NTC). Base metals such as platinum have positive
temperature
coefficients (PTC). Thermocouples have low milli-volt outputs that change with
temperature. Semiconductors are
typically conditioned and come in a variety of digital outputs.
Linearity defines how well over a range of temperature a sensor’s output consistently
changes. Thermistors are
exponentially non-linear, exhibiting a much higher sensitivity at low temperatures than at
high temperatures.
Linearity of a sensor has become less of an issue over time, as microprocessors are more
widely used in sensor
signal conditioning circuits.
When powering, both thermistors and platinum elements require constant voltage or
constant currents. Power
regulation is important to limit self-heat in either thermistors or platinum RTDs. Current
regulation is not as
critical for semiconductors. Thermocouples generate a voltage output.
Response time, or how quickly a sensor indicates temperature, is dependent on the size
and mass of the sensor
element (assuming no predictive method is used). Semiconductors are the slowest
responding. Platinum wirewound
elements are next slowest. Platinum film, thermistors and thermocouples are available in
small packages,
and thus have high-speed options. Glass micro-beads are the fastest responding
thermistor configuration.
Electrical noise inducing errors in temperature indication is a problem mostly with
thermocouples. Thermistors
with very high resistances may present a problem in some cases.
Lead resistance may cause an error offset in resistive devices such as thermistors or RTDs.
This effect is more
pronounced with low resistance devices such as 100∧ platinum elements or low resistance
thermistors. For
platinum, 3 or 4-wire lead configurations are used to eliminate the problem. For
thermistors, typically choosing a
higher resistance value eliminates the effect. Thermocouples must use extension leads
and connectors of the same
material as the leads themselves or an error may be introduced.
Although thermocouples are the least expensive and the most widely used sensor, an NTC
thermistor generally
provides the greatest value for its price

Each sensor type has advantages and disadvantages.

For thermistors, the major advantages are:
Sensitivity: This allows thermistors to sense very small changes in temperature.
Accuracy: Thermistors offer both high absolute accuracy and interchangeability.
Cost: For the high performance they offer, thermistors are very cost-effective.
Ruggedness: Because of their construction, thermistors are very rugged.
Flexibility: Thermistors can be configured into a wide variety of physical forms, including
very small packages.
Hermetic Seal: Glass encapsulation provides a hermetic package, eliminating moisture
induced sensor failure.
Surface Mount: A wide range of sizes and resistance tolerances are available.
Of the thermistor disadvantages, typically only self-heating is a design consideration.
Proper care must be taken to
limit the sensing current to a low enough value that self-heat error is minimized to an
acceptable value.
Non-linearity can be addressed by software or by circuitry, and moisture induced failure by
glass encapsulation.
All sensors have specific advantages and disadvantages. For a successful project, the key
is to match the sensor
capabilities with the application. If you would like assistance in deciding if a thermistor is
the best design option,
please contact MEAS application engineers

How to measure temperature!

Using the TMP36 is easy, simply connect the left pin to power (2.7-5.5V) and the right pin to ground. Then the middle
pin will have an analog voltage that is directly proportional (linear) to the temperature. The analog voltage is
independent of the power supply.

To convert the voltage to temperature, simply use the basic formula:

Temp in Celsius = [(Vout in mV) - 500] / 10

So for example, if the voltage out is 1V that means that the temperature is ((1000 mV - 500) / 10) = 50 degrees Celsius

If you're using a LM35 or similar, use line 'a' in the image above and the formula: Temp in Celsius = (Vout in mV) /
10

Testing your temperature sensor

Testing these sensors is pretty easy but you'll need a battery pack or power supply.

Connect a 2.7-5.5V power supply (2-4 AA batteries work fantastic) so that ground is connected to pin 3 (right pin), and
power is connected to pin 1 (left pin)

Then connect your multimeter in DC voltage mode to ground and the remaining pin 2 (middle). If you've got a TMP36
and its about room temperature (25 degrees C), the voltage should be about 0.75V. Note that if you're using a LM35,
the voltage will be 0.25V
(See image below)

You can change the voltage range by pressing the plastic case of the sensor with your fingers, you will see the
temperature/voltage rise.Or you can touch the sensor with an ice cube, preferably in a plastic bag so it doesn't get water
on your circuit, and see the temperature/voltage drop

Bibliography
The following links helped me a lot in making my projects those are
www.google.com,www.wikipedia.com,www.sciencetech.com.